英语语法大全cobuild_english_usage 385页

COLLINSCOBUILDCOLLINSBirminghamUniversityInternationalLanguageDatabaseENGLISHGRAMMARCOLLINSPUBLISHERSTHEUNIVERSITYOFBIRMINGHAMCOLLINSLondonandGlasgowCollinsELT8GraftonStreetLondonW1X3LACOBUILDisatrademarkofWilliamCollinsSons&CoLtd©WilliamCollinsSons&CoLtd1990Firstpublished199010987654321Altrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwise,withoutthepriorpermissioninwritingofthePublisher.ISBN000370257XPaperbackISBN0003750256CasedPrintedandboundinGreatBritainbyRichardClayLtd,Bungay,SuffolkNOTEEnteredwordsthatwehavereasontobelieveconstitutetrademarkshavebeendesignatedassuch.However,neitherthepresencenorabsenceofsuchdesignationshouldbelrAfyedasaffectingthelegalstatusofanytrademark.ContentsEditorialteam2Introduction2NoteonExamples7GuidetotheUseoftheGrammar8GlossaryofGrammaticalTerms9CobuildGrammarChart18Chapter1Referringtopeopleandthings19Nouns21Pronouns38Determiners48Chapter2Givinginformationaboutpeopleandthings61Adjectives62Possessives89Quantifiers91Numbers97Qualifiers107Chapter3Makingamessage113Transitivity113Complementation139Phase147Chapter4Varyingthemessage153Mood153Negation162Modality169Chapter5Expressingtime188Verbtenses189Adjunctsoftime197Chapter6Expressingmannerandplace213385 Adjuncts213Manner216Place223Chapter7Reportingwhatpeoplesayorthink235Chapter8Combiningmessages254Subordination255Coordination274Chapter9Makingtexts282Cohesion282Ellipsis290Chapter10Thestructureofinformation293TheReferenceSection317Index338EditorialteamEditor-in-ChiefJohnSinclairManagingEditorGwynethFoxEditorsStephenBullonRameshKrishnamurthyElizabethManningJohnToddAssistantEditorsMonaBakerJaneBradburyRichardFayDeborahYuillSeniorresearcherRosamundMoonComputerOfficerTimLaneClericalStaffSueSmithJaneWinnConsultantsGottfriedGrausteinM.A.K.HallidayCollinsPublishersAnnetteCapel,LornaHeaslip,DouglasWilliamsonManyotherpeoplehavebeeninvolvedwiththeprojectatbothresearchandeditingstages.PatrickHanks,whowastheEditorialDirectorofCobuildthroughouttheproject,madeavaluablecontributionbothinpolicyandindetail.DominicBree,JaneCullen,andClareRamseyworkedasresearchersintheearlystages,andRonHardiehelpedfromthebeginninguntilquitelateintheeditingprocess.DavidBrazilgaveusgreathelpandencouragementduringtheearlyeditingofthebook.Withouthissupport,thiswouldhavebeenamoredifficulttask.HelenLiebeckandChristinaRammellwereinfluentialintheearlystagesofediting.MichaelHoeyandCharlesOwen,membersoftheDepartmentofEnglish,UniversityofBirmingham,andPhDandMAstudentsinthedepartment,inparticularRichardFrancis,AgnesMolnar,IriaGarcia,RamiroRestrepo,ChristopherRoyal-Dawson,andBobWalter,workedonandreaddraftsofthetext.ThepublishersandeditorialteamwouldalsoliketothankthefollowingpeoplewhoreadandcommentedonthetextJohnCurtin:Brazil;HenriBejoint,JohnHall,SueInkster,andAnnePradeilles:France;GeorginaPearceandHermanWekker:Germany;MarcelLemmens:Holland;NicholasBrownloes,TonyBuckby,AnthonyHarvey,andGeorginaPert:Italy;RogerHunt,AndyKennedy,ChristopherPratt,andTonySanchez:Spain;MarySnell-Hornby:Switzerland;KatyShawandTomStableford:UK;AdrianaBolivar:Venezuela.TeachersfrommanycountriesparticipatedinworkshopswherematerialfromtheGrammarwaspresented.Wearegratefultoallofthemfortakingpartintheseworkshops,especiallythoseorganizedbytheBritishCouncil,Singapore,theBritishCouncil,Paris,theBritanniaSchool,RiodeJaneiro,theENPULJConference,Natal,Brazil,andtheJALTConference,Okayama,Japan.IntroductionThisgrammarisforanyonewhoisinterestedintheEnglishlanguageandhowitworks.Many385 peoplewillcometothisbookbecausetheyarelearningEnglishandtryingtomasterthestructureofthelanguage.AssoonastheyhaveenoughpracticalEnglishtomasterthetext,theywillfindthisgrammarhelpfultothemalthoughithasbeenwrittenprimarilyforstudentsofadvancedlevel.Theinformationthebookcontains,however,willalsoengagetheattentionofadifferentsortofstudent—thosewhomakeastudyofEnglishbecausetheyaresimplyinterestedinlanguageandlanguages.Theyincludeteachers,examiners,syllabusplannersandmaterialswriters.Thegrammarhasseveraluniquefeatureswhichwillgivethemveryusefulinformation.Theinformationinthisbookistakenfromalongandcarefulstudyofpresent-dayEnglish.Manymillionsofwordsfromspeechandwritinghavebeengatheredtogetherinacomputerandanalyzed,partlybythecomputerandpartlybyateamofexpertcompilers.Itisthefirstgrammarofitskind,anditisdeferentinmanyrespectsfromotherkindsofgrammar.ThisgrammarattemptstomakeaccuratestatementsaboutEnglish,asseeninthehugeBirminghamCollectionofEnglishTexts.ThemainpatternsofEnglisharepickedoutanddescribed,andthetypicalwordsandphrasesfoundineachpatternarelisted.Thisiswhatagrammaroughttodo,butonlyveryrecentlyhasitbeenpossible.Foralongtimetherehasbeenacredibilitygapbetweenagrammarandthelanguagethatitissupposedtodescribe.Manyoftherulesseemtooabstracttoapplytoactualexamples.Thereisnoroomtoshowhowthestrongstructuralpatternscanbevariedanddevelopedtoallowusersgreatfreedomofexpression.AGrammarofFunctionsPeoplewhostudyandusealanguagearemainlyinterestedinhowtheycandothingswiththelanguage—howtheycanmakemeanings,getattentiontotheirproblemsandinterests,influencetheirfriendsandcolleaguesandcreatearichsociallifeforthemselves.Theyareonlyinterestedinthegrammaticalstructureofthelanguageasameanstogettingthingsdone.Agrammarwhichputstogetherthepatternsofthelanguageandthethingsyoucandowiththemiscalledafunctionalgrammar.Thisisafunctionalgrammar:eachchapterisbuiltaroundamajorfunctionoflanguage,suchas"conceptbuilding","makingupmessages",and"reportingwhatsomeonesaid".EachofthesefunctionsisregularlyexpressedinEnglishbyoneparticularstructure.Forexample,conceptbuildingisusuallyexpressedstructuresbuiltaroundanoun,callednoungroups;messagesareveryoftenexpressedinclauses;andreportstypicallyinvolveapairofclauses,withoneofthemcontainingareportingverbsuchas"say",andtheotheronebeginningwith"that"orhavingquotemarks("")roundit.Thisgrammarisbasedontheseimportantcorrespondencesbetweenstructureandfunction,whicharesetoutintheCobuildGrammarChartonthefollowingpages.TheskeletonofEnglishgrammarisseeninthischart.However,therearemanyminorfeaturesofEnglishthatcannotappearonasimplesummarychart.Thegrammarofalanguageisflexible,andwiththepassageoftimetherearechangesinmeaninganduseofgrammaticalforms.Forexample,althoughitistruetosaythatthenoungroupisthestructurewechooseforthethingswewanttotalkabout,itisnottheonlyone.Sometimeswewanttotalkaboutaneventoranideathatisnoteasytoexpressinanoungroup.Insteadwecanuseaclauseasthesubjectofanotherclause.AllIwantisaholiday.Wecanalsouseaclauseastheobjectorcomplementofanotherclause.That"swhatwe"vealwayslongedfor.Byextendingthebasicgrammaroccasionally,speakersofEnglishcanexpressthemselvesmoreeasilyandspontaneously.Thesamekindofextensionworksintheotherdirectionalso:noungroupsarenotonlyusedassubjects,objectsandcomplements.Theycanfunctionasadjunctsoftime,forexample,amongarangeofminoruses.Hephonedbackwiththeinformationtheverynextday.ButthereisamajorareaofEnglishgrammarbasedonprepositions(seeChapter6),whichallowsnoungroupstobeusedinallsortsofsubsidiaryfunctionsintheclause.Iwenttoavillageschool.Thishasbeenmyhomefortenyearsnow.Withaclick,thedooropened.Soitcanbeseenthatthestructuralpatternscanhavemorethanonefunction,andthat385 differentstructurescanhavesimilarfunctions.Thismaysoundconfusing,anditcanbeconfusingifthegrammarisnotcarefullyorganizedaroundthemajorstructuresandfunctions.Thisgrammarfollowsupeachmajorstatement(oftencalled"rule"inothergrammars)withadetaileddescriptionoftheusagessurroundingthatstatement—including"exceptions".Otherwaysofachievingthesamesortofeffectarethenpresented,withcross-referencestothemainstructuralpatternsinvolved.Laterinthechapter,thevariousextensionsofuseofastructurearesetout,withcross-referencestoplaceswherethosefunctionsarethoroughlytreated.Theseextensionsandadditionstothefunctionsofastructurearenotjustrandom.Usuallytheycanbepresentedaswaysofwideningthescopeoftheoriginalfunction.Forexample,thebasic,centralfunctionofreportingverbs(Chapter7)istointroducewhatsomeonehassaid.Hesaidhewouldbebacksoon.Itcaneasilybeextendedtoincludewhatsomeonehaswritten:Hismotherwrotethathehadfinallyarrivedhome.Thenitcanbewidenedtoincludethoughtsandfeelings;thesedonotneedtobeexpressedinwords,butthereportstructureisveryconvenient.Theboysthoughthewasdead.Fromthiswecanseethereportingclauseasamoregeneralwayofintroducinganotherclause.Thereportingclausebecomesakindofpreface,commentingontheotherclause,whichcontainsthemainmessage.Itistruethatsomechildrenarelatetalkers.Thesubjectofthereportingclauseisthepronoun"it",whichrefersforwardtothe"that"-clause.Theverbisnowalinkverb(Chapter3)andnotaspecialreportingverb.AGrammarofExamplesAlltheexamplesaretakenfromtexts,usuallywithnoeditingatall.Itisnowgenerallyacceptedthatitisextremelydifficulttoinventexampleswhichsoundrealistic,andwhichhaveallthefeaturesofnaturalexamples.IamconvincedthatitisessentialforalearnerofEnglishtolearnfromactualexamples,examplesthatcanbetrustedbecausetheyhavebeenusedinrealcommunication.FromaCobuildperspective,noargumentisneeded.AtCobuildtherearefilestoresbulgingwithexamples,andwedonotneedtoinventany.Byexaminingtheserealexamplesclosely,wearegraduallyfindingoutsomeofthewaystheydifferfrommade-upexamples.Untilweknowalotmoreaboutnaturalnessinlanguagewedonotthinkitissafetouseinventedexamples.Thereisaspecialnotedevelopingthispoint,whichcanbefoundimmediatelyafterthisIntroduction.AGrammarofClassesTheactualwordsandphrasesthatareregularlyusedineachstructureareprintedinthegrammarinaseriesoflists.Insteadofjustafewillustrativeexamples,thisgrammargivesinformationaboutthegrammarofalargenumberofwords.Thestudentcangetagoodideaofhowlargeorsmallagrammaticalclassis,howmanywordsacertainruleappliesto.Theteacherhastherawmaterialformakingupexercisesthatsuitaparticulargroupofstudents,andcanpointtogeneralfeaturesofagrammaticalclass.Mostoftheselists,asfarasweknow,haveneverbeenavailablebefore.Theyareworthdetailedinvestigationbystudentandteacher,becausetheselistsprovidethemainlinkbetweentheabstractionsofgrammarandtherealitiesoftexts.Ingrammarlistsofthiskindarecalled"classes";aclassisthegroupingtogetherofwordsandphraseswhichallbehaveinthesameway.Hencethisgrammarisverymuchagrammarofclassesbecauseitfeaturessomanylistsofwordsandphrases.Thejobofpreparingthelistshasbeenoneofthemostinterestingandchallengingproblemsinthepreparationofthisbook.Thecomputerdoesthefirststage,andproducesafistbysearchingoutallthewordsthatfitapatternitisgiven.Forexample,itmightbeaskedtopickallthewordsthatendin"-ing"anddonothaveacorrespondingformwithoutthe"-ing".Thefirstlistitproducesincludessuchwordsas"overweening",and"pettifogging",whicharenotverycommon,andwhichinourviewcanbelefttoalaterstageoflanguagelearning.Alsofoundare"blithering"and"whopping",whichhaveaspecialfunctionandaretreatedinaseparateparagraph2.41.Afewwordsfitthepatternwellbutareonlyfoundinveryrestrictedcombinations,orcollocations."Piping"goeswith"voice",and"gangling"goeswith"youth"or"boy".Sincegrammarmostlydealswithgeneralities,wefeelthatitcouldbemisleadingtoprint385 theminfistswhichareintendedtoencouragecomposition.Atpresentthecomputerhasdifficultiesindetectingsimilaritiesanddifferencesofmeaning.ButintheCobuilddatabasenotesonmeaningaremadebythecompilers,andthecomputercanalsoreportbackonthisinformation.So,forexample,itwillknowthatinthecaseof"fetching",thereisaverbto"fetch",butitdoesnothavethesamemeaning.Inmostcasesweomitawordlike"fetching"fromourlists,toavoidconfusion;otherwisethegrammarwouldbefullofspecialnotes.Ifweputitin,wegiveanappropriatewarning.Inthesummerof1989IworkedwithalargenumberofEnglishteachersinEurope,SouthEastAsiaandSouthAmerica,tofindouttheirreactionstoourlistsandtohavetheirsuggestionsforrevisingthemandeditingthem.Theclearmessagewasthatthelists,tobeteachable,shouldbeorderlyandcomprehensive.Problemcases,onthewhole,shouldbeomittedratherthanexplainedinagrammaratthislevel:ontheotherhandwordswhichanexperiencedteacherwouldexpecttofindinalistshouldbethere,orthereshouldbeanexplanation.Theresultsofaftthiscarefuleditingcanbefoundinthelistsat,forexample,2.77,2.78,and2.79.Whereverwecanseeagoodreason,weputthewordsandphrasesinalistinameaningfularrangement.Thisapproachwassuggestedintheteachers"workshops,andonthatbasis,forexample,weputverbswithaprefix(2.79)inadifferentlistfromotherverbs(2.78)whichbehaveinthesameway.Anothergoodexampleofthiscanbefoundat1.21,whereinasinglelistweputinseparategroupsanimals,fish,wordsendingin"-craft",foreignwordsendingin"-s",andamiscellaneouslist.Theseallsharethesamefeature,namelythattheycanbeeithersingularorpluralnounswithoutanychangeofform—moose,salmon,aircraft,corps,crossroads.Fromapurelygrammaticalpointofviewtheycouldallgoinasinglealphabeticallist:howeverfromateachingandlearningpointofviewitishelpfultohavethemfurtherclassified.AGrammarofMeaningsManyEnglishwordshaveseveralmeaningsanduses.Thisisparticularlytrueofthecommonwordswhichmakeupmostofoureverydaylanguage.Becauseofthisitisdifficulttomakestatementsaboutthegrammaticalbehaviourofaword,asthiscanvaryaccordingtoitsmeaning.Forexample,inonemeaningaverbmaybetransitive,andinanothermeaningintransitive.Aninstanceofthisis"manage",whichinitsmeaningof"beresponsibleforcontrollinganorganization,business,orsystem"istransitive,andinitsmeaningof"beabletocontinuewithareasonablewayoflife,eventhoughyoudonothavemuchmoney"isintransitive,usuallyfollowedbyanadverbialphrase.DrouetreturnedtoEcuadortomanageatravelagency.Idon"tknowifIcanmanagemuchlonger.Eachmeaningofawordmaywellhaveitsowngrammar,anditisunlikelythatthestatementsaboutawordwillcoverallitsmeanings.However,thegrammarwouldbeverylongandcumbersomeifeachstatementhadtoindicatewhichmeaningwasbeingreferredto.Throughoutthisgrammar,therefore,theexamplesandthelistshavebeenchosensothattherelevantmeaningistheonethatshouldfirstcometomind.Manyuserswillneedalittletimetoadjusttothis;wehavelivedsolongwiththeassumptionthatgrammarisindependentoflexicalmeaningthatitwillbesurprisingtomanypeopletoseethatgrammarandlexisareverycloselyrelated.Wherethechoiceofonewordinastructureisverycloselyconnectedwiththechoiceofanother,thisispointedout.Forexample,thepreposition"aboard"isalmostalwaysusedwithasingularcountnounreferringtoaformoftransportsuchas"ship","plane","train",or"bus"....twoweeksaboardtheroyalyachtBritannia.Anotherexampleisaverbreferringtophysicalsensessuchas"see","feel","near",and"smell".Whensuchaverbisusedtorefertothepresenttime,itistypicallyprecededbythemodal"can"or"can"t"ratherthanbeinginthesimplepresenttense:IcanseeGeorge"sfaceasclearlyasifhewereherewithme.Whenwecomedown,Icansmellthearomafromthefryingtrout.However,someoftheverbscanbeusedwithother,non-physicalmeanings,andintheothermeaningsthesimplepresenttenseismuchused.Iseeyouhadagoodtrip.Manypeoplefeelthatheshouldresignimmediately.385 Thisgrammarisahalfwayhousebetweengrammarswhichignorethemeaningofwords,anddictionarieswhichgivesomegrammaticalinformation.Wehaveleftoutreferencetouncommonmeanings,andweonlyoccasionallydrawattentiontodistinctionsofmeaningthatentailadifferentgrammar.Ifyouthinkaboutit,itisobviousthatdifferentmeaningsofawordarelikelytooccurindifferentstructures.Themeaningofawordincludestherelationsitmakeswithotherwords;soaverbsuchas"see"initsphysicalmeaningislikelytogoalongwithanounthatmeanswhatwasseen,orperhapsanadverbsuchas"well"whichgivesanevaluationofthepowerofseeing.When"see"isusedtomeansomethinglike"understand",itwillnaturallybefollowedbya"that"-clause.Ontherareoccasionswhenithasanoungroupasobject,thenounwillbesomethinglike"problem","point",or"position"—nounsdescribingmessages.AGrammarforAccessWhenusingagrammar,itisoftendifficulttofindtheinformationthatyouwant.Thisisoftenthebiggestsingleproblemforusersofgrammars,andagoodreasonwhygrammarsareoftenunpopularwithstudents.Thisgrammarmakesaspecialefforttosupporttheuser,andthereareseveralinterlockingsystemsofaccess.Thewell-knowngrammaticaltermsareallusedhere—subjectandobject,presentandpasttense,andsoon.Newtermsarekepttoaminimumandareonlyusedwherethereisnoobviousalternative.Aglossaryoftermsisprovidedandtheyarealso,ofcourse,alllistedintheindex.Thereisacontentslistandchartatthebeginningofthebookandamoredetailedcontentslistatthebeginningofeachchapter.Usingthisortheindex,thestudentwillbeabletofindthesectionorparagraphwhereafunctionisassociatedwithastructure.Byreadingaroundalittle,thestudentwillfindafewalternatives,orwilllearnmoreabouttheexactmeaningofthestructure.Throughoutthebookthereisanextracolumnatthesidewhichshowsthetopicofalmosteveryparagraph,andtherearefrequentadditionalheadingsforeachsectionofachapter.Atthetopofeachpageisanotherheadingtoguidetheuser.Eachparagraphiswrittenlobereadseparatelyfromeveryother,sothatasmallpieceofinformationcanbefoundandunderstoodwithouttheuserhavingtoreadawholesection.Butifauserdoeswanttoreadstraightthroughasectionorchapter,itwillbefoundbothreadableandinteresting.AGrammarforProductionThemainpurposeofthisgrammaristohelpstudentstochoosestructureswhichaccuratelyexpressthemeaningstheywanttocreate.Hencethebookislargelyorganizedaroundthefunctionsormeanings.Inparticular,wesetoutmany"productivefeatures"toguidethestudenttowardsconfidenceinpersonalexpression.Insomeareasofgrammartherulesareveryflexible.Ratherthangivingadefiniteclass,wefeelitisbettertogiveguidancesothattheusercanmakeindividualchoices,withnoseriousriskoferror.Bydescribingthelanguageinthisway,wegiveplentyofscopeforcreativityandinnovation,afeaturewhichisnotcommonlyfoundingrammars.TherearemanyproductivefeaturesincurrentEnglish.Somearewell-known,forexamplethefactalmostanynouninEnglishcanmodifyalmostanyothernoun.Forexample,thenoun"steam"canbeusedin,amongothers,thefollowingcombinations:"steambath","steamboiler","steamcoal","steamengine","steamiron","steampower",steamradio","steamtrain","steamyacht",andeven"aflatbedsteamtable".Justtheactofputtingtwonounstogetheratrandomshowshowaspeakerofthelanguageimmediatelysearchesforameaningfulinterpretation.trickfingerThereisnoacceptedmeaningof"trickfinger".Itcouldbeamedicalproblem,oraskillsimilartojuggling.Butitisgrammaticallyacceptable,andinvitesustoimagineameaningforit.Aproductivefeatureinvitesandencouragesustouseourimagination.Thelistofwordsandphrasesthatwillfitastructureisoftenimpossibletodefinecompletely.Theremaybeanumberofwordsinregularuse,butinadditiontothatmanyotherpossibilities,offeringtheuserasafeplacetoexperiment.Otherplacesinthegrammarallowverylittlevariation,andthelearnermustsimplykeeptotherulesinthesecases.Manygrammarbooksconcentrateontheserestrictiverules,andmakegrammarappeartobeadangerousareawherethemainjobistoavoidmistakes."Youdothis,andyoudon"tdothat."Inthisgrammarweconcentrateonpositivestatements,and385 relatefunctiontostructure."Ifyouwanttodothis,thenyousaythat."Althoughtherearemanypotentialproductivefeatures,inthisgrammarwehaveonlyintroducedthemainandmostobviousones.Ifwefindthatthisapproachispopularwithteachersandlearners,itmaybepossiblegraduallytoshiftthewholeperspectiveawayfromgrammarasalistofarbitraryproblems,andtowardsgrammarasameansoffreeexpression.WehavetriedtoproduceagrammarofrealEnglish—theEnglishthatpeoplespeakandwrite,itcontainsdetailedinformationaboutEnglish,collectedfromthelargecorpuswehavebuiltup,anditisnewbothinwhatitsaysandintherelationshipbetweenitsstatementsandtheevidenceonwhichtheyarebased.Itisdesignedabovealltobereallyusefultostudentandteacher.NoteonExamplesOneofthereallyunusualfeaturesofthisgrammaristhatalltheexamplesarechosenfromtheBirminghamcorporaoftexts.Thereisacentralcollectionofabouttwentymillionwords,supplementedbymanyothersourcesofcurrentEnglish,includingTheTimesnewspaper.Ibelievethistobeasoundbasisforagrammar,andIthinkthatitisveryimportantforlearnersandotheruserstoexamineandstudyonlyreelinstancesofalanguage.Thisisparticularlyimportantwhentheyareusingtheexamplesasmodelsfortheirownusage.SomegreatgrammarsofEnglish—forexampleOttoJespersen"sAModernEnglishGrammar—supporteachstatementwithcitationsfrompublishedbooks,justasthemajordictionariesofEnglishdo.Thisprovideshardevidenceforthestatements,andgivesimportantinformationinthesurroundingcontext.Thereisnojustificationforinventingexamples.Toillustrateasimplesubject-verbclause,somethinglike"Birdssing"isnotgoodenough.WiththeCobuilddatabaseitisnotdifficulttofindexamplesevenofafairlyrareeventlikethisstructure."Trainsstopped"isagenuineexample,andsois"Freyagreed".Eveninatwo-wordstructureitcanbeseenthattherealexampleshaveacommutativevaluethattheinventedonelacks.However,thejobofsearchingshowsushowraresuchastructureis,andmakesuswonderifitshouldbeprominentinagrammar.Itissadthatmanyteachersseemdoomedtoworkwithinventedmaterial.However,Iwouldliketomakeadistinctionbetweentheformalpresentationofaninstanceofalanguage,andthequick,informalexamplesthatteachershavetoproducefromtheirownresourcesmanytimesaday,withoutwarning.Thelatterarenotintendedasreliablemodelstofollow,butasexplanationsofaspecificpoint.Theteacherwill,andmust,relyonpersonalcompetence,justasateacherofanyothersubjectwillcallonmemoryratherthanlookeverythingup.ThereisabigdifferencebetweenthisandputtingintoprintasanexampleofusageastretchofEnglishthatisnotknowntohavebeenused.Themindplaystricks,and,specially,isunreliablewhenoneisthinkingaboutveryshortutterances,withoutaclearcontexttosupportthem.Perhapsthebiggestsingleimprovementforlanguageteachingistheabilityofthecomputertofindandorganizerealexamples.Ourexperienceintheclassroomwithrealexamplesisthatlearnershavealotlessdifficultywiththemthanisoftensupposed.Theseexamples,afterall,arethekindofmaterialthatthelearnerwillhavetounderstandeventually;learnersappreciateandknowinstinctivelyhowtocopewiththelooseendsofnaturalexamples;theyknowtheycantrustthemandlearndirectlyfromthem.Theindependenceofrealexamplesistheirstrength.Theyarecarefullyselectedinstancesofgoodusage.Asetofrealexamplesmayshow,collectively,aspectsofthelanguagethatarenotobviousindividually.Themomentworkstops,disorderisliabletofreakout.Ifhegetspromoted,allhellwillbreakout.Thiscausedanepidemictobreakoutamongthem.Thisfinaldestructivefeverhadtobreakoutsomewhere.Notethatitisbadthingsthatbreakout,notgoodones.Anysuchpointsemergingfromasetofconstructedexamplescouldnot,ofcourse,betrusted.Peoplewhoworkwithlanguagesshouldbeopentowhattheycanlearnfromthisnewsourceofinformation.Thereisnodoubtatallthatnewlanguageteachingmaterialswillrelymoreandmoreontheevidencefromlargetextstores,andthatinafewyears"timeteacherswilllookbackandwonderhowtheycopedwiththelifelessexamplestheyusedtoworkwith.Thisbook,alongwiththeCobuildDictionariesandtheCobuildEnglishCourse,givesafirstglimpse385 ofwhatitisliketohaveaccesstorealexamples.JohnSinclairEditor-in-ChiefCobuildProfessorofModernEnglishLanguageUniversityofBirminghamGuidetotheUseoftheGrammarTheCollinsCobuildEnglishGrammarisdesignedtobeusedbothforquickreferenceandforstudyindepth.Forexample,theuseoftheword"before"withspecifictensesisdealtwithinChapter5,andthedifferencesinmeaningbetween"may"and"might"aredealtwithinChapter6.Thebookcanalsobeusedmorebroadly,tofindout,forexample,agreatdealaboutthebehaviourofadjectives(Chapter2)orthetransitivityofclauses(Chapter3).Inorderforyoutouseitasefficientlyandeffectivelyaspossible,wehaveincludedanumberofdifferentwaystohelpyoufindtheinformationyouarelookingfor.OrganizationofthemaintextThemaintextoftheGrammarisdividedintotenChapters.ThefirsttwoChaptersdealwiththenoungroup,Chapters3,4,and5withtheverbgroup,Chapter6withadverbsandprepositions,Chapter7withreporting,Chapter8withjoiningclausesandsentences,andChapters9and10withcontinuoustext.TheCobuildGrammarChartonpagesxxiv-xxvshowsthemainsubdivisionsofthetext,andthedifferentwordclassesdealtwithineachChapter.EachChapterconsistsofaseriesofmaintopicsandeachtopicisdividedintosections.Thesectionheadingsarerepeatedatthetopoftheappropriaterighthandpages,sothatitiseasytofindthesections.EachindividualparagraphintheChapterisnumbered,sothatChapter1runsfrom1.1to1.236,Chapter2from2.1to2.320andsoon.Thisnumberingsystemmakesiteasyfortheusertorefertodifferentbutrelatedpoints.Therearecross-referencesthroughoutthetext,eitherpointingtothemainplacewhereatopicisdealtwithortoanotherparagraphwheremoreinformationisgiven.Mostparagraphsalsohaveaheadinginacolumnontheleftofthemaintext,sayinginthreeorfourwordswhattheparagraphdealtwith,especiallywhichgrammaticalstructureisbeingexplained.ThoseparagraphsthatdonothaveaLeftColumnheadingeithersummarizeinformationwhichisabouttobegiveninmoredetail,asisusuallythecaseimmediatelyafterasectionheading,ortheycontinuethesubjectmatterofthelastLeftColumnheading.Forexample,inChapter1paragraph1.119hasaLeftColumnheadingwhichsays"massnouns".Paragraphs1.120and1.121donothaveaLeftColumnheadingbecausetheyarestillexplainingmassnouns.SomeLeftColumnheadingsdonotshowspecificallywhattheparagraphdealswith,butindicateinformationofaratherdifferentkind.Theheadingsare"Warning","UsageNote",and"ProductiveFeature"."Warning"highlightspointswhereweknowthatpeopleoftenhaveproblemswithaparticulargrammaticalfeatureofEnglish,becauseitisdifferentfromwhatyouwouldexpect,forexamplebecauseitisafeaturewhereEnglishisdifferentfrommanyotherlanguages."UsageNote"givesinformationabouttheuseofindividualwordsorsmallgroupsofwords.Thisinformationisimportantbutcannotbegeneralizedintoagrammaticalrule.TheUsageNoteswillthereforehelpyoutodistinguishthosefeatureswhicharerelevantfortheunderstatingofparticularwordsfromthosefeatureswhicharerelevanttolargenumberofwords."ProductiveFeature"indicatesthattherulethathasbeenmentionedcanbeappliedquitefreelyinEnglishtoaverylargenumberofwords.Forexample,itisnearlyalwayspossibletomakethepresentparticipleofaverbintoanadjectiveusedinfrontofanoun.Thisisthereforelabelled"ProductiveFeature"intheLeftColumn.Bytakingnoteofthesefeatures,youcanusetherulesthathavebeenpresentedinacreativeandoriginalmanner,givingyougreaterfreedomofexpressioninEnglish.ProductiveFeaturesareexplainedingreaterdetailintheIntroduction.Mostofthegrammaticalstatementsthataremadearefollowedbyexamplesshowingthestructureinuse.TheseexamplesarealltakenfromtheCobuildcollectionsoftexts,andshowhowthestructureshavebeenusednaturallyinspeechorwriting.Theexamplesthereforegiveimportantinformationaboutthetypicaluseofastructure,thewordsitisfrequentlyusedwith,andthecontextsinwhichitislikelylooccur.MoreinformationabouttheexamplesandhowtheycanbeusedwillbefoundintheNoteonExamplesonpagex.385 Whereverappropriate,grammaticalstatementsinthisbookarefollowedbylistsofthewordswhichtypicallyexemplifythatgrammaticalpoint.Forexample,inChapter3wesaythatmanyverbscanbeeithertransitiveorintransitivewiththesamemeaning.Thisstatementisfollowedbyalistofverbsthatarefrequentlyusedinthisway.ThelistsshouldhelptoincreaseawarenessoftheuseofEnglish,goingbeyondtheactualexamplesgiventootherwordswhichbehaveinsimilarways.Theyshowwhetherthepointbeingmadeisrelevanttoasmallnumberoralargenumberofwords.Ifthewordclassissmall,thenallmembersofitaregiven.Ifitislarge,thenthemostfrequentlyusedmembersaregiven.Theselistscanbeusedtohelpyouincreaseyourvocabularyandtocheckthatyouareusingnewly-learnedEnglishwordscorrectly.ThereisalsoabookofCobuildGrammarExercises,inwhichthelistsareusedasthebasisofmanyexercises,forthosestudentswhowantmorepracticeinaparticularareaofgrammar.AdditionalcontentsInadditiontothemaintext,therearevariousothersectionswhichareincludedtohelpyoutogetthemostoutofthisGrammar.Theseadditionalsectionsaredescribedbelow.IntroductionTheIntroductionsetsouttheprinciplesfromwhichthegrammarhasbeendeveloped.Itexplainsthecloserelationshipwhichexistsbetweenfunctionandstructure,whichisthebasisofthisGrammar,anditexplainsthetypeoffunctionalapproachthatistaken.CobuildGrammarChartTheCobuildGrammarChartsetsoutinschematicformthecontentsofthegrammar.Itshowstheprogressionfromwordtogrouptoclausetosentence,andshowswherethedifferentwordclassesarefocusedon.Italsoshowsthemaindiscourseortexttopicineachchapter.Forexample,Chapter4focuseson"mood","negation"and"modality"atclauselevel,astheseareexpressedthroughtheverbgroup.Theindividualwordsthataredealtwitharethemodalverbsandsuchas"not"and"never".ThewholeChaptershowsdifferentwaysofexpressingattitudestowhatisbeingsaid,andsothisisthemaindiscoursetopicoftheChapter.GlossaryofGrammaticalTermsTheGlossaryexplainsthemeaningofgrammaticalterms.Itfeaturesthetermsthataresystematicallyusedinthisgrammar,andalsoincludestermsthatareusedinothergrammars,withacross-referencetothetermusedinthisbook,whereappropriate.Forexample,thisgrammartalksabout"noungroups",whereassomeothergrammarscallthem"nounphrases"or"nominalgroups".AllthreeofthesetermsarementionedintheGlossary,withtheexplanationbeinggivenat"noungroup".ContentspagesThereisacompletelistofcontentsonpageiii.ThisgivesthetitlesoftheChapters,enablingyoutogetanoverviewofthewaytheGrammarisorganizedThen,atthebeginningofeveryChapter,thereisadetailedcontentspagegivingalltheheadingsdealtwithinthatparticularChapter.TheReferenceSectionThissectionatthebackofthebookprovidesaneasy-to-usereferenceguideinwhichmorphologicalinformationisgatheredtogether,showinghowthefollowinggroupsofwordsareformed:pluralsofnounsthecomparativeandsuperlativeofadjectives"-ly"adverbsformedfromadjectivesthecomparativeandsuperlativeofadverbstensespassivesprincipalpartsofirregularverbsTheReferenceSectionalsoincludesothertopics.Forexample,itstartswithapronunciationguide,toremindyouofthesoundsofEnglish.Therearealsolistsofnumbers,andanexplanationofhownumbersareexpressedaloud.IndexTheIndexisacomprehensivelistofeverythingdealtwithintheGrammar.ItcoversprimarilythegrammaticalandfunctionaltopicsdealtwithintheGrammar,andthewaythosetopicsarebrokendownintotheirmajorparts.Italsoincludesindividualwordswheretheyareusedasexamplesofaparticularclass,andgrammaticalterms,boththoseusedinthisbookandthose385 commonlyusedinotherbooks.GlossaryofgrammaticaltermsNote:entriesinboldareCobuildGrammarterms.abstractnounanoonusedtodescribeaquality,idea,orexperienceratherthansomethingphysicalorconcrete:EGjoy,size,language.Comparewithconcretenoun.activevoiceverbgroupssuchas"gives",and"hasmade",wherethesubjectisthepersonorthingdoingtheactionorresponsiblefortheaction.Comparepassivevoice.ADJECTIVALCLAUSEanothernameforrelativeclause.adjectiveawordusedtotellyoumoreaboutathing,suchasitsappearance,colour,size,orotherqualities;EG...aprettybluedress.adjunctawordorcombinationofwordsaddedtoaclausetogivemoreinformationabouttime,place,ormanner.Seealsosentenceadjunctandlinkingadjunct.adverbawordthatgivesmoreinformationaboutwhen,how,where,orinwhatcircumstancessomethinghappens.EGquickly,now.Thereareseveraldifferentkindsofadverb:adverbsofdegree,manner,place,time,duration,andfrequency.Therearealsofocusingadverbs.adverbialgroupagroupofwordswhichdoesthesamejobasanadverb,thusgivingmoreinformationaboutwhen,how,where,orinwhatcircumstancessomethinghappens;EGinthestreet,againandagain.adverbofdegreeanadvertindicatingtheamountorextentofafeelingorquality:EGextremely.adverbofdurationanadverbwhichindicateshowlongsomethinglasts;EGbriefly.adverboffrequencyanadverbindicatinghowoftensomethinghappens;EGoften.adverbofmanneranadverbindicatingthewayinwhichsomethinghappensorisdone;EGcarefully.adverbofplaceanadverbwhichgivesmoreinformationaboutportionordirection:EGMovecloser.adverboftimeanadverbwhichgivesmoreinformationaboutwhensomethinghappens;EGIsawheryesterday.adverbparticleanadverbusedaspartofaphrasalverb;EGhideout,situp,turnround.AFFIRMATIVEanothernameforpositive.AFFIXaletterorgroupoflettersthatisaddedtothebeginningorendofawordtomakeadifferentword;EGanti-communist,harmless.Seealsosuffixandprefix.agentthepersonwhoperformsanaction.agreementanothernameforconcord.apostrophesanending("s)addedtoanountomarkpossession;EG...Harrlet"sdaughter...theprofessor"shusband...theManagingDirector"ssecretary.appositiontheplacingofanoungroupafteraheadwordinordertoidentifyitorgivemoreinformationaboutit;EG...mydaughterEmily.articleseedefinitearticle,indefinitearticle.ASPECTtheuseofverbformstoshowwhetheranactioniscontinuing,repeated,orfinished.attributiveusedtodescribeadjectivesthatarenormallyonlyusedinfrontofanoun:EGclassical,outdoor,woollen.auxiliaryverboneoftheverbs"be","have",and"do"whentheyareusedwithamainverbtoformtenses,negatives,questions,andsoon.Alsocalledauxiliary.Modalsarealsoauxiliaryverbs.bareinfinitivetheinfinitiveofaverbwithout"to";EGLetmethink.baseformtheformofaverbwhichhasnolettersaddedtotheendandisnotapastform;EGwalk,go,have,be.Thebaseformistheformyoulookupinadictionary.broadnegativeadverboneofasmallgroupofwordsincluding"barely"and"seldom"whichareusedtomakeastatementalmostnegative;EGIbarelyknewher.cardinalnumberanumberusedforcounting;EGone,seven,nineteen.CASEtheuseofdifferentformsofnounsorpronounsinordertoshowwhethertheyarethesubjectorobjectofaclause,orwhethertheyarepossessive:EGI/me,Jim/Jim"s.classifyingadjectiveanadjectiveusedtoidentifysomethingasbeingofaparticulartype;EGIndian,wooden,mental.Theydonothavecomparativesorsuperlatives.Comparewithqualitativeadjective.clauseagroupofwordscontainingaverb.Seealsomainclauseandsubordinateclause.clauseofmannerasubordinateclausewhichdescribesthewayinwhichsomethingisdone,385 usuallyintroducedwith"as"or"like";EGShetalkslikehermotherusedto.cleftsentenceasentenceinwhichemphasisisgiventoeitherthesubjectortheobjectbyusingastructurebeginningwith"it","what",or"all";EGIt"sahammerweneed...Whatweneedisahammer.collectivenounanounthatreferstoagroupofpeopleorthings;EGcommittee,team.colouradjectiveanadjectivereferringtoacolour;EGred,blue,scarlet.commonnounanounusedtorefertoaperson,thing,orsubstance.EGsailor,computer,glass.Comparewithpropernoun.comparativeanadjectiveoradverbwith"-er"ontheendor"more"infrontofit;EGfriendlier,moreimportant,morecarefully.complementanoungrouporadjectivewhichcomesafteralinkverbsuchas"be",andgivesmoreinformationaboutthesubjectorobjectoftheclause;EGSheisateacher...Sheistired...Theymadeherchairperson.complexsentenceasentenceconsistingofamainclauseandasubordinateclause;EGShewasn"tthinkingbecauseshewastired.compoundacombinationoftwoormorewordsfunctioningasaunit.Forexample,"self-centred"and"free-style"arecompoundadjectives,"busstop"and"stateofaffairs"arecompoundnouns,and"dry-clean"and"roller-skate"arecompoundverbs.compoundsentenceasentenceconsistingoftwoormoremainclauseslinkedbyacoordinatingconjunction;EGTheypickedherupandtookherintothehouse.concessiveclauseasubordinateclause,usuallyintroducedby"although"or"while",whichcontrastswithamainclause;EGAlthoughIlikeher,Ifindherhardtotalkto.concordtherelationshipbetweenasubjectanditsverb,orbetweenanumberordetermineranditsnoun;EGIlook/shelooks...onebell/threebells.Alsocalledagreement.concretenounanounwhichreferstosomethingwecantouchorsee;EGtable,dress,flower.Comparewithabstractnoun.conditionalclauseasubordinateclauseusuallystartingwith"if".Theeventdescribedinthemainclausedependsontheconditiondescribedinthesubordinateclause;EGIfitrains,we"llgotothecinema...Theywouldberichiftheyhadtakenmyadvice.conjunctionawordlinkingtogethertwoclauses,groups,orwords.Therearetwokindsofconjunction—coordinatingconjunctions,whichlinkpartsofasentenceofthesamegrammaticaltype(and,but,or),andsubordinatingconjunctions,whichbeginsubordinateclauses(although,when).continuoustenseatensewhichcontainsaformoftheverb"be"andapresentparticiple;EGShewaslaughing...Theyhadbeenplayingbadminton.Alsocalledprogressivetense.contractionashortenedforminwhichanauxiliaryverband"not",orasubjectandanauxiliaryverb,arejoinedtogetherandfunctionasoneword;EGaren"t,she"s.coordinatingconjunctionawordsuchas"and","but",or"or"whichjoinstogethertwoclauses,groups,ofwordsofthesamegrammaticaltype.coordinationthelinkingofgroupsofwordsofthesamegrammaticaltype,orthelinkingofclausesofequalimportance.copulaanamesometimesusedtorefertotheverb"be".Inthisgrammar,thetermlinkverbisused.countnounanounwhichcanbesingularorplural.EGdog/dogs,lemon/lemons,foot/feet.Alsocalledcountablenoon.declarativemoodaclauseinthedeclarativemoodhasthesubjectfollowedbytheverb.Moststatementsaremadeinthedeclarativemood.Alsocalledindicativemood.DEFECTIVEVERBaverbwhichdoesnothavealltheinflectedformsthatregularverbshave;forexample,allmodalsaredefectiveverbs.definingnon-finiteclauseaparticipleclausewhichisplacedafteranoungrouptoidentifythepersonorthingyouaretalkingabout;EGThegirlwearingtheredhat.definingrelativeclausearelativeclausewhichidentifiesthepersonorthingthatisbeingtalkedabout.EGIwrotedowneverythingthatshesaid.definitearticlethedeterminer"the".delexicalverbaverbwhichhasverylittlemeaninginitselfandisusedwithanobjectthatcarriesthemainmeaningofthestructure."Give","have",and"take"arecommonlyusedasdelexicalverbs;EGShegaveasmallcry...I"vehadabath.demonstrativeoneofthewords"this","that","these",and"those"usedinfrontofanoun;EG...thiswoman...thattree.Theyarealsousedaspronouns;EGThatlooksnice...Thisisfun.385 DEPENDENTCLAUSEanothernameforsubordinateclause.determineroneofagroupofwordsincluding"the","a","some",and"my"whichareusedatthebeginningofanoungroup.directobjectanoungroupreferringtoapersonorthingaffectedbyanaction,inasentencewithanactiveverb;EGShewrotehername...Ishutthewindows.directspeechspeechreportedinthewordsactuallyspokenbysomeone,withoutanychangesintense,person,andsoon.DISJUNCTanothernameforsentenceadjunct.ditransitiveverbaverbsuchas"give","take",or"sell"whichcanhavebothanindirectandadirectobject;EGShegavemeakiss.dynamicverbaverbsuchas"run","give"or"slice"whichdescribesanaction.Comparewithstativeverb."-ED"FORManothernameforpastparticiple.ellipsistheleavingoutofwordswhentheyareobviousfromthecontext.emphasizingadjectiveanadjectivesuchas"complete","utter"or"total"whichstresseshowstronglyyoufeelaboutsomething;EGIfeelacompletefool.ergativeverbaverbwhichcanbeeithertransitiveorintransitiveinthesamemeaning.Tousetheverbintransitively,youusetheobjectofthetransitiveverbasthesubjectofthetransitiveverbasthesubjectoftheintransitiveverb;EGHehadboiledakettle...Thekettlehadboiled.exclamationawordorsentencespokensuddenlyandloudlyinordertoexpresssurprise,anger,andsoon;EGOhGod!finiteafiniteverbisinflectedaccordingtoperson,tense,ormoodratherthanbeinganinfinitiveoraparticiple.firstpersonseeperson.focusingadverbasentenceadjunctwhichindicatesthemostrelevantthinginvolved;EGonly,mainly,especially.frontingastructurewithatopicatthebeginningofaclausewhichisnotthesubjectoftheclause;EGLovelyhairshehad.GENDERagrammaticaltermreferringtothedifferencebetweenmasculineandfemininewordssuchas"he"and"she".GENITIVEthepossessiveformofanoun;EGman"s,mens".GERUNDanothernamefor"-ing"noun.gradableagradableadjectivecanbeusedwithawordsuchas"very"tosaythatthepersonorthingreferredtohasmoreorlessofaquality;EGveryboring,lesshelpful.GROUPNOUNanothernameforcollectivenoun.HEADanothernameforheadword.headwordthemainwordofanoungroup:EG...asoftdownycushionwithtasselsidiomagroupoftwoormorewordswithameaningthatcannotbeunderstoodbytakingthemeaningofeachindividualword;EGtokickthebucket,torunwild.if-clauseaconditionalclause;oraclauseusedtoreporta"yes/no"-question.imperativeaclauseintheimperativemoodhasthebaseformoftheverbwithoutasubject.EGComehere...Taketwotabletseveryfourhours...Enjoyyourself.impersonal"it""it"isanimpersonalsubjectwhenitisusedtointroduceafact,orwhenitisusedinacleftstructure,EGIt"sraining...Itwasyouwhoasked.indefinitearticlethedeterminers"a"and"an".indefiniteplaceadverbagroupofadverbsincluding"anywhere"and"somewhere"usedtoindicatepositionorlocationinageneralorvagueway.indefinitepronounagroupofpronounsincluding"someone"and"anything"usedtorefertoapersonorthinginageneralwayINDICATIVEMOODanothernamefordeclarativemood.indirectobjectasecondobjectusedwithatransitiveverbtoindicatewhoorwhatbenefitsfromanaction,orgetssomethingasaresultofit:EGShegavemearoseINDIRECTQUESTIONanothernameforreportedquestion.INDIRECTSPEECHanothernameforreportedspeech.infinitivethebaseformofaverb.Itisoftenusedwith"to"infrontofit.EG(to)take,(to)see,(to)bring.inflectionthevariationintheformofawordtoshowdifferencesintense,number,caseanddegree.385 "-ing"adjectiveanadjectivewhichhasthesameformasthepresentparticipleofaverb;EG...asmilingface...awinningstreak."-ing"formseepresentparticiple."-ing"nounanounwhichhasthesameformasthepresentparticipleofaverb;EGSwimmingisgoodforyou.INTENSIFIERasubmodifierwhichisusedtoreinforceanadjectiveandmakeitmoreemphatic;EGvery,exceptionally.INTERJECTIONanothernameforexclamation.interrogativeadverboneoftheadverbs"how","when","where",and"why"whentheyareusedtoaskquestions.interrogativemoodaclauseintheinterrogativemoodhaspartoralloftheverbgroupinfrontofthesubject.Mostquestionsareaskedintheinterrogativemood.interrogativepronounoneofthepronouns"who","whose","whom","what",and"which"whentheyareusedtoaskquestions.intransitiveverbaverbwhichisusedtotalkaboutanactionoreventthatonlyinvolvesthesubjectandsodoesnothaveanobject;EGshearrived...Iwasyawning.inversionchangingthewordorderinasentence,especiallychangingtheorderofthesubjectandtheverb.irregularnotfollowingthenormalrulesforinflection.Airregularverbhasapastformand/orpastparticiplewhichisformedinadifferentwayfromtheregular"-ed"ending.LEXICALVERBanothernameformainverb.linkingadjunctasentenceadjunctusedtointroduceacommentorreinforcewhatissaid;EGmoreover,besides.linkverbaverbwhichlinksthesubjectandcomplementofaclause:EGbe,become,seem,appear.Alsosometimescalledcopula.mainclauseaclausewhichisnotdependenton,orisnotpartof,anotherclause.mainverballverbswhicharenotauxiliaries.Alsocalledlexicalverb.massnoun(inthisgrammar),anounwhichisusuallyanuncountnoun,butwhichcanbeusedasacountnounwhenitreferstoquantitiesortypesofsomething:EG...twosugars......coughmedicines.modalanauxiliaryverbwhichisusedwithamainverbtoindicateaparticularattitude,suchaspossibility,obligation,prediction,ofdeduction:EGcan,could,may,might.Alsocalledmodalauxiliaryormodalverb.modifierawordorgroupofwordswhichcomeinfrontofanoun:EG...abeautifulsunnyday......apsychologyconference.moodtherearethreemainmoodsinEnglish:thedeclarativemood,theinterrogativemood,andtheimperativemood.Thereisalsoalesscommonmood,thesubjunctivemood.Seetheindividualentriesfordeclarativemood,interrogativemood,imperative,andsubjunctive.negativesentenceasentencewhichusesawordlike"not","never",or"no-one"toindicatetheabsenceoroppositeofsomething,ortosaythatsomethingisnotthecase:EGIdon"tknowyou...I"llneverforget.Theoppositeispositivesentence.negativewordawordsuchas"never"and"not"whichexpressesanegativemeaning.NOMINALGROUPanothernamefornoungroup.non-definingrelativeclausearelativeclausewhichgivesmoreinformationaboutsomeoneorsomething,butwhichisnotneededtoidentifythem:EGThat"sMary,whowasatuniversitywithme.Comparewithdefiningrelativeclause.non-finitethenon-finiteformsofaverbaretheinfinitiveandparticipleforms:EGtotake,taking,taken.nounawordwhichreferstopeople,things,andabstractideassuchasfeelingsandqualities;EGwoman,Harry,guilt.noungroupagroupofwordswhichactsasthesubject,complement,orobjectofaclause,orastheobjectofapreposition.alsocallednominalgroupornounphrase.nounmodifieranounusedinfrontofanothernoun,asifitwereanadjective:EG...acardoor......asteelworks.numberthewayinwhichdifferencesbetweensingularandpluralareshown;EGflower/flowers,that/those.Seealsocardinalnumberandordinalnumber.objectanoungroupwhichreferstoapersonorthing,otherthanthesubject,whichisinvolvedinoraffectedbytheactionofaverb.Seealsodirectobjectandindirectobject385 .Prepositionsarealsofollowedbyobjects.objectcomplementawordwhichisusedtodescribetheobjectofaclauseandwhichoccurswithverbssuchas"make"and"find";EGItmademetired...Ifoundherasleep.ordinalnumberanumberthatisusedtoindicatewheresomethingcomesinanorderorsequence;EGfirst,fifth,tenth,hundredth.PARTICIPIALADJECTIVEanothernamefor"-ing"adjective.participleaverbformusedformakingdifferenttenses.Seepastparticipleandpresentparticipleformoredetails.partitiveawordwhichgivesinformationabouttheamountofaparticularthing;EGpint,loaf,portion.partitivestructureastructureinwhichquantifiersandpartitivesarelinkedtoanoungroupwith"of";EGmanyofthem,abottleofmilk.passivevoiceverbformssuchas"wasgiven","weretaken","hadbeenmade",wherethesubjectisthepersonorthingthatisaffectedbytheaction.Comparewithactivevoice.pastformtheformofaverb,oftenendingin"-ed",whichisusedforthesimplepasttense.pastparticipleaverbformsuchas"seen","broken",and"given"whichisusedtoformperfectlensesandpassives,orinsomecasesanadjective.Alsocalledthe"-ed"form,especiallywhenanadjective.pasttenseatenseusedtodescribeactionsoreventswhichtookplaceinthepast.Seetenseformoredetails.perfecttenseatenseformedwith"have"andapastparticiple;EGIhavemethim...Wehadwon.performativeverbaverbwhichstatesexplicitlywhatactionthespeakerisperformingwhenheorsheusesit;EGapologize,resign,christen.personatermusedtorefertothethreeclassesofpeoplewhoareinvolvedinsomethingthatissaid.Theyarethefirstperson(thepersonspeakingorwriting),thesecondperson(thepersonbeingaddressed),andthethirdperson(thepeopleorthingsthatarebeingtalkedabout).personalpronounagroupofpronounssuchas"I","you",and"me",usedtoreferbacktothepeopleorthingsyouaretalkingabout.phaseastructureinwhichyouusetwoverbsinaclauseinordertotalkabouttwoprocessesoreventsthatarecloselylinked.EGShehelpedtocleanthehouse...Theyrememberbuyingthetickets.phrasalverbacombinationofaverbandanadverband/orapreposition,whichhaveasinglemeaning;EGbackdown,handover,lookforwardto.pluraltheformusedtorefertomorethanonepersonorthing;EGdogs,women.pluralnounanounwhichisonlyusedinthepluralform;EGtrousers,scissors,vermin.positivesentenceasentencewhichdoesnotcontainanegativeword.possessiveastructureusedtoshowpossession;EGyour,Jerry"s,mine.possessivedetermineradeterminersuchas"my","your",and"their’.Theyarealsocalledpossessiveadjectives.possessivepronounoneofthewords"mine","yours","hers","his","ours",and"theirs".postdeterminerasmallgroupofadjectivesusedafteradeterminerandinfrontofotheradjectives;EGcertain,remaining.predeterminerawordwhichcomesinfromofadeterminer;EG...alltheboys......doublethetrouble......suchamess.PREDICATEwhatissaidaboutthesubjectofaclause.predicativeusedtodescribeadjectivesthatarenormallyonlyusedafteralinkverbsuchas"be";EGalive,asleep,sure.Compareattributive.prefixaletterorgroupoflettersaddedtothebeginningofawordinordertomakeanewword;EGsemi-insemi-circular.Comparewithsuffixandaffix.PREMODIFIERanothernameformodifier.prepositionawordsuchas"by","with"or"from",whichisalwaysfollowedbyanoungrouporan"-ing"form.prepositionalphraseastructureconsistingofaprepositionanditsobject;EGonthetable,bythesea.presentparticipleaverbformendingin"-ing"whichisusedtoformverbtenses,andasanadjective.Alsocalledthe"-ing"form.presenttenseatenseusedtodescribeeventstakingplaceinthepresentorsituationswhich385 existinthepresent.productivefeatureagrammaticalpointwhichcanbeappliedtoanopenclassofwords.Seetheintroductionformoredetails.PROGRESSIVETENSEanothernameforcontinuoustense.pronounawordusedinsteadofanoon,whenyoudonotwanttonamesomeoneorsomethingdirectly;EGit,you,none.propernounanounwhichreferstoaparticularperson,place,orinstitution;EGNigel,Edinburgh,Christmas.Comparewithcommonnoun.purposeclauseasubordinateclause,usuallyintroducedby"inorderto",or"sothat";EGIcamehereinordertoaskyououttodinner.qualifieranywordorgroupofwordswhichcomesafteraheadwordandispartofthenoungroup;EG...abookwithabluecover......theshoponthecorner.qualitativeadjectiveanadjectivewhichisusedtoindicateaquality,andwhichisgradable;EGfunny,intelligent,small.Comparewithclassifyingadjective.quantifieraphraseendingin"of"whichallowsyoutorefertoaquantityofsomethingwithoutbeingpreciseabouttheexactamount;EGsomeof,alotof,alittlebitof.questionastructurewhichtypicallyhastheverbinfrontofthesubjectandwhichisusedtoasksomeoneaboutsomething;EGHaveyouanymoney?Alsocalledinterrogative.questiontagastructureconsistingofanauxiliaryverbfollowedbyapronoun,whichisusedattheendofatagquestion.quotestructureastructurewhichreportstheexactwordsusedbyaspeakerwithoutanychanges;EGShesaid"I"llbelate".Comparewithreportstructure.reasonclauseasubordinateclause,usuallyintroducedby"because","since",or"as";EGSinceyou"rehere,we"llstart.reciprocalpronounthepronoun"eachother"and"oneanother",usedtoshowthattwopeopledoorfeelthesamething;EGTheylovedeachother.reciprocalverbaverbwhichdescribesanactionwhichinvolvestwopeopledoingthesamethingtoeachother;EGTheymetinthestreet...Hemetheryesterday.reflexivepronounapronounendingin"-self",suchas"myself"or"themselves",whichisusedastheobjectofaverbwhenthepersonaffectedbyanactionisthesameasthepersondoingit.reflexiveverbaverbwhichistypicallyusedwithareflexivepronoun;EGshaveyourself;prideyourselfon.relativeclauseasubordinateclausewhichgivesmoreinformationaboutsomeoneorsomethingmentionedinthemainclause.Seealsodefiningrelativeclauseandnon-definingrelativeclause.relativepronouna"wh"-wordsuchas"who"or"which",usedtointroducearelativeclause;EG...thegirlwhowascarryingthebag.reportedclausethepartofareportstructurewhichdescribeswhatsomeonehassaid;EGShesaidthatIcouldn"tseeher.reportedquestionaquestionwhichisreportedusingareportstructureratherthantheexactwordsusedbythespeaker.Alsocalledindirectquestion.reportedspeechspeechwhichisreportedusingareportstructureratherthantheexactwordsusedbythespeaker.Alsocalledindirectspeech.reportingclauseaclausewhichcontainsareportingverb,whichisusedtointroducewhatsomeonehassaid;EGTheyaskedifIcouldcome.reportingverbaverbwhichdescribeswhatpeoplesayorthink;EGsuggest,say,wonder.reportstructureastructurewhichreportswhatsomeonehassaidbyusingareportedclauseratherthanrepeatingtheirexactwords:EGShetoldmeshe"dbelate.Comparequotestructure.resultclauseasubordinateclauseintroducedby"sothat"whichgivestheresultofsomething;EGThehousewasseverelydamaged,sothatitisnowuninhabitable.rhetoricalquestionaquestionwhichyouuseinordertomakeacommentratherthantoobtaininformation;EGOh,isn"titsilly?secondpersonseeperson.semi-modaltheverbs"dare","need",and"usedto"whichbehaveratherlikemodals.sentenceagroupofwordswhichexpressastatement,question,orcommand.Asentenceusuallyhasaverbandasubject,andmaybeasimplesentence,consistingofoneclause,oracomplexsentence,consistingoftwoormoreclauses.Asentenceinwritinghasacapitalletter385 atthebeginningandafull-stop,questionmark,orexclamationmarkattheend.sentenceadjunctanadjunctwhichappliestothewholeclause,ratherthantopartofit;EGWepossiblyhavetowaitandsee.Seealsolinkingadjunct."s"formthebaseformofaverbwith"s"ontheend,usedinthesimplepresenttense.simpletenseatenseformedwithoutusinganauxiliaryverb;EGIwaited...Shesang.singulartheformusedtorefertoortalkaboutonepersonorthing;EGdog,woman.Comparewithplural.singularnounanountypicallyusedinthesingularform;EGsun,business,jumble.SPLITINFINITIVEtheplacingofawordbetween"to"andthebaseformofaverb;EG...toboldlygowherenomanhasgonebefore.stativeverbaverbwhichdescribesastale;EGbe,live,know.Comparewithdynamicverb.STRONGVERBanothernameforirregularverb.subjectthenoungroupinaclausethatreferstothepersonorthingwhodoestheactionexpressedbytheverb;EGWeweregoingshopping.subjunctiveaverbformwhichisusedinsomelanguagestoexpressattitudessuchaswishing,hoping,anddoubting.ThesubjunctivemoodisnotverycommoninEnglish,andisusedmainlyinconditionaldousessuchas"IfIwereyou...".submodifieranadverbwhichisusedinfrontofanadjectiveoranotheradverbinordertostrengthenorweakenitsmeaning;EG...veryinteresting......quitequickly.subordinateclauseaclausewhichbeginswithasubordinatingconjunctionsuchas"because"or"while"andwhichmustbeusedwithamainclause.SUBSTITUTIONthespecialuseofpronounsandotherwordstoreplacepartorallofaclause;EG"Areyougoingtotheparty?"—"Ihopeso".SUFFIXaletterorgroupoflettersaddedtotheendofawordinordertomakeadifferentword,tense,case,andsoon;EGslowly,Heidi"s.Comparewithaffixandprefix.superlativeanadjectiveoradverbwith"-est"ontheendor"most"infrontofit;EGthinnest,quickest,mostwisely.tagquestionastatementtowhichaquestiontag(anauxiliaryverbandapronoun)hasbeenadded;EGShe"squiet,isn"tshe?tensetheverbformwhichshowswhetheryouarereferringtothepast,present,orfuture.futuretheuseof"will"or"shall"withthebaseformoftheverbtorefertofutureevents;EGShewillcometomorrow.futurecontinuoustheuseof"willbe"or"shallbe"andapresentparticipletorefertofutureevents;EGShewillbegoingsoon.futureperfecttheuseof"willhave"or"shallhave"andapastparticipletorefertofutureevents;EGIshallhavefinishedtomorrow.futureperfectcontinuoustheuseof"will"or"shall"with"havebeen"andapresentparticipletorefertofutureevents;EGIwillhavebeenwalkingforthreehoursbythen.pasttheuseofthepastformtorefertopastevents;EGTheywaited.pastcontinuoustheuseof"was"or"were"withapresentparticiple,usuallytorefertopastevents;EGTheywereworryingaboutityesterday.pastperfecttheuseof"had"withapastparticipletorefertopastevents;EGShehadfinished.pastperfectcontinuoustheuseof"hadbeen"withapresentparticipletorefertopastevents;EGHehadbeenwaitingforhours.presenttheuseofthebaseformandthe"s"form,usuallytorefertopresentevents;EGIlikebananas...Mysisterhatesthem.presentcontinuoustheuseofthesimplepresentof"be"withapresentparticipletorefertopresentevents;EGThingsareimproving.presentperfecttheuseofthesimplepresentof"have"withapastparticipletorefertopasteventswhichexistinthepresent;EGShehaslovedhimfortenyears.presentperfectcontinuoustheuseof"havebeen"and"hasbeen"withapresentparticipletorefertopasteventswhichexistinthepresent;EGWehavebeensittinghereforhours."that"-clauseaclausestartingwith"that"whichisusedmainlywhenreportingwhatsomeonehassaid;EGShesaidthatshe"dwashupforme."That"canbeomittedwhentheclauseisusedafterareportingverb.thirdpersonseeperson.timeclauseasubordinateclausewhichindicatesthetimeofanevent;EGI"llphoneyouwhenIgetback.385 titleawordusedbeforeaperson"snametoshowtheirpositionorstatus;EGMrs,Lord,Queen."to"-infinitivethebaseformofaverbprecededby"to":EGtogo,tohave,tojump.transitiveverbaverbusedtotalkaboutanactionoreventthatinvolvesmorethanonepersonorthing,andsoisfollowedbyanobject;EGShe"swastinghermoney.uncountnounanounwhichreferstoageneralkindofthingratherthantoanindividualitem,andsohasonlyoneform;EGmoney,furniture,intelligence.Alsocalleduncountablenoun.verbawordusedwithasubjecttosaywhatsomeoneorsomethingdoes,orwhathappenstothem;EGsing,spill,die.VERBALNOUNanothernamefor"-ing"noun.verbgroupamainverb,oramainverbprecededbyoneormoreauxiliaries,whichcombineswithasubjecttosaywhatsomeonedoes,orwhathappenstothem;EGI"llshowthem...She"sbeensick.vocativeawordusedwhenspeakingtosomeone,justasifitweretheirname;EGdarling,madam."WH"-CLAUSEaclausestartingwitha"wh"-word."whether"-clauseaclauseusedtoreporta"yes/no"-question;EGIaskedherwhethershe"dseenhim."wh"-questionaquestionwhichexpectsananswergivingaparticularperson,place,thing,amount,andsoon,ratherthanjust"yes"or"no"."wh"-wordoneofagroupofwordsstartingwith"wh-",suchas"what","when"or"who",whichareusedin"wh"-questions."How"isalsocalleda"wh"-wordbecauseitbehavesliketheother"wh"-words."yes/no"-questionaquestionwhichcanbeansweredsimplywitheither"yes"or"no";EGWouldyoulikesomemoretea?385 CobuildGrammarChartconceptspropositionscircumstancesdevelopmenttext1ConceptIdentification2ConceptBuilding3MessageBuilding4AuthorandMessage5Timing6MannerandPlace7Reporting8Expansion9Cohesion10Tacticsdiscoursenominalizationexpressionofattitudesnarrativeexpressionofcomplicatedmeaningsevaluationlanguageaboutlanguagesentencesimplesentencesimplesentencecompoundsentence:reportstructurescompoundsentence:combinationofclausescomplexsentencetagscleftsconventionsthemeandfocusclausesubjectsobjectscomparisonsimpleclausestransitivitycomplementationverblessclausesmoodnegationmodalitytenseaspecttimelocationclausesdirectspeechreportclausesotherthatclausesclausetypesellipsispassivizationit/thereclausesgroupnoungroupnoungroupverbgroupverbgroupadjunctsoftimeotheradjunctswordnounspronounsdeterminersadjectivesnumbersquantifierspartitivesverbsmodalverbsnegativewordsadverbsoftime,frequency,durationadverbsofplace,mannerprepositionsplacenamesreportingverbsthat,wh-wordsconjunctionslinkerssentenceadverbsfocussingadverbsvocativesmorphemenouninflectionsadjectiveinflectionsverbinflectionsadverbinflectionsNote:thetintedareasofthechartfeaturethemainconcernsofeachChapter,aswellasillustratingtheoverallprogressionthroughtheGrammar.385 ContentsofChapter1page1.1-13Introductiontothenoungroup191.14-93Identifyingpeopleandthings:nouns211.16-23Thingswhichcanbecounted:countnouns221.24-34Thingsnotusuallycounted:uncountnouns241.35-41Thenthereisonlyoneofsomething:singularnouns261.42-47Referringtomorethanonething:pluralnouns271.48-52Referringtogroups:collectivenouns291.53-59Referringtopeopleandthingsbyname:propernouns301.60-66Nounswhicharerarelyusedalone321.67-73Sharingthesamequality:adjectivesasheadwords331.74-77Nounsreferringtomalesorfemales341.78-83Referringtoactivitiesandprocesses:"-ing"nouns341.84-93Specifyingmoreexactly:compoundnouns351.94-160Referringtopeopleandthingswithoutnamingthem:pronouns381.96-109Referringtopeopleandthings:personalpronouns381.110-114Mentioningpossession:possessivepronouns401.115-122Referringbacktothesubject:reflexivepronouns411.123-126Referringtoaparticularpersonorthing:demonstrativepronouns421.127-140Referringtopeopleandthingsinageneralway:indefinitepronouns431.141-144Showingthattwopeopledothesamething:reciprocalpronouns451.145-149Joiningclausestogether:relativepronouns461.150-152Askingquestions:interrogativepronouns461.153-160Otherpronouns471.161-236Identifyingwhatyouaretalkingabout:determiners481.162-181Thespecificway:using"the"481.182-191Thespecificway:using"this","that","these",and"those"511.192-207Thespecificway:usingpossessivedeterminers531.208-212Thegeneralway551.213-220Thegeneralway:using"a"and"an"561.221-236Thegeneralway:otherdeterminers571ReferringtopeopleandthingsIntroductiontothenoungroup1.1Atitssimplest,weuselanguagetotalkaboutpeopleandthings.Wedothisbyusingwordsinavarietyofways,forexampletomakestatements,toaskquestions,andtogiveorders.Thewordswechoosearearrangedintogroups,eitheraroundanounoraroundaverb.Theyarecallednoungroupsandverbgroups.Noungroupstelluswhichpeopleorthingsarebeingtalkedabout.Verbgroupstelluswhatisbeingsaidaboutthem,forexamplewhattheyaredoing.Chapters1and2ofthisgrammardealwithnoungroups.Forinformationaboutverbgroups,seechapter3.positioninclause1.2Anoungroupcanbethesubject,object,orcomplementofaclause.Ortheobjectofapreposition.Womentendnottohaveasmuchmoneyasmen.Icouldn"tfeelangeragainsthim.Theywereteachers.Letusworktogetherinpeace.commonnounsandpropernouns1.3Youcanuseanoungrouptorefertosomeoneorsomethingbynamingthem.Youdothisbyusingageneralname,calledanounorcommonnoun,orbyusingaspecificname,calledapropernoun.Propernounsaremainlyusedforpeople,places,andevents.Marylikesstrawberries.IwenttoGlasgowUniversityandthenIwentdowntoLondontoworkforapsychiatrist.IworkedinWoolworthsatChristmasoneyear.Seeparagraphs1.53to1.59formoreinformationaboutpropernouns.determinerswithcommonnouns1.4Ifyouuseacommonnoun,youaresayingthatthe385 personorthingyouaretalkingaboutcanbeputinasetwithothersthataresimilarinsomeway.Ifyoujustwanttosaythatthepersonorthingisinthatset,youuseageneraldeterminerwiththecommonnoun.Imetagirlwhowasastudentthere.Haveyougotanycommenttomakeaboutthat?Therearesomediseasesthatareclearlyinherited.Ifyouwanttoshowwhichmemberofasetyouaretalkingabout,youuseaspecificdeterminerwithacommonnoun.Iputmyarmroundhershoulders....thedestructionoftheircity.Shecameintoseemethismorning.Seeparagraphs1.161to1.236formoreinformationaboutdeterminers,andparagraphs1.14to1.93formoreinformationaboutnouns.personalanddemonstrativepronouns1.5Youmaydecidenottonamethepersonorthingandtouseapronounratherthanapropernounorcommonnoun.Youusuallydothisbecausethepersonorthinghasalreadybeennamed,soyourefertothembyusingapersonalpronounorademonstrativepronoun.Reagan"sAmerican,isn"the?"CouldIspeaktoSue,please?"—"I"msorryshedoesn"tworkherenow."I"vegottwoboys,andlookingatthemIcanseealittlebitofmyself.Thisledtowidespreadcriticism.Seeparagraphs1.96to1.109formoreinformationaboutpersonalpronouns,andparagraphs1.123to1.126formoreinformationaboutdemonstrativepronouns.indefinitepronouns1.6Youmaydecidenottonamethepersonorthingatall,forexamplebecauseyoudonotwantto,youthinkitisnotimportant,youdonotknoworyouwanttobevagueormysteriouswhiletellingastory.Insuchcasesyouuseanindefinitepronoun,whichdoesnotrefertoanyparticularpersonorthing.Ihadtosaysomething.Inthiscountrynobodytrustsanyone.Amomentlater,hisheartseemedtostopashesensedthesuddenmovementofsomeonerushingintothehut.Seeparagraphs1.127to1.140formoreinformationaboutindefinitepronouns.noungroupchoice1.7Intherelationbetweenlanguageandtheworld,thesedifferenttypesofnoungroupshowarangeofchoicesbetweenaveryclearidentificationofsomeoneorsomething,andaverycleardecisionnottoidentify.Therangecanbesetoutasfollows,resultingfromthechoicesthathavejustbeenexplained.HEADWORDnoungroupnamenoundon"tnamepronounpersonalizepropernounnamebyassociationcommonnoundon"tneedtopersonalordemonstrativepronoundon"twanttoindefinitepronounDETERMINERtextualassociationspecificdeterminergeneralassociationgeneraldetermineridentify<------------------------------------------------------>don"tidentifymodifiersandqualifiers1.8Ifyouwanttogivemoreinformationaboutthepersonorthingyouaretalkingabout,ratherthanjustgivingtheirgeneralorspecificname.Youcanusemodifiersandqualifiers.Anythingwhichyouputinfrontofanouniscalledamodifier.Anythingwhichyouputafteranouniscalledaqualifier.modifiers1.9Mostadjectivesareusedasmodifiers.Nounsarealsooftenusedasmodifiers....abigcity...blueink385 Heopenedthecardoor....theoilindustry.Seeparagraphs2.2to2.173formoreinformationaboutadjectives,andparagraphs2.174to2.179formoreinformationaboutnounmodifiers.qualifiers1.10Theuseofqualifiersallowsusgreatfreedominexpandingthenoungroup.Qualifierscanbeprepositionalphrases,relativeclauses,advertsofplaceortime,or"to"-infinitives...agirlinadarkgreydress....themanwhoemployedme.Theroomupstairs....thedesiretokill.Adjectivesandparticiplesarealsosometimesusedasqualifiers,usuallyincombinationwithotherwords....theMinisterresponsiblefornationalsecurity....thethreecardslyingonthetable.Seeparagraphs2.289to2.320formoreinformationaboutqualifiers.1.11Inparticular,prepositionalphrasesbeginningwith"of"areverycommon,becausetheycanexpressmanydifferentkindsofrelationshipbetweenthetwonoungroups....strongfeelingsofjealousy....apictureofahouse....thedestructionoftheircity....thedaughterofthevillagecobbler....problemsofvaryingcomplexity....thearrivalofthepolice.Formoreinformationabouttheuseof"of"inthenoungroupseeparagraphs2.294to2.300.coordination1.12Ifyouwanttoreferseparatelytomorethanonepersonorthing,ofyouwanttodescribetheminmorethanoneway.Youcanlinknoungroups,modifiers,orqualifiersusingtheconjunctions"and","or",or"but".Sometimesyoucanuseacommainsteadof"and",orjustputonewordnexttoanother....atableandchair....hisobligationswithregardtoAmanda,RobertandMatthew....somefruitorcheeseafterwards....herlongblackskirt.Seeparagraphs8.159to8189formoreinformationabouttheuseofconjunctionstolinknoungroupsandwordswithinnoungroups.numbersandquantifiers1.13Ifyouwanttosayhowmanythingsyouaretalkingabout,orhowmuchofsomethingthereis,youusenumbersandquantifiers.LastyearIworkedsevendaysaweekfourteenhoursaday.Shedrinkslotsofcoffee.Numbersaredealtwithinparagraphs2.225to2.256,andquantifiersaredealtwithin2.193to2.210.Identifyingpeopleandthings:nouns1.14Anounisusedtoidentifyapersonorthing.inthischapterwedescribesixmaintypesofnoun.Theyareclassifiedaccordingtowhethertheyhaveapluralform,whethertheyneedadeterminerinfrontofthem,andwhethertheyoccurwithasingularverborapluralverbwhentheyarethesubjectoftheverb.Thesixtypesare:classificationexamplecommentsparagraphcountnounsabirdbirdshavepluralneeddeterminer1.16to1.23uncountnounshappinessequipmentnopluralusuallynodeterminer1.24to1.34singularnounsthemoonadaynopluralneeddeterminer1.35to1.41pluralnounsclothesscissorsnosingular1.42to1.47collectivenounsthepubliceithersingularor1.48to1.52385 thestaffpluralverbpropernounsMary,LondonTheUnitedNationsstartwithcapitalletter1.53to1.59Manynounshaveanumberofdifferentmeanings,andsocanbe,forexample,acountnounforonemeaning,anuncountnounforanother,andasingularnounforanother.Thereareafewothergroupsofnounswithspecialfeatures.Thesearedealtwithinparagraphs1.60to1.93.capitalletters1.18Mostnounsdonotbeginwithacapitalletter,unlesstheyareusedtostartasentence.However,thefollowingtypesofnounsarealwaysspelledwithacapitalletter:•propernounsornames...mysisterElizabeth.PlaysomemoreChopin.I"llbeintheofficeonMonday.Ithoughthe"dgonetoLondon.Formoreinformationonpropernouns,seeparagraphs1.53to1.59.PropernounsthataretimeexpressionsaredealtwithinChapter5,andthosethatareplacenamesinChapter6.•nounswhichidentifypeopleofaparticularnationality,orlanguagesCanyouthinkofsometypicalproblemsthatconfrontGermanslearningEnglish?•nounswhicharethenameofaparticularproductIfthefiguresareallcorrect,thenyouwinaVolkswagen.PutabitofSellotapeacrossit.Thingswhichcanbecounted:countnouns1.16Manynounshavetwoforms,thesingularform,whichisusedtorefertoonepersonorthing,andthepluralform,whichisusedtorefertomorethanonepersonorthing.Thesenounsrefertopeopleorthingswhichcanbecounted.Youcanputnumbersinfrontofthem....book...books....day...days....threebrothers....tenminutes.ThesenounsmakeupthelargestgroupofnounsinEnglish.Theyarecalledcountnounsorcountablenouns.noun-verbagreement1.17Whenyouusethesingularformofacountnounasthesubjectofaverb,youuseasingularverb.Whenyouusethepluralformofacountnounasthesubject,youuseapluralverb.Adoglikestoeatfarmoremeatthanahumanbeing.Biggerdogscostmore.useofdeterminers1.18Countnounshaveadeterminerinfrontofthemwhentheyareusedinthesingular.Hegotintothecarandstartedthemotor.Theyleftthehousetogoforawalkaftertea.Whenyouusethepluralformofacountnountorefertosomethingingeneral,youdonotuseadeterminer.Ithasverylargerooms.Mostclassroomshavecomputers.However,ifyouarespecifyingaparticularinstanceofsomething,youneedtouseadeterminer.TheroomsatWatermoutharealllikethis.Ourcomputerscangiveyoualltherelevantdetails.listofcountnouns1.19Hereisalistofsomecommoncountnounsaccidentaccountactoraddressadultanimalanswercatchairchapterchestchildcigarettecityfatherfieldfilmfingerfootfriendgamelakelibrarylinelistmachinemagazinemanriverroadroomschemeschoolshipshirt385 apartmentarticleartistbabybagballbankbattlebeachbedbellbillbirdboatbookbottleboxboybridgebrotherbusbushcampcaptaincarcardcasecastleclassclubcoatcollegecomputercornercountrycrowdcupdaughterdaydeskdoctordogdoordreamdressdriverearedgeeffecteggelectionengineeyefacefactoryfarmgardengategirlgroupgunhallhandhandlehatheadhearthillhorsehospitalhotelhourhousehusbandideaislandissuejobjourneyjudgekeykingkitchenladymealmeetingmembermessagemethodminutemistakemodelmonthmotormouthnationnecknewspaperofficepageparkpartypathpictureplanplaneplantproblemproductprogrammeprojectringshockshopsistersmilesonspotstarstationstreamstreetstudenttabletaskteachertentthoughttourtownvalleyvillagewalkwallweekwindowwomanyearNotethatmanyofthesenounshavesomemeaningsinwhichtheyareuncountnouns,buttheyarecountnounsintheircommonestmeanings.singularandpluralforms1.20Formostcountnounsthepluralformhas"-s"attheend,whichdistinguishesitfromthesingularform....bed...beds....car...cars.Somecountnounshaveotherdifferencesbetweenthesingularandpluralforms....bus...buses....lady...ladies....calf...calves....man...men....mouse...mice.Forfullinformationaboutthepluralformsofcountnouns,seetheReferenceSection.sameformforsingularandplural1.21Somecountnounshavethesameformforbothsingularandplural....asheep...ninesheep.Manyofthesenounsrefertoanimalsorfish,othersaremorevariedinmeaning:bisondeergreenflygrousemoosereindeersheep-codfishgoldfishhalibutmulletsalmonshellfishtroutwhitebait-aircrafthovercraftspacecraft-crossroadsdicefruitgallowsgrapefruitinsigniamewsoffspringseriesspecies-bourgeolschassiscorpspatoisprecisrendezvoussingularformwithpluralmeaning1.22Thenamesofmanyanimalsandbirdshavetwoforms,onesingularandoneplural.However,whenyouarereferringtotheminthecontextofhuntingorwhenyouaresayingthattherearelargenumbersofthem,itisquitecommontousetheformwithout"-s".Eventhoughyouarereferringtoseveralanimalsorbirds.Theyhuntedgazelle.385 Notethatthepluralformoftheverbisusedwhenseveralanimalsorbirdsarethesubjectofthesentence,evenifyouusetheformwithout"-s".Zebraareamoredifficultprey.Similarly,whenyouarereferringtoalargenumberoftreesorplantsgrowingtogether,youcanusethesingularformoftheirname.Whenyouarereferringtoasmallnumberortoindividualtreesorplants,youusuallyusetheformwith"-s"....therowsofwillowandcypresswhichlinedthecreek....thepoplarsandwillowsalongthePeshawarRoad.productivefeature1.23Althoughsomenamesofanimals,birds,trees,andplantsarecommonlyusedinthesingularformwithpluralmeaning,infactallsuchnamescanbeusedinthisway.ThisisaproductivefeatureofEnglish.Productivefeaturesareexplainedintheintroduction.Thingsnotusuallycounted:uncountnouns1.24Somenounsrefertogeneralthingssuchasqualities,substances,processes,andtopicsratherthantoindividualitemsorevents.Thesenounshaveonlyoneform,arenotusedwithnumbers,andarenotusuallyusedwiththedeterminers"the","a",or"an"....aboyorgirlwithintelligence.Thedonkeyneededfoodandwater....newtechniquesinindustryandagriculture.Italkedwithpeopleaboutreligion,death,marriage,money,andhappiness.Thesenounsarecalleduncountnounsoruncountablenouns.noun-verbagreement1.25Whenyouuseanuncountnounasthesubjectofaverb,youuseasingularformoftheverb.Fearbeginstocreepslowlyintotheirhearts.Theybelievedthatlocaldemocracywasessentialtogoodgovernment.Electricityispotentiallydangerous.listofuncountnouns1.26Hereisalistofsomecommonuncountnouns:absenceaccessageagricultureangeratmospherebeautybehaviourcancercapacitychildhoodchinacomfortconcernconfidencecouragedeathdemocracydepressiondesigndutyeartheducationelectricityenergyenvironmentequipmentevilexistenceexperiencefailurefaithfashionfearfinancefirefleshfoodfreedomfungroundgrowthhappinesshealthhelphistoryiceindependenceindustryinsuranceintelligencejoyjusticelabourlonelinessloveluckmagicmarriagemercymusicnaturepaperpatiencepeacephilosophypleasurepolicypovertypowerprideprotectionpurityramrealityreliefreligionrespectsafetysaltsandsecuritysilencesleepstrengthsnowspitestatusstuffteachingtechnologytimetradetrainingtransporttraveltrusttruthviolencewastewaterwealthweatherwelfarewindworkworthyouthWARNING1.27TherearesomewordswhichareuncountnounsinEnglish,butwhichrefertothingsthatareconsideredcountableinotherlanguages.Hereisalistofthemostcommonuncountnounsofthistype:advicehairknowledgemoneyresearch385 baggagefurniturehomeworkinformationluggagemachinerynewsprogressspaghettitrafficquantifying1.28Althoughuncountnounsrefertothingswhichcannotbecountedandarenotusedwithnumbers,youoftenwanttorefertoanamountofsomethingwhichisexpressedbyanuncountnoun.Sometimes,youcandothisbyputtingageneraldeterminersuchas"all","enough","little",or"some"infrontofthenoun.Itgavehimlittlelime.There"ssomechocolatecakeoverthere.Formoreinformationongeneraldeterminerswhichcanbeusedwithuncountnouns,seeparagraph1.210.Youcanalsoputaquantifierinfrontofthenoun.Forexample,whenyourefertowateryoucansay"dropsofwater","acupofwater","fourgallonsofwater",andsoon.Theuseofquantifierswithuncountnounsisexplainedinparagraphs2.193to2.210.massnouns1.29Whenyouaresurethatyourreaderorhearerwillunderstandthataquantityofsomethingisbeingreferredto,youdonotneedtouseaquantifier.Forexample,inarestaurantyoucanaskfor"threecupsofcoffee",butyoucanalsoaskfor"threecoffees"becausethepersonyouaretalkingtowillknowthatyoumean"threecupsofcoffee".Inthisway,theuncountnoun"coffee"hasbecomecountable.Nounsusedinthiswayarecalledmassnouns.1.30Massnounsareoftenusedtorefertoquantitiesofaparticularkindoffoodordrink.Wespenttwohourstalkingovercoffeeandbiscuitsinherstudy.Westoppedforacoffeeatasmallcafe.1.31Similarly,someuncountnounscanbemassnounswhentheyrefertotypesofsomething.Forexample,"cheese"isusuallyanuncountnounbutyoucantalkabout"alargerangeofcheeses"....plentifulcheapbeer....profitsfromlow-alcoholbeers.Wewerenotallowedtobuywineorspiritsatlunchtime.Ilikewinesandliqueurs.Massnounsreferringtodifferenttypesofasubstancearemainlyusedintechnicalcontexts.Forexample"steel"isnearlyalwaysanuncountnoun,butincontextswhereitisimportanttodistinguishbetweendifferentkindsofsteelitcanbeamassnoun....importsofEuropeansteel....theuseofsmallamountsofnitrogeninmakingcertainsteels.listofmassnouns1.32thefollowingisalistoffrequentlyusedmassnouns:adhesivebeerbrandycorecheeseclaretclothcoalcoffeecognaccokecottoncurrydeodorantdetergentdisinfectantdyefabricfertilizerfuelfurginglueinkinsecticideironjamjellyjuicelagerliqueurlotionmeatmedicinemetalmilkoilointmentorepaintperfumepesticideplasticpoisonpreservativeribbonsaladsaucesherrysoapsoilsoupsteelsugarteavodkawhiskywinewoodwoolyamyoghurtnounsthatareuncountandcount1.33Therearealsosomeothernounsthatcanbeuncountnounswhentheyrefertoathingingeneral,andcountnounswhentheyrefertoaparticularinstanceofit.Somenounsarecommonlybothuncountnounsandcountnouns.Forexample,"victory"referstotheideaofwinningingeneralbut"avictory"referstoaparticularoccasionwhensomeonewins.Justaswegainedfameinvictorywelostnothingindefeat.Sheisstillwaitingandyearningforherfirstvictory.Manyparentswerealarmedtofindthemselvesinopenconflictwiththechurch.Russiahadbeensuccessfulinpreviousconflicts.Someuncountnounsarerarelyornevercountsnouns:thatis,theydonotoccurinaplural385 form,orwithanumber....acollectionoffinefurniture.WefoundAlanweepingwithreliefandjoy.Hesavedmoneybyrefusingtohaveatelephone.uncountnounsendingin"-s"1.34Somenounswhichendin"-s"andlookasiftheyarepluralareinfactuncountnouns.Thismeansthatwhentheyarethesubjectofaverb,theverbisinthesingular.Thesenounsrefermainlytosubjectsofstudy,activitiesgamesanddiseases.Physicsisfun.Politicsplaysalargepaninvillagelife.Economicsistheoldestofthesocialsciences.Billiardswasgraduallyreplacedbybridge.Measlesisinmostcasesarelativelyharmlessdisease.Herearethreelistsofuncountnounsendingin"-s".Thesenounsrefertosubjectsofstudyandactivities:acousticsaerobicsaerodynamicsaeronauticsathleticsclassicseconomicselectronicsgeneticslinguisticslogisticsmathematicsmechanicsobstetricsphysicspoliticsstatisticsthermodynamicsNotethatsomeofthesenounsareoccasionallyusedaspluralnouns,especiallywhenyouaretalkingaboutaparticularperson"sworkoractivities.Hispoliticsareclearlyright-wing.Thesenounsrefertogames:billiardsbowlscardsdartsdraughtsskittlestiddlywinksThesenounsrefertodiseases:diabetesmeaslesmumpsrabiesricketsshinglesWhenthereisonlyoneofsomething:singularnouns1.35Therearecertainthingsintheworldthatareunique.Thereareotherthingswhichyoualmostalwayswanttotalkaboutoneatatime.Thismeansthattherearesomenouns,ormoreoftensomemeaningsofnouns,forwhichonlyasingularformisused.Whenanounisusedwithsuchameaning,itiscalledasingularnoun.Singularnounsarealwaysusedwithadeterminer,becausetheybehavelikethesingularformofacountnoun.noun-verbagreement1.36Whenyouuseasingularnounasthesubjectofaverb,youuseasingularformoftheverb.Thesunwasshining.Theatmosphereisveryrelaxed.thingsthatareunique1.37Somesingularnounsrefertoonespecificthingandthereforeareusedwith"the".Someofthesenouns,infact,refertosomethingofwhichthereisonlyoneintheworld.Therewerehugecracksintheground.Themoonhadnotyetreachedmywindow.Burningtanksthrewgreatspiralsofsmokeintotheair.He"salwaysthinkingaboutthepastandworryingaboutthefuture.usingthecontext1.38Othersingularnounscanbeusedtorefertoonethingonlywhenitisobviousfromwhatthecontextyouarereferringto.Forexample,ifyouareinLeedsandsay"Iworkattheuniversity",youwillalmostcertainlymeanLeedsUniversity.However,inthefollowingexampleswecannotbesureexactlywhoorwhatthesingularnounrefersto,becausewedonothaveenoughcontext.InmanycountriesthemarketissmallnumericallyTheircompanylooksgoodonlybecausethecompetitionlooksbad.You"veallmissedthepoint.Unlesswearetoldwhichgoodsorproductsarebeingtalkedabout,wecannotbesurewhichgroupofpotentialbuyers"themarket"refersto.Similarlywedonotknowexactlywhichcompanyorgroupofcompanies"thecompetition"referstointhelastexample,thespeakeror385 writerispresumablygoingtotelluswhatheorshethinks"thepoint"is.usedwithdelexicalverbs1.39Therearesomeactivitieswhichyoudonotusuallydomorethanonceatatime.Thenounsthatrefertothemareusuallytheobjectofaverb,andareusedwiththedeterminer"a".Inthisstructuretheverbhasverylittlemeaningandthenouncarriesmostofthemeaningofthewholestructure.Theverbsinsuchstructuresarecalleddelexicalverbs.Formoreinformationaboutthese,seeparagraphs3.33to3.46.Iwentandhadawash.Brunogaveitatry.Somesingularnounsareusedsoregularlywithaparticularverbthattheynavebecomefixedphrasesandareidiomatic.I"dlikeverymuchforyoutohaveavoiceinthedecision.Isn"tittimewemadeamove?singularnounstructures1.40Therearetwospecialkindsofstructureinwhichasingularnounisused.Asingularnounissometimesusedwiththedeterminer"a"asthecomplementofaclause.Seeparagraphs3.127to3.182formoreinformationaboutcomplements.Decision-makingisanart.Thequickestwaywasbyusingthecar.Itwasariskbuthedecidedithadtobetaken.TheywerebeginningtofindGriffiths"visitsratherastrain.Asingularnounissometimesusedwiththedeterminer"the",followedbyaprepositionalphrasebeginningwith"of".Cultivatetheartofreadingupsidedown.Olddiesellocomotiveswillbereplacedbyneweronestoreducetheriskofbreakdown.Hecollapsedunderthestrainofaheavyworkload.Thisgroupincludesnounsusedmetaphorically;seeparagraph1.65formoredetails.Somesingularnounsarealwaysusedtorefertooneparticularqualityorthing,butarerarefyusedalone;thatis,theyneedtobespecifiedinsomewaybytheuseofsupportingmaterial.Theycanbeusedwithanumberofdifferentdeterminers.Therewasanoteofsatisfactioninhisvoice.Bessiecoveredthelastfiftyyardsatatremendouspace.Simonallowedhispacetoslacken.Shewassimplyincapableofbehavinginarationalandconsideredmanner....theirmannerofrearingtheiryoung.Nounswhicharerarelyusedalonewithoutsupportingmaterialarediscussedindetailinparagraphs1.60to1.66usagenote1.41Somenounsareusedinthesingularwithaparticularmeaningonlyinanidiomaticphrase.Theyhavetheappearanceofsingularnouns,buttheyarenotusedasfreelyassingularnouns.Whathappensdownthereisnoneofmybusiness.It"sapityIcan"tgettohim.Referringtomorethanonething:pluralnouns1.42Therearesomethingswhicharethoughtofasbeingpluralratherthansingular,sosomenounshaveonlyapluralform.Forexample,youcanbuy"goods",butnot"agood".Thesenounsarecalledpluralnouns.Othernounshaveonlyapluralformwhentheyareusedwithaparticularmeaning.Forexample,anofficialmeetingbetweenAmericanandRussianleadersisusuallyreferredtoas"talks"ratherthanas"atalk".Inthesemeanings,thesenounsarealsocalledpluralnouns.UnionleadersmetthecompanyforwagetalksonOctober9.Itisinadvisabletosellgoodsonasaleorreturnbasis.Takecareofyourclothes.Theweatherconditionswerethesame.Allproceedsaregoingtocharity.Employeescanhavemealsonthepremises.Notethatsomepluralnounsdonotendin"-s";forexample"clergy","police","poultry",and"vermin".noun-verbagreement1.43Whenyouuseapluralnounasthesubjectformoftheverb,youuseapluralformoftheverb.385 Expensesforattendingmeetingsaresometimesclaimed.Thefoundationswereshaking.Refreshmentswereonsaleinthecafe.Attemptsweremadewhereresourceswereavailable.usewithmodifiersandqualifiers1.44Youdonotusuallyusenumbersinfrontofthesenouns.Youcan,however,usesomegeneraldeterminerssuchas"some"or"many".Formoreinformationaboutthegeneraldeterminerswhichcanbeusedwithpluralnouns,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph1.208.Somepluralnounsusuallyhaveaspecificdeterminerinfrontofthem,becausetheyarespecific;someneverhaveadetermineratall,becausetheyareverygeneral;andsomearerarelyusedalonewithoutamodifierorqualifier,becausetheyneedsupportingmaterial.Thelistsinthefollowingtwoparagraphscontainsomecommonpluralnounswhicharefrequentlyusedinoneoftheseways.Manyofthemhaveothermeaningsinwhichtheyarecountnouns.withorwithoutdeterminers1.45Somepluralnounsaremostcommonlyusedwith"the".Thingsaremuchworsewhentherainscome.Theauthoritiesareconcernedthatthecocainemaybepartofaninternationaldrugracket.HeconsideredtakingMrsBurnstothepicturestosee"GonewiththeWind".Hereisalistofpluralnounsthataremostcommonlyusedwith"the":authoritiesfoundationsfruitsheavensmainsoddspicturesracesrainssightswaterswildsSomepluralnounsaremostcommonlyusedwithapossessivedeterminersuchas"my"or"his".Itoffendedherfeelings.MytravelsuptheDalmatiancoastbeganinDubrovnik.Thelastthingshewilldoisaddtohertroubles.Hereisalistofpluralnounsthataremostcommonlyusedwithapossessivedeterminer:activitiesattentionsfeelingslikesmovementsreactionstermstravelstroubleswantsSomepluralnounsaremostcommonlyusedwithoutadeterminer.Therewereoneortwocaseswherepeoplereturnedgoods.Thereisonlyoneapplicant,whichsimplifiesmatters.Severalofthemenwerecoveredinvermin.Hereisalistofpluralnounsthataremostcommonlyusedwithoutadeterminer:airsappearanceseventsexpensesfiguresgoodsmattersrefreshmentsrichessolidstalksverminSomepluralnounscanbeusedbothwithorwithoutdeterminers.Thecitywasdominatedbyclergy.Hehadsummonedtheclergy.Aluxuryhotelwastobeusedasheadquarters.GeneralBorisGronovarrivedathisheadquartersyesterday.Wedidn"twantittodampenspiritswhichwererequiredtoremainpositive.Jessicahasbeenkeepingupthespiritsofherfamilyandfriends.Hereisalistofpluralnounsthatcanbeusedwithorwithoutadeterminer:armsbasicsbrainsclergycostsdirectionsessentialsgreensgroundshandcuffsheadquartersinterestslooksmeansmoralspapersparticularspeoplepolicepoultrypremisesproceedsratesresourcesspecificsspiritssuppliestalksthankstrackstroopsvaluesothermodifiersandqualifiers1.46Somepluralnounsarerarelyusedalonewithoutamodifierorqualifier,becausetheyneedsupportingmaterial.Itdidwondersforone"sowngoodmanners....thehiddenpressuresofdirectgovernmentfunding.Navalforcesareexcludedfromthetalks.Hereisalistofpluralnounsthatarerarelyusedalonewithoutamodifierorqualifier:385 affairsclothesconditionsdefencesdemandsdetailseffectsforceshopeslinesmannersmaterialsmatterspressuresproportionsquartersrelationsremainssandsservicesthoughtswasteswayswordsworkswritingstypicalmeanings:clothesandtools1.47Twospecialgroupsofnounsareusuallypluralnounsreferringtoclothesandsomeotherthingsthatpeoplewear,andnounsreferringtotoolsandsomeotherthingsthatpeopleuse.Thisisbecausesomeclothesandtools,suchas"trousers"and"scissors"aremadeupoftwosimilarparts.Sheworebrowntrousersandagreensweater.Hetookoffhisglasses....usingthepliersfromthetoolbox.Whenyouwanttorefertotheseitemsingeneral,ortoanunspecifiednumberofthem,youusethepluralformwithnodeterminer.Neverpokescissorsintoalightbulbsocket.Themanwaswatchingthetrainthroughbinoculars.Hereisalistofsomepluralnounswhichrefertoclothesandotherthingsthatpeoplewear:bermudasbracesbriefscordscorduroysculottesdungareesflannelsflaresgaloshesglassesjeansjodhpursknickerbockersknickersleggingsoverallspantiespantspyjamasshortsslacksspecsspectaclessunglassestightstrouserstrunksunderpantsHereisalistofpluralnounswhichrefertotoolsandotherthingsthatpeopleuse:binocularsclipperscompassesdividersfield-glassesnutcrackerspincerspliersscalesscissorssecateursshearstongstweezersWhenyouwanttorefertoasinglepieceofclothingorasingletool,youcanuse"some"or"apairof"infrontofthenoun.Youcanrefertomorethanoneitembyusinganumberoraquantifierwith"pairsor".Igotsomescissorsoutofthekitchendrawer.Iwassentouttobuyapairofscissors.Hewaswearingapairofoldgreytrousers.Lizahasthreepairsofjeans.Youcanalsouse"apairof"whenyouaretalkingaboutthingssuchasgloves,shoes,andsockswhichtypicallyoccurintwos....apairofnewgloves.Apossessivedeterminersuchas"my"canbeusedinsteadof"a"....hisfavouritepairofshoes.Whenyouuse"apairof"withanouninthepluralform,theverbissingularifitisinthesameclause.Iftheverbisinafollowingrelativeclause,itisusuallyplural.Itislikelythatanewpairofshoesbringsmorehappinesstoachildthananewcarbringstoagrown-up.Ialwayswearapairoflongpantsunderneath,orapairofpyjamasisjustasgood.Heputonapairofbrownshoes,whichwerewaitingthereforhim.Heworeapairofearphones,whichwerepluggedintoatape-recorder.Youuseapluralpronounafter"apairof".Shewenttothewardrobe,choseapairofshoes,putthemonandleanedbackinthechair.HebroughtoutapairofdarkglassesandhandedthemtoWalker.Referringtogroups:collectivenouns1.48ThereareanumberofnounsinEnglishwhichrefertoagroupofpeopleorthings.Thesenounsarecalledcollectivenouns.Theyhaveonlyoneform,butmanycollectivenounshaveothermeaningsinwhichtheyarecountnounswithtwoforms.singularorpluralverb1.49Whenyouuseacollectivenoun,youcanuseeitherasingularverb385 orapluralverbafterit.Youchooseasingularverbifyouthinkofthegroupasasingleunit,andapluralverbifyouthinkofthegroupasanumberofindividuals.Ourlittlegroupiscompleteagain.Asecondgrouparethoseparentswhofeelthattheyweretooharsh.Ourfamilyisn"tpooranymore.Myfamilyareperfectlynormal.Iliketoknowwhattheenemyisthinking.Theenemywerevisiblycracking.Hisargumentswereconfinedtobookswhichthepublicwasunlikelytoread.Thepublicweredeceivedbythenewspapers.Thenamesofmanyorganizationsarecollectivenouns,andcanbeusedwithasingularorapluralverb.TheBBCissendinghimtoTuscanyforthesummer.TheBBCareplanningtousethenewsatellitenextmonth.Englandwasleading18-0athalf-time.EnglandareseekingalternativesfortheirBream.Ifyouwanttoreferbacktoacollectivenoun,youchooseasingularpronounordeterminerifthepreviousverbissingular,andapluralpronounordeterminerifthepreviousverbisplural.Thegovernmenthassaiditwouldwishtodothisonlyiftherewasnoalternative.Thegovernmenthavemadeuptheirmindsthatthey"regoingtowin.USAGENOTE1.50Notethatthewords"bacteria","data",and"media"arenowoftenusedascollectivenouns,thatiswitheitherasingularorapluralverbandnochangeinform.Somecarefulspeakersthinktheyshouldonlybeusedwithapluralverbbecausetheyhavetheraresingularforms"bacterium","datum",and"medium"andarethereforecountnouns.MedievalArabicdatashowthatthelengthofthedayhasbeenincreasingmoreslowlythanexpected.Ourlatestdatashowsmorefirmsarehopingtoexpandinthenearfuture.WARNING1.51Althoughyoucanuseapluralverbafteracollectivenoun,thesenounsdonotbehavelikethepluralformsofcountnouns.Forexample,youcannotusenumbersinfrontofthem.Youcannotsay"Threeenemywerekilled".Youhavetosay"Threeoftheenemywerekilled".listofcollectivenouns1.52Hereisalistofcommoncollectivenouns:aristocracyarmyaudiencebacteriabroodcastcommitteecommunitycompanycouncilcrewdataenemyfamilyflockganggovernmentgroupherdjurymedianavynobilityoppositionpressproletariatpublicstaffteamSomecollectivenounsarealsopartitives.Forexample,youcantalkabout"aflockofsheep"and"aherdofcattle".Seeparagraph2.215formoreinformationaboutthese.Referringtopeopleandthingsbyname:propernouns1.53Whenyourefertoaparticularperson,youcanusetheirname.Namesareusuallycalledpropernouns.People"snamesarespelledwithacapitalletteranddonothaveadeterminerinfrontofthem....MichaelHall....Jenny....Smith.Waysofusingpeople"snameswhenyouarespeakingtothemdirectlyareexplainedinparagraph10.132.1.54Sometimesaperson"snamecanbeusedtorefertosomethingtheycreate.Youcanrefertoapainting,sculpture,orbookbyaparticularpersonbyusingtheperson"snamelikeacountnoun.Youstillspellitwithacapitalletter.InthosedaysyoucouldbuyaPicassofor£300.IwaslookingattheirPicassosandMatisses.I"mreadinganAgathaChristieatthemoment.Youcanrefertomusiccomposedorperformedbyaparticularpersonbyusingtheperson"snamelikeanuncountnoun.385 IremembereditwhilewewerelisteningtotheMozart....insteadofplayingChopinandStravinskyallthetime.relationshipnouns1.55Nounsthatrefertorelationshipsbetweenthepeopleinafamily,suchas"mother","dad","aunt","grandpa",and"son",canalsobeusedlikenamestoaddresspeopleorrefertothem.Theyarethenspelledwithacapitalletter.I"msureMumwillbepleased.titles1.56Wordswhichshowsomeone"ssocialstatusorjobarecalledtitles.Theyarespelledwithacapitalletter.Youuseatitleinfrontofaperson"sname,usuallytheirsurnameortheirfullname,whenyouaretalkingabouttheminafairlyformalwayorareshowingrespecttothem....DoctorBarker...LordCurzon...CaptainJackLangtry...MrsFord.Hereisalistofthemostcommontitleswhichareusedbeforenames:AdmiralArchbishopBaronBaronessBishopBrotherCaptainCardinalColonelConstableCorporalDameDoctorEmperorFatherGeneralGovernorInspectorJusticeKingLadyLieutenantLordMajorMissMrMrsMsNursePoliceConstablePopePresidentPrincePrincessPrivateProfessorQueenSaintSergeantSirSisterAfewtitles,suchas"King","Queen","Princess","Sir",and"Lady",canbefollowedjustbytheperson"sfirstname....QueenElizabeth....LadyDiana"sweddingdress.SirMichaelhasmadeitveryclearindeed.Waysofusingtitleswhenyouarespeakingtopeopledirectlyareexplainedinparagraphs10.131to10.134.titlesusedwithoutnames1.57Determiners,othermodifiers,andqualifiersaresometimesusedwithtitles,andtheperson"snameisomitted....HerMajestytheQueenandtheDukeofEdinburgh....theArchbishopofCanterbury....thePresidentoftheUnitedStates....theBishopofBirmingham.titlesusedascountnouns1.58Mostwordswhicharetitlescanalsobecountnounsusuallywithoutacapitalletter....lawyers,scholars,poets,presents,andsoon....aforeignprince.Maybehe"llbeaPrimeMinisteroneday.Otherpropernouns1.59Thenamesoforganizations,institutions,ships,magazines,books,plays,paintings,andotheruniquethingsarealsopropernounsandarespelledwithcapitalletters....BritishRail...BirminghamUniversity.Theyaresometimesusedwith"the"oranotherdeterminer....theUnitedNations...theLabourParty...theUniversityofBirmingham...theQueenMary...theGuardian...theWallStreetJournal.Thedeterminerisnotspelledwithacapitalletter,exceptinthenamesofbooks,plays,andpaintings....TheGrapesofWrath...AMidsummerNight"sDream.Sometimeexpressionsarepropernouns,andaredealtwithinChapter5.385 Nounswhicharerarelyusedalone1.60Therearesomenounswhicharerarelyusedalone,becausetheyneedsupportingmaterial.Theycannotbeusedwithoutamodifierorqualifier,becausethemeaningofthenounwouldnotbeclear.Someofthesenounshavemanymeanings,othershaveverylittlemeaningontheyown.Forexample,youcannotusuallyrefertosomeoneas"thehead"withoutsayingwhichorganizationtheyareheadof.Similarly,youcannotsaythattherewas"anote"someone"svoicewithoutdescribingitas,forexample,"atriumphantnote"or"anoteoftriumph".Thesenounscanbeusedontheirownonlyifitisobviousfromthecontextwhatismeant.Forexample,ifyouhavejustmentionedamountainandyousay"thetop",itisclearthatyoumeanthetopofthatmountain.usedwithmodifiers1.61Ifamodifierisaddedtooneofthesenouns,themodifierisusuallyanadjectiveoranothernoun....herwideexperienceofpoliticalaffairs.Ihaddetectedanapologeticnoteintheagentsvoice.HewasstrippedofhisSovietcitizenship.Checkthewaterlevel.Formoreinformationonmodifiers,seeChapter2.usedwithqualifiers1.62Ifthenounisfollowedbyaqualifier,thequalifierisusuallyaprepositionalphrasebeginningwith"of"....atthetopofthehill.Therehesawforhimselftheextentofthedanger.Eversincetheriseofindustrialism,educationhasbeengearedtowardsproducingworkers....thishighlevelofinterest.Formoreinformationonqualifiers,seeparagraphs2.289to2.320.alwaysusedwithmodifiers1.63Somenounsarealwaysusedwithamodifier.Forexample,itispointlesstosaythatsomeoneis"aneater"becauseallpeopleeat,butyoumaywanttosaythatheorsheis"amealeater"or"amessyeater".Similarly,ifyouuse"range"torefertoaparticularsetofvalues,youhavetospecifywhichsetyoumeanbyreferringtoaparticular"pricerange"or"agerange".Ifyouuse"wear"tomean"clothing",youhavetosaywhatsortofclothing,forexample"sportswear"or"eveningwear".Timwasasloweater....theotherendoftheagerange.Thecompanyhasplanstoexpanditscasualwear.alwaysusedwithpossessives1.64Somenounsarealmostalwaysusedwithapossessive,thatisapossessivedeterminer,"s,oraprepositionalphrasebeginningwith"of",becauseyouhavetoindicatewhoorwhatthethingyouaretalkingaboutrelatestoorbelongsto.HehasbeenassociatedwithEverymanOperasinceitsinception.Advancewarningoftheapproachofenemiesmusthavebeenofthegreatestimportance....theportraitofamaninhisprime.metaphoricaluses1.65Nounswhicharebeingusedmetaphoricallyoftenhaveamodifierorqualifiertoindicatewhatisreallybeingreferredto....themazeofpolitics.Hehasbeenpreparedtosacrificethiscompanyonthealtarofhisownpoliticalambitions.Hehasworkedoutaschemeforaneconomiclifelinebypurchasingland.Lloyd"sofLondonistheheartoftheworld"sinsuranceindustry....thoseonthelowerrungsoftheprofessionalladder.listofnounsrarelyusedalone1.66Manynounshavesomemeaningswhichrequiresupportingmaterialandothermeaningswhichdonot.Forexample,mostnounscanbeusedmetaphorically.However,therearesomenounswhichverytypicallyneedsupportingmaterialinmostoralloftheirmeanings.Hereisalistofthesenouns:affairapproachareabackbandbasebottomboundaryedgeeditionelementendenterpriseepidemicexperienceextentlimitlinemattermovementnaturenoteperiodpointstagestatusstructurestuffstylesystemtexturetheory385 branchcasecentrecircumstancescitizenshipclassconditioncrisisculturedepthdevelopmentdiscoveryeaterfeelingfieldformationfringegroundgrowthheadheightimpressioninceptionkindlengthlevelpositionpowerprimerangerateregimerelicrepertoireriserolescalesidesortthoughttimetonetoptransfertypeversionviewwavewaywearwingworldSharingthesamequality:adjectivesasheadwords1.67Whenyouwanttotalkaboutgroupsofpeoplewhosharethesamecharacteristicorquality,youoftenchooseanadjectiveratherthananounasaheadword.Youdothisbyusingtheappropriateadjectiveprecededby"the".Forexample,insteadofsaying"poorpeople",yousay"thepoor"....thehelpthat"sgiventotheblind.Noeffortismadetocaterfortheneedsoftheelderly....thetaskofrescuingtheinjured....menandwomenwhowouldjointhesadranksoftheunemployed.Workingwiththeyoungisstimulatingandfullofsurprises....providingcareforthesick,theaged,theworklessandthepoor.Notethatyouneveradd"-s"totheheadword,eventhoughitalwaysreferstomorethanoneperson.PRODUCTIVEFEATURE1.68Althoughsomeadjectivesarecommonlyusedinthisway,infactitispossibletousealmostanyadjectiveinthisway.ThisisaproductivefeatureofEnglish.Productivefeaturesareexplainedintheintroduction.noun-verbagreement1.69Whentheadjectivebeingusedasheadwordisthesubjectofaverb,youuseapluralformoftheverb.Therichhavebenefitedmuchmorethanthepoor.beingmorespecific1.70Inordertorefertoamorespecificgroupofpeople,youcanputasubmodifieroranotheradjectiveinfrontoftheheadword.Formoreinformationaboutsubmodifiers,seeparagraph2.145to2.173.Inthisanecdote,Rayshowshisaffectionfortheveryoldandtheveryyoung....thehighlyeducated...theurbanpoor.Ifyoumentiontwogroups,youcansometimesomit"the"....astudythatcomparedthedietsofrichandpoorinseveralnations....tohelpbreakdownthebarriersbetweenyoungandold.Withafewwordssuchas"unemployed"and"dead",youcansayhowmanypeopleyouarereferringtobyputtinganumberinfrontofthem.Thereare3millionunemployedinthiscountry.qualities1.71Whenyouwanttorefertothequalityofsomethingratherthantothethingitself,youcanusetheappropriateadjectivewith"the".Don"tyouthinkthatyou"rewantingtheimpossible?Heisstillexploringthelimitsofthepossible.Thispolicyisamixtureoftheoldandthenew.colours1.72Allcolouradjectivescanalsobeusedasheadwords....patchesofblue....brilliantpaintingsinredsandgreensandblues.Clothingofaparticularcolourcanbereferredlosimplybyusingthecolouradjective.Themenworegrey....thefatladyinblack.USAGENOTE1.73Nationalityadjectiveswhichendin"-ch","-sh","-se",or"-ss"canbeusedinasimilarway,unlessthereisaseparatenounforthepeople.Forexample,Frenchpeoplearereferredtoas"theFrench"butPolishpeoplearereferredtoas"thePoles".385 FormanyyearstheJapanesehavedominatedthemarketforChineseporcelain.BritonsarethebiggestconsumersofchocolateaftertheSwissandtheIrish.Nounsreferringtomalesorfemales1.74Englishnounsarenotmasculine,feminine,orneuterinthewaythatnounsinsomeotherlanguagesare.Forexample,mostnamesofjobs,suchas"teacher","doctor",and"writer",areusedforbothmenandwomen.Butsomenounsreferonlytomalesandothersonlytofemales.Forexample,somenounsindicatingpeople"sfamilyrelationships,suchas"father","brother",and"son",andsomenounsindicatingpeople"sjobs,suchas"waiter"and"policeman",canonlybeusedtorefertomales.Inthesameway"mother","sister","daughter","waitress","actress",and"sportswoman"canonlybeusedtorefertofemales."-ess"and"-woman"1.75Wordsthatrefertowomenoftenendin"-ess",forexample"actress","waitress",and"hostess".Anotherendingis"-woman",asin"policewoman"and"needlewoman"....hiswifeSusannah,aformerairstewardess.Apolicewomandraggedmeoutofthecrowd....MargaretDownes,whoisthisyear"schairwomanoftheexaminationcommittee."-man"and"-person"1.76Wordsendingin"-man"areeitherusedtoreferonlytomenortobothmenandwomen.Forexample,a"postman"isaman,but"spokesman"canbeamanorawoman.Somepeoplenowusewordsendingin"-person",suchas"chairperson"and"spokesperson",insteadofwordsendingin"-man",inordertoavoidappearingtoreferspecificallytoaman.USAGENOTE1.77Mostnamesofanimalsareusedtorefertobothmaleandfemaleanimals,forexample"cat","elephant","horse","monkey",and"sheep".Insomecasestherearedifferentwordsthatreferspecificallytomaleanimalsorfemaleanimals,forexampleamalehorseisa"stallion"andafemalehorseisa"mare".Inothercasesthegeneralnamefortheanimalisalsothespecificwordformalesorfemales:"dog"alsorefersmorespecificallytomaledogs,"duck"alsorefersmorespecificallytofemaleducks.Manyofthesespecificwordsarerarelyused,orusedmainlybypeoplewhohaveaspecialinterestinanimals,suchasfarmersorvets.Hereisalistofsomecommonspecificwordsformaleandfemaleanimals:stallionmare~bullcow~cockhen~dogbitch~drakeduck~foxvixen~gandergoose~lionlioness~ramewe~buckhindstagdoe~tigertigress~boarsowReferringtoactivitiesandprocesses:"-ing"nouns1.78Youoftenwanttorefertoanaction,activity,orprocessinageneralway.Whenyoudo,youcanuseanounwhichhasthesameformasthepresentparticipleofaverb.Thesenounsarecalleddifferentthingsindifferentgrammars:gerunds,verbalnouns,or"-ing"forms.Inthisgrammarwecallthem"-ing"nouns.Itissometimesdifficulttodistinguishan"-ing"nounfromapresentparticiple,anditisusuallynotnecessarytodoso.However,therearetimeswhenitisclearlyanoun,forexamplewhenitisthesubjectofaverb,theobjectofaverb,ortheobjectofapreposition.Singing"soneofmyinterests—Ibelongtoachoir.Theywereatschoolwhentheemphasiswasonteachingratherthanlearning.Hetoldhowhardthedaysofwalkinghadbeen,howhismuscleshadached.Thecomingofthetransistorcouldnothavebeenforeseen.Somepeoplehaveneveractuallydoneanycomputing.Thespellingof"-ing"formsisexplainedintheReferenceSection.Theuseof"-ing"adjectivesisexplainedinparagraphs2.67to2.80.uncountnouns1.79Because"-ing"nounsrefertoactivitiesinageneralway,theyareusuallyuncountnouns;thatis,theyhaveonlyoneform,cannotbeusedwithnumbers,anddonot385 usuallyhaveadeterminerinfrontofthem.Formoreinformationonuncountnouns,seeparagraphs1.24to1.34.1.80Youoftenusean"-ing"nounbecauseitistheonlynounformavailableto;certainverbs,suchas"eat","hear","go","come",and"bless".Whereasotherverbshaverelatednounsthatarenot"-ing"nouns:forexample"see"and"sight","arrive"and"arrival","depart"and"departure".Eating,unlikefighting,isapursuitinwhichbothsexesfreelyindulge....lossofhearinginoneear.Only6percentofchildrenreceiveanyfurthertrainingwhentheyleaveschool.usedwithadjectives1.81Ifyouwanttodescribetheactionexpressedbythenoun,youcanuseoneormoreadjectivesornounsinfrontofit.Thefightagainstrecklessdrivingisdirectedextremelyskilfully.Bettertrainingisoneofthebigchallengesofthe1930s.Hecalledforanationalcampaignagainstunder-agedrinking.1.82Asmallnumberof"-ing"nouns,mostofwhichrefertosportingorleisureactivities,aremuchmorecommonthantheirrelatedverbs.Insomecasesthereisatthemomentnoverb,althoughitisalwayspossibletoinventone.Forexample,youaremorelikelytosay"WewentcaravanningroundFrance"than"WecaravannedroundFrance".Hereisalistofthecommonestofthesenouns:anglingblackberryingboatingbowlingcanoeingcaravanningelectioneeringhang-glidingheliskiingmountaineeringparaglidingshopliftingsightseeingskateboardingsnorkellingsurfingweightliftingwindow-shoppingwindsurfingyachtingAlthoughthesewordsarenotalwaysassociatedwithaverb,mostofthemcanbeusedaspresentparticiples.Hefellfully-clothedintothelakewhileboatingwithagirt-friend.Ispenttheafternoonwindow-shoppingwithGrandma.countnouns1.83Some"-ing"nounswhicharerelatedtoverbsarecountnouns.Theygenerallyrefertotheresultofanactionorprocess,ortoanindividualinstanceofit.Sometimestheirmeaningisnotcloselyrelatedtothatoftheverb.Hereisalistofthecommonestofthesenouns:beginningbeingbuildingdrawingfeelingfindinghearingmeaningmeetingofferingpaintingsayingsettingshowingsittingsufferingturningwarningFormoreinformationoncountnouns,seeparagraphs1.16to1.23.Specifyingmoreexactly:compoundnouns1.84Asinglenounisoftennotsufficienttoreferclearlyandunambiguouslytoapersonorthing.Whenthisisthecase,acompoundnouncanbeused.Acompoundnounisafixedexpressionwhichismadeupofmorethanonewordandwhichfunctionsintheclauseasanoun.SomepeoplewriteoutanewaddressbookeveryJanuary.Howwouldoneactuallychooseasmallpersonalcomputer?Wheredidyouhidethecanopener?...aprivateswimmingpool.Onceitisclearwhatyouarereferringto,itissometimespossibletousejustthesecondwordofatwo-wordcompoundnoun.Forexample,aftermentioning"aswimmingpool",youcanjustreferto"thepoor".Mostcompoundnounsconsistoftwowords,butsomeconsistofthreeormorewords....avaseoflilyofthevalley.useofhyphens1.85Somecompoundnounsarewrittenwithhyphensinsteadofspacesbetweenthewords.TheonlyexperienceI"vegotofforeignlanguagesispen-friends.Can"tyoufindababy-sitterandcomeoverfordinner?Judy"sbrother-in-lawlivedwithhisfamily.Somearewrittenwitheitherahyphenoraspacebetweenthewords.Forexample,both"air-conditioner"and"airconditioner"arewidelyused.Afewcompoundnounswhichconsistofmorethantwowordsarewrittenpartlywithhyphens385 andpartlywithspaces,forexample"back-seatdriver"and"bring-and-buysale"....childrenfromone-parentfamilies.AnotherrouteisbyactiveparticipationinaParent-TeacherAssociation.listsofcompoundnouns1.86Compoundnounsmaybecountable,uncountable,singular,orplural.Hereisalistofsomecommoncountablecompoundnouns:addressbookairconditionerairraidalarmclockassemblylinebaby-sitterback-seatdriverbankaccountbirdofpreybooktokenblooddonorbride-to-bebring-and-buysalebrother-in-lawburglaralarmbusstopcanopenercarparkcome-oncompactdisccomradeinarmscontactlenscover-upcreditcarddiningroomdrawingpindrivinglicenceestateagentfairytalefilmstarfireenginefork-lifttrickfryingpanguidedmissilehealthcentreheartattackhighschoolhumanbeingletter-boxlilyofthevalleylooker-onmusicalinstrumentnervousbreakdownnewsbulletinoldhandone-parentfamilypackageholidayParent-TeacherAssosiationparkingmeterpasser-bypen-friendpersonalcomputerpolarbearpolicestationpostofficerunner-upsleepingbagsumming-upswimmingpoolT-shirtteabagtelephonenumbertraveller"schequetea-tablewashingmachineX-rayyouthhostelzebracrossing1.87Hereisalistofsomecommonuncountablecompoundnouns:airconditioningair-trafficcontrolbarbedwirebirthcontrolbloodpressurebubblebathcapitalpunishmentcentralheatingchewinggumcommonsensecottonwooldataprocessingdo-it-yourselfdry-cleaningfamilyplanningfancydressfast-foodfirstaidfoodpoisoningfurthereducationgeneralknowledgehayfeverheartfailurehighereducationhirepurchaseincometaxjunkfoodlawandorderlostpropertymailordermake-upmineralwaternailvarnishnaturalhistoryoldagepocketmoneyremotecontrolsciencefictionshowbusinesssnowjumpingsignlanguagesocialsecuritysocialworksodawaterstainlesssteeltabletennistalcumpowdertoiletpaperturn-overtracingpaperunemploymentbenefitvalueaddedtaxwashingpowderwashing-upliquidwater-skiingwritingpaper1.88Hereisalistofsomecommonsingularcompoundnouns:ageofconsentarmsracebraindraincolourbarcostoflivingdeathpenaltydiplomaticcorpsdresscircledrying-upgeneralpublicgenerationgapgreenhouseeffecthumanracelabourforcelabourmarketlongjumpmother-tongueopenairpublicsectorrankandfilesolarsystemsoundbarrierspaceagewelfarestatewomen"smovement385 firebrigadeprivatesector1.89Hereisalistofsomecommonpluralcompoundnouns:armedforcesbakedbeanscivilrightscurrentaffairsFrenchfriesgrassrootshighheelshumanfightsindustrialrelationsinvertedcommaslicensinglawsluxurygoodsmodernlanguagesnaturalresourcesracerelationsroadworkssocialservicessocialstudiesswimmingtrunksvocalcordswintersportsyellowpagescompositionofcompoundnouns1.90Mostcompoundnounsconsistoftwonouns,oradjectiveandanoun.Ilistenedwithanticipationtotheradionewsbulletin....abigdiningroom.Shecameinandsatdownatthetea-table.Hewasstillafreshmaninthehighschool,althoughhewasnearlysixteen.Oldageissicknessonlyifonemakesitso.However,afewcompoundnounsarerelatedtophrasalverbs.Thereareoftenwrittenwithahyphen.ThePresidentwasdirectlyinvokedintheWatergatecover-up.Theregistryofficeisfamousforitsturn-overoffashionableweddings.Formoreinformationaboutphrasalverbs,seeparagraphs3.84to3.117USAGENOTE1.91Insomecases,themeaningofacompoundnounisnotobviousfromthewordsitconsistsof.Forexample,someone"s"mother-tongue"isnotthetongueoftheirmotherbutthelanguagetheylearnasachild,andan"oldhand"isnotahandwhichisoldbutapersonwhoisexperiencedatdoingaparticularjob.Inothercases,thecompoundnounconsistsofwordswhichdonotoccurontheirown,forexample"hanky-panky","hodge-podge",and"argy-bargy".Thesenounsareusuallyusedininformalconversationratherthanformalwriting.TherestofyourquestionIfindrhetoricalhocus-pocus.Sheisinvariablyuptosomesortofjiggery-pokery.pluralforms1.92Thepluralformsofcompoundnounsvaryaccordingtothetypeofwordsthattheyconsistof.Ifthefinalwordofacompoundnounisacountnoun,thepluralformofthecountnounisusedwhenthecompoundnounisplural.Airraidsweretakingplaceeverynight....healthcentres,banks,postoffices,andpolicestations.Shrillvoiceswouldbeheardthroughletter-boxes....therefusalofdockerstousefork-lifttrucks.Forfullinformationaboutthepluralformsofcountnouns,seetheReferenceSection.Compoundnounsthataredirectlyrelatedtophrasalverbsusuallyhaveapluralformendingin"-s".Nobodyseemsdisturbedaboutcover-upswhentheyareessentialtotheconductofawar.Naturally,Ithinkpeoplewhodrivesmarter,fastercarsthanmineareabunchoflow-gradeshow-offs.Afewcompoundnounsarelessdirectlyrelatedtophrasalverbs,andconsistofacountnounandanadverb.Inthesecases,thepluralformofthecountnounisusedbeforetheadverbwhenthecompoundnounisplural.Forexample,thepluralof"looker-on"is"lookers-on",andthepluralof"summing-up"is"summings-up".Hestoppedpassers-byandoffereditforsale.Compoundnounswhichconsistoftwonounslinkedbytheprepositions"of"or"in",oranounfollowedby"to-be",haveapluralforminwhichthefirstnouninthecompoundisplural.Ilikebirdsofpreyandhawksparticularly....brotherswhomIhadconsideredmycomradesinarms.Theveilplacesbrides-to-beatadistinctadvantage.Somecompoundnounshavebeenborrowedfromotherlanguages,mainlyFrenchandLatin,andthereforedonothavenormalEnglishpluralforms....aidedbyagentsprovocateurssentintoourmidst.385 ...whilethenouveauxrichesofyoungerstatesbuiltthemselvespalatialmansions.1.93Compoundnounsarefixedexpressions.However,nounscanalwaysbeusedinfrontofothernounsinordertorefertosomethinginamorespecificway.Fortheuseofnounsasmodifiers,seeparagraphs2.174to2.179.Referringtopeopleandthingswithoutnamingthem:pronouns1.94Whenweuselanguage,bothinspeechandwriting,weconstantlyrefertothingswehavealreadymentionedorareabouttomention.Wecandothisbyrepeatingthenoungroup,butunlessthereisaspecialreasontodosowearemorelikelytouseapronouninstead.Pronounsmakestatementslessrepetitivewhileshowinghowthesubjectsandobjectsofaclauseoraseriesofclausesareconnected.Johntookthebookandopenedit.Deborahrecognizedtheknifeashers.Shiltonwaspleasedwithhimself.Thisisaverybusyplace.However,ifyouhavementionedtwoormoredifferentthings,youusuallyhavetorepeatthenoungrouptomakeitclearwhichthingyouarenowtalkingabout.Leafletsandscrapsofpaperswerescatteredalloverthefloor.Istartedtopickuptheleaflets.Icouldseealorryandacar.Thelorrystopped.Forotherwaysoftalkingaboutthingsthathavealreadybeenmentioned,seecohesioninparagraphs9.2to9.40.typesofpronoun1.95Thereareseveraldifferenttypesofpronoun:•personalpronouns.Seeparagraphs1.96to1.109.•possessivepronouns.Seeparagraphs1.110to1.114.•reflexivepronouns.Seeparagraphs1.115to1.122.•demonstrativepronouns.Seeparagraphs1.123to1.126.•indefinitepronouns.Seeparagraphs1.127to1.140.•reciprocalpronouns.Seeparagraphs1.141to1.144.•relativepronouns.Seeparagraphs1.145to1.149.•interrogativepronouns.Seeparagraphs1.150to1.152.Thereareafewotherwordswhichcanbeusedaspronouns.Formoreinformationaboutthese,seeparagraphs1.153to1.160.Referringtopeopleandthings:personalpronouns1.96Youusepersonalpronounstorefertoyourself,thepeopleyouaretalkingto,orthepeopleorthingsyouaretalkingabout.Therearetwosetsofpersonalpronouns:subjectpronounsandobjectpronouns.subjectpronouns1.97Subjectpronounsareusedtorefertothesubjectofaclause.Hereisatableofsubjectpronouns:singularplural1stpersonIwe2ndpersonyou3rdpersonhesheitthey"I"1.98Yourefertoyourselfbyusingthepronoun"I"."I"isalwayswrittenwithacapitalletter.Idon"tknowwhattodo.IthinkImadethewrongdecision.MayIaskwhyStephen"shere?"you"1.99Yourefertothepersonorpeopleyouaretalkingtoas"you".Notethatthesamewordisusedforthesingularandtheplural.Youmayhavetowaitabit.Wouldyoucomeandhaveadrink?Howdidyougeton?"You"isalsoused,especiallyinspokenEnglishtorefertopeopleingeneralratherthantothepersonyouaretalkingorwritingto.Youcan"tpredictwhatthesethingsaregoingtodo.Yougetsomeoldpeoplewhoareverydifficult.385 Notethat"you"isalsoanobjectpronoun.Formoreinformationonthisseeparagraphs1.104to1.106."he"and"she"1.100Yourefertoamanoraboyas"he",andtoawomanoragirlas"she".Myfatherisfat—heweighsoverfifteenstone.BillyKnightwasaboxer,wasn"the?Marycamein.Shewasagood-lookingwoman."IsSuethere?"—"I"msorry,shedoesn"tworkherenow.""it"1.101Youuse"it"torefertoanythingwhichisnotmaleorfemale;forexample,anobject,place,ororganization,orsomethingabstract.I"vejustboughtMurdoch"snewbook.It"saverylongnovel."HaveyoubeentoLondon?""Yes,itwasverycrowded."HowmanypeoplesawtheBBCwhenitstartedbroadcastingin1937?Itisnotanideathathasmuchpublicsupport."If"isoftenusedtorefertoananimalwhenitsgenderisnotknowingornotconsideredtobeimportant.Somepeoplealsorefertobabiesinthisway.ThebearcameatPatrick;ithadthickfur.Ifthesharkisstillarounditwillnotescape.HowWinifredlovedthebaby!AndhowStephaniehatedit!Youalsouse"it"ingeneralstatements,forexampletorefertoasituation,thetime,thedate,ortheweather.Itisveryquiethere.Itishalfpastthree.ItisJanuary19th.Itisrainyandcold.Formoreinformationontheuseof"it"ingeneralstatements,seeparagraphs10.31to10.45.Notethat"it"isalsoanobjectpronoun.Formoreinformationonthis,seeparagraphs1.104to1.107."we"1.102Youuse"we"torefertoagroupofpeoplewhichincludesyourself.Thegroupcanbe:•youandthepersonorpeopleyouaretalkingto.Whereshallwemeet,Sally?•youandthepersonorpeopleyouaretalkingtoandoneormoreothersnotthereatthetime.Wearen"texactlygossips,youandIandWatson.•youandoneormoreotherpeople,butnotincludingthepersonorpeopleyouaretalkingto.Idothewashing;hedoesthecooking;wesharethewashing-up.•anygroupwhichyoufeelyourselftobepartof,suchasaschool,yourlocalcommunity,orevenmankindasawhole.Weareinfactamulticulturalsociety.Weallneedmoney."they"1.103Youuse"they"torefertoagroupofthings,ortoagroupofpeoplenotincludingyourselforthepersonorpeopleyouaretalkingto.Allthegirlsthinkhe"sgreat,don"tthey?Newspapersreachmeonthedayaftertheyarepublished.Wintersherevaryastheydoelsewhere."They"isalsooftenusedtorefertopeopleingeneral.Isn"tthatwhattheycalllove?"They"canalsorefertoagroupofpeoplewhoseidentitydoesnotneedtobestated.Forexample,inthesentence"They"vegivenJohnanotherpayrise"itisclearthat"they"referstoJohn"semployers."Don"tworry",IsaidtoMother,"theyaremovingtoyoufromthiswardsoon."objectpronouns1.104Objectpronounsrefertothesamesetsofpeopleorthingsasthecorrespondingsubjectpronouns.Hereisatableofobjectpronouns:singularplural1stpersonmeus2ndpersonyou3rdpersonhimherthem385 itpositioninclause1.105Objectpronounsareusedastheobjectofaclause.Thenursewashedmewithcoldwater.Helikesyou—hesaidso.Themanwentuptothecatandstartedstrokingit.Theycanbetheindirectobjectofaclause.Sendusacardsowe"llknowwhereyouare.Amangavehimacar.ThechildrenaskedSimonifhewouldgivethemsomemoney.Theycanalsobetheobjectofapreposition.Therewasahumorousarticlebymeonthefirstpage.Madeleine,Iwanttotalktoyouimmediately.Wewereallsittinginacafewithhim.1.106Objectpronounscanalsobeusedafterlinkverbs.Forexample,youcansay"Itwasme","It"sher".However,informalorwrittenEnglish,peoplesometimesuseasubjectpronounafteralinkverb.Forexample,"ItwasI","Itisshe".Formoreinformationonlinkverbs,seeparagraphs3.127to3.182.USAGENOTE1.107Although"it"isusedasbothasubjectpronounandanobjectpronountorefertosomethingthatisnotmaleorfemale,"she"and"her"areoftenusedtorefertoships,cars,andcountries.Whentherepairshadbeendoneshewasafineandbeautifulship.MrGerasimovhasahighregardforBritainandherroleinEurope.USAGENOTE1.108Sometimes,youmaynotwanttospecifywhetherapersonyouaretalkingaboutismaleorfemale.Onewayofdoingthisistouse"they"or"them".Thisuseisverycommonafterindefinitepronounssuchas"someone"or"anyone".Theseareexplainedinparagraphs1.127to1.140.Notethatthepluralformoftheverbisalwaysusedafter"they",evenwhenitreferstoonlyoneperson.Ifanyonewantstobeachildminder,theymustattendacourse.IfIthinksomeonemaytakeanoverdose,Iwillspendhourstalkingtothem.Anotherwayistouse"he"or"she"insteadof"they",and"him"or"her"insteadof"them".ThisisoftenusedinformalofwrittenEnglish."WouldayoungpersonbeabletogetajobinEurope?""Thatwoulddependonwhichcountryheorshewantedtogoto".Thestudentshouldfeelthattheessaybelongstohimorher.Somepeopleconsideritwrongtouse"they"and"them"torefertooneperson.Itis,however,clumsytorepeat"heorshe"and"himorher".Whenyouwanttomakeageneralstatementyoucanavoidthisproblembyusingapluralnouninsteadofasingularnoun.Forexample,insteadofstaying"Assoonasachildgoestoschoolheorsheistaughttoread",youcouldsay"Assoonaschildrengotoschooltheyaretaughttoread".Somepeopleuse"he"and"him"ingeneralstatementorafterindefinitepronouns,butmanypeopleobjecttothisusebecauseitsuggeststhatthepersonbeingreferredtoismate."one"asapersonalpronoun1.109"One"issometimesusedasasingularpersonalpronoun,butthisuseisconsideredformal.Thesameformisusedasboththesubjectpronounandtheobjectpronoun."One"isusedtomakestatementsaboutpeopleingeneralwhichalsoapplytoyourself.OnehastothinkofWepracticalsideofthings.GoingroundItaly,oneisstruckbythenumberofoperahousesthereare.Thisscenemakesonerealizehowdeeplythiscommunityhasbeenafflicted.Otherusesof"one"asapronounareexplainedinparagraphs1.157to1.160.Mentioningpossession:possessivepronouns1.110Whenyouaretalkingaboutpeopleorthings,youoftenwanttosayinwhatwaytheyareconnectedwitheachother.Thereareseveraldifferentwaysinwhichyoucandothis,butyoumostoftendoitbyusingapossessivepronountoindicatethatsomethingbelongstosomeoneorisassociatedwiththem.1.111Hereisatableshowingpossessivepronouns:singularplural1stpersonmineours385 2ndpersonyours3rdpersonhisherstheirsNotethat"its"cannotbeusedasapossessivepronoun.1.112Youusepossessivepronounswhenyouaretalkingaboutthesametypeofthingthathasjustbeenmentionedbutwanttoindicatethatitbelongstosomeoneelse.Forexample,inthesentence"Janeshowedthemherpassport,thenRichardshowedthemhis","his"referstoapassportandindicatesthatitbelongstoRichard.Possessivepronounsareoftenusedtocontrasttwothingsofthesametypewhichbelongtoorareassociatedwithdifferentpeople.Forexample"Sarah"shouseismuchbiggerthanours".HerparentswereinMalaya,andsoweremine.Hegrinnedatherandlaidhishandonhers.Isthatcoffeeyoursormine?Mymarkswerehigherthanhis.FredgambledhisprofitsawaywhileJuliaspenthersallondresses....thedifferencebetweenhisideasandours.Itwashisfault,nottheirs.1.113Possessivepronounscanbeusedinprepositionalphrasesbeginningwith"of"toqualifyanoungroup.Thisstructuresuggeststhatyouaretalkingaboutoneoragroupofthings.Forexample,ifyousay"afriendofmine"youaretalkingaboutoneofanumbersoffriendswhereasifyousay"myfriend"youaretalkingaboutonefriendinparticular.Hewasanoldfriendofmine.Astudentofyourshasjustbeentoseeme.DavidLodge?I"vejustreadanovelofhis.Itwashintedtohimbysomefriendsofhers.Theroomwasnotafavouriteoftheirs.1.114Forotherwaysofindicatingthatsomethingbelongstosomeoneorisassociatedwiththem,seeparagraphs2.180to2.192.Referringbacktothesubject:reflexivepronouns1.115Whenyouwanttoshowthattheobjectorindirectobjectofaverbisthesamepersonorthingasthesubjectoftheverb,youuseareflexivepronoun.Someverbsareveryfrequentlyusedwithreflexivepronouns.Forinformationaboutthese,seeparagraphs3.27to3.32.Hereisatableofreflexivepronouns:singularplural1stpersonmyselfourselves2ndpersonyourselfyourselves3rdpersonhimselfherselfitselfthemselvesWARNING1.116Unlikepersonalpronounsandpossessivepronouns,therearetwoformsofthereflexivepronounusedforthesecondperson.Youuse"yourself"whenyouaretalkingtooneperson.Youuse"yourselves"whenyouaretalkingtomorethanoneperson,orreferringtoagroupwhichincludesthepersonyouaretalkingto.usedasobject1.117Youcanuseareflexivepronountomakeitclearthattheobjectofaverbisthesamepersonorthingasthesubjectoftheverb,ortoemphasizethis.Forexample,"Johnkilledhimself"meansthatJohndidthekilling,andhewasalsothepersonwhowaskilled.Heforcedhimselftolieabsolutelystill.Shestretchedherselfoutflatonthesofa.I"msurehistoryrepeatsitself.Allofusshookhandsandintroducedourselves.Themenformedthemselvesintoalinefacingtheboys....thequestionsyouhadtoaskyourselves.Youcanalsousereflexivepronounstoindicateoremphasizethattheindirectobjectofaverbisthesamepersonorthingasthesubjectoftheverb.Forexample,inthesentence"Annpouredherselfadrink".Anndidthepouringandshewasalsothepersonwhothedrinkwasfor.385 Here"sthemoney,youcangoandbuyyourselfawatch.WARNING1.118Reflexivepronounsarenotusuallyusedwithactionsthatpeoplenormallydotothemselves,suchaswashing,dressing,orshaving.Soyoudonotusuallysay"Heshaveshimselfeverymorning".Youcan,however,sometimesusereflexivepronounswiththeseactionsforemphasis,ortoindicateasurprisingevent,suchasachildorinvaliddoingsomethingthattheywerenotpreviouslyabletodo.1.119Ifthesubjectofaclauseandtheobjectofaprepositionrefertothesamepersonandtheclausedoesnothaveadirectobject,youuseareflexivepronounafterthepreposition.Iwasthoroughlyashamedofmyself.Barbarastaredatherselfinthemirror.Wethinkofourselvesasmembersofthelocalcommunity.Theycan"tcookforthemselves.However,iftheclausedoeshaveadirectobject,youusuallyuseapersonalpronounafterthepreposition.Iwilltakeithomewithme.Theyputthebookbetweenthemonthekitchentable.Ishiveredanddrewtherugaroundme.MrsBixbywentout,slammingthedoorbehindher.Notethatiftheclausehasadirectobjectanditisnotobviousthatthesubjectoftheclauseandtheobjectoftheprepositionrefertothesameperson,youuseareflexivepronoun.Forexample,"TheManagingDirectorgavethebiggestpayrisetohimself".1.120Especiallyinspeech,peoplesometimesusereflexivepronounsratherthanpersonalpronounsastheobjectofapreposition,inordertoemphasizethem.MyfirstpupiltodayisaPolelikemyself....thefollowingconversationbetweenmyselfandafifteen-year-oldgirl.ThecirclespreadtoincludehimselfandFerdinand.PeoplelikeyourselfstillfindnewthingstosayaboutShakespeare.Thereisalwayssomeoneworseoffthanyourself.WiththeexceptionofafewAlgeriansandourselveseveryonespokeSpanish.1.121Youcanusereflexivepronounsinadditiontonounsorpersonalpronouns.Youusuallydothisinordertomakeitclearortoemphasizewhoorwhatyouarereferringto.Weourselveshavegottobuildourownstrength.Sallyherselfcameback.Youcanalsouseareflexivepronountocompareorcontrastonepersonofthingwithanother.Hisfriendlookedasmiserableashefelthimselfitfelthimself.ItisnotLiverpoolImiss,butEnglanditself.Thereflexivepronouncanfollowthenounorpronounthatitrelatesto.Sallyherselfcameback.ItishotinLondon:butImyselfcanworkbetterwhenit"shot.Thetownitselfwassosmallthatitdidn"thaveapriest.Thelaneranrightuptothewooditself.Itcanalsobeplacedattheendoftheclause.Iamnotaparticularlypunctualpersonmyself.You"llprobablyunderstandbetterwhenyouareagrandparentsyourself.ItisrareforGovernmentstotaketheinvitationthemselves.1.122Youcanuseareflexivepronountoemphasizethatsomeonedidsomethingwithoutanyhelporinterferencefromanyoneelse.Inthisuse,thereflexivepronounisnormallyplacedattheendoftheclause.Shehadprintedthecardherself.I"lltakeitdowntothepolicestationmyself.Didyoumaketheseyourself?Referringtoaparticularpersonorthing:demonstrativepronouns1.123When"this","that","these",and"those"areusedaspronouns,theyarecalleddemonstrativepronouns.Theycanbeusedasthesubjectortheobjectofaclause,ortheobjectofapreposition.Demonstrativepronounsarerarelyusedastheindirectobjectofaclause,becausetheindirectobjectisusuallyapersonanddemonstrativepronounsnormallyrefertothings.385 "this"and"that"1.124"This"and"that"areusuallyusedaspronounsonlywhentheyrefertothings.Youusetheminsteadofasingularcountnounoranuncountnoun.Thisisalistoftherules.ThisisthefirsttrulyBritishfastfood.Thebiggestproblemwastheaccent.Thatwasdifficultforme.Thatlooksinteresting.1.125"This"and"that"canbeusedaspronounstorefertoapersonwhenyouareidentifyingsomeoneoraskingwhotheyare.Who"sthis?Hepausedataphotographwhichstoodonthedressingtable."Isthisyourwife?"WasthatPatrickonthephone?Whenyouareintroducingpeople,youcansay"ThisisMary"or"ThisisMrandMrsBaker".Notethatyouuse"this"evenwhenyouareintroducingmorethanoneperson."these"and"those"1.126"These"and"those"canbeusedaspronounsinsteadofapluralcountnoun.Theyaremostoftenusedtorefertothings,althoughtheycanbeusedtorefertopeople."Ibroughtyouthese."Adamheldoutabagofgrapes.VitamintabletsusuallycontainvitaminsA,C,andD.Theseareavailablefromanychildhealthclinic.Thesearenoordinarystudents.Itmaybeimpossibleforthemtopayessentialbills,suchasthoseforheating.Thoseareeasyquestionstoanswer.Thereareagreatnumberofpeoplewhoareseekingemployment,andagreatnumberofthosearemarriedwomen."This","that","these",and"those"canalsobespecificdeterminers.Formoreinformation,seeparagraphs1.182to1.191.SeealsocohesioninChapter9.Referringtopeopleandthingsinageneralway:indefinitepronouns1.127Whenyouwanttorefertopeopleorthingsbutyoudonotknowexactlywhoorwhattheyare,ortheiridentityisnotimportant,youcanuseanindefinitepronoun.Anindefinitepronounindicatesonlywhetheryouaretalkingaboutpeopleoraboutthings,ratherthanreferringtoaspecificpersonorthing.Iwasthereforoveranhourbeforeanybodycame.Jackwaswaitingforsomething.Hereisalistofindefinitepronouns:anybodyanyoneanythingeverybodyeveryoneeverythingnobodynoonenothingsomebodysomeonesomethingNotethatallindefinitepronounsarewrittenasonewordexcept"noone"whichcanalsobespelledwithahyphen:"no-one".1.128Youalwaysusesingularverbswithindefinitepronouns.Isanyonehere?Everybodyrecognizestheimportanceofeducation.Everythingwasready.Nothingiscertaininthisworld.1.129Youusetheindefinitepronounsendingin"-thing"torefertoobjects,ideas,situations,oractivities.CanIdoanything?Janesaidnothingforamoment.1.130Youusetheindefinitepronounsendingin"-one"and"-body"torefertopeople.IthadtobesomeonelikeDan.Whydoeseverybodybelieveinthelawofgravity?1.131Althoughyouusesingularverbswithindefinitepronouns,ifyouwanttouseapronountoreferbacktoanindefinitepronoun,youusethepluralpronouns"they",them","their",or"themselves".Askanyone.They"lltellyou.There"snowayoftellingsomebodywhythey"vefailed.Everyoneputtheirpensdown.Noonelikedbeingyoungastheydonow.385 Everybody"senjoyingthemselves.Seeparagraph1.108formoreinformationabout"they"usedtorefertooneperson.1.132InmoreformalEnglish,somepeopleprefertouse"he","him"or"himself"toreferbacktoanindefinitepronoun,butmanypeopleobjecttothisusebecauseitsuggeststhatthepersonbeingreferredtoismale.Somebodyshoutedandothervoicesjoinedhim.Everybodyhashisdream.Everybodydetermineshisownrates.Forotherwaysofusingpronounswhenyoudonotwanttospecifywhetherthepersonyouaretalkingaboutismaleorfemale,seeparagraph1.108.1.133Youcanadd"s(apostrophes)toanindefinitepronountorefertothingsthatbelongtoorareassociatedwithpeople.Shewasgivenaroominsomeone"sstudio.Thatwasnobody"sbusiness.Iwoulddefendanyone"srights.Everythinghasbeenarrangedtoeverybody"ssatisfaction.WARNING1.134Youdonotusuallyadd"stoindefinitepronounsreferringtothings.So,forexample,youwouldbemorelikelytosay"thevalueofsomething"than"something"svalue".qualifiers1.135Whenyouwanttogivemoreinformationaboutthepersonorthingreferredtobyanindefinitepronoun,youcandosobyusingaqualifier,forexampleaprepositionalphraseorarelativeclause.Ichangedtheplanandmadethetalksopentoeveryoneovertwelve.Hewouldmuchratherhavesomebodywhohadabackgroundinthehumanities.Formoreinformationaboutqualifiers,seeparagraphs2.289to2.320.useofadjectives1.136Youcanalsouseadjectivestoaddinformation.Notethatadjectivesareplacedaftertheindefinitepronounratherthaninfrontofit,andthatyoudonotuseadeterminer.Youdonotsay"animportantsomeone",yousay"someoneimportant".Whatwasneededwassomeonepractical.Theyaredoingeverythingpossibletotakecareofyou.Thereisnothingwrongwithbeingpopular.usedwith"else"1.137Ifyouhavealreadymentionedapersonorthingandyouwanttorefertoadifferentpersonorthing,oranadditionalone,youcanuse"else"afteranindefinitepronoun.Somebodyelsewillhavetogooutthere.Shecouldn"tthinkofanythingelse.Everyoneknowswhateveryoneelseisdoing.Heheldhisjobbecausenobodyelsewantedit.Notethatifyouwanttoindicateassociationorpossessionwithanindefinitepronounand"else",youaddthe"sto"else".Didyoutakethisphotographorwasitsomeoneelse"sphotograph?Noonehascontroloveranyoneelse"scareer.structuresusedwith"some-"and"every-"1.138Likeallnoungroups,indefinitepronounsareusedasthesubject,object,orredirectobjectofclauses.Theycanalsobeusedastheobjectsofprepositions.Theindefinitepronounsbeginningwith"some-"and"every-"aremostoftenusedinaffirmativeclauses.Everythingwentaccordingtoplan.Iremembersomebodyputtingapillowundermyhead."Nowyou"llseesomething,"hesaid.Igaveeveryoneageneroushelping.Iwanttointroduceyoutosomeonewhoishelpingme.HaveyouseenFrank?Iseverythingallright?Theyaresometimesusedasthesubjectofanegativeclause.Hecouldtellthatsomethingwasn"tright.Everyonehadn"tarrivedyet.Notethattheindefinitepronounsbeginningwith"some-"cannotbeusedastheobjectofanegativeclause,unlesstheyarefollowedbyaqualifier,usuallyaprepositionalphraseorarelativeclause.Hewasn"tsomeoneIadmiredasawriter.Iwouldn"tforgetsomethingthatIfinishedreadingonlyhalfanhourago.385 1.139Indefinitepronounsbeginningwith"any-"canbeusedastheobjectorindirectobjectofaquestionoranegativeclause.Icouldn"tkillanybody,DrMarlowe.Youstillhaven"ttoldmeanything.Takeagoodlookandtellmeifyouseeanythingdifferent.Ihaven"tgivenanyonetheirpresentsyet.Theyareoftenusedasthesubjectofbothnegativeandaffirmativequestions.Notethattheyarenotusedasthesubjectofanegativestatement.Thatis,youdonotsay"Anybodycan"tcomein".Doesanybodyagreewithme?Won"tanyonehelpme?Ifanythingunusualhappens,couldyoucanmeonthisnumber?Notethatwhenyouaremakinganaffirmativestatement,"anyone"and"anybody"areusedtorefertopeopleingeneralandnottoonlyoneperson.Anybodywhowantstocancomeinandbuyacarfromme.1.140Indefinitepronounsbeginningwith"no-"arealwaysusedwiththeaffirmativeformofaverb,andtheymaketheclausenegative.Formoreinformationonnegativestatements,seeparagraphs4.43to4.94.Nobodyleft,nobodywentaway.Therewasnothingyoucoulddo,nothingatall.Shewastoseenoone,tospeaktonobody,notevenherownchildren.Notethattheyaresometimesusedinquestions.Whenthisisthecase,theanswertothequestionisusuallyexpectedtobe"no"."IstherenothingIcando?""Notathing"."Istherenobodyelse?""NotthatIknowof".Showingthattwopeopledothesamething:reciprocalpronouns1.141Thereciprocalpronouns"eachother"and"oneanother"areusedtoindicatethatpeopledothesamething,feelthesameway,orhavethesamerelationship.Forexample,ifyourbrotherhatesyoursisterandyoursisterhatesyourbrother,youcansay"Mybrotherandsisterhateeachother"or"Theyhateoneanother".Reciprocalpronounsarenotusedasthesubjectofaclause.Youcanusethemastheobjectorindirectobjectofaverb.Wehelpeachotheralot.YouandIunderstandeachother.Ilistenedtothestagsansweringoneanotherfromhilltohill.Theysenteachothergiftsfromtimetotime.Youcanalsousethemastheobjectofapreposition.TerryandMarkwerejealousofeachother....twolightsmovingtowardsoneanother.Theydidn"tdaretolookatoneanother.Someverbsareverycommonlyusedwithreciprocalpronouns.Formoreinformationaboutthese,seeparagraphs3.69to3.73.1.142Notethatthereisverylittledifferencebetween"eachother"and"oneanother".Theycanbothbeusedtorefertotwoormorepeopleorthings,althoughsomepeopleprefertheuseof"eachother"whenthereareonlytwopeopleorthings,and"oneanother"whentherearemorethantwo."each"assubject1.143InformalwrittenEnglish,youcanalsouse"each"asthesubjectofaclauseand"theother"astheobjectofaclauseorpreposition.Soamoreformalwayofsaying"Theylookedateachother"is"Eachlookedattheother".Notethat"each"isalwaysfollowedbyasingularverb.Eachisinextricablyinthedebtoftheother.Eachappearstobeunwillingtolearnfromtheexperienceoftheothers."Each"canalsobeadeterminer.Formoreinformationaboutthis,seeparagraph1.228."s1.144Youcanadd"s(apostrophes)to"eachother","oneanother",and"theother"toformpossessives.Ihopethatyouallenjoyeachother"scompany.Apesspendagreatdealoftimegroomingoneanother"sfur.Themaleshelducksfightfiercely,eachtryingtoseizetheother"slongneckinitsbeak.385 Joiningclausestogether:relativepronouns1.145Whenasentenceconsistsofamainclausefollowedbyarelativeclauseintroducedby"who","whom","which",or"that",thesewordsareknownasrelativepronouns.Relativepronounsdotwothingsatthesametime.Likeotherpronouns,theyrefertosomebodyorsomethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned.Atthesametimetheyareconjunctions,becausetheyjoinclausestogether.Formoreinformationaboutconjunctions,seeChapter8.Formoreinformationaboutrelativeclauses,seeparagraphs8.83to8.116."who"and"whom"1.146"Who"and"whom"alwaysrefertopeople."Who"canbethesubjectofarelativeclause....mathematicianswhoareconcernedwithverydifficultproblems....amanwhoImetrecently.Inthepast,"whom"wasnormallyusedastheobjectofarelativeclause.Nowadays,"who"ismoreoftenused,althoughsomecarefulspeakerofEnglishthinkthatitismorecorrecttouse"whom".There"sawomanovertherewhoIcan"thelpnoticing.He"sthemanwhoIsawlastnight....twogirlswhomImetinEdinburgh."Who"issometimesusedastheobjectofaprepositionwhentheobjectisseparatedfromthepreposition.Somecarefulspeakersthinkthatitismorecorrecttouse"whom".That"sthemanwhoIgaveitto....thosewhomwecannottalkto."Whom"isalmostalwaysusedwhentheobjectcomesimmediatelyafterthepreposition....LordScarman,amanforwhomIhaveimmenserespect.1.147"Which"alwaysreferstothings.Itcanbeusedasthesubjectorobjectofarelativeclause,orastheobjectofapreposition....aregionwhichwasthreatenedbygrowingpoverty....twohorseswhichheowned....thehouseinwhichIwasborn.Notethat"which"cannotbeusedastheindirectobjectofaclause.1.148"That"canrefertoeitherpeopleorthings.Itcanbeusedasthesubjectortheobjectofarelativeclauseortheobjectofapreposition....thegamesthatpoliticiansplay.He"stheboythatsangthesololastnight.Itwasthefirstbedthatshehadeversleptin."That"cannotbeusedastheindirectobjectofaclause.1.149"Whose"showswhoorwhatsomethingbelongstoorisconnectedwith.Notethatitcannotbeusedbyitself,butmustcomeinfrontofanoun."Whose"isoftenincludedwithrelativepronouns,althoughitisinfactakindofpossessivedeterminer.Formoreinformationondeterminers,seeparagraphs1.161to1.235....thethousandswhoseliveshavebeendamaged.TherewasachaptherewhosenameI"veforgotten....predictionswhoseaccuracywillhavetobeconfirmed....sharks,whosebrainsareminute.Askingquestions:interrogativepronouns1.150Onewayofaskingquestionsisbyusinganinterrogativepronoun.Theinterrogativepronounsare"who","whose","whom","what",and"which".Theycanbeusedasthesubjectorobjectofaclause,orastheobjectofapreposition."Whose"and"which"canalsobedeterminers.Otherwords,suchas"where","when","why",and"how",canalsobeusedtoaskquestions.Interrogativepronounsarenotusedastheindirectobjectofaclause.Whowasatthedoor?"There"sacaroutside.""Whoseisit?"Aduel,Pa?Whomdidhefight?Whatareyoudoing?Whichcamefirst,thechickenortheegg?Formoreinformationaboutstructuresinwhichinterrogativepronounsareused,seeparagraphs4.10to4.30385 1.151Interrogativepronounsrefertotheinformationyouareaskingfor."Who","whose",and"whom"areusedwhenyouthinkthattheanswertothequestionwillbeaperson."Helosthiswife.""Who?Terry?"Helookedatthecat."Whoseisit?Haveyoueverseenitbefore?""Towhom,ifImayask,areyouengagedtobemarried?""ToDanielOrton.""Which"and"what"areusedwhenyouthinkthattheanswertothequestionwillbesomethingotherthanaperson."Istherereallyadifference?Whichdoyouprefer?"Whatdidhewant?""Maurice"saddress."reportedquestions1.152Interrogativepronounsarealsousedtointroducereportedquestions.Iaskedherwhoshehadbeentalkingto.HewonderedwhatDaintrywoulddonow.Formoreinformationaboutreportedquestions,seeparagraphs7.29to7.35.Otherpronouns1.153Manyotherwordscanbepronouns,providedthatitisclearwhatisbeingtalkedabout,becauseitisthenunnecessarytorepeattheheadword.Forexample,mostgeneraldeterminerscanalsobepronouns.Formoreinformationaboutgeneraldeterminers,setparagraphs1.208to1.233.Hereisalistofgeneraldeterminerswhicharealsopronouns:allanotheranybotheacheitherenoughfewfewerlesslittlemanymoremostmuchneitherseveralsomeLikeallnoungroups,theycanbeusedasthesubject,directobject,orindirectobjectofaclause,ortheobjectofapreposition.Bothwereofferedjobsimmediately.Discussitwithyourfemalecolleagues,ifyouhaveany.Isawonegirlwhisperingtoanother.1.154Although"a","an","even",and"no"aregeneraldeterminers,theycannotstandaloneaspronouns.Toreferbacktoanoungroupwhichincludesthedeterminer"a"or"an",youcanusethepronoun"one".Similarly,youuse"each"toreferbacktoanoungroupwhichincludes"every"and"none"toreferbacktoanoungroupwhichincludes"no".Notethat"another"and"others"arepronouns,bat"other"cannotbeapronoun."all","both",and"each"foremphasis1.155"All","both",and"each"foremphasis,inasimilarwaytotheuseofreflexivepronounsdescribedinparagraphs1.120to1.122.Thebrothersallagreedthatsomethingmorewasneeded.Helovedthemboth.FordandDuncaneachhadtheirchances.Theycanalsocomeaftermainverbs,asauxiliaryverb,amodal,or"be",ratherthandirectlyafterthenounorpronoun.Theywerebothstillworkingattheiruniversities.Thelettershaveallbeensigned.Theolderchildrencanalldothesamethingstogether."Each"canalsocomeattheendoftheclause.Threeotherswerefined£200each.1.156Cardinalnumberscanalsobepronouns.Forexample,theanswertothequestion"Howmanychildrendoyouhave?"isusually"Three"ratherthan"Threechildren"."Howmanypeoplearethere?"—"Fortyfive."Oftheotherwomen,twoaredancers.Theyboughteightcompaniesandsoldofffive.Formoreinformationoncardinalnumbers,seeparagraphs2.230to2.248.1.157Thenumber"one"isaspecialcase.Likeothercardinalnumbers,itcanbeusedtorefertooneofagroupofthings."One"isalsousedtoreferbacktoanoungroupwiththedeterminer"a".CouldIhaveabiggerone,please?385 Itcanalsobeusedforemphasisafteranotherdeterminer.Therearesystemsofcommunicationrightthroughtheanimalworld;eachoneisdistinctive."One"canbeusedasapersonalpronoun.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph1.109.1.158Notethat"theone"and"theones"canbeusedtorefertoanounalone,ratherthantothewholeofthenoungroup.Theyarenearlyalwaysusedwithamodifiersuchasanadjective,oraqualifiersuchasaprepositionalphrase."Whichpoem?""Theonetheyweretalkingaboutyesterday."...theroadcomesupfromthesouthandmeetstheonefromLairg.Hegavethebestseatstotheoneswhoarrivedfirst.1.159Youuse"theother","theothers","others",or"another"torefertodifferentmembersofagroupofthingsorpeople.Somewritersaregreaterthanothers.Heisdeceived.Theotherscannotbearhisburdenforhim.1.160Ifyouwanttosaysomethingaboutamemberofagroupofpeopleorthingsyoucanuse"one".Youcanthenrefertotherestofthegroupas"theothers".Thebellsarecarefullyinstalledsothatdisconnectingonewillhavenoeffectontheothers.Theyhadthreelittledaughters,oneababy,theotherstwinsoftwelve.Youcanuse"theone"and"theother"torefertoeachofapairofthings.Thesamefactorspushwagesandpricesuptogether,theonereinforcingtheother.Ifyoudonotwishtospecifyexactlywhichofagroupyouaretalkingabout,youcanreferto"oneorother"ofthem.Itmaybethatoneorotherofthemhadfearsfortheirhealth.Identifyingwhatyouaretalkingabout:determiners1.161InEnglish,therearetwomainwaysinwhichyoucanuseanoungroup.Youcanuseittorefertosomeoneorsomething,knowingthatthepersonyouarespeakingtounderstandswhichpersonorthingyouaretalkingabout.Thiscanbecalledthespecificwayofreferringtosomeoneorsomething.Themanbegantoruntowardstheboy.Youngpeopledon"tliketheseoperas.Thankyouverymuchforyourcomments.GertrudewassittingonaseatneartheRosettaStone.Alternatively,youcanuseanoungrouptorefertosomeoneorsomethingofaparticulartype,withoutsayingwhichpersonorthingyoumean.Thiscanbecalledthegeneralwayofreferringtosomeoneorsomething.Therewasamaninthelift.Itstoodastallasanelephant.Anydoctorwouldsayshedidn"tknowwhatshewasdoing.Inordertodistinguishbetweenthesetwowaysofusinganoungroup,youuseaspecialclassofwordscalleddeterminers.Therearetwotypesofdeterminer,specificdeterminersandgeneraldeterminers.Youputthematthebeginningofanoungroup.Thespecificway:using"the"1.162"The"isthecommonestspecificdeterminer:itissometimescalledthedefinitearticle."This","that","these",and"those"areoftencalleddemonstrativesordemonstrativeadjectives.Formoreinformationonthese,seeparagraphs1.182to1.191."My","your","his","her","its","our"and"their"arepossessivedeterminers.Theyarealsosometimescalledpossessiveadjectivesorjustpossessives.Formoreinformationaboutthese,seeparagraphs1.192to1.207.Hereisthelistofspecificdeterminers:the~thisthatthesethose~myyourhisheritsourtheirNotethatinEnglishyoucannotusemorethanonespecificdeterminerbeforeanoun.1.163Because"the"isthecommonestspecificdeterminer,youcanput"the"infrontofanycommonnoun.Shedroppedthecanintothegrass.Thegirlswerenotinthehouse.Intheseexamples,theuseof"thecan"meansthatacanhasalreadybeenmentioned;"the385 grass"isprobablydefinitebecauseithasalreadybeenstatedthat"she"isoutside,andthepresenceofgrassmayalsohavebeenstatedorispresumed;"thegirls",like"thecan",musthavebeenmentionedbefore,and"thehouse"meanstheonewherethegirlswerestayingatthetime.pronouncing"the"1.164"The"alwayshasthesamespelling,butithasthreedifferentpronunciations:•/ðə/whenthefollowingwordbeginswithaconsonantsound....thedictionary...thefirstact...thebigbox.•/ðɪ/whenthefollowingwordbeginswithavowelsound....theexhibition...theeffect...theimpression.•/ðiː/whenitisemphasized.Youdon"tmeantheErnestHemingway?Seeparagraph1.179formoreinformationaboutemphaticusesof"the".1.165Youcanuseanoungroupconsistingjustof"the"andanounwhenyouarereferringtoaspecificpersonorthing,ortoaspecificgroupofpeopleorthings,andyouknowthatthepersonyouaretalkingorwritingtowillunderstandwhichperson,thing,orgroupyouarereferringto.TheexpeditionsailedoutintothePacific.Wearegoingtomissyouintheuniversity.Hestoppedthecarinfrontofthebakery.1.166Somenounsarenormallyusedwith"the"becausetheyrefertoonlyoneperson,thing,orgroup.Someofthesearespecificnamesorpropernouns,forexampletitlessuchas"thePope",uniquethingssuchas"theBastille",andplacenamessuchas"theAtlantic".TheShahhasbeendeposed.WewentoncamelridestothePyramids.Seeparagraphs1.53to1.59formoreinformationaboutpropernouns.Somearesingularnouns,thatistheyrefertosomethingofwhichthereisonlyoneintheworld,suchas"theground",or"themoon".Thesunbegantoturncrimson.InAprilandMaythewindblowssteadily.Seeparagraphs1.35to1.41formoreinformationaboutsingularnouns.1.167Othernounsareusedtorefertojustoneperson,thing,orgroupinaparticularplaceororganization,sothatifyouaretalkingaboutthatplaceororganizationortalkingtosomeoneinit,youcanusejust"the"andthenoun.Forexample,ifthereisonlyonestationinatown,thepeoplewholiveinthetownwilltalkabout"thestation".Similarly,peoplelivinginBritaintalktoeachotherabout"theeconomy"meaning"theBritisheconomy",andpeopleworkingforthesameorganizationmighttalkabout"theboss","theunion",or"thecanteen"withoutneedingtospecifytheorganization.MrsRobertsonheardthatthechurchhadbeenbombed.There"sawindcomingofftheriver.We"vehadtogetridofthedirector.Themayorisaforty-eight-year-oldformerlabourer.WhatisthePresidentdoingaboutallthis?1.168Anothergroupofnounswhichcanbeusedwithjust"the"arenounswhicharenormallycountnounsbutwhichareusedinthesingulartorefertosomethingmoregeneral.Forexample,youcanuse"thetheatre"or"thestage"torefertoallentertainmentperformedintheatres.Similarly,"thescreen"referstofilmsingeneraland"thelaw"referstothesystemoflawsinacountry.Forhim,thestagewasjustawayofearningaliving.Hewasasdashinginreallifeashewasonthescreen.Theydonothesitatetobreakthelaw.Somenounswhichnormallyrefertoanindividualthingorpersoncanbeusedinthesingularwith"the"torefergenerallytoasystemorserviceinaparticularplace.Forexample,youcanuse"thebus"torefertoabusserviceand"thephone"torefertoatelephonesystem.Howlongdoesittakeonthetrain?Werangfortheambulance.Nounsreferringtomusicalinstrumentscanbeusedinthesingularwith"the"whenyouaretalkingaboutsomeone"sabilitytoplayaparticularkindofinstrument.385 "Youplaytheoboe,Isee,"saidSimon.Geoffplaysthepianoforhours.formalgeneralizations1.169Nounsreferringtolivingthingscanbeusedinthesingularwith"the"whenyouaremakingastatementabouteverymemberofaspecies.Forexample,ifyousay"Theswifthaslong,narrowwings",youmeanthatallswiftshavelong,narrowwings.Theprimrosecangrowabundantlyonchalkbanks.AustraliaisthehomeoftheKangaroo.Similarly,anounreferringtoapartofthehumanbodycanbeusedwith"the"torefertothatpartofanyone"sbody.Thesearteriessupplytheheartwithblood.Itisirritatingwhenbreathedintothelungs."The"issometimesusedwithothernounsinthesingulartomakeastatementaboutallthemembersofagroup.Toooftenthesewritingsdwellonhowtoprotectthetherapistratherthanonhowtocurethepatient.Theseusesarefairlyformal.Theyarenotcommoninordinaryspeech.Usually,ifyouwanttomakeastatementaboutallthethingsofaparticularkind,youusethepluralformofanounwithoutadeterminer.Seeparagraph1.212formoreinformationaboutthis.USAGENOTE1.170Manycommontimeexpressionsconsistofjust"the"andanoun.Wewastedalotofmoneyinthepast.ThetrainleavesCardiffatfourintheafternoon....thechangeswhicharetakingplaceatthemoment.SeeChapter5formoreinformationabouttimeexpressions.referringback1.171Ineachoftheprecedingparagraphsshowingusesof"the"andanoun,itispossibletounderstandwhoorwhatisbeingreferredtobecausethenoongroupiscommonlyacceptedasreferringtooneparticularperson,tiling,orgroup.However,youcanuse"the"withanynoun,ifitisobviouswhoorwhatyouarereferringtofromwhathasalreadybeensaidorwritten.Forexample,ifyouhavealreadymentionedthatyouhaveseenamoose,youcansayafterwards"Wetriedtocatchthemouse".1.172Youcanalsouse"the"andanounwhenyouarereferringtosomeoneorsomethingcloselyconnectedwithsomethingyouhavejustmentioned.Forexample,youdonotusuallysay"Wetriedtogetintotheroom,butthedooroftheroomwaslocked".Yousay"Wetriedtogetintotheroom,butthedoorwaslocked",becauseitisobviouswhichdooryouarereferringto.Shestoppedandlitamatch.Thewindalmostblewouttheflame.1.173Althoughtherearemanysituationswhereyouusejust"the"andanoun,thereareotheroccasionswhenyouneedtoaddsomethingelsetothenooninordertomakeitclearwhichperson,thing,orgroupyouarereferringto.1.174Sometimesyoucanindicatewhoorwhatyouarereferringtobyputtingamodifierbetween"the"andthenoun.Thecommonesttypeofmodifiersareadjectives.Thisisthemainbedroom."Somebodyoughttohavedoneitlongago,"remarkedthefatman.Sometimesyouneedtousemorethanoneadjective.Afterthecrossroadslookoutforthelargewhitebuilding.Formoreinformationaboutmodifiers,seeChapter2.Formoreinformationaboutadjectives,seeparagraphs2.2to2.173.1.175Whenyouuseamodifierbetween"the"andanoun,youdonotalwaysdoitinordertomakeclearwhoorwhatisbeingreferredto.Therearetwootherreasonswhyyoumightuseamodifier.Firstly,ifyouhavealreadyreferredtosomeoneorsomethingusingamodifier,yousometimescontinuetousethemodifierwhenreferringtothemagain.Forexample,ifyoufirstrefertoacaras"ayellowcar",youmaycontinuetorefertoitas"theyellowcar",eventhoughnoothercarsareinvolvedinwhatareyousayingorwriting.Secondly,youmightwanttoaddfurtherinformationaboutsomeoneorsomethingthatyouhavealreadymentioned.Forexample,ifyoufirstrefertosomeoneas"awoman"inasentencesuchas"Awomancameintotheroom",youmightlaterwanttorefertoheras"theunfortunatewoman"or"thesmilingwoman".ThisisaverycommonuseinwrittenEnglish,especiallyinstories,butitisnotoftenusedinconversation.385 Theastonishedwaiterwasnowwatchingfromtheotherendoftheroom.Youdon"twanttogivethepoormanulcers.Thelossofpressurecausedthespeedingcartogointoaskid.1.176Anotherwayofindicatingwhoorwhatyouarereferringtoisbyaddingaqualifierafter"the"andanoun,forexampleaprepositionalphrase,arelativeclause,a"to"-infinitive,anadverbofplaceortime,oraphraseintroducedbyaparticiple.Soyoumightrefertoparticularpeopleatapartybyusingnoungroupssuchas"thegirlintheyellowdress","thewomanwhospilledherdrink",or"themansmokingacigar".Thereisdisorderamongthepapersonhisdesk.ThebookthatIrecommendnowcostsoverthreepounds.Thethingtoaimforisanofficeofyourown.Whomadethebedintheroomupstairs?Itdependsonthepersonbeinginterviewed.Formoreinformationaboutqualifiers,seeparagraphs2.289to2.320."the"withuncountnouns1.177Youdonotnormallyuse"the"withuncountnounsbecausetheyrefertosomethinginageneralway.However,"the"isrequirediftheuncountnounisfollowedbyaqualifierwhichrelatesittoaparticularperson,thing,orgroup.Forexample,youcannotsay"Iaminterestedineducationofyoungchildren".Youhavetosay"Iaminterestedintheeducationofyoungchildren".Babiesneedthecomfortoftheirmother"sarms.EventhehonestyofinspectorButlerwasindoubt.I"venoideaaboutthegeographyofScotland.Formoreinformationaboutuncountnouns,seeparagraphs1.24to1.34.superlatives1.178"The"isalsousedwithsuperlativeadjectives.EdithEvanswasthefinestactressofourtime.Theywenttothemostexpensiverestaurantintown.Seeparagraphs2.117to2.127formoreinformationaboutsuperlativeadjectives.emphasizing"the"1.179"The"isoftenusedinfrontofanountoindicatethatsomeoneorsomethingisthebestofitskind.Butyoumustcomewithus.It"stheclubtogoto.Youcanalsouse"the"infrontofaperson"snametoindicatethatyouarereferringtothemostfamouspersonwiththatname.YouactuallymettheGeorgeHarrison?Whenyouuse"the"ineitheroftheseways,youemphasizeitandpronounceit/ðiː/."the"withgeneraldeterminers1.180"The"canbeusedinfrontofsomegeneraldeterminers,usuallytogiveanindicationofamountorquantity.Thegeneraldeterminersfunctionasheadwordsinthenoungroupandcanbemodifiedorqualified.Thegeneraldeterminerswhichcanbeheadwordsare:fewlittlemanyother...pleasuresknownonlytothefew....acoupundertheleadershipoftheselectfew.Eventhefewwhoareforcedtoselloutgetcompensation.Wehavedonethelittlethatisinourpower.Youuse"the"with"other"torefertothesecondoftwothings,whenyouhavejustmentionedoneofthem.Themensatatoneendofthetableandthewomanattheother.Formoreinformationaboutgeneraldeterminers,seeparagraphs1.213to1.235."the"withnumbers1.181"The"canalsobeusedwiththe"one"and"ones",whichthenfunctionasheadwordsandareusuallymodifiedorqualified.I"mgoingtohavethegreenone.TheshopwasdifferentfromtheonesIremembered....apairofthoseoldglasses,theoneswiththosesquarelenses."The"canalsobeusedwithothernumbers.Itisamistaketoconfusethetwo.Whyisshesodifferentfromtheothertwo?Seeparagraphs2.225to2.256formoreinformationaboutnumbers.Thespecificway:using"this","that","these",and"those"1.182Youusethespecificdeterminers"this","that","these",and"those"torefertopeopleor385 thingsinadefiniteway.Youuse"this"and"these"totalkaboutpeopleandthingsthatareclosetoyouinplaceortime.Whenyoutalkaboutpeopleorthingsthataremoredistantinplaceortime,youuse"that"and"those".Youput"this"and"that"infrontofsingularnouns,uncountnouns,andthesingularpronoun"one".Youput"these"and"those"infrontofpluralnounsandthepluralpronoun"ones"."This","that","these",and"those"areoftencalleddemonstrativesordemonstrativeadjectives.1.183"This"and"these"areusedtotalkaboutpeopleorthingsthatareveryobviousinthesituationthatyouarein.Youuse"this"and"these"todistinguishthesepeopleorthingsfromothersofthesamekind.Forexample,ifyouareinsideahouse,youcanrefertoitas"thishouse".Ifyouareholdingsomekeysinyourhand,youcanrefertothemas"thesekeys".Ifyouareataparty,youcanrefertoitas"thisparty".Hehadaprivatepracticeinthisflat.Iamgoingtowalkupthesestepstowardsyou.I"llcomeassoonasthesemenhavefinishedtheirwork.Ilikethisuniversity.Goodevening.InthisprogrammewearegoingtolookatthewayinwhichBritishmusichasdevelopedinrecentyears.Whenitisclearwhoorwhatyouarereferringto,youcanuse"this"and"these"aspronouns.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraphs1.123to1.126.1.184"This"and"these"arealsousedinmanyexpressionswhichrefertocurrentperiodsoftime,forexample"thismonth","thisweek",and"thesedays".ThisuseisexplainedinChapter5.1.185Youuse"that"and"those"whenyouaretalkingaboutthingsorpeoplethatyoucanseebutthatarenotclosetoyou.Howmuchisitforthatbigbox?CanIhaveoneofthosebrochures?Canyoumovethosebooksoffthere?1.186Whenitisclearwhoorwhatyouarereferringto,youcanuse"that"and"those"aspronouns.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraphs1.123to1.126.Couldyoujustholdthat?Pleasedon"ttakethose.1.187Youcanindicatethatyouarereferringtothesamepersonorthingyouhavejustmentionedbyusing"this","that","these",or"those"infrontofanoun.Forexample,ifyouhavejustmentionedagirl,youcanrefertoheras"thisgirl"or"thatgirl"thesecondtimeyoumentionher.Normally,youuseapronountorefertosomeoneorsomethingyouhavejustmentioned,butsometimesyoucannotdothisbecauseitmightnotbeclearwhoorwhatthepronounrefersto.Studentsandstaffsuggestbooksforthelibrary,andnormallywe"requitehappytogetthosebooks.Theirhouseisinavalley.Thepeopleinthatvalleyspeakaboutthepeopleinthenextvalleyas"foreigners".Theyhadalotofdiamonds,andtheyaskedherifshecouldpossiblygetthesediamondstoBritain.Theuseofdemonstrativestoreferagaintosomethingwhichhasalreadybeenmentionedisfullyexplainedinparagraphs9.7to9.10.1.188IninformalEnglish,youcanalsouse"that"and"those"infrontofanountorefertopeopleorthingsthatarealreadyknowntothepersonyouarespeakingorwritingto.ThatidiotAntoniohasgoneandlockedourcabindoor.Theylearnedhowtoeatwiththosehorriblechopsticks.Doyourememberthatfunnylittleatticapartment?1.189Youcanuse"that"infrontofanounwhenyouarereferringtosomethingthatjusthappenedortosomethingthatyouhavejustbeeninvolvedwith.Iknewthatmeetingwouldbedifficult."That"isoftenusedasapronountorefertosomethingthathasjusthappened.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraphs1.123to1.126.using"those"insteadof"the"1.190InmoreformatEnglish,"those"canbeusedinsteadof"the"infrontofapluralnounwhenthepluralnounisfollowedbyarelativeclause.Inthisuse,therelativeclausespecifiesexactlywhichgroupofpeopleorthingsarebeingreferredto.385 ...thoseworkerswhoareemployedinlargeenterprises.Theparentsarenotafraidtobefirmaboutthosemattersthatseemimportanttothem.informaluseof"this"and"these"1.191IninformalspokenEnglish,peoplesometimesuse"this"and"these"infrontofnounsevenwhentheyarementioningsomeoneorsomethingforthefirsttime.Andthenthiswomancameuptomeandshesaid,"IbelieveyouhaveagoddaughtercalledCeliaRavenscroft."Atschoolwehadtoweartheseawfulwhitecottonhats.Thespecificway:usingpossessivedeterminers1.192Youoftenwanttoindicatethatathingbelongstosomeoneorthatitisconnectedinsomewaywithsomeone.Onewayofdoingthisistouseawordlike"my","your",and"their",whichtellsyouwhosomethingbelongsto.Thesewordsareatypeofdeterminercalledpossessivedeterminers.Areyourchildrenbilingual?Irememberhisnamenow.Theywouldbewelcometoourlibrary.I"dbeenwaitingalongtimetoparkmycar.1.193TherearesevenpossessivedeterminersinEnglish,andeachoneisassociatedwithaparticularpersonalpronoun:singularplural1stpersonmyour2ndpersonyour3rdpersonhisheritstheirPersonalpronounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.96to1.109.1.194Youdonotspellthepossessive"its"withanapostrophe."It"s"isshortfor"itis".1.195Possessivedeterminers,likeotherdeterminers,comeafterapredeterminer,ifthereisone,andbeforeanynumbers,oradjectives....allhisletters....theirnextmessage....mylittlefinger....ourtwolifeboats.Seeparagraph1.236formoreinformationaboutpredeterminers.1.196InEnglish,youdonotusemorethanonespecificdeterminerbeforeanoun.Therefore,possessivedeterminersmustbeusedontheirown.Youcannotsay"Itookoffthemyshoes".Youhavetochoosewhethertosay"Ilookoffmyshoes",or"Itookofftheshoes".1.197Youchoosewhichpossessivedeterminertouseaccordingtotheidentityofthepersonorthingthatownssomething.Forexample,ifyouwanttoidentifysomethingasbelongingorrelatingtoaparticularwomanyoualwaysuse"her".Thefollowingnoundoesnotaffectthechoice.Itookoffmyshoes.Herhusbandremainedstanding.Hehadhishandsinhispockets.Shehadtogiveupherjob.Thegrouphelditsfirstmeetingfastweek.Thecreaturelifteditshead....thetwodarkmen,glassesintheirhands,waitingsilently....thecarcompaniesandtheirworkers.1.198Whenyouwanttodrawattentiontothefactthatsomethingbelongsorrelatestoaparticularpersonorthing,youcanusetheword"own"afterthepossessivedeterminer.Ihelpedhimtosomemorewhiskybutleftmyownglassuntouched.Residentsareallowedtobringtheirownfurniturewiththemiftheywishtodoso.Makeyourowndecisions.Ihearditwithmyownears.Shefeltinchargeofherownaffairs.Ifyouuseanumberinthisstructure,youputthenumberafter"own"....theirownthreechildren...theDoctor"sowntworooms.385 1.199Youusepossessivedeterminersinfrontofnounswhichrefertoobjectsandthingswhichcanbeowned.Forexample,"ourhouse"referstothehousewhichbelongstous.Youcanalsousepossessivedeterminersinfrontofmanyothertypesofnoun.Thisisbecause,inspiteoftheirname,possessivedeterminersdonotalwaysindicatethatwhatfollowsthemisactuallypossessed(orowned)bysomeone.Theycanjustmeanthatitisconnectedorassociatedwiththeminsomeway.Theythenturnedtheirattentiontootherthings....thevitalityofourmusicandourculture.Insummer,hayfeverinterferedwithallheractivities.It"shisbrotherwhohastheworkshop.1.200Youcanuseapossessivedeterminerinfrontofanounwhichreferstoanactioninordertolocatewhoorwhatisdoingtheaction....longafterourarrival....hiscriticismoftheGovernment....theirfightforsurvival.I"mwaitingforyourexplanation.Mostoftheirclaimswereworthy.Inthelastexample,"theirclaims"referstotheclaimswhichtheyhavemade.1.201Youcanalsouseapossessivedeterminertoindicatewhoorwhatisaffectedbyanaction.HecongratulatedmeonmyappointmentaseditoroftheDispatch....theredistributionofwealth,ratherthanitscreation.Theyexpressedtheirhorroratherdismissal.Inthelastexample,"herdismissal"probablyreferstothefactthatshewasdismissedbysomeoneorbysomecompany.Inthefirstofthefollowingexamples,"hissupporters"meansthepeoplewhosupporthim....Birchandhissupporters.Shereturnedtheringtoitsowner....acampaignagainsthiscritics.USAGENOTE1.202SometimesinEnglishthedeterminer"the"isusedwherethereisanobviouspossessivemeaning.Inthesecasesthepossessionisalreadymadeclearbyaprecedingnounorpronoun.Thefollowingparagraphsexplainthesituationsinwhichyouuse"the"ratherthanapossessivedeterminer.1.203Whenyourefertoaspecificpartofsomeone"sbody,younormallyuseapossessivedeterminer.Shehassomethingonherfeetandabaginherhand.Nancysuddenlytookmyarm.Theycan"tturntheirheads.Shethankedhimshylyandpattedhisarm.Iopenedthecupboardandtheytellonmyhead.Heshookhishead.However,whenyouaredescribinganactionwhichsomeonedoestoapartofsomeoneelse"sbody,youoftenusethedefinitearticle,especiallywhenthebodypartistheobjectofaprepositionandwhentheobjectoftheverbisapronoun.Forexample,ifyousay"Shehitmeonthehead","head"istheobjectofthepreposition"on"and"me"istheobjectoftheverb"hit"....soIencouragedhimandIpattedhimonthehead.Shehithimsmartlyandswiftlyonthehead.Hetookherbythearmandbegandrawingherfirmlybutgentlyaway.Youusethedefinitearticlebecausethe"owner"ofthebodyparthasalreadybeenidentified,andyoudonotneedtorepeatthisinformation.Similarly,iftheobjectoftheverbisareflexivepronounsuchas"myself","yourself",andsoon,youusethedefinitearticle.Thisisbecausethereflexivepronounalreadyreferstoyouortothepersonwhoisdoingtheaction,soyoudonotneedtorepeatthisinformationbyusingapossessivedeterminer.Andrewlaughed,hittinghimselfontheknee.Wecanpatourselvesonthebackforbringingupourchildren.Usesofreflexivepronounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.115to1.122.1.204Ifyouwanttodescribesomethingthatyoudotoyourselforthatsomeoneelsedoestothemselves,younormallyuseapossessivedeterminer.385 Shewasbrushingherhair."I"mgoingtobrushmyteeth,"hesaid.Shegrittedherteethandcarriedon.Hewalkedintothekitchenandshookhishead.1.205Youusuallyusepossessivedeterminerswhenyourefertothingsthatarealive,suchasaperson,agroupofpeople,orananimal.Youdonotusuallyusethemtorefertothingsthatarenotalive.Itis,forexample,moreusualtosay"thedoor"or"thedooroftheroom"than"itsdoor".1.206Thereareotherwaysofindicatingthatsomethingisownedbyorconnectedwithsomeoneorsomethingelse.Forexample,youcanuse"s(apostrophes)oraprepositionalphrasebeginningwith"of".Mary"sdaughteriscalledElizabeth.Veryoftenthepersonappointedhasnoknowledgeofthatcompany"sendproduct....thehouseofarichbankerinParis.Intheopinionoftheteam,whatwouldtheyconsidertobeabsolutelynecessary?Formoreinformationabouttheuseof"sand"of",seeparagraphs2.180to2.192.1.207Possessivedeterminersarealsosometimesusedintitlessuchas"YourMajesty"and"HisExcellency".Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph1.57.Thegeneralway1.208Generaldeterminersareusedinnoungroupswhenyouaretalkingaboutpeopleorthingsinageneralorindefinitewaywithoutidentifyingthem.Hereisalistofgeneraldeterminers:aallananotheranybotheacheitherenougheveryfewlittlemanymoremostmuchneithernootherseveralsome"A",and"an"arethecommonestgeneraldeterminers;theyaresometimescalledtheindefinitearticle.Formoreinformationabout"a"and"an",seeparagraphs1.213to1.220.Formoreinformationabouttheothergeneraldeterminers,seeparagraphs1.221to1.235.withcountnouns1.209"A"and"an"areusedwithsingularcountnouns,andindicatethatyouaretalkingaboutjustoneofsomethingthatiscountable."Another"isusedwithsingularcountnounsand"other"withpluralcountnouns,butonlyafteroneormoreofthesametypeofpersonorthinghasbeenmentioned."Any"canbeusedwithsingularandpluralcountnounstotalkaboutoneormorepeopleorthings."Enough","few","many","more","most","several",and"some"areusedwithpluralcountnounstoindicatethatanumberofpeopleorthingsarebeingreferredto.Eachofthesedeterminersindicatesadifferentsetorgroupwithinthetotalnumber.Formoreinformationabouttheirmeanings,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph1.221."All","both","each","either",and"every"indicatethatyouaretalkingaboutthetotalnumberofpeopleorthingsinvolved."Both"and"either"specifythatonlytwopeopleorthingsareinvolved."Both"isusedwithapluralnoun,and"either"withasingularnoun."All","each",and"every"usuallyindicatethattherearemorethantwo."All"isusedwithpluralnouns,and"each"and"every"withasingularnoun."No"and"neither"alsorefertothetotalnumberofthingsinvolved,butinnegativestatements."No"isusedwithsingularorpluralnouns,and"neither"onlywithsingularnouns."No"and"neither"arenotdealtwithdetailhere,astheyarefullytreatedinthesectiononnegationinChapter4.Formoreinformationaboutcountnouns,seeparagraphs1.16to1.23.withuncountnouns1.210Fornounswhichareusuallyregardedasuncountable,"any","enough","little","more","most","much","other",and"some"areusedtoindicateaquantityofsomething."No"and"all"indicatethetotalquantityofit.Formoreinformationaboutuncountnouns,seeparagraphs1.24to1.34.WARNING1.211"A","an","another","both","each","either","every","few","many","neither","other",and"several"arenotusuallyusedwithuncountnouns.usingnounswithoutdeterminers1.212Whenyouarereferringtothingsorpeopleinanindefiniteway,youcansometimesuseanounwithoutadeterminer....raisingmoneyfromindustry,government,andtrusts.385 Permissionshouldbeaskedbeforevisitorsareinvited.Uncountnounsareusuallyusedwithoutadeterminer.Healthandeducationaremattersthatmostvotersfeelstronglyabout.Wealth,likepower,tendstocorrupt.Pluralnounsareusedwithoutadeterminerwhenyouarereferringtoallthepeopleorthingsofaparticularkind.Dogsneedaregularbalanceddiet,notjustameat.Arethereanyjobsthatmencandothatwomencan"t?Pluralnounscanalsobeusedwithoutadeterminertorefertoanunspecifiednumberofthings.Teachersshouldreadstoriestochildren.Catsanddogsgetfleas.Formoreinformationaboutpluralnouns,seeparagraphs1.42to1.47.Thegeneralway:using"a"and"an"1.213"A"and"an"arethecommonestgeneraldeterminers.Theyareusedtotalkaboutthingsorpeopleinanindefiniteway.Youput"a"or"an"infrontofthesingularformofacountnoun.We"vekilledapig.Hewaseatinganapple.Anoldladywascallingtohim.1.214Youuse"a"whenthefollowingwordbeginswithaconsonantsound....apiece...agoodteacher...alanguageclass.Thisincludessomewordsthatbeginwithavowelintheirwrittenform,becausethefirstsoundisa"y"sound,/j/....auniversity...aEuropeanlanguage.Youuse"an"whenthefollowingwordbeginswithavowelsound....anexample...anartexhibition...anearlytrain.Thisincludessomewordsthatbeginwiththeletter"h"intheirwrittenform,becausethe"h"isnotpronounced....anhonestpolitician...quarterofanhour."A"isusuallypronounced/ə/."An"isusuallypronounced/ə/.1.215Youusuallyuse"a"or"an"whenyouarementioningsomeoneorsomethingforthefirsttime.Shepickedupabook.Afterweeksoflooking,weeventuallyboughtahouse.AcolleagueandIgotsomemoneytodoresearchonrats.1.216Youcanuseanoungroupconsistingofjust"a"or"an"andanoun.IgotapostcardfromSusan.TheFBIisconductinganinvestigation.Atothertimes,youmaywanttoaddmodifiersorqualifierstothegrouptogivemoreinformationaboutthepersonorthingyouarereferringto.ImetaSwedishgirlonthetrainfromCopenhagen.I"vebeenreadinganinterestingarticleinTheEconomist.Theinformationwascontainedinanarticleonbiology.Ichoseapicturethatremindedmeofmyowncountry.Formoreinformationaboutmodifiersandqualifiers,seeChapter2.1.217Youcanalsouse"a"or"an"inanoungroupafteralinkverb,asthecomplementofaclause,togivemoreinformationaboutsomeoneorsomething.Sheisamodelandanartist.Hisfatherwasanalcoholic.Noisewasconsideredanuisance.Sometimesthenewinformationisgivenbyamodifieroraqualifier,ratherthanbythenounitself.Hisbrotherwasasensitivechild.Imetthevicar.Hewasaworriedman.Formoreinformationaboutlinkverbsandcomplements,seeChapter3."a"and"an"withuncountnouns1.218Althoughyoudonotnormallyusedeterminerswithuncountnouns,youcanuse"a"or"an"withanuncountnoonwhenitismodifiedorqualified.Ageneraleducationisperhapsmoreimportantthananexactknowledgeofsomeparticular385 theory.Shehadaneagernessforlife.Everythingwentonwithafriendlinessthatwasuncommoninsuchcircles.usingindividualstogeneralize1.219Youcanuse"a"or"an"withanounwhenyouareusingoneindividualpersonorthingtomakeageneralstatementaboutallpeopleorthingsofthattype.Forexample,ifyousay"Agunmustbekeptinasafeplace",youaretalkingaboutanindividualguninordertomakeageneralstatementaboutallguns.Acomputercanonlydowhatyouprogramittodo.Adoglikestoeatfarmoremeatthanahumanbeing.Anunemployedmarriedfarm-workergotparishrelief.Thisisnottheusualwayofreferringtogroups.Normally,ifyouwanttomakeastatementaboutallthepeopleorthingsofaparticularkind,youusethepluralformofanounwithoutadeterminer.Seeparagraph1.212formoreinformationaboutthis.nounsreferringtoonethingonly1.220"A"and"an"aresometimesusedwithsingularnounssuchas"sun","moon",and"sky"whichrefertojustonething.Younormallyuse"the"withthesenouns,butyouuse"a"or"an"whenyouaredrawingattentiontosomespecialfeaturebyaddingamodifierorqualifiertothenoun.Thisuseisparticularlycommoninliterature.Wedroveunderagloomysky.Aweaksunshinesonthepromenade.Formoreinformationonsingularnouns,seeparagraphs1.35to1.41.Thegeneralway:otherdeterminers"some"1.221"Some"isusuallyusedtoindicatethatthereisaquantityofsomethingorthatthereareanumberofthingsorpeople,withoutbeingprecise.Itisthereforeusedwithuncountnounsandpluralcountnouns."Some"isusuallyusedinaffirmativestatements.Thereissomeevidencethatthesystemworks.There"ssomechocolatecakeoverthere.lhadsomegoodideas.Somepeopleexpectrapideconomicdevelopment."Some"canbeusedinquestions,whenweexpecttheanswertobe"yes".Couldyougivemesomeexamples?Wouldyoulikesomecoffee?"Some"isalsousedtomeanquitealargeamountornumber.Forexample,in"Ididnotmeetheragainforsomeyears","some"meansalmostthesameas"several"or"many".Youwillbeunabletorestartthecarforsometime.IttooksomeyearsforDantorealizethetruth.1.222Youcanalsouse"some"infrontofnumbers,inslightlymoreliteraryEnglish,toshowthatyouarenotbeingtotallyaccurate.Iwassomefifteenmilesbyseafromthenearestvillage....ananimalweighingsomefivetons.1.223Whenyouwanttoemphasizethatyoudonotknowtheidentityofapersonorthing,oryouthinktheiridentityisnotimportant,youcanuse"some"withasingularcountnoun,insteadof"a"or"an".Moststaffmemberswillspendafewweeksinsomedevelopingcountry.Supposingyouhadsomeeccentricwhocameandofferedyouathousandpounds.1.224"Any"isusedbeforepluralnounsanduncountnounswhenyouarereferringtoaquantityofsomethingwhichmayormaynotexist.Thepatientsknowtheirrightslikeanyotherconsumers.Checkifyou"reinanydoubt.Youcanstopatanytimeyoulike."Any"isalsousedinquestionsaskingwhethersomethingexistsornot.Itisalsousedinnegativestatementstosaythatsomethingdoesnotexist.Doyouhaveanyadviceonthat?Arethereanyjobsthatmencandobutwomencan"t?Ithasn"tmadeanydifference.NobodyinherhouseknowsanyEnglish.BythetimeIgottoSainsbury"s,thereweren"tanytomatoesleft.QuestionsandnegativestatementsareexplainedfurtherinChapter4.385 Notethatyoucanuse"any"withsingularcountnounstotalkaboutsomeoneorsomethingofaparticulartype,whenyoudonotwanttomentionaspecificpersonorthing.Anybigtincontainerwilldo.CarscanberentedatalmostanyUSairport."Any"canalsobeusedasapronoun.Seeparagraphs1.94to1.160tomoreinformationaboutpronouns.Itisalsousedin"if"-clauses.Formoreinformationaboutthese,seeChapter8.1.225"Another"isusedwithsingularcountnounstotalkaboutanadditionalpersonorthingofthesametypeasyouhavealreadymentioned.Couldyouhaveanothercupofcoffee?Heopenedanothershoplastmonth.Itcanalsobeusedbeforenumberstotalkaboutmorethanoneadditionthing.Thewomanlivedforanotherfendays.Fiveofficialsweresackedandanotherfourarrested."Other"isusedwithpluralnouns,oroccasionallywithuncountnouns.Otherpeoplemusthavethoughtlikethis.Theyareeitherasleeporentiretyabsorbedinplayorotheractivity.selectingfromagroup1.226"Enough"isusedtosaythatthereisasmuchofsomethingasisneeded,orasmanythingsasareneeded.Youcanthereforeuse"enough"infrontofuncountnounsorpluralnouns.Ithadenoughroomtostoreantheinformation.Theyweren"tgettingenoughguests.Whenyouwanttoemphasizethatthereareonlyasmallnumberofthingsofaparticularkind,youuse"few"withapluralcountnoun.Therearefewdrugsthatactsufficientlyswiftlytobeofeffect.Therewerefewdoctorsavailable."Many"indicatesthattherearealargenumberofthings,withoutbeingveryprecise.Hespokemanydifferentlanguages.Itcanalsobeusedinnegativestatementsaboutquantity.Therearen"tmanygardenerslikehimleft."Most"indicatesnearlyallofagrouporamount.Mostpeoplerecoverbutthediseasecanbefatal.Mostfarmersarestillusingtheoldmethods."Several"usuallyindicatesanimprecisenumberthatisnotverylarge,butismorethantwo.Severalprojectshadtobepostponed.Ihadseenherseveraltimesbefore.Therewereseveralreasonsforthis."all","both",and"either"1.227"All"includeseverypersonofthingofaparticularkind.Youcannotsaythatallprisonersshouldbetreatedthesame."Both"isusedtosaysomethingabouttwopeopleorthingsofthesamekind.Thetwopeopleorthingshaveusuallybeenmentionedorareobviousfromthecontext."Both"issometimesusedtoemphasizethattwopeopleorthingsareinvolved,ratherthanjustone.Therewereexcellentperformancesfrombothaccesses.Denisheldhiscocoainbothhands."Either"isalsousedtotalkabouttwothings,butusuallyindicatesthatonlyoneofthetwoisinvolved.Whenitispartofthesubjectofaclause,theverbisinthesingular.Noargumentcouldmoveeitheroldgentlemanfromthisdecision.Notethat"either"canmeanbothoftwothings,especiallywhenitisusedwith"end"and"side".Theystoodoneithersideofthebed."each"and"every"1.228Youuse"each"and"every"whenyouaretalkingaboutallthemembersofagroupofpeopleorthings.Youuse"each"whenyouarethinkingaboutthemembersasindividuals,and"every"whenyouaremakingageneralstatementaboutallofthem."Each"and"every"followedbyasingularcountnoon.Eachseatwascoveredwithawhitelacecover.Theywouldrushouttomeeteachvisitor.Thisnewwealthcanbeseenineveryvillage.Everychildwouldhavemilkeveryday.Eachapplicanthasfivechoices.IagreewitheverywordPetersays.Youcanmodify"every"butnot"each".Youcansaythingssuchas"Almosteverychairis385 broken"or"Noteverychairisbroken"butyoucannotsay"Almosteachchairisbroken"or"Noteachchairisbroken".Thisbecause"each"isslightlymorepreciseanddefinitethan"every".Notethat"each"canbeusedwhentalkingabouttwopeopleorthings,but"every"isonlyusedfornumberslargerthantwo.1.229Ifyouwanttoemphasizethatthereisonlyasmallamountofsomething,youuse"little".Youuse"much"toemphasizealargeamount."Little"and"much"areusedwithuncountnouns.Therewaslittleapplause.We"vemadelittleprogress.Wehaveverylittleinformation.Doyouwatchmuchtelevision?"Much"isalsousedinnegativestatementsaswellasinaffirmativestatements,but"verymuch"isonlyusedinnegativestatements.Forexample,"ldon"thaveverymuchsugar"means"lhaveonlyasmallquantityofsugar".HedidnotspeakmuchEnglish.Ihaven"tgivenverymuchattentiontothisproblem.1.230Someotherwordscanbegeneraldeterminers,suchas"certain","numerous",and"various"."Certain"isusedtorefertosomemembersofagroup,withoutspecifyingwhichones.Wehavecertainideasaboutwhattopicsaresuitable."Numerous",like"many",indicatesalargenumberinanimpreciseway.Numerousattemptshavebeenmadetoobscurethisfact....aprivilegefromwhichnumerousauxiliarybenefitsflowed."Various"isusedtoemphasizethatyouarereferringtoseveraldifferentthingsorpeople.WelookedatschoolsinvariousEuropeancountries.1.231Therearethreecomparativesthataredeterminers."More"isusedinfrontofpluralanduncountnouns,usuallywith"than",torefertoaquantityoramountofsomethingthatisgreaterthananotherquantityoramount.HedoesmorenounsthanIdo.Hisvisitmightdomoreharmthangood.But"more"isalsooftenusedtorefertoanadditionalquantityofsomethingratherthanincomparisons.Moreofficerswillbebroughtinasandwhencircumstancesdictate.Weneedmoreinformation."Less"isusedtorefertoanamountofsomethingthatissmallerthananotheramount."Fewer"isusedtorefertoagroupofthingsthatissmallerthananothergroup."Less"isusuallyusedbeforeuncountnounsand"fewer"beforepluralnouns,butininformalEnglish"less"isalsousedbeforepluralnouns.Thepoornavelessaccesstoeducation....machinerywhichuseslessenergy.Asaresult,hefoundlesstimethanhewouldhavehopedforhishobbies.Therearefewertreeshere.Formoreinformationaboutcomparison,seeparagraphs2.108to2.144.otherexpressions1.232Someotherexpressionsalsobehavelikegeneraldeterminers:"afew","alittle","agoodmany","agreatmany".Thesehaveaslightlydifferentmeaningfromthesingleworddeterminers"few","little",and"many".Ifyouarementioningasmallnumberofthings,butwithoutanyemphasis,youcanuse"afew"withpluralcountnouns.TheywenttoLondonforafewdays.Afewyearsagowesetupafactory.Iusuallydoafewjobsforhiminthehouse.Similarly,ifyouarejustmentioningasmallamountofsomethingwithoutanyemphasis,youcanuse"alittle"withuncountnouns.Hespreadalittlehoneyonasliceofbread.InavetospendalittletimeinOxford.Charlesishavingalittlenovels.However,"agoodmany"and"agreatmany"aremoreemphaticformsof"many".Ihaven"tseenherforagoodmany.Hewroteagreatmanynovels.modifyingdeterminers1.233Somegeneraldeterminerscanbemodifiedby"very","too",and385 "far",orsometimesbyanothergeneraldeterminer.Youcanmodify"more"withnumbersorwithothergeneraldeterminers.Alittlefurtherouttoseawerethevastdorsalfinsoftwomoresharks.Therehadbeennomoreaccidents.Youwillneverhavetodoanymorework.Youcanuse"toomany"or"toomuch"tosaythataquantityismorethaniswantedorneeded,and"toofew"or"toolittle"ifitisnotenough.Thereweretoomanycompetitors.TheygavetoomuchpowertotheTreasury.There"stoolittleliteratureinvolved.Youcanuse"very"before"few","little","many",and"much".Youcanalsosay"averylittle"or"averygreatmany".Verymanywomenhavemadetheirmarkonindustry.Veryfewcarshadreversinglights.Ihadverylittlemoneyleft.using"one"1.234Youuse"one"asadeterminerwhenyouhavebeentalkingorwritingaboutagroupofpeopleorthingsandyouwanttosaysomethingaboutaparticularmemberofthegroup."One"isusedinsteadof"a"or"an"andisslightlymoreemphatic.Wehadonecasewhichdraggedonforacoupleofyears."Theycriticisemeallthetime,"wroteonedivorcedwoman.Iknowonehouseholdwherethathappened,actually.Theuseof"one"asanumberisexplainedinparagraphs2.230to2.232.1.235Manydeterminersarealsopronouns,thatistheycanbeusedwithoutafollowingnoun.Formoreinformationaboutthese,seeparagraphs1.153to1.160.1.236Normally,adetermineristhefirstwordinanoungroup.However,thereisaclassofwordscalledpredeterminerswhichcancomeinfrontofadeterminer.Hereisalistofpredeterminers:allbothdoublehalfmanyquartertwice~quiterathersuchwhatThefirstgroupareusedtoindicateamountsorquantities."All"canalsobeusedtorefertoeverypartofsomething.Whenusedwiththismeaningitisusedwithanuncountnoun.Alltheboysstartedtogiggle.Hewillgiveyoualltheinformation.Allthesepeoplekneweachother.Ishallmissallmyfriends.Iinvitedboththeboys.Boththesepartiessharedonebasicbelief.Shepaiddoublethesumtheyaskedfor.IseeadvertisementsforjobswithtwicethepayI"mgettingnow.Inthesecondgroup,"quite"and"rather"canbeusedeithertoemphasizeortoreducetheeffectofwhatisbeingsaid.Inspeech,themeaningismadeclearbyyourtoneofvoice.Inwriting,itissometimesdifficulttoknowwhichmeaningisintendedwithoutreadingmoreofthetext.Ittakesquitealongtimetogetadivorce.Itwasquiteashock.Seafordisratterapleasanttown.Itwasratheradisaster."Such"and"what"areusedforemphasis.Hehassuchabeautifulvoice.Whatamess!ContentsofChapter2page2.1Introduction612.2-173Describingthings:adjectives622.19-23Informationfocusing:adjectivestructures632.24-28Identifyingqualities:qualitativeadjectives632.29-33Identifyingtheclassthatsomethingbelongsto:classifyingadjectives64385 2.24-39Identifyingcolours:colouradjectives652.40-43Showingstrongfeelings:emphasizingadjectives662.44Makingthereferencemoreprecise:postdeterminers672.45-57Specialclassesofadjectives672.58-66Positionofadjectivesinnoungroups702.67-80Specialforms:"-ing"adjectives712.81-97Specialforms:"-ed"adjectives732.98-107Compoundadjectives752.108-116Comparingthings:comparatives772.117-127Comparingthings:superlatives792.128-144Otherwaysofcomparingthings:sayingthatthingsaresimilar802.145-161Indicatingdifferentamountsofaquality:submodifiers832.162-173Indicatingthedegreeofdifference:submodifiersincomparison862.174-179Modifyingusingnouns:nounmodifiers882.180-192Indicatingpossessionorassociation:possessivestructures892.185-187Indicatingcloseconnection:apostrophes("s)902.188-192Otherstructureswithapostrophes("s)902.193-224Talkingaboutquantitiesandamounts912.194-210Talkingaboutamountsofthings:quantifiers912.211-224Talkingaboutamountsofthings:partitives952.225-288Referringtoanexactnumberofthings:numbers972.230-248Referringtothenumberofthings:cardinalnumbers982.249-256Referringtothingsinasequence:ordinalnumbers1012.257-266Referringtoanexactpartofsomething:fractions1022.267-274Talkingaboutmeasurements1032.275-280Talkingaboutage1052.281-288Approximateamountsandmeasurements1062.289-320Expandingthenoungroup:qualifiers1072.292-307Nounswithprepositionalphrases1082.308-309Nounswithadjectives1112.310-320Nounswithnon-finiteclauses1112GivinginformationaboutpeopleandthingsIntroduction2.1Inthepreviouschaptertheuseofnouns,pronouns,anddeterminerstonameandidentifypeopleandthingswasexplained.Thischapterexplainswaysofgivingmoreinformationaboutthepeopleandthingsthathavealreadybeennamedoridentified.Onewayofgivingmoreinformationwithinanoungroupaboutpeopleorthingsisbytheuseofanadjective,suchas"small","political",or"blue".Adjectivescanbeusedasmodifiersofanounorascomplementsofalinkverb.Theyareexplainedinparagraphs2.2to2.173.Sometimesnounscanalsobeusedtomodifytheheadword.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs2.174to2.179.Possessivessuchas"grandmother"s"areusedtoindicatetherelationshipbetweenpeopleandthingsandtheheadword.Theycanalsobeusedtomodifyanounorascomplementsofalinkverb.Theyareexplainedinparagraphs2.180to2.192.Thereareothergroupsofwordswhichareusedbeforeanoungrouptogivemoreinformationaboutpeopleandthings.Theyarelinkedtothenoungroupby"of"inapartitivestructure.Thesewordsincludequantifiers,suchas"manyof"and"someof",andotherpartitivessuchas"apieceof"and"abottleof".Quantifiersareusedtoindicatetheamountofpeopleorthingsyouaretalkingabout.Theyareexplainedinparagraphs2.193to2.210.Otherpartitivesareusedtoindicateaparticularamountofpeopleorthings.Theyareexplainedinparagraphs2.211to2.224.Numbersandfractionsarealsousedtoindicatetheamountofpeopleorthingsyouaretalkingabout.Numbersareexplainedinparagraphs2.225to2.256andfractionsareexplainedinparagraphs2.257to2.266.Theotherwayofgivingmoreinformationwithinanoungroupaboutpeopleorthingsisbyusingaqualifierafterheadwordstoexpandtheirmeaning.Qualifiersareexplainedinparagraphs2.289to2.320.385 Describingthings:adjectives2.2Whenyouwanttogivemoreinformationaboutsomethingthanyoucangivebyusinganounalone,youcanuseanadjectivetoidentifyitordescribeitinmoredetail....anewidea....newideas....newcreativeideas.Ideasareimportant....tosuggestthatnewideasareuseful.mainpointsaboutadjectives2.3ThemostimportantthingstonoticeaboutanEnglishadjectiveare•whatstructureitisin(e.g.beforeanounorafteralinkverb)•whattypeofadjectiveitis(e.g.qualitativeorclassifying).WARNING2.4Theformofanadjectivedoesnotchange:youusethesameformforsingularandpluralandforsubjectandobject.Wewerelookingforagoodplacetocamp.Thenextgoodplacewasforty-fivemilesfurtheron.Goodplacestofishwerehardtofind.Wefoundhardlyanygoodplaces.structure2.5Adjectivesarenearlyalwaysusedinconnectionwithanounorpronountogiveinformationabouttheperson,thing,ofgroupreferredto.Whenthisinformationisnotthemainpurposeofastatement,adjectivesareplacedinfrontofanoun,asin"hotcoffee".Adjectiveswhichareusedinanoungrouparesaidtobeusedattributively.Theuseofadjectivesinanoungroupisexplainedinparagraphs2.19to2.20.2.6Sometimes,however,themainpurposeofastatementistogivetheinformationexpressedbyanadjective.Whenthishappens,adjectivesareplacedafteralinkverbsuchas"be"or"become",asin"Iamcold"and"Hebecameill".Adjectiveswhichareusedafteralinkverbaresaidtobeusedpredicatively.Theyarecalledthecomplementofthelinkverb.Thesubjectcanbeanynoungroup,includingpronouns.Theuseofadjectivesascomplementsofalinkverbisexplainedinparagraphs3.127to3.138.typesofadjective2.7Thereisalargegroupofadjectiveswhichidentifyqualitieswhichsomeoneorsomethinghas.Thisgroupincludeswordssuchas"happy"and"intelligent".Thesearecalledqualitativeadjectives.Qualitativeadjectivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.24to2.28.2.8Thereisanotherlargegroupofadjectiveswhichidentifysomeoneorsomethingasamemberofaclass.Thisgroupincludeswordssuchas"financial"and"intellectual".Thesearecalledclassifyingadjectives.Classifyingadjectivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.29to2.32.Someadjectivescanbebothqualitativeandclassifying.Theseareexplainedinparagraph2.33.2.9Thereisasmallgroupofadjectiveswhichidentifythecolourofsomething.Thisgroupincludeswordslike"blue"and"green".Theyarecalledcolouradjectives.Colouradjectivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.34to2.39.2.10Anothersmallgroupofadjectivesareusedtoemphasizeyourfeelingsaboutthepersonorthingyouaretalkingabout.Theseadjectivesarecalledemphasizingadjectives,andtheyincludeadjectivessuchas"complete","absolute",and"utter".Emphasizingadjectivesareexplainedinparagraph2.40to2.43.2.11Thereisasmallgroupofadjectiveswhichareusedinaverysimilarwaytodeterminers(seeparagraphs1.161to1.236)tomakethereferencemoreprecise.Thesearecalledpostdeterminersbecausetheirplaceinanoungroupisimmediatelyafterthedeterminer,ifthereisone,andbeforeanyotheradjectives.Postdeterminersareexplainedinparagraph2.44.2.12Mostadjectivescanbeusedinattributiveandpredicativestructures.However,therearesomewhichcanbeusedonlyinoneortheother.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs2.45to2.57.2.13Thereareasmallnumberofadjectivesthatcanbeusedafterthenounratherthanattributivelyorpredicatively.Theyareexplainedinparagraphs2.62to2.66.2.14Whentwoormoreadjectivesareusedinastructure,theyusuallyoccurinaparticularorder.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs2.58to2.61.2.15TherearealargenumberofEnglishadjectivesendingin"-ing",manyofwhicharerelatedtothepresentparticipleofaverb.Inthisgrammartheyarecalled"-ing"adjectives.385 TherearealsoalargenumberofEnglishadjectivesendingin"-ed",manyofwhicharerelatedtothepastparticipleofaverb.Inthisgrammartheyarecalled"-ed"adjectives."-ing"adjectivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.67to2.80."-ed"adjectivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.81to2.97.2.16Compoundadjectivesaremadeupoftwoormorewords,usuallywrittenwithhyphensbetweenthem.Compoundadjectivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.98to2.107.2.17Whenyouwanttoindicatetheamountofaqualitythatsomethingorsomeonehas,youcanusecomparativeandsuperlativeadjectives.Therearealsosomeotherwaysofcomparingthings.Comparativesareexplainedinparagraphs2.103to2.116,andsuperlativesareexplainedinparagraphs2.117to2.127.Otherwaysofcomparingthingsareexplainedinparagraphs2.128to2.144.2.18Youcanalsoindicatetheamountofaqualitythatsomethingorsomeonehasbyusingasubmodifierwithanadjective.Youcanalsousesomesubmodifierswithsomecomparativesandsuperlatives.Submodifiersareexplainedinparagraphs2.145to2.173.Informationfocusing:adjectivestructures2.19Adjectivesareusedintwomainstructures.Oneoftheminvolvesadjectivesmodifyinganoungroup.Ifyousay"Juliawascarryingabatteredoldsuitcase",yourmainpurposeistosaythatJuliawascarryingasuitcase.Theadjectives"battered"and"old"givemoreinformationaboutwhatkindofsuitcaseitwas.Hehadabeautifulsmile....atechnicalterm....aprettylittlestar-shapedflowerbed.2.20Mostadjectivescanbeusedtomodifynouns.Thisiscalledtheattributiveposition.2.21Theothermainstructureinvolvesadjectivesbeingusedascomplementsafterlinkverbs.Placinganadjectiveafteralinkverbhastheeffectoffocusingattentionontheadjective.Ifyousay"Thesuitcaseshewascarryingwasoldandbattered",yourmainpurposeistodescribethesuitcase,sothefocusisontheadjectives"old"andbattered".Davidisdead.Thehousewasquiet.Hebecameangry.Ifeelcold.Nobodyseemedamused.Theuseofadjectivesascomplementsoflinkverbsisexplainedinparagraphs3.133to3.138.predicativeposition2.22Mostadjectivescanbeusedascomplementsafterlinkverbs.Thisiscalledthepredicativeposition.attributiveandpredicativepositrons2.23Inthefollowingexamples,thefirstexampleineachpairshowsanadjectivebeingusedattributively,whilethesecondexampleshowsitbeingusedpredicatively.Therewasnoclearevidence."That"sveryclear,"Isaid.Ithadbeenapleasantevening.It"snotabigstream,butit"sverypleasant.Sheboughtaloafofwhitebread.Thewallswerewhite.Identifyingqualities:qualitativeadjectives2.24Therearetwomaintypesofadjective,qualitativeandclassifying.Adjectivesthatidentifyaqualitythatsomeoneorsomethinghas,suchas"sad","pretty,"small","happy","health","wealthy",and"wise",arecalledqualitativeadjectives....asadstory....aprettygirl....asmallchild....ahappymotherwithahealthybaby....wealthybankers.Ithinkitwouldbewisetogiveup.gradability2.25Qualitativeadjectivesaregradable,whichmeansthatthepersonorthing385 referredtocanhavemoreorlessofthequalitymentioned.2.26Theusualwayinwhichyoucanindicatetheamountofaqualitythatsomethingorsomeonehasisbyusingsubmodifierssuchas"very"and"rather"infrontofqualitativeadjectives.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs2.145to2.161.2.27Theotherwayinwhichyoucanindicatetheamountofaqualitythatsomethingorsomeonehasisbyusingacomparative,suchas"bigger",and"moreinteresting",orasuperlative,suchas"thebiggest",and"themostinteresting".Comparativesandsuperlativesareexplainedinparagraphs2.108to2.127.2.28Hereisalistofqualitativeadjectives:activeangryanxiousappropriateattractivebadbeautifulbigbriefbrightbroadbusycalmcarefulcheapcleanclearclosecoldcomfortablecommoncomplexcoolcuriousdangerousdarkdeardeepdetermineddifferentdifficultdirtydryeasyeffectiveefficientexpensivefairfamiliarfamousfastfatfinefirmflatfrankfreefreshfriendlyfrightenedfunnygoodgreathappyhardheavyhighhotimportantinterestingkindlargelatelightlikelylonglooseloudlovelylowluckynarrownervousnewniceobviousoddoldpalepatientplainpleasantpoorpopularpowerfulprettyproudquickquietrarereasonablerichroughsadsafesensibleserioussharpshockedshortsicksignificantsillysimpleslowsmallsoftspecialsteadystrangestrongstupidsuccessfulsuitablesuresurprisedsweettallterriblethickthintighttinytiredtypicalunderstandingusefulviolentwarmweakwetwidewildworriedyoungIdentifyingtheclassthatsomethingbelongsto:classifyingadjectives2.29Theothermaintypeofadjectiveconsistsofadjectivesthatyouusetoidentifytheparticularclassthatsomethingbelongsto.Forexample,ifyousay"financialhelp",youareusingtheadjective"financial"toclassifythenoun"help".Therearemanydifferentkindsofhelp,"financialhelp"isoneofthem.Adjectiveswhichareusedinthiswayarecalledclassifyingadjectives....financialhelp....abdominalpains....amedievalmanuscript....mydailyshower....anequalpartnership....asufficientamountofmilk.Notethatnounmodifiers(seeparagraphs2.174to2.179)areusedinasimilarwaytoclassifyingadjectives.Forexample,"financialmatters"and"moneymatters"aresimilarinbothstructureandmeaning.385 2.30Hereisalistofclassifyingadjectives:absoluteactiveactualagriculturalalternativeannualapparentavailablebasiccentralchemicalcivilcommercialcommunistconservativeculturaldailydemocraticdirectdomesticdoubledueeasteasterneconomiceducationalelectricemptyexternalfemalefinancialforeignfreefullgeneralgoldenhistoricalhumanidealindependentindustrialinevitableintellectualinternalinternationallegallocalmagicmalemedicalmentalmilitarymodernmoralnationalnaturalnegativenorthnorthernnuclearofficialopenoriginalpersonalphysicalpoliticalpositivepossiblepotentialprivateprofessionalproperpublicrawreadyrealreligiousrevolutionaryrightroyalruralscientificseparatesexualsinglesocialsolidsoothsouthernstandardstraightsufficienttheoreticaltraditionalurbanwestwesternwoodenwrong2.31Adjectivessuchas"British","American",and"Australian",whichindicatenationalityororigin,arealsoclassifyingadjectives.Theystartwithacapitalletterbecausetheyarerelatedtonamesofcountries....Americancitizens.Someclassifyingadjectivesareformedfrompeople"snames,forexample"Victorian"and"Shakespearian".Theyalsostartwithacapitalletter....Victorianhouses.2.32Becausetheyplacesomethinginaclass,classifyingadjectivesarenotgradableinthewaythatqualitativeadjectivesare.Thingsareeitherinaparticularclassornotinit.Therefore,classifyingadjectivesdonothavecomparativesandsuperlativesandarenotnormallyusedwithsubmodifierssuchas"very"and"rather".However,whenyouwanttoindicatethatyoufeelstronglyaboutwhatyouaresaying,youcanuseasubmodifiersuchas"absolutely"withaclassifyingadjective.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs2.152to2.153.adjectiveswhichareofbothtypes2.33Someadjectivescanbeeitherqualitativeorclassifyingdependingonthemeaningthatyouwanttoconvey.Forexample,in"anemotionalperson","emotional"isaqualitativeadjectivemeaning"feeingorexpressingstrongemotions";ithasacomparativeandsuperlativeanditcanbeusedwithsubmodifiers.Thus,apersoncanbe"veryemotional","ratheremotional",or"moreemotional"thansomeoneelse.However,in"theemotionalneedsofchildren","emotional"isaclassifyingadjectivemeaning"relatingtoaperson"semotions",andsoitcannotbesubmodified.Hereisalistofadjectivesfrequentlyusedbothasqualitativeadjectivesandasclassifyingadjectives:academicconsciousdryeducationaleffectiveemotionalextremelatemodernmoralobjectiveordinaryregularreligiousrevolutionaryruralscientificsecretsimilarIdentifyingcolours:colouradjectives2.34Whenyouwanttosaywhatcoloursomethingis,youuseacolouradjective....herblueeyes....aredribbon.Hereisalistofthemaincolouradjectives:blackbluebrowncreamgreengreyorangepinkpurpleredscarletvioletwhiteyellow2.35Ifyouwanttospecifyacolourmoreprecisely,youcanuseasubmodifier,suchas"light","pale","dark","deep",or"bright",infrontofacolouradjective.385 ...lightbrownhair....apalegreensuit....adarkbluedress....deepreddye....herbrightblueeyes.Thesecombinationsaresometimeshyphenated....alight-bluesuit....hertight,pale-greenfeltcape.Note,thatsubmodifierssuchas"light"and"dark"arenotusedtosubmodifythecolours"black"and"white",becauseyoucannothavedifferentshadesofblackandwhite.2.36Ifyouwanttotalkaboutacolourwhichdoesnothaveadefinitenameyoucan•useacolouradjectivewith"-ish"addedtotheend...greenishglass....permedyellowishhair.•combinetwocolouradjectives,oftenwith"-ish"or"-y"ontheendofthefirstone...greenish-whiteflowers....agreenyblueline....theblue-greenwaves.2.37Youcanmixcoloursinthesewaystoproducewhatevernewcolouryouaretryingtodescribe.ThisisaproductivefeatureofEnglish.ProductivefeaturesareexplainedintheIntroduction.comparisonofcolouradjectives2.38Colouradjectivessuchas"blue"and"green"occasionallyhavecomparativesandsuperlativesendingin"-er"and"-est".Hisfacewasredderthanusual....someofthegreenestsceneryinAmerica.Comparativesandsuperlativesareexplainedinparagraphs2.106to2.127.colournouns2.39Thecolourscanalsobeheadwords,andthemaincolourscanalsobepluralheadwords.Thesnowshadowshadturnedtoadeepblue.Theyblendedinsowellwiththekhakiandredsofthelandscape....brilliantlycolouredinreds,yellows,blacks,andpurples.Showingstrongfeelings:emphasizingadjectives2.40Youcanemphasizeyourfeelingsaboutsomethingthatyoumentionbyputtinganadjectivesuchas"complete","absolute",and"utter"infrontofanoun.Hemademefeellikeacompleteidiot.Someofitwasabsoluterubbish....utterdespair....purebliss.Yougenerallyuseanadjectiveofthiskindonlywhenthenounindicatesyouropinionaboutsomething.Becausetheyareusedtoshowstrongfeelings,theseadjectivesarecalledemphasizingadjectives.Hereisalistofemphasizingadjectives:absolutecompleteentireoutrightperfectpositivepurerealtotaltrueotheremphasizingdisapproval2.41Asmallgroupofadjectivesendingin"-ing"areusedinveryinformalspokenEnglishforemphasis,usuallytoindicatedisapprovalorcontempt.Everybodyinthewholestinkingtownwasloadedwithmoney.Theflamingcar"slocked.Hereisalistofadjectivesusedinformallyforemphasis:blinkingblitheringbloomingblunderingcrashingflamingfreezingpiddlingravingscaldingstinkingthumpingthunderingwhoppingWARNING2.42Manyoftheseadjectivesareusuallyusedwithoneparticularnounoradjectiveafterthem:"blitheringidiot","crushingbore","ravinglunatic","thunderingnuisance","freezingcold","scaldinghot","piddlinglittle","thumpinggreat","whoppinggreat".He"lleitherdieorbecomearavinglunatic.385 Nobodymustgetinhereandmakeathunderingnuisanceofthemselves....piddlinglittlecarslikeyours.2.43Theword"very",whichisnormallyasubmodifier,issometimesusedtoemphasizeanoun,inexpressionslike"theverytop"and"theveryend"....attheveryendoftheshop....theverybottomofthehill.Thesemoleculescouldhaveformedintheseasoftheearthattheverybeginningofitshistory.Makingthereferencemoreprecise:postdeterminers2.44Thereisasmallgroupofadjectiveswhichareusedinaverysimilarwaytodeterminers(seeparagraphs1.161to1.236)tomakethereferencemoreprecise.Thesearecalledpostdeterminers,becausetheirplaceinanoungroupisimmediatelyafterthedeterminer,ifthereisone,andbeforeanyotheradjectives....thefollowingbriefdescription....certainbasichumanqualities....improvementsinthelastfewyears....furthertechnologicaladvance.Heworehisusualoldwhitecoat....theonlygenuineRussianprinceheevermet.Youoftenneedtomakeitclearpreciselywhatyouarereferringto.Forexample,ifyousay"Turnleftatthetallbuilding"someonemightaskwhichtallbuildingyoumean.Ifyousay"Turnleftatthenexttallbuilding",therecanbenodoubtwhichoneyoumean.Thepostdeterminer"next"picksitoutprecisely.Hereisalistofadjectiveswhicharepostdeterminers:additionalcertainchiefentireexistingfirstfollowingfurtherlastmainnextonlyoppositeotherparticularpastpresentpreviousprincipalremainingsamespecificusualSomeoftheseadjectivescanalsobeordinaryclassifyingadjectives.Hehadchildrenfromapreviousmarriage.Therearetwomainreasonsforthis.Hereisalistofpostdeterminerswhichcanalsobeclassifyingadjectives:additionalchiefexistingfurthermainotherparticularpastpreviousprincipalremainingspecificAdjectiveswhichareusedtoindicatethepositionofsomethingarealsousedforprecisereference....themiddleduffonofherblackleathercoat....thetop100Britishcompanies.Hereisalistofadjectivessometimesusedtoindicatethepositionofsomethingaswellasforprecisereference:leftrightupperlowerlopbottommiddleendfrontbackPostdeterminerscanalsobeusedwithnumbers.Thisisexplainedinparagraph2.236.Specialclassesofadjectives2.45Mostadjectivescanbeusedbothattributivelyandpredicativelybuttherearesomewhichcanonlybeusedinonepositionortheother.Thereareafewadjectiveswhicharealwaysoralmostalwaysusedinfromofanounandareneverorrarelyusedasthecomplementofalinkverb.Theseadjectivesarecalledattributiveadjectives.Examplesare"atomic"and"outdoor".Youcantalkabout"anatomicexplosion",butyoudonotsay,"Theexplosionwasatomic".Youcantalkabout"outdoorpursuits",butyoudonotsay"Theirpursuitsareoutdoor".attributiveadjectives2.46Afewqualitativeadjectives(seeparagraphs2.24to2.28)areonlyusedattributively.Hereisalistofqualitativeadjectivesalwaysusedattributively:385 adoringbelatedchequeredchokedcommandingfatefulflagrantfleetingknottypaltrypunishingramshacklescantsearingthanklessunenviableMostadjectiveswhichcanonlybeusedattributivelyareclassifyingadjectives(seeparagraphs2.29to2.32).Hereisalistofclassifyingadjectivesusedattributively:atomicbridalcardiaccountlesscubicdigitaleasteasterneventualexistingfederalforensicindoorinstitutionalintroductoryinvestigativejudiciallonemaximumnationwideneighbouringnorthnorthernoccasionalorchestraloutdoorphoneticpreconceivedremedialreproductivesmokelesssouthsouthernsubterraneansupplementaryunderlyingwestwesternwoollen2.47Therearenocolouradjectives(seeparagraphs2.34to2.39)whicharerestrictedtotheattributiveposition.Emphasizingadjectives(seeparagraphs2.40to2.43)areusuallyusedattributively.predicativeadjectives2.48Someadjectivesarenormallyusedonlyasthecomplementofalinkverbandnotinfrontofanoun.Theseadjectivesarecalledpredicativeadjectives.Forexample,youcansay"Shefeltglad",butyoudonotnormallytalkabout"agladwoman".Hereisalistofadjectivesusuallyusedpredicatively:afraidalivealoneapartasleepawarecontentduegladilllikelyreadysafesorrysureunableunlikelywellNotethattheydonothavetobefollowedbyaprepositionalphrase.2.49Becausetheirmeaningwouldotherwisebeunclearorincomplete,someadjectivesareusuallyfollowedbyaprepositionalphrase.Forexample,youcannotsimplysaythatsomeoneis"accustomed".Youhavetosaythattheyare"accustomedto"something.Thefollowingusagenoteexplainswhichprepositionsyouuseafteraparticularadjective.2.50Thereareafewadjectiveswhicharefollowedbythepreposition"to"whentheyareusedpredicatively.Iwasallergictotheserumtheyused.Hewasimpervioustofactorlogic.Hereisalistofadjectiveswhichareusuallyoralwaysusedpredicativelyandarefollowedby"to":accustomedadjacentallergicattributableattunedaversecloseconducivedevotedimperviousinjuriousintegralproneproportionalproportionatereconciledrelatedresignedresistantsimilarsubjectsubservientsusceptibleunaccustomed2.51Thereareafewadjectiveswhicharefollowedbythepreposition"of"whentheyareusedpredicatively.Hewasawareofthedangerthatfacedhim.Theyseemedcapableofwinningtheirfirstgameoftheseason.Hewasdevoidofanytalentwhatsoever.Hismindseemedtohavebecomeincapableofanythought.Hereisalistofadjectiveswhichareusuallyoralwaysusedpredicativelyandarefollowedby"of":awarebereftcapablecharacteristicdesirousdevoidfondfullheedlessillustrativeincapableindicativemindfulreminiscentrepresents2.52Thereareafewadjectiveswhicharefollowedbythepreposition"with"whentheyareusedpredicatively.Hissurprisebecametingedwithjustthesmallestsuspicionofdisbelief.385 Theplastichastobecompatiblewiththebodytissuesthatmakecontactwithit.Thiswayoflifeisfraughtwithdanger.Hereisalistofadjectiveswhichareusuallyoralwaysusedpredicativelyandarefollowedby"with":compatibleconsonantconversantTiltedfraughtriddledtinged2.53Someadjectivesarefollowedbyotherprepositionswhentheyweusedpredicatively.Theseideasarerootedinself-deception.Didn"tyousaytheraidwascontingentontheweather?Darwinconcludedthatpeopleweredescendedfromapes.Hereisalistofadjectiveswhichareusuallyoralwaysusedpredicativelyandarefollowedbytheprepositionindicated:contingentondescendedfrominherentinlackinginrootedinsteepedinswathedinunhamperedbyInsomecases,thereisachoicebetweentwoprepositions.Manyoftheircoursesareconnectedwithindustry.Suchnameswerearbitrarilygivenandwerenotconnectedtoanyparticularevent.Hereisalistofadjectiveswhichareusuallyoralwaysusedpredicativelyandwhichcanbefollowedbytheprepositionsindicated:answerableforanswerabletoburdenedbyburdenedwithconnectedtoconnectedwithdependentondependentuponimmunefromimmunetoinclinedtoinclinedtowardsincumbentonincumbentuponinsensibleofinsensibletointentonintentuponparalleltoparallelwithreliantonreliantwithstrickenbystrickenwith2.54"Different"ismostcommonlyfollowedby"from".Itisalsosometimesfollowedby"to"or"than",butsomepeoplethinkthisisincorrect.Studentstodayaredifferentfromthestudentstenyearsago.adjectivesfollowedby"to"-infinitiveclauses2.55Tocompletethemeaningofsomeadjectiveswhichareusedpredicatively,youneedtofollowwithaclausebeginningwitha"to"-infinitive.Forexample,youcannotjustsay"Heisunable".Youhavetoaddaclausebeginningwith"to"-infinitivesuchas"todo":"Heisunabletodoit"."To"-infinitiveclausesareexplainedintheReferenceSection.Theywereunabletohelpher.Iamwillingtotry.Weareliabletofindourselvesinamildstateofconflict.Iamloathtodwellsolongonthepoorfellow.Hereisalistofadjectivesalwaysornearlyalwaysfollowedby"to"-infinitiveclauses:ablebounddoomedduefatedfitinclinedliablelikelyloathpreparedunableunwillingwilling2.56Youcanalsouseaclausebeginningwitha"to"-infinitiveaftermanyotheradjectivestogivemoreinformationaboutsomething.Iwasafraidtogohome.Iwashappytoseethemagain.Hewaspowerlesstopreventit.Iwasalmostashamedtotellher.Thepathwaseasytofollow.Notethatthesubjectofthemainclauseisalsothesubjectofthe"to"-infinitiveclause.2.57Whenadjectiveswhichrefertosomeone"sbeliefsorfeelingsareusedpredicatively,theyareoftenfollowedbya"that"-clause(seeparagraphs7.85to7.87).Thesubjectofthe"that"-clauseisnotalwaysthesameasthesubjectofthemainclause,andsoyouneedtospecifyft.Shewassurethathemeantit.Hewasfrightenedthatsomethingterriblemightbesaid.I"mawarethatIreachedaratherlargeaudiencethroughthebook.Notethattheword"that"isnotalwaysusedina"that"-clause.Theyweresureshehadbeenborninthecity.Hereisalistofcommonadjectivesoftenfollowedbya"that"-clause.afraidcertainhappysorryupset385 angryanxiousawareconfidentfrightenedgladpleasedproudsadsuresurprisedunawareworriedNotethatalloftheseadjectivesexcept"angry","aware","unaware","upset",and"worried"canalsobefollowedbya"to"-infinitiveclause.Iwasafraidthatshemightnotbeabletobearthestrain.Don"tbeafraidtoaskquestions.ShewassurprisedthatIknowaboutit.ThetwinswereverysurprisedtoseeRalph.Positionofadjectivesinnoungroups2.58Whenyouusemorethanoneadjectiveinanoungroup,theusualorderfortheadjectivesis:qualitativeadjectives,followedbycolouradjectives,followedbyclassifyingadjectives....alittlewhitewoodenhouse....prettyblacklacydresses....alargecircularpoolofwater....abeautifulpinksuit....rapidtechnologicaladvance....aniceredapple....theblacktriangularfin.ThisorderisnearlyalwaysfollowedinEnglish.Occasionallyhowever,whenyouwantofocusonaparticularcharacteristicofthepersonorthingyouaredescribing,youcanvarythisorder,especiallywhenoneoftheadjectivesreferstocolourorsize....asquareblackhole.Notethatyousometimesputacommaor"and"betweenadjectives.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs8.168to8.174andparagraph8.189....thelong,lowcaravan.Itwasalongandtediousbusiness.2.59Comparatives(seeparagraphs2.108to2.116)andsuperlatives(seeparagraphs2.117to2.127)normallycomeinfrontofallotheradjectivesinanoungroup....betterparentalcontrol....thehighestmonthlyfiguresonrecord.positionofnounmodifiersandadjectives2.60Whenanoungroupcontainsbothanadjectiveandanounmodifier(seeparagraphs2.174to2.179)theadjectiveisplacedinfrontofthenounmodifier....theboomingEuropeancarindustry....theworld"sbiggestandmostprestigiousbookfair.twoormoreadjectivesascomplement2.61Whenyouusetwoadjectivesasthecomplementofalinkverb,youuseaconjunction,usually"and",tolinkthem.Ifyouusemorethantwoadjectivesasacomplement,youusuallyputaconjunctionbetweenthelasttwoadjectivesandcommasbetweentheothers.Thisisfullyexplainedinparagraphs8.168to8.174andparagraph8.139.Theroomwaslargeandsquare.Wefelthot,tired,andthirsty.Notethatyouputtheadjectivesintheorderthatyouthinkisthemostimportant.adjectivesafternouns2.62Thereareafewadjectiveswhichareusuallyoralwaysusedafteranoun.Hereisalistindicatingthedifferentgroupsofadjectivesusedafteranoun:designateelectgaloreincarnatemanque~broaddeephighlongoldtallthickwide~concernedinvolvedpresentproperresponsible~affectedavailablerequiredsuggestedUSAGENOTE2.63Theadjectives"designate","elect","galore","incarnate",and"manque"areonlyusedimmediatelyafteranoun.Shewasnowpresidentelect.Thereareemptyhousesgalore.2.64Theadjectives"broad","deep","high","long","old","tall","thick",and"wide"areusedimmediatelyaftermeasurementnounswhengivingthesize,duration,orageofathingor385 person.Thisuseisfullyexplainedinparagraph2.270....sixfeettall....threemetreswide....twentyfiveyearsold.2.65Theadjectives"concerned","involved","present","responsible",and"proper"havedifferentmeaningsdependingonwhetheryouputtheminfrontofanounorimmediatelyafterone.Forexample,"theconcernedmother"describesamotherwhoisanxious,but"themotherconcerned"simplyreferstoamotherwhohasjustbeenmentioned....theapprovalofinterestedandconcernedparents.Theideaneedstocomefromtheindividualsconcerned....oneofthoseincrediblyinvolvedspyswitches.Thesongsinvolvedare"That"llBetheDay"and"InSpiteofAlltheDanger"....thepresentinternationalsituation.Ofthe18peoplepresent,Iknowonlyone....parentstryingtoactinaresponsiblemanner....thepersonresponsibleforhisdeath....apropertraininginhowtoteach....thefirstroundproperoftheFACup.2.66Theadjectives"affected","available","required",and"suggested"canbeusedinfrontofanounorafteranounwithoutanychangeinmeaning.Newspapersweretheonlyavailablesourceofinformation....thenumberofteachersavailable....therequiredchanges.You"rewaybelowthestandardrequired....thecostofthesuggestedimprovements.Theproposalssuggestedarederivedfromsuccessfulexperiments.Asidefromtheaffectedchild,thedoctorcheckseveryothermemberofthehousehold....theproportionofthepopulationaffected.Specialforms:"-ing"adjectives2.67Therearealargenumberofadjectivesendingin"-ing".Mostofthemarerelatedinformtothepresentparticiplesofverbs.Inthisgrammartheyarecalled"-ing"adjectives.Hewasanamiable,amusingfellow.Hehadbeenupallnightattendingadyingman.Adjectiveswhichendin"-ing"aresometimescalledparticipialadjectives.ThepresentparticipleisexplainedintheReferenceSection.2.68Onegroupof"-ing"adjectivesdescribetheeffectthatsomethinghasonyourfeelingsandideas,oronthefeelingsandideasofpeopleingeneral....analarmingincreaseinracialhostility.Asurprisingnumberofmenstaybachelors....acharminghouseontheoutskirtsofthetown....awarmwelcomingsmile.2.69Theseadjectivesarenormallyqualitativeadjectives.Thismeansthattheycanbeusedwithasubmodifier,andhavecomparativesandsuperlatives....averyconvincingexample.Thereisnothingverysurprisinginthis....averyexcitingidea....areallypleasingeveningatthetheatre.WhenBernardmoanshe"smuchmoreconvincing....oneofthemostboringbooksI"veeverread.2.70Theycanbeusedinattributiveorpredicativeposition.Theycanstillshowamazingloyaltytotheirparents.It"samazingwhattheycando....themostterrifyingtaleeverwritten.Thepresentsituationisterrifying.2.71These"-ing"adjectiveshavearelatedtransitiveverbwhichyouusetodescribethewaysomeoneisaffectedbysomething.Forexample,ifyouspeakof"analarmingincrease",youmeanthattheincreasealarmsyou.Ifyouspeakof"asurprisingnumber",youmeanthatthenumbersurprisesyou.385 Hereisalistof"-ing"adjectivesthatdescribeaneffectandwhichhaveasimilarmeaningtotheusualmeaningoftherelatedverb:alarmingamazingamusingannoyingappallingastonishingastoundingbewilderingboringchallengingcharmingcompellingconfusingconvincingdemeaningdepressingdevastatingdisappointingdisgustingdistractingdistressingdistortingembarrassingenchantingencouragingentertainingexcitingfrighteningharassinghumiliatinginfuriatinginspiringinterestingintimidatingintriguingmenacingmisleadingmockingoverwhelmingpleasingrefreshingrelaxingrewardingsatisfyingshockingsickeningstartlingsurprisingtemptingterrifyingthreateningthrillingtiringwelcomingworryingTransitiveverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.15to3.26.describingaprocessorstate2.72Theothermaingroupof"-ing"adjectivesareusedtodescribeaprocessorstatethatcontinuesoveraperiodoftime....dwindlingherdsofhumpbackwhales.Oilandgasdrillersaredoingaboomingbusiness....alifeofincreasinglabouranddecreasingleisure.2.73Theseadjectivesareclassifyingadjectives,sotheyarenotusedwithordinarysubmodifierssuchas"very"and"rather".However,adjectivesusedtoidentifyaprocesscanbesubmodifiedbyadverbswhichdescribethespeedwithwhichtheprocesshappens....afastdiminishingdegreeofpersonalfreedom....rapidlyrisingproductivity.2.74These"-ing"adjectiveshaverelatedintransitiveverbs.Hereisalistof"-ing"adjectiveswhichdescribeacontinuingprocessorstateandwhichhaveasimilarmeaningtotheusualmeaningoftherelatedverb:ageingailingbleedingboomingburstingdecreasingdiminishingdwindlingdyingexistingincreasinglivingprevailingrecurringreigningremainingresoundingrisingrulingIntransitiveverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.9to3.14.2.75These"-ing"adjectivesareonlyusedattributively,sowhen"-ing"formsofintransitiveverbsappearaftertheverb"be"theyareactuallypartofacontinuoustense.2.76The"-ing"formofmostintransitiveEnglishverbscanbeusedattributivelyasadjectivestoindicatewhatsomeoneorsomethingisdoing....awalkingfigure.Leteverypersonbesubjecttothegoverningauthorities.Heescortedheraroundthebowingandchantingmultitude....twoyearsoffallingemployment....atremendousnoiseofcrashingglass.Theuseofthe"-ing"formofverbsasadjectivesisaproductivefeatureofEnglish.ProductivefeaturesareexplainedintheIntroduction.2.77Mostofthe"-ing"adjectivestalkedaboutsofararerelatedtoverbs.Sometimeshowever,"-ing"adjectivesarenotrelatedtoverbsatall.Forexample,thereisnoverb"toneighbour".Wholefamiliescamefromneighbouringvillages.Hereisalistof"-ing"adjectiveswhicharenotrelatedtoverbs:appetizingbaldingcunningenterprisingexcruciatingimpendingneighbouringscalingunwitting2.78Sometimes,an"-ing"adjectiveisrelatedtoanuncommonuseofaverb,orappearstoberelatedtoaverbbutisnotrelatedexactlytoanycurrentuse.Forexample,theverb"haunt"ismostcommonlyusedinconnectionwithghosts,buttheadjective"haunting"ismoreoftenusedofthingssuchassongsandmemories.Ahauntingtuneisatuneyoucannotforget.Hereisalistofqualitative"-ing"adjectiveswhicharenotrelatedtoacommontransitiveuseofaverb:becomingbracingcuttingengagingfetchinghaltingpenetratingpiercingpressingravishingretiringrevoltingtrying385 dashingdisarminghauntingmovingpromisingramblingsearchingtaxingHereisalistofclassifying"-ing"adjectiveswhicharenotrelatedtoacommonintransitiveuseofaverb:actingdrivingfloatinggatheringgoingleadingmissingrunning2.79Someadjectivesarederivedfromaverbandaprefix.Forexample,"outgoing"isderivedfromtheverb"go"andtheprefix"out-".Thereisnoverb"tooutgo".Wouldn"tthatcauseadelayinoutgoingman?Hereisalistof"-ing"adjectivesderivedfromaverbandaprefix:forthcomingincomingoncomingongoingoutgoingoutstandingoverbearingupliftingupstanding2.80Asmallgroupof"-ing"adjectivesareusedininformalspokenEnglishforemphasis,usuallytoexpressdisapproval.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraphs2.41to2.42.Somecompoundadjectives(seeparagraphs2.98to2.107)endin"-ing".Specialforms:"-ed"adjectives2.81AlargenumberofEnglishadjectivesendin"-ed".Manyofthemhavethesameformasthepastparticipleofaverb.Othersareformedbyadding"-ed"toanoun.Othersarenotcloselyrelatedtoanyotherwords....adisappointedman....abeardedman....sophisticatedelectronicdevices.2.82Adjectiveswiththesameformasirregularpastparticiples(seetheReferenceSection)whichdonotendin"-ed"arealsoincludedhereas"-ed"adjectives.Wasitabrokenbone,atornligament,orwhat?Thepastparticiplesofsomephrasalverbs(seeparagraphs3.04to3.117)canalsobeusedasadjectives.Whentheyareusedattributively,thetwopartsofthephrasalverbareusuallywrittenwithahyphenbetweenthem....thebuilt-upurbanmassofthecity.2.83Most"-ed"adjectivesarerelatedtoatransitiveverbandhaveapassivemeaning.Theyindicatethatsomethinghashappenedorishappeningtothethingbeingdescribed.Forexample,"afrightenedperson"isapersonwhohasbeenfrightenedbysomething."Aknowncriminal"isacriminalwhoisknownbythepolice.Thereareleastoneortwosatisfiedcustomers.Wecannotrefusetoteachchildrentherequiredsubjects.qualitative"-ed"adjectives2.84"-ed"adjectivesthatrefertoaperson"smentaloremotionalreaction"-ed"tosomethingaregenerallyqualitative.Hewasaworriedoldman....aboredoldwoman....aninterestedstudent.Theseadjectivescanbesubmodifiedbywordssuchas"very"and"extremely",justlikeotherqualitativeadjectives(seeparagraphs2.145to2.161).formandmeaning2.85Likeotheradjectivesreferringtofeelings,theseadjectivesareoftenusedtodescribetheexpression,voice,ormannerofpersonaffected,insteadofreferringdirectlytothatperson....herbigbluefrightenedeyes.Shecouldhearhisagitatedvoice....hislazywalkandboredair.2.86Hereisalistofqualitative"-ed"adjectiveswhichhaveasimilarmeaningtothemostcommonmeaningoftherelatedverb:agitatedalarmedamusedappalledastonishedboredconfusedcontenteddelighteddepresseddepriveddisappointeddisgusteddisillusioneddistressedembarrassedexcitedfrightenedinhibitedinterestedpleasedpreoccupiedpuzzledsatisfiedshockedsurprisedtiredtroubledworriedHereisalistofqualitative"-ed"adjectiveswhichdonothaveasimilarmeaningtotheusual385 meaningoftherelatedverb:animatedattachedconcerneddetermineddisposeddisturbedguardedhurtinclinedmixedstrained2.87Manyother"-ed"adjectivesareusedforclassifying,andsoarenotgradable.Forexample,"afurnishedapartment"isonetypeofapartment,contrastingwith"anapartmentwithoutfurniture"....afurnishedapartment....apaintedwoodenbowl....theclosedbedroomdoor.Mostadjectiveswhichrefertophysicaldistinctionsareclassifyingadjectives.2.88Hereisalistofclassifying"-ed"adjectiveswhichhaveasimilarmeaningtothemostcommonmeaningoftherelatedverb:abandonedarmedblockedboiledbrokencannedclassifiedclosedconcentratedcondemnedcookeddivideddrawndriedestablishedfixedfurnishedhauntedhiddenimprovedinfectedintegratedknownlicensedloadedpaidpaintedprocessedreducedrequiredtorntrainedunitedwastedHereislistof"-ed"classifyingadjectiveswhichhaveadifferentmeaningfromthemostcommonmeaningoftherelatedverb:advancedmarkednotedpointedspottedveiled2.89Classifying"-ed"adjectivescannotnormallybesubmodifiedwithordinarysubmodifierssuchas"quite"and"very".However,anadverbofmanner,(seeparagraphs6.36to6.44)oranadverbofdegree,(seeparagraphs6.45to6.52)isoftenusedbeforean"-ed"adjective.Forexample,"apleasantlyfurnishedroom"isaroomwhichhasbeenfurnishedwithpleasantfurniture....pleasantlyfurnishedrooms....awell-knownnovelist.2.90Some"-ed"adjectivesdonotmakesenseontheirown,andanadverbisnecessarytocompletethesense.Wedonotusuallytalkabout"dressedpeople"becausepeopleusuallywearclothes,butwecansaythattheyare"welldressed"or"smartlydressed"forexample.The"-ed"adjectivesinthefollowingexamplesnearlyalwayshaveanadverbinfrontofthem....acautiouslywordedstatement....impeccablydressedmen....stronglymotivatedstudents.Itwasarichlydeservedhonour....superblycutclothes....theexistenceofahighlydevelopednationalpress....alargeandwellequippedarmy....atall,powerfullybuiltman....perfectlyformedpeople.Notethatcombinationslikethisaresometimeshyphenated,makingthemcompoundadjectives....awell-equippedarmy."-ed"adjectiveswithanactivemeaning2.91Afew"-ed"adjectivesarerelatedtothepastparticipleofintransitiveverbsandhaveanactivemeaning,notapassivemeaning.Forexample,"afallentree"isatreewhichhasfallen.Hereandthereafallentree-trunkspansthenarrowgorge.Sheisthedaughterofaretiredarmyofficer....anescapedprisoner.Hereisalistof"-ed"adjectiveswithanactivemeaning:accumulateddatedescapedfadedfallenretiredswollenwilted"-ed"adjectivesafterlinkverb2.92Most"-ed"adjectivescanbeusedbothinfromofanounandasthecomplementofalinkverb.Theworriedauthoritiesdecidedtoplaysafe.385 Myhusbandwasworried.Asmallnumberof"-ed"adjectivesarenormallyonlyusedasthecomplementofalinkverb.Often,theyarefollowedbyaprepositionalphrase,a"to"-infinitiveclause,ora"that"-clause.Iwasthrilledbytheexhibition.TheBraziliansarepleasedwiththeresults....fooddestinedforareasofsouthSudan.Hewasalwayspreparedtoaccountforhisactions.Hereisalistof"-ed"adjectivesoftenusedasthecomplementofalinkverb,withorwithoutaphraseorclauseafterthem:convinceddelightedinterestedintimidatedintriguedinvolvedpleasedpreparedscaredthrilledtiredtouchedHereisalistof"-ed"adjectivesnormallyusedasthecomplementofalinkverbwithaphraseorclauseafterthem:agreeddestineddressedfinishedlostpreparedshutstuck2.93Thepastparticipleofalmostanytransitiveverbcanbeusedasanadjective,thoughsomearemorecommonlyusedthanothers.ThisisaproductivefeatureofEnglish.ProductivefeaturesareexplainedintheIntroduction....shesaid,withaforcedsmile.Therewasonepaidtutorandthreevolunteertutors.Therecoveredanimalswillbereleased....thefinalcorrectedversion.2.94Some"-ed"adjectivesareformedfromnouns.Forexample,ifalivingthinghaswings,youcandescribeitas"winged".Ifsomeonehasskills,youcandescribethemas"skilled".ThisisaproductivefeatureofEnglish.ProductivefeaturesareexplainedintheIntroduction....figuresofwingedcreatures....askilledengineer.Shewasdressedinblackandcarriedablackbeadedpurse....armouredcars....theeducationofgiftedchildren.2.95Hereisalistof"-ed"adjectivesformedfromnouns:armouredbarbedbeadedbeardeddetailedfloweredfreckledgiftedglovedhoodedmanneredpointedprincipledsalariedskilledspottedstripedturbanedwalledwinged"-ed"adjectivesformedfromnounsarecommonlyusedasthesecondpartofcompoundadjectives(seeparagraph2.98to2.107)suchas"grey-haired"and"open-minded",becauseweoftenwanttodescribethefeaturethatsomeoneorsomethinghas.2.96Therearealsoanumberof"-ed"adjectivesinregularusewhicharenotrelatedtoverbsornounsinthewaysdescribedabove.Forexample,therearenowords"parch"or"belove".Thereisanoun"concert",buttheadjective"concerted"doesnotmean"havingaconcert".Heclimbedupthedryparchedgrasstotheterracesteps....arockinghorseforabelovedchild....attempttomountaconcertedcampaign....thepurchaseofexpensivesophisticatedequipment.2.97Hereisalistof"-ed"adjectivesnotrelatedtoverbsornouns:antiquatedashamedassortedbelovedbloatedconcertedcrazeddeceaseddoomedindebtedparchedruggedsophisticatedtinnedCompoundadjectives2.98Compoundadjectivesaremadeupoftwoormorewordsusuallywrittenwithhyphensbetweenthem.Theymaybequalitative,classifyingorcolouradjectives.Iwasinatight-heartedmood.Oliviawasdrivingalong,low-slung,bottle-greencar....thebuilt-upurbanmassofthecity....anair-conditionedrestaurant....agood-lookinggirl.385 ...one-waytraffic....apart-timejob.PRODUCTIVEFEATURE2.99TheformingofcompoundadjectivesisaproductivefeatureofEnglish.ProductivefeaturesareexplainedintheIntroduction.formationpatterns2.100Thesearethemostcommonandleastrestrictedpatternsforformingcompoundadjectives:•adjectiveornumberplusnounplus"-ed",e.g."grey-haired"and"one-sided"•adjectiveoradverbpluspastparticiple,e.g."low-paid"and"well-behaved"•adjective,adverb,ornounpluspresentparticiple,e.g."good-looking","long-lasting"and"man-eating".2.101Thesearelesscommonandmorerestrictedpatternsforformingcompoundadjectives:•nounpluspastparticiple,e.g."tongue-tied"and"wind-blown"•nounplusadjective,e.g."accident-prone","trouble-free"•adjectiveplusnoun,e.g."deep-sea","present-day"•pastparticipleplusadverb,e.g."run-down","cast-off"•numberplussingularcountnoun,e.g."five-page"and"four-door".Notethatcompoundadjectivesformedaccordingtothelastofthesepatternsarealwaysusedattributively.compoundqualitativeadjectives2.102Hereisalistofcompoundqualitativeadjectives:absent-mindedaccident-pronebig-headedclear-cutclose-fittingcold-bloodedeasy-goingfar-fetchedfar-reachinggood-lookinggood-temperedhard-uphard-wearingill-advisedkind-heartedlaboursavinglaid-backlight-heartedlong-lastinglong-standinglong-sufferinglow-cutlow-paidlow-slungmouth-wateringmuddle-headednarrow-mindednice-lookingoff-handoff-puttingold-fashionedone-sidedopen-mindedrun-downsecond-classsecond-rateshop-soiledshort-handedshort-livedshort-sightedshort-temperedslow-wittedsmooth-talkingsoft-heartedstarry-eyedstrong-mindedstuck-upsun-tannedswollen-headedtender-heartedthick-skinnedtongue-tiedtop-heavytrouble-freetwo-edgedtwo-facedwarm-heartedwell-balancedwell-behavedwell-dressedwell-knownwell-offwind-blownworldly-wisewrong-headed2.103Hereisalistofcompoundclassifyingadjectives:air-conditionedail-outall-powerfulaudio-visualblue-bloodedbow-leggedbrand-newbreast-fedbroken-downbroken-heartedbuilt-upbullet-proofburnt-outcast-offclean-shavencross-Channelcross-countrycut-pricedeep-seadeep-seateddouble-barrelleddouble-breastedfull-blownfull-facefull-grownfull-lengthfull-scalegilt-edgedgrey-hairedhalf-pricehalf-yearlyhand-pickedhigh-heeledhome-madeice-coldinterest-freeknee-deeplast-minutelate-nightlead-freeleft-handedlife-sizelong-distancelong-lostoff-peakone-wayopen-endedopen-mouthedpanic-strickenpart-timepresent-daypurpose-builtready-maderecord-breakingred-brickremote-controlledright-angledright-handedsecond-classsecond-handsee-throughsilver-platedsingle-handedso-calledso-sosouth-east385 drip-drydrive-induty-boundduty-freeempty-handedface-savingfar-flungfirst-classfree-rangefree-standingfreeze-driedfront-pagelong-rangeloose-leafmade-upman-eatingmass-producedmiddle-agednever-endingnorth-eastnorth-westnuclear-freeodds-onoff-guardsouth-weststrong-armtax-freetone-deaftop-secretunheard-ofwide-awakeworld-famousworn-outyear-long2.104Hereisalistofcompoundcolouradjectives:blood-redblue-blackbottle-greendove-greyelectric-blueflesh-colouredice-blueiron-greyjet-blacklime-greennut-brownoff-whitepea-greenpearl-greyroyal-blueshocking-pinksky-bluesnow-white2.105Afewcompoundadjectivesaremadeupofmorethantwowords.Compoundsofthreeormorewordsareoftenwrittenwithhyphenswhentheyareusedinfrontofnounsandwithouthyphenswhentheyareusedasthecomplementofalinkverb....theday-to-daychoresoflife....adown-to-earthapproach....afree-and-easyrelationship....life-and-deathdecisions....atriptoanout-of-the-wayresort.Theiractisoutofdate.2.106Somecompoundadjectivesseemratheroddbecausetheycontainwordsthatareneverusedassinglewordsontheirown,forexample"namby-pamby","higgledy-piggledy",and"topsy-turvy".Wordsliketheseareusuallyinformal....allthatarty-craftyspiritualism....hisla-di-dafamily.foreigncompoundadjectives2.107SomecompoundadjectivesareborrowedfromforeignlanguagesespeciallyfromFrenchandLatin....theargumentsonceusedtodefendlaissez-faireeconomics....theirpresentpercapitafuelconsumption.Inthecommercialtheatre,almosteveryproductionisadhoc.Hereisalistofcompoundadjectivesborrowedfromotherlanguages:alamodeaposterioriaprioriadhocadlibaufaitavant-gardebonafidecomposmentiscordonbleudefactodejuredeluxederigueurdetropexgratiahorsdecombatinfradiglaissez-fairenoncomposmentispercapitaprimafacieproratasubjudiceComparingthings:comparatives2.108Youcandescribesomethingbysayingthatithasmoreofaqualitythansomethingelse.Youdothisbyusingcomparativeadjectives.Onlyqualitativeadjectivesusuallyhavecomparatives,butafewcolouradjectivesalsohavethem.Comparativesnormallyconsistoftheusualformoftheadjectivewitheither"-er"addedtotheend,asin"harder"and"smaller"or"more"placedinfront,asin"moreinteresting"and"moreflexible".Notethat"good"and"bad"havetheirregularcomparativeforms"better"and"worse".ThepatternsforformingregularandirregularcomparativesareexplainedintheReferenceSection.asmodifiers2.109Comparativescanbeusedasmodifiersinfrontofanoun.TheirdemandsforabiggerWestGermandefencebudgetwererefused.Tothebrighter,moreadvancedchild,theywillbechallenging.385 Ahardermattressoftenhelpswithbackinjuries.Notethatcomparativescanalsobeusedasmodifiersinfrontof"one".Anunderstandingofthisrealityprovokesabetterone.ascomplements2.110Comparativescanalsobeusedascomplementsafteralinkverb.Theballsoakedupwaterandbecameheavier.Hisbreathbecamequieter.Weneedtobemoreflexible.Theuseofadjectivesasthecomplementsoflinkverbsisexplainedinparagraphs3.133to3.138.qualifiersaftercomparatives2.111Comparativesareoftenfollowedby"than"whenyouwanttospecifywhattheotherthinginvolvedinthecomparisonis.Yousayexactlywhatyouarecomparingbyusingoneofanumberofstructuresafter"than".Thesestructurescanbe•noungroupsCharliewasmorehonestthanhispredecessor....anareabiggerthanGreatBritain.Notethatwhen"than"isfollowedbyapronounonitsown,thepronounmustbeanobjectpronounsuchas"me","him",or"her".Mybrotherisyoungerthanme.Laminwasshorterthanher.•adjunctsThechangeswillbeevenmorestrikinginthecaseofteachingthaninmedicine.Lastyear,terroristactivitieswereworsethaninanyoftheprevioustwelveyears.•clausesIwouldhavedoneabetterjobthanhedid.Iwasabetterwriterthanhewas.He"stallerthanIam.Notethatwhenacomparativeisnotfollowedbya"than"phrase,theouterthinginthecomparisonshouldbeobvious.Forexample,ifsomeonesays"CouldIhaveabiggerone,please?"theyarelikelytobeholdingtheitemwhichtheythinkistoosmall.Amattresswouldbebetter.2.112Ifyouchooseaqualifyingphraseorclausebeginningwith"than"whenyouareusingacomparativeasamodifier,youusuallyputthequalifierafterthewholenoungroup,notdirectlyafterthecomparative.KairiwasamoresatisfactorypetthanTukuhadbeen.WillyownedalargercollectionofbooksthananyoneelseIhaveevermet.Acomparativecanalsocomeimmediatelyafteranoun,butonlywhenitisfollowedby"than"andanoungroup.We"vegotaratbiggerthanacatlivinginourroof....packsofcardslargerthanhewasusedto.2.113"More"issometimesusedinfrontofawholenoungrouptoindicatethatsomethinghasmoreofthequalitiesofonethingthananother,orisonethingratherthanbeinganother.Musicismoreawayoflifethananinterest.Thisismoreawarmoviethanawestern.Notethat"morethan"isusedbeforeadjectivesasanemphaticadverbofdegree.Theirlifemaybehorriblydull,buttheyaremorethansatisfied.Youwouldbemorethanwelcome.2.114ComparativeadjectivesaresometimesusedasheadwordsinfairlyformalEnglish.Whenyouuseacomparativeadjectiveasaheadword,youput"the"infrontofit,andfollowitwith"of"andanoungroupwhichreferstothetwothingsbeingcompared....theshorterofthetwolines.Dorotheawasthemorebeautifulofthetwo.Therearetwowindmills,thelargerofwhichstandsahundredfeethigh.Ifitisclearwhatyouaretalkingabout,youcanomit"of"andthefollowingnoungroup.Noticetoquitmustcovertherentalperiodorfourweeks,whicheveristhelonger."less"2.115Theformwinchisusedtoindicatethatsomethingdoesnothaveasmuchofaqualityassomethingelseis"less"followedbyanadjective.Theanswerhadbeenlesstruthfulthanhisown.Youcanalsouse"less"andanadjectivetosaythatsomethingdoesnothaveasmuchofa385 qualityasithadbefore.Asthedayswentby,Sitabecamelessanxious.Notethat"lessthan"isusedbeforeadjectiveslikeanemphaticnegative.Itwouldhavebeenlessthanfair.contrastedcomparatives2.116Youcanindicatethatoneamountofaqualityorthingislinkedtoanotheramountbyusingtwocontrastedcomparativesprecededby"the".Theearlieryoudetectaproblem,theeasieritistocure.Themoremilitantwebecame,thelessconfidentshebecame.Thelargertheorganization,thelessscopethereisfordecision.Comparingthings:superlatives2.117Anotherwayofdescribingsomethingistosaythatithasmoreofaqualitythananythingelseofitskind.Youdothisbyusingasuperlativeadjective.Onlyqualitativeadjectivesusuallyhavesuperlatives,butafewcolouradjectivesalsohavethem.Superlativesnormallyconsistofeither"-est"addedtotheendofanadjectiveand"the"placedinfrontofit.asin"thehardest"and"thesmallest",orof"themost"placedinfrontoftheadjective,asin"themostinteresting"and"themostflexible".Notethat"good"and"bad"havetheirregularsuperlativeforms"thebest"and"theworst".ThepatternsforformingregularandirregularsuperlativesofadjectivesareexplainedintheReferenceSection.Notethatsuperlativeadjectivesarenearlyalwaysprecededby"the",becauseyouaretalkingaboutsomethingdefinite.Occasionally,whensuperlativesareusedascomplements,"the"isomitted(seeparagraph2.122).WARNING2.118Adjectiveswith"most"infrontofthemarenotalwayssuperlatives."Most"isalsousedasasubmodifier,withthemeaning"very".Thisbookwasmostinteresting.Mygrandfatherwasamostextraordinaryman.Submodifiersareexplainedinparagraphs2.145to2.161.usedasmodifiers2.119Superlativescanbeusedasmodifiersinfrontofanoun.HewasthecleverestmanIeverknew.Itwasthemostexcitingsummeroftheirlives.Shecameoutofthethickestpartofthecrowd.Nowwecometothemostimportantthing....theoldestrockpaintingsinNorthAmerica....themosteminentscientistsinBritain.Notethatsuperlativescanalsobeusedasmodifiersinfrontof"one".Nooneeverusedthesmallestone.2.120Superlativescanalsobeusedascomplementsafteralinkverb.Hewastheyoungest.Thesergeantwasthetallest.Theuseofadjectivesasthecomplementsoflinkverbsisexplainedinparagraphs3.133to3.138.2.121Youcanuseasuperlativeonitsownifitisclearwhatisbeingcompared.Forexample,ifyousay"Thesergeantwasthetallest",youarereferringtoagroupofsoldierswhichhasalreadybeenidentified.Ifyouneedtorefertothepointofthecomparison,youuseaqualifyingphraseorclausewhichconsistsof•aprepositionalphrasenormallybeginningwith"in"or"of"Henrywasthebiggestofthem.Thethirdrequirementisthemostimportantofall.Thesecakesareprobablythebestintheworld.Notethatifthesuperlativeisamodifierinfrontofanoun,theprepositionalphrasecomesafterthenoun....thebestbargainforhismoney.I"mintheworstbusinessintheworld.•arelativeclauseThebestI"mlikelytoget.ThevisitingroomwastheworstIhadseen.Notethatifthesuperlativeisamodifierinfrontofanoun,therelativeclausecomesafterthe385 noun....themostdangerousmaninthecountry.HeandNellhadthemostexpensivedinneroftheirlives.That"sthemostconvincinganswerthatyou"vegivenme.2.122Youusuallyput"the"infrontofthesuperlative,butyoucanoccasionallyomitit,especiallyininformalspeechorwriting.Woolandcottonblanketsaregenerallycheapest.Itcanbeusedbywhoeverisclosest.However,youcannotomit"the"whenthesuperlativeisfollowedby"of"oranotherstructureindicatingwhatgroupofthingsyouarecomparing.So,forexample,youcansay"Amandawastheyoungestofourgroup"or"Amandawastheyoungest"or"Amandawasyoungest"butyoucannotsay"Amandawasyoungestofourgroup".Youcansometimesusethepossessiveformofanounorapossessivedeterminerinsteadof"the"infrontofasuperlative.Oftenthepossessiveformofanounisusedinsteadofaprepositionalphrase.Forexample,youcansay"Britain"soldestman"insteadof"theoldestmaninBritain"....theschool"smostfamousheadmaster....mynewestassistant.Thepossessiveformofnounsisexplainedinparagraphs2.180to2.192,andpossessivedeterminersareexplainedinparagraphs1.192to1.207.usedwithotheradjectives2.123Asuperlativeissometimesaccompaniedbyanotheradjectiveendingin"-able"or"-ible".Thissecondadjectivecanbeplacedeitherbetweenthesuperlativeandthenoungrouporafterthenoungroup....thenarrowestimaginablerangeofinterests....themostbeautifulsceneryimaginable....thelongestpossiblegap."Whoinvitedyou?"saidEtta,inthepleasantestmannerpossible.superlativesasheadwords2.124SuperlativeadjectivesaresometimesusedasheadwordsinfairlyformalEnglish.Whenyouuseasuperlativeadjectiveasaheadword,youput"the"infrontofit,andfollowitwith"of"andanoungroupwhichreferstothethingsbeingcompared.Whensuperlativeadjectivesareusedasheadwordstheycanrefertoonethingortomorethanone.Theyareoftentoopoortobuyorrenteventhecheapestofhouses.Hemadeseveralimportantdiscoveries.Themostinterestingofthesecamefromanexaminationofanoldmanuscript.Ifitisclearwhatyouaretalkingabout,youcanomit"of"andthefollowingnoungroup.Therearethreetypesofant-eater.Thesmallestlivesentirelyintrees.USAGENOTE2.125Ininformalspeech,peopleoftenuseasuperlativeratterthanacomparativewhentheyaretalkingabouttwothings.Forexample,someonemightsay"Thetrainisquickest"ratherthan"Thetrainisquicker"whencomparingatrainservicewithabusservice.Howeversomepeoplethinkthatitisbettertousesuperlativesonlywhencomparingmorethantwothings.usedwithordinalnumbers2.126Ordinalnumbersareusedwithsuperlativestoindicatethatsomethinghasmoreofaqualitythannearlyallotherthingsoftheirkind.Forexample,ifyousaythatamountainis"thesecondhighestmountain",youmeanthatitishigherthananyothermountainexceptthehighestone....Mobil,thesecondbiggestindustrialcompanyintheUnitedStates....Stonehenge,thesecondmostpopulartouristattractioninBritain.ItisJapan"sthirdlargestcity.Ordinalnumbersareexplainedinparagraphs2.249to2.256."theleast"2.127Whenyouwanttoindicatethatsomethinghaslessofaqualifythananythingelse,youuse"theleast"followedbyanadjective.Thisistheleastpopularbranchofmedicine.Similarly,whenyouaretalkingaboutagroupofthingswhichhavelessofaqualitythanotherthingsoftheirkind,youuse"theleast"....theleastsavagemeninthecountry.Otherwaysofcomparingthings:sayingthatthingsaresimilar2.128Anotherwayofdescribingthingsisbysayingthatsomethingissimilarinsomewayto385 somethingelse.indicatingthingswiththesamequality2.129Ifyouwanttosaythatathingorapersonhasasmuchofaqualityassomethingorsomeoneelse,youcanuseastructurebasedontheword"as"infrontofaqualitativeadjective.Usuallythisadjectiveisthenfollowedbyaqualifyingphraseorclausewhichalsobeginswith"as".Thequalifyingphrasecanbe•aprepositionalphrasebeginningwiththepreposition"as"You"rejustasbadasyoursister....hugepondsasbigastenniscourts.Takingswereashighasever.•aclauseintroducedbytheconjunction"as"ConversationwasnotasslowasIfeareditwouldbe.Thevillagegardensaren"tasgoodastheyusedtobe.2.130Whenthiscomparativestructureisfollowedbyaprepositionalphraseconsistingof"as"andapronounonitsown,thepronounmustbeanappropriateobjectpronounsuchas"me","him",or"her".Howeverwhenthecomparativestructureisfollowedbyaclauseconsistingoftheconjunction"as"andapronounwhichisthesubjectofaclause,thenthatpronounmustbeanappropriatesubjectpronounsuchas"I","he"or"her".Janewasnotascleverashim.Theyaren"tascleverastheyappeartobe.2.131Ifitisclearwhatyouarecomparingsomethingorsomeoneto,youcanomitthequalifyingphraseorclause.Amegaphonewouldbeasgood.2.132Youcanalsousethe"as...as..."structuretosaythatsomethinghasmuchmoreorlessofaqualitythansomethingelse.Youdothisbyputtinganexpressionsuchas"twice","threetimes","tentimes",or"half"infrontofthefirst"as".Forexample,ifonebuildingistenmetreshighandanotherbuildingistwentymetreshigh,youcansaythatthesecondbuildingis"twiceashighas"thefirstbuildingorthatthefirstbuildingis"halfashighas"thesecondone.Thegrasswastwiceastallasintherestofthefield.Wateriseighthundredtimesasdenseasair.ThisstructureisoftenusedInthesamewaytorefertoqualitiesthatcannotbemeasured.Forexample,ifyouwanttosaythatsomethingismuchmoreusefulthansomethingelse,youcansaythatthefirstthingis"ahundredtimesasusefulas"thesecondone.Withoutthisrearingourchildrenwouldbetentimesashardasitis.2.133Whenthe"as...as..."structureisprecededby"not",ithasthesamemeaningas"less...than".Forexample,"IamnotastallasGeorge"meansthesameas"IamlesstallthanGeorge".Somepeopleuse"notso...as..."insteadof"notas...as...".No14SumatraRoadwasnotasprettyasWalnutCottage.Theyoungotterisnotsohandsomeastheold.2.134Submodifierssuchas"just","quite","nearly"and"almost"canbeusedinfrontofthiscomparativestructure,modifyingthecomparisonwiththeirusualmeanings.Sunburncanbejustassevereasaheatburn.Theuseofsubmodifiersincomparisonisexplainedinparagraphs2.162to2.173.2.135Whenyouareusingthe"as...as..."structureyoucansometimesputanoungroupaftertheadjectiveandbeforethequalifyingphraseorclause.Thisnoungroupmustbeginwith"a"or"an".Forexample,insteadofsaying"Thisknifeisasgoodasthatone",youcansay"Thisisasgoodaknifeasthatone".I"masgoodacookassheis.Thiswasnotasbadaresultastheyexpected.Sometimes,insteadofusing"not"beforethisstructure,youcanuse"notsuch"followedby"a"or"an",anadjective,anoun,and"as".Waterisnotsuchagoodconductorasmetal.2.136Insteadofusingthis"as...as..."structureyoucanuseexpressionssuchas"theheightof"and"thesizeof"toindicatethatsomethingisasbigassomethingelse,orbiggerorsmaller.Foraweekmyhandwasthesizeofaboxingglove.Itisroughlythelengthofaman"sarm."like"2.137Ifsomethinghassimilarqualitiesorfeaturestosomethingelse,insteadofusingthe"as...as..."comparativestructureyoucansaythatthefirstthingis"like"thesecondone.Youdothisbyusingprepositionalphrasesbeginningwith"like"afterlinkverbs.385 Helookedlikeanactor.Thatsoundslikeanexaggeration.Thewholethingislikeabaddream.Themeaningofthisstructureisclosetothemeaningofanordinarycomplementstructure(seeparagraphs3.139to3.143).Comparethelastexamplewith"thewholethingisabaddream".Thisisamoredefinitestatement,where"abaddream"isthecomplementofthelinkverb.Hereisalistofthelinkverbsusedwith"like":befeellookseemsmellsoundtasteWhenyouwanttosaythatonethingresemblesanother,youcanuseaprepositionalphrasebeginningwith"like"aftertheselinkverbs.Itwaslikeadream.Hestillfeelslikeachild.Helookedlikeaniceman.Thehousesseemedlikemansions.Yousmelllikeawildanimal.Itsoundedlikeafineidea.2.138"Like"hasthecomparative"morelike"and"lesslike",andthesuperlative"mostlike"and"leastlike".ItmadeherseemlesslikeanotherofTheodore"spossessions.Ofallhischildren,shewastheonemostlikeme.USAGENOTE2.139Youcanusesomesubmodifiersinfrontof"like".Helooksjustlikeababy.Shelookedlikeaqueen,justexactlylikeaqueen.Thisisexplainedinparagraph2.170.2.140Ifyouwanttosaythatonethingisexactlylikesomethingelse,youcansaythatitis"thesameas"theotherthing.Theoutputsignalwillbethesameastheinputsignal."Thesameas"canbefollowedbyanoungroup,apronoun,anadjunct,oraclause.24SpringTerracewasthesameasallitsneighbours.Hercolouringwasthesameasmine.ThefurnishingsarenotexactlythesameaswhenMorrislivedthere.Iftwoormorethingsareexactlylikeeachother,youcansaythatthey"thesame".Comeandlook!They"reexactlythesame.Theybothtastethesame.Youcanuse"thesame"whenyouarecomparingpeopleorthingswithotherpeopleorthingsthatyouhavejustmentioned.Itlookslikeacalculatorandweighsaboutthesame.Themessagewasthesame.Theendresultisthesame.Notethatyouuse"theopposite","theconverse",and"thereverse"inasimilarway.ThekindofreligiousthoughtsIhadwerejusttheopposite.Thiswastruethoughtheconversewasnottrue.2.141Youcanusesomesubmodifiersinfrontof"thesameas"and"thesame":Theyarevirtuallythesameasothersinglecells.Youtwolookexactlythesame.Hereisalistofsubmodifiersusedwith"thesameas"and"thesame":exactlyjustmoreorlessmuchnearlyvirtuallySubmodifiersareexplainedinparagraphs2.145to2.173.2.142Youcanputanounsuchas"size","length",or"colour"after"thesame".Forexample,ifyouwanttosaythatonestreetisaslongasanotherone,youcansaythatthefirststreetis"thesamelengthas"thesecondone,orthatthetwostreetsare"thesamelength".Itsbrainwasaboutthesamesizeasthatofagorilla.Theywerealmostthesameheight.2.143Theadjectives"alike","comparable","equivalent","identical",and"similar"canalsobeusedtosaythattwoormorethingsarelikeeachother.Youcanputthepreposition"to"afterallofthemexcept"alike"inordertomentionthesecondofthethingsbeingcompared.385 Theyalllookedalike.Thehouseswereallidentical.FlemishissimilartoAfrikaans.2.144Whenyouwanttosuggestthatyouarecomparingdifferentamountsofaquality,youcanusesubmodifierssuchas"comparatively","relative",and"equally".Psychology"sacomparativelynewsubject.Thecostsremainedrelativelylow.HertechniquewaslessdramaticthanAnn"s,butequallyeffective.Hewasextrapolitetohissuperiors.Indicatingdifferentamountsofaquality:submodifiers2.145Whenyouwanttoindicatesomethingmoreaboutthequalitywhichanadjectivedescribes,youcanuseasubmodifiersuchas"very"and"rather"withit.Youdothisinordertoindicatetheamountofthequality,ortointensifyit.Manysubmodifiersareadverbsofdegree(seeparagraphs6.45to6.52).submodifyingadjectives2.146Becausequalitativeadjectivesaregradable,allowingyoutosayhowmuchorhowlittleofthequalityisrelevant,youaremorelikelylousesubmodifierswiththemthanwithothertypesofadjective....anextremelynarrowroad....ahighlysuccessfulcompany....inaslightlydifferentway.Iwasextraordinarilyhappy....helpingtheminastronglysupportiveway....averyprettygirl.Sheseemsverypleasant....aratherclumsyperson.Hishairwasratherlong.2.147Althoughqualitativeadjectivesarethemostfrequentlysubmodified,youcanusesubmodifierswithclassifyingadjectives(seeparagraphs2.151to2.153)andwithcolouradjectives(seeparagraph2.35).Notethatmost"-ed"adjectivescanbesubmodifiedbywordssuchas"veryand"extremely",justlikeotherqualitativeadjectives....averyfrightenedlittlegirl....anextremelydisappointedyoungman.intensifyingqualitativeadjectives2.148Youcanusemanysubmodifierswithqualitativeadjectivesinordertointensifytheirmeaning....extremelyhightemperatures.Geoffreywasadeeplyreligiousman.Franceisheavilydependentonforeigntrade.Hereisalistofsubmodifiersusedtointensifythemeaningofadjectives:amazinglyawfullybitterlycriticallydangerouslydeeplydelightfullydisturbinglydreadfullyeminentlyespeciallyexceedinglyextraordinarilyextremelyfantasticallygreatlyheavilyhighlyhopelesslyhorriblyhugelyimpossiblyincrediblyinfinitelynotablyparticularlyradicallyreallyremarkablyseriouslystrikinglysupremelysurprisinglysuspiciouslyterriblyunbelievablyveryviolentlyvitallywildlywonderfullyNotethat"very"canbeusedtosubmodifysuperlativeadjectiveswhenyouwanttobeveryemphatic.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs2.172to2.173.Notealsothatadjectiveswith"most"infrontofthemarenotalwayssuperlatives."Most"isalsousedasasubmodifierwiththemeaning"very".Thisbookwasmostinteresting.Mygrandfatherwasamostextraordinaryman.2.149Manyofthesesubmodifiersnotonlyintensifythemeaningoftheadjectivebutalsoallowyoutoexpressyouropinionaboutwhatyouaresaying.Forexample,ifyousaythatsomethingis"surprisinglylarge",youareexpressingsurpriseathowlargeitisaswellas385 intensifyingthemeaningof"large".Hehasamazinglylongeyelashes....adelightfullyrefreshingtaste.Thecabinwasextraordinarilyquiet....ahorriblyuncomfortablechair....incrediblyboringdocuments.However,youuseafewofthesesubmodifierswithnootherpurposethantointensifythemeaningoftheadjective.They"reawfullybrave.Theothergirlsweredreadfullydullcompanions.Hereisalistofsubmodifiersonlyusedtointensifyadjectives:awfullydreadfullyespeciallyextremelygreatlyhighlyhorriblyreallysoterriblyveryNotethat"awfully","dreadfully","horribly",and"terribly"areusedininformallanguageand"highly"isusedinveryformallanguage.Notealsothat"so"isnormallyonlyusedafteralinkverb.I"amsosorry.2.150Somesubmodifiersareusedtoreducetheeffectofqualitativeadjectives.Itwasfaintlyfunny.It"safairlycommonfeeling....moderatelyrichpeople....hisratherlargestomach.Mylastquestionissomewhatpersonal.Hereisalistofsubmodifiersusedtoreducetheeffectofanadjective:fatallyfairlymildlymoderatelyprettyquiteratherreasonablyslightlysomewhatNotethat"quite"and"rather",aswellasbeingusedassubmodifierstoreducetheeffectofanadjective,arealsopredeterminers(seeparagraph1.236).Notealsothat"quite"isnormallyonlyusedwithadjectiveswhichareusedafteralinkverb.Shewasquitetall.indicatingextent2.151Somesubmodifiersareusedtoindicatetheextentofthequalitywhichyouaredescribing.Hereisalistofsubmodifiersusedtoindicatetheextentofaquality:almostexclusivelyfullylargelymainlymostlynearlypartlypredominantlyprimarilyroughly~absolutelyaltogethercompletelyentirelyperfectlypurelyquitesimplytotallyutterlyUSAGENOTE2.152Thefirstgroupinthelistaboveareusedalmostalwaysjusttoindicatetheextentofaquality.Theyaremostcommonlyusedwithclassifyingadjectives.Itwasanalmostautomaticreflex....describedinexclusivelyhumanterms.Kashmirisalargelymuslimstate.Thewolfisnownearlyextinct.Thereasonsforthiswerepartlyeconomicandpractical,andpartlypoliticalandsocial."Almost"and"nearly"arealsousedwithqualitativeadjectives.Theclubwasalmostempty.Itwasnearlydark.Notethat"roughly"canbeusedwhenyouwanttosaythatsomethingisnearlyorapproximatelylikesomethingelse.WestGermany,JapanandSwedenareatroughlysimilarlevelsofeconomicdevelopment.Notealsothat"half"cansometimesbeusedinthisway.Forexample,youcandescribesomeoneas"halfAmerican"ifjustoneoftheirparentswasAmerican.2.153Thesecondgroupinthelistaboveareusednotonlytoindicatetheextentofaqualitybutalsotoemphasizetheadjective.Theycanbeusedwithclassifyingadjectivesaswellasqualitativeadjectives.385 You"reabsolutelyright.Thispolicyhasbeencompletelyunsuccessful.Everyoneappearedtobecompletelyunawareofthefact.Thediscussionwaspurelytheoretical.Itreallyisquiteastonishing....atotallynewsituation.Welivedtotallyseparatelives....utterlytrivialmatters.Notethat"absolutely"isfrequentlyusedwithqualitativeadjectiveswhichexpressenthusiasmorlackofenthusiasm.Whenyouuse"absolutely"inthiswayyouareemphasizinghowstronglyyoufeelaboutwhatyouaresaying....anabsolutelyabsurdsermon.Ithinkit"sabsolutelywonderful.Theenquiryisabsolutelycrucial.Hereisalistofqualitativeadjectivesoftenemphasizedby"absolutely".absurdawfulbrilliantcertaincrucialenormousessentialexcellentfurioushugeimpossiblemassiveperfectsplendidterriblevitalwonderfulNotealsothat"completely"and"utterly"canalsobeusedinthisway.Itiscompletelyimpossibletoimaginesuchaworld.Hebegantofeelutterlymiserable.2.154Youcanusesubmodifierssuchas"adequately","sufficiently",and"acceptably"whenyouwanttoindicatethatsomeoneorsomethinghasasufficientamountofthequalityyouaredescribing.Theroofisadequatelyinsulated.Wefoundabankofsnowsufficientlydeeptodigacave.2.155Youcanalsoindicatethatyouthinksomethingissufficientbyusing"enough"."Enough"alwayscomesaftertheadjective,andneverbeforeit.Iwasnotagoodenoughrider.ItseemedthatHenryhadnotbeencarefulenough."Enough"canbefollowedbyaprepositionalphrasebeginningwith"for"toindicateapersoninvolved,orbya"to"-infinitiveclausetoindicatearelatedaction.Agirlinthefactorywasn"tgoodenoughforhim.Ifyoufindthatthewhitewineisnotcoldenoughforyou,askforsomeicetobeputinit.Thechildrenareoldenoughtotraveltoschoolontheirown.Noneoftherichlygrowingcropswasripeenoughtoeat.Notethatwhen"enough"isusedafteranadjective,youcanuse"just"infrontoftheadjectivetoindicatethatsomeoneorsomethinghasasufficientamountofthequalitydescribedbytheadjective,butnomorethanthat.Someofthesecreaturesarejustlargeenoughtoseewiththenakedeye.2.156"Enough"canalsobeadeterminer(seeparagraphs1.208to1.232).Hehasn"thadenoughexercise.When"enough"isadeterminer,itcanhaveasubmodifierinfrontofit.Therewasjustenoughspaceforabed.Theynowhavealmostenoughscholars.2.157Ifyouwanttoindicatethatyouthinksomethingyouaredescribesisinsufficient,youcanusesubmodifierssuchas"inadequately","insufficiently",and"unacceptably"....insufficientlysubtleanddetailedmethods.Theirpublicationswereinadequatelyresearched.2.158Ifyouwanttoindicatethatyouthinksomeoneorsomethinghasanexcessiveamountofaquality,younormallyusethesubmodifier"too"infrontofaqualitativeadjectivewhichisusedpredicatively.Myfeetaretoobig.Itwastoohot.DadthoughtIwastooidealistic."Too"canbefollowedbyaprepositionalphrasebeginningwith"for"toindicateapersoninvolvedorbya"to-"infinitiveclausetoindicatearelatedaction.Theshoesweretoobigforhim.385 Hewastoooldforthatsortofthing.Hewastooweaktoliftme.Hewastooproudtoapologise.Notethatyoudonotusuallyuse"too"withanadjectiveinfrontofanoun,althoughyoudouse"too"infrontofthedeterminers"many","much",and"few".Youasktoomanyquestions,Sam.Thereistoomuchchanceoferror.ToofewpeoplenowadaysareinterestedinLiterature.WARNING2.159"Too"cannotbeusedinsteadof"very".Ratherthansaying"Iamtoohappytomeetyou",youmustsay"Iamveryhappytomeetyou."2.160Otherwordsthatindicatetoomuchofaqualityare"excessively","overly",andtheprefix"over-".Thesecanbeused,like"too",withpredicativeadjectives,buttheycanalsobeusedwithattributiveadjectives....excessivelyhighaccidentrates....anintellectualbutover-cautiousman.Theywereoverlyeager.PRODUCTIVEFEATURE2.161Aswellasadverbsofdegree,youcanusesomeothertypesofadverbsuchasadverbsoftimeinfrontofadjectivestomodifytheirmeaning.ThisisaproductivefeatureofEnglish.ProductivefeaturesareexplainedintheIntroduction....theonceelegantpalace....apermanentlymuddyroad....internationallyfamousgolfers....naturallyblondehair....coollyelegantfurniture....purposelyexpensivegadgets.AdverbsareexplainedinChapter6.Indicatingthedegreeofdifference:submodifiersincomparison2.162Whenyouareusingcomparativeadjectives,youmaywanttosaythatsomethinghasmuchmoreormuchlessofaquantitythansomethingelse.Youcandothisbyaddingasubmodifier.Heisamuchbetterdentistthanyou.Thesecreaturesaremuchlessmobile.Therearefarworsedangers.Somechildrenarealotmoredifficultthanothers.Youcanalsouseasubmodifiertosaythatsomethinghasmuchmoreormuchlessofaqualitythanithadbefore.Hehadbecomemuchmoremature.That"smuchlessimportantthanitwas.2.163Somesubmodifierscanonlybeusedwhencomparativeadjectivesarebeingusedascomplements.Youlookalotbetter.Itwouldbeagooddealeasierifyoucametomyplace.Thejourneybackwasagreatdealmoreunpleasantthantheoutwardonehadbeen.Hereisalistofsubmodifiersusedinfrontofcomparativeadjectives:agooddealagreatdealalotheapslotsNotethat"lots"and"heaps"areonlyusedininformalspokenEnglish.2.164However,othersubmodifierscanbeusedwithcomparativeadjectiveswhicharebeingusedaseithermodifiersorcomplements.Theyarefacedwithamuchharderproblemthantherestofus.Scientificactivityisnowmuchgreater.Computerscanbeappliedtoafarwiderrangeoftasks.Theprocessisfarsimplerthanmultiplication.Hereisalistofsubmodifiersusedwithadjectivesthatareusedbothattributivelyandpredicatively:considerablyfarinfinitelymuchvastlyverymuch2.165Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethinghasmoreofaqualitythansomethingelsewhichalreadyhasalotofit,youcanuse"even"or"still"beforeacomparativeadjective,or"still"after385 it.She"sevenlazierthanme!ShewasevenmorepossessivethanRosamund.Ihadastillmorerecentreport.Thetextisactuallyworsestill.Similarly,youcanuse"even"or"still"tosaythatsomethinghaslessofaqualitythansomethingelsewhichhaslittleofthisquality.Selectionandassessmenttendtobeevenlessfair.Youcanalsouse"even"or"still"whencomparingtheamountofaqualitythatsomethinghasatonetimewiththeamountthatithasatanother.Theirnon-nuclearsuperiorityhasgrownevenbiggersince1967.Theywillbecomericherstill.InformalorliteraryEnglish,"yet"issometimesusedasasubmodifierinthesamewayas"still".Hewouldhavebeenyetmorealarmedhadshewithdrawn.Theplanesgrowmightieryet.2.166Youcanindicatethatsomethinghasanincreasingordecreasingamountofaqualitybyrepeatingcomparativeadjectives.Forexample,youcansaythatsomethingisgetting"biggerandbigger","moreandmoredifficult",or"lessandlesscommon".He"sgettingfatterandfatter....defencesthatwereprovingmoreandmoreeffective."Increasingly"canbeusedinsteadof"moreandmore"and"decreasingly"insteadof"lessandless".Iwasbecomingincreasinglydepressed.Itwasthefirstofanumberofincreasinglyfranktalks.2.167Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethinghasalittlemoreoralittlelessofaqualitythansomethingelse,youcanuse"rather","slightly","abit","alittlebit",or"alittle"withcomparativeadjectives.It"sarathermorecomplicatedstorythenthat.She"sonlyalittlebittallerthanhersister.Youcanalsousetheseconstructionstosaythatsomethinghasalittlemoreoralittlelessofaqualitythanithadbefore.Wemustberathermorevisibletopeopleinthecommunity....thelittlethingsthatmadelifeslightlylessintolerable.2.168Ifyouwanttosayemphaticallythatsomethinghasnomoreofaqualitythansomethingelseorthanithadbefore,youcanuse"no"infrontofcomparativeadjectives.Somespeciesofdinosaurwerenobiggerthanachicken."Any"isusedforemphasisinfrontofcomparativesinnegativeclauses,questions,andconditionalclauses.Forexample,"Hewasn"tanytallerthanJane"meansthesameas"HewasnotallerthanJane".Iwastenanddidn"tlookanyolder.Ifitwillmakeyouanyhappier,I"llshaveoffmybeard.Isthatanyclearer?Notethatyoucanonlyuse"no"and"any"likethiswhencomparativesarebeingusedascomplements.Youcannotuse"no"and"any"withcomparativeswhentheyarebeingusedinfrontofanoungroup.Forexample,youcannotsay"Itwasanobettermeal"or"Isthatananyfastertrain?"2.169Whenyouusethecomparativestructure"as...as..."(seeparagraphs2.129to2.135),submodifierssuchas"just","quite","nearly",and"almost"canbeusedinfrontofit,modifyingthecomparisonwiththeirusualmeanings.Marywasjustaspaleashewas.Theysetuponinsectsquiteaslargeasthemselves....ahugebirdwhichwasnearlyasbigasaman.Thelandseemedalmostasdarkasthewater."Nearly"canalsobeusedasasubmodifierwhenthe"as...as..."structureisprecededby"not"withthemeaning"less...than".Youputitafterthe"not".Forexample,"IamnotnearlyastallasGeorge"meansthesameas"IammuchlesstallthanGeorge".Thisisnotnearlyascomplicatedasitsounds.2.170Whenyouuse"like"todescribesomeoneorsomethingbycomparingthemwithsomeoneorsomethingelse(seeparagraphs2.137to2.139),youcanuseasubmodifierin385 frontofit....animalsthatlookedalittlelikedonkeys.It"saplaneexactlylikehis.Hereisalistofsubmodifiersusedwith"like":abitalittleexactlyjustquiterathersomewhatvery2.171Whenyouuse"thesameas"and"thesame"todescribesomeoneorsomethingbysayingtheyareidenticaltosomeoneorsomethingelse,youcanuseanumberofsubmodifiersinfrontofthem,including"just","exactly","much","nearly","virtually",and"moreorless".Thesemodifythemeaningwiththeirusualmeanings.Sheworeplimsolls,justthesameastheonesweworeatschool.ThesituationwasmuchthesameinGermany.Themoralcodewouldseemtobemoreorlessthesamethroughouttheworld.2.172Whenyouareusingsuperlativeadjectives,youmaywishtosaythatsomethinghasmuchmoreormuchlessofaqualitythananythingelseofitskind.Aswithcomparatives,youcandothisbyusingsubmodifiers.Thesubmodifiers"much","quite","easily","byfar",and"very"canbeusedwiththesuperlativeadjectives."Much","quite",and"easily"areplacedinfrontof"the"andthesuperlative.Musicmayhavebeenmuchthemostrespectableofhistastes....themostfrighteningtimeofmylife,andquitethemostdishonest.TheGranadaiseasilythemostpopularmodel."Byfar"canbeplacedeitherinfrontof"the"andthesuperlativeorafterthesuperlative.Theyarebyfarthemostdangerouscreaturesontheisland.TheUnionwasthelargestbyfar.2.173"Very"canonlybeusedwithsuperlativesformedbyadding"-est"withirregularsuperlativessuchas"thebest"and"theworst"."Very"isplacedbetween"the"andthesuperlative....theveryearliestcomputers.Itwasoftheveryhighestquality."Very"canalsobeusedtosubmodifysuperlativeadjectiveswhenyouwarntobeveryemphatic.Itisplacedafteradeterminersuchas"the"or"that"andinfrontofasuperlativeadjectiveoronesuchas"first"or"last"....intheverysmallestcountries....oneoftheveryfinestbreedsofdogs....ontheveryfirstdayofthewar.Hehadcomeattheverylastmoment.Thatverynextafternoonhewasworkinginhisroom.Hespentweeksinthatverysamebasement.Modifyingusingnouns:nounmodifiers2.174Nounscanbeusedasmodifiersinfrontofothernounswhenyouwanttogivemorespecificinformationaboutsomeoneorsomething.Sometimes,whennounsareusedlikethistheybecomefixedexpressionswhicharecalledcompoundnouns(seeparagraphs1.84to1.93).Whenthenounsusedinfrontofothernounsarenotinfixedexpressions,theyarecallednounmodifiers....thecardoor....tennislessons....afootballplayer....catfood....themusicindustry....asurpriseannouncement.singularandpluralforms2.175Younormallyusethesingularformofacountnoun(seeparagraphs1.16to1.23)asanounmodifier,evenwhenyouarereferringtomorethanonething.Forexample,yourefertoashopthatsellsbooksas"abookshop",not"abooksshop",eventhoughitsellsalargenumberofbooks,notjustone.Manypluralnounslosetheir"-s"endingswhenusedinfrontofothernouns....mytrouserpocket.385 ...pyjamatrousers....paratroopattacks.Hereisalistofcommonpluralnounswhichlosetheir"-s"and"-es"endingswhentheyareusedasmodifiers:knickersparatroopspyjamasscissorsspectaclestroopstrousersHowever,somepluralnounskeepthesameformwhenusedinfrontofothernouns....armscontrol....thearmsrace....clothespegs.Hereisalistofcommonpluralnounswhichremainthesamewhentheyareusedasmodifiers:armsbinocularsclothesglassesjeanssunglassesPluralnounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.42to1.47.usingmorethanonenounmodifier2.176Ifyouwanttobeevenmorespecific,youcanusemorethanonenounmodifier.Forexample,a"carinsurancecertificate"isacertificatewhichindicatesthatacarhasbeeninsured,anda"statepensionscheme"isaschemethatisrunbythestateandconcernsworkers"pensions....aCareersinformationOfficer....carbodyrepairkits....afamilydinnerparty....aschoolmedicalofficer.usedwithadjectives2.177Ifyouwanttogivemoreinformationaboutanounthathasamodifierinfrontofit,youcanputadjectivesinfrontofthenounmodifier....alongcarjourney....anewscarletsilkhandkerchief....complexbusinessdeals....thisbeautifulmorningsunlight....theFrenchfilmindustry.Whenanadjectivecomesinfrontoftwonouns,itisusuallyobviouswhetheritismodifyingthetwonounscombinedoronlythenounmodifier.Forexample,in"anelectriccanopener",theadjective"electric"ismodifyingthecombination"canopener":whereasin"electricshocktreatment","electric"ismodifyingthenoon"shock"andthenboththeadjectiveandthenounmodifieraremodifyingthenoun"treatment".Adjectivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.2to2.107.2.178Propernounscanalsobeusedasnounmodifiers.Forexample,ifyouwanttoshowthatsomethingisconnectedwithaplace,organization,orinstitution,youputthenameoftheplace,organization,orinstitutioninfrontofallothernounmodifiers.Youalsoputtheminfrontofclassifyingadjectives....BrightonTechnicalCollege....theCambridgeHouseLiteracyScheme.Propernounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.53to1.59.2.179TheuseofnounmodifiersinEnglishisverycommonindeed.Infact,whenthecontextmakesitclearwhatyoumean,youcanusealmostanynountomodifyanyothernoun.Youcanusenounmodifierstoindicateawiderangeofrelationshipsbetweenthetwonouns.Forexample,youcansaywhatsomethingismadeof,asin"cottonsocks".Youcanalsosaywhatismadein,aparticularplace,asin"aglassfactory".Youcansaywhatsomeonedoes,asin"afootballplayer",oryoucansaywheresomethingis,asin"mybedroomcurtains".Youcansaywhensomethinghappens,asin"themorningmist"and"herwartimeactivities".Youcanalsodescribethenatureorsizeofsomething,asin"asurpriseattack"and"apocketchess-set".TheuseofnounmodifiersisaproductivefeatureofEnglish.ProductivefeaturesareexplainedintheIntroduction.Indicatingpossessionorassociation:possessivestructures2.180Onewayofspecifyingsomethingisbysayingwhoorwhatitbelongstoorisassociatedwith.Sothat,forexample,youcantalkabout"Elizabeth"sbook",or"theteacher"srole".Thissectiondealswithwaysofexpressingpossessionwithinanoungroup,typicallybyusingastructurebasedonapostrophes("s).Whenapostrophes("s)isaddedtoanounornameitis385 calledthepossessiveform;somegrammarscallitthegenitive.2.181Youusuallyshowthatsomethingbelongstoorisassociatedwithsomeonebyadding"stothenameoftheperson,andbyplacingthispossessiveforminfrontofthethingthatbelongstothem,orisassociatedwiththem.Forexample,ifJohnownsamotorbike,youcanrefertoitas"John"smotorbike".SylviaputherhandonJohn"sarm.ItwasprobablyMrsThatcher"sgreatesterror.Whenyouuseanounratherthananametorefertotheperson,thenoungroupcontainingthepossessiveformalsocontainsadeterminerintheusualway....hisgrandmother"shouse.Yourmother"sbesthandbag.Notethatthedeterminerappliestothepossessiveformandnottothenounwhichisbeingmodifiedbythepossessive.spellingandpronunciation2.182Thespellingandpronunciationpatternsusedtoformpossessiveschangeaccordingtothespellingandpronunciationofthenameornoun.TheseareexplainedintheReferenceSection.otherusesof"s2.183Theuseofapostrophes("s)isnotjustrestrictedtonounsandnamesortoindicatingpossessionorassociation.Forexample,itcanbeusedinaqualifyingphrasebeginningwiththepreposition"of"anditcanbeusedlikeapossessivepronoun.Somenounswith"saddedcanalsobeusedasmodifiersinfrontofanoun.Theseotherusesofthepossessiveformareexplainedinparagraphs2.188to2.192.Notethatinadditiontobeingthepossessiveform,thepattern"scanalsobeaddedtowordsasacontractionof"is"or"has".ThisisexplainedintheReferenceSection.otherwaysofindicatingpossession2.184Itisalsosometimespossibletoindicatepossessionbyusingeitheraprepositionalphrasebeginningwith"of",orbyusingastructurewithanounmodifierinit.Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwith"of"areexplainedinparagraphs2.294to2.300.Nounmodifiersareexplainedinparagraphs2.174to2.179.Indicatingcloseconnection:apostrophes("s)2.185Apostrophes("s)ismostoftenaddedtoanounreferringtoapersonorananimal.Iworeapairofmysister"sboots.Philipwatchedhisfriend"sreaction.Billypattedthedog"shead.Itcanalsobeusedtoshowthatsomethingbelongstoorisassociatedwithagroupofpeopleoraninstitution.Sherunstheforeignexchangedeskforthebank"scorporateclients.Theyalsopreparetheuniversity"sbudget....thepaper"spoliticaleditor,MrFredEmery.TherewasaraidontheDemocraticParty"sheadquarters.Whatisyourgovernment"spolicy?2.186Apostrophes("s)issometimesaddedtoanounreferringtoanobjectwhenspecifyingapartofitoraqualityorfeaturethatithas.Ilikethecar"sdesign.Youcanpredictacomputer"sbehaviourbecauseitfollowsrules.Apostrophes("s)isusedafternounsandnamesreferringtoplacestospecifysomethinginthatplace.Heistheadministrativeheadofthecountry"sbiggestcity.Thecity"spopulationisindecline....Britain"smostfamouscompany.2.187Ifyouwanttoemphasizethatsomethingbelongsorrelatestoaparticularpersonandnobodyelse,youuse"own"."Own"canbeusedafterthepossessiveformofanameornoun,aswellasafterapossessivedeterminer.ProfessorWilson"sownanswermaybeunacceptable.WemustdependonDavid"sownassessment.Ifyouarespecifyinganumberofthings,youputthenumberafter"own"....theDoctor"sowntworooms.Otherstructureswithapostrophes("s)2.188Whenyouaretalkingabouttwothingsofthesametypewhichbelongtodifferent385 peopleyoucanusethepossessiveformofanameornounlikeapossessivepronounsothatyoucanomitrepeatingthethingitself.Inthefirstexamplebelow,"David"s"isusedinsteadof"David"shand".HerhandfeltdifferentfromDavid"s.HertonewasmorefriendlythanStryker"s.Itisyourresponsibilityratherthanyourparents".Thepossessiveformcanalsobeusedonitsowntorefertosomeone"shomeorplaceofwork.He"sroundatDavid"s.Shestoppedoffatthebutcher"sforapieceofsteak.Shehasn"tbeenbacktothedoctor"ssince.Possessivepronounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.110to1.114.2.189Thepossessiveformcanbeusedinaprepositionalphrasebeginningwith"of"whichqualifiesanoungroup.Youusethisstructurewhenyouaretalkingaboutoneofanumberofthingsthatbelongtosomeoneorareassociatedwiththem,ratherthanaboutsomethingunique.Julia,afriendofJenny"s,wastheretoo.Thatwordwasafavouriteofyourfather"s.2.190Possessiveformscanalsobeusedtorefertothingsofaparticulartypewhichareusuallyassociatedwithsomeone....awomandressedinaman"sraincoat....apoliceman"suniform....women"smagazines....themen"slavatory.2.191Thepossessiveformcansometimesbeusedwithnounswhichrefertoanactioninordertoindicatewhoorwhatisperformingtheaction....thebankingservice"srapidgrowth....Madeleine"sarrivalatFairwaterHouseSchool.Notethatprepositionalphasesbeginningwith"of"areusedmorecommonlytodothis,andthattheyaremoreformalthanthisuseofpossessiveforms.Theuseofprepositionalphrasesbeginningwith"of"toindicatewhoorwhatisperforminganactionisexplainedinparagraph2.299.2.192Sometimesyoucanaddapostrophes("s)toanounreferringtothethingaffectedbytheperformerofanactionandputitinfrontofthenounreferringtothatperformer.Forexample,youcantalkabout"thescheme"ssupporters"....MrHealy"ssupporters....thecar"sowner.Sometimesanapostrophes("s)structurecanbeusedtoindicatethethingaffectedbyanaction....Benn"sappointmentasMinisterofTechnology.Noteagainthat"of"structuresaremorecommonlyusedtodothis.Talkingaboutquantitiesandamounts2.193Thissectiondealswithwaysofreferringtoquantitiesandamountsofthings.Youoftenrefertoquantitiesbyusinganumber,butsometimesineverydaysituationsyoucandothisbyusingawordoraphrasesuchas"several"and"abottle"andlinkitwith"of"tothefollowingnoungroupinapartitivestructure.Whenwordslike"several"areusedlikethis,theyarecalledquantifiers.Quantifiersareexplainedinparagraphs2.194to2.210.Whenphrasessuchas"abottle"areusedlikethis,theyarecalledpartitives.Partitivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.211to2.224.Whenyouwanttobeverypreciseaboutthequantityoramountofsomething,youcanusenumbers(seeparagraphs2.225to2.256)orfractions(seeparagraphs2.257to2.266).Numbers,fractions,andquantifiersarealsousedinexpressionsofmeasurementtoindicatethesize,weight,length,andsoon,ofsomething.Waysoftalkingaboutmeasurementsareexplainedinparagraphs2.267to2.274.Approximatemeasurementsareexplainedinparagraphs2.281to2.288.Numbersarealsousedtosayhowoldsomeoneorsomethingis.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs2.275to2.280.Talkingaboutamountsofthings:quantifiers2.194Whenyouwanttorefertoaquantityofthingsortoanamountofsomethingineverydaylanguage,youuseaquantifier.385 Iamsurebothofyouagreewithme....ahousewithlotsofwindows.Mostofthepopulationhavefled.Imakealotofmistakes.InTunisthereareanumberofartgalleries.Ineverfoundtherestofmyrelatives.Notethatallquantifiersconsistoftwoormorewords,because"of"isneededineverycase."Of"isprintedinthelistsbelowasareminder.2.195Hereisthelistofquantifiers:allofanotherofanyofbothofcertainofeachofeitherofenoughoffewoffeweroflessoflittleoflotsofmanyofmoreofmostofmuchofneitherofnoneofnumbersofoneofpartofplentyofquantitiesofseveralofsomeofvariousof~anamountofabitofalittlebitofacoupleofagooddealofagreatdealofafewofalittleofalotofagoodmanyofagreatmanyofanumberofaquantityof~amajorityofthemajorityofaminorityof~thereminderoftherestofthewholeof~heapsofloadsofmassesoftonsofNotethatthequantifiersinthelastgroupinthislistareusedininformalspeechonly.2.196Someofthesequantifierscanbelinkedby"of"onlytonoungroupsthatbeginwithaspecificdeterminersuchas"the","these",or"my".Apronounsuchas"us","them",or"these"canalsobeusedafter"of".Nearlyalloftheincreasehasbeencausedbyinflation.Partofthefarmlayclosetotheriverbank.Onlyafewoftheattackerswerearmed.Hereisalistofquantifiersusuallyoralwaysusedwithnoungroupsbeginningwithspecificdeterminers:allofanotherofanyofbothofcertainofeachofeitherofenoughoffewoffeweroflessoflittleofmanyofmoreofmostofmuchofneitherofnoneofoneofpartofseveralofsomeofvariousof~afewofalittleofagoodmanyofagreatmanyof~theremainderoftherestofthewholeofAllotherqualifierscanbeusedwithnoungroupsbeginningwitheitherspecificorgeneraldeterminers.2.197Someofthesequantifierscanalsobeusedwithplacenames.ThewholeofAmericawillbeshockedbywhathappened....involvingalargepartofAfricaandalargepartofSouthAmerica.Hereisalistofquantifiersusedwithplacenames:alloflessofmoreofmostofmuchofnoneofpartofsomeof~abitofalittleofagooddealofagreatdealofalotof~therestofthewholeof2.198Whenyouuseaquantifierasthesubjectofaverb,theverbissingularorpluraldependingonwhetherthequantifierreferstoonethingortomorethanonething.Someoftheinformationhasalreadybeenanalysed.Someofmybestfriendsarepolicemen.withpluralnouns2.199Manyquantifierscanonlybeusedinfrontofpluralnoungroups.Iamsurebothofyouagreewithme.Startbylookingthroughtheirpapersforeitherofthetwodocumentsmentionedbelow.Fewoftheseorganizationssurviveforlong.Severalofhisbestbooksareaboutspaceflight.385 Iwouldliketoaskyouacoupleofquestions.Thereportcontainedlargenumbersofinaccuracies.Hereisalistofquantifiersonlyusedwithpluralnoungroups:anotherofbothofcertainofeachofeitheroffewoffewerofmanyofneitherofnumbersofoneofseveralofvariousof~acoupleofafewofagoodmanyofagreatmanyofanumberofFormoreinformationabout"eachof"seeparagraphs2.203to2.204,about"fewerof"seeparagraph2.206,andabout"anumberof"seeparagraphs2.208to2.209.Notethat"neitherof"isusedinasimilarwayto"eitherof"whenyouaretalkingabouttwothingsinnegativeclauses.Thisisexplainedinparagraph4.75.withuncountnounsandsingularnouns2.200Afewquantifiersareonlyusedwithuncountnounsandsingularnoungroups.Muchofthedaywastakenupwithclasses.Thisisabitofachange.Therewasagooddealofsmoke.Ifyouuserichmilk,pouroffalittleofthecream.Ispentthewholeoflastyearworkingthere.Hereisalistofquantifiersonlyusedwithuncountnounsandsingularnoungroups:lessoflittleofmuchofpartof~abitofalittlebitofagooddealofagreatdealofalittleof~thewholeofFormoreinformationabout"lessof"seeparagraph2.206.withpluralnounsanduncountnouns2.201Averyfewquantifierscanbeusedonlywithpluralnoungroupsanduncountnouns.Herimmensequantitiesofjewels,robes,cosmeticsandcarpets.Verylargequantitiesofaidwereneeded.Theyhadloadsofthingstosayabouteachother.Wehadloadsofroom....plentyofthemen.Bakeusplentyofbreadforourjourney.Hereisalistofquantifiersonlyusedwithpluralnoungroupsanduncountnouns:plentyofquantitiesof~heapsofloadsofmassesoftonsofNotethatwhenthesecondgroupofquantifiersinthislistareusedwithanuncountnounasthesubjectofaverb,theverbissingular,eventhoughthequantifierlooksplural.Massesandmassesoffoodwasleftover.2.202Somequantifierscanbeusedwithpluralnoungroups,withsingularnoungroups,orwithuncountnouns....someofthemostdistinguishedmenofourtime.Wedidsomeofthejourneybynight.Someofthegossipwassurprisinglyaccurate.Hereisalistofquantifiersusedwithpluralnoungroups,singularnoungroups,oruncountnoun:allofanyofenoughoflotsofmoreofmostofnoneofsomeof~anamountofalotofaquantityof~theremainderoftherestofNotethat"anamountof"isnearlyalwaysusedwithanadjectivesuchas"small":"asmallamountof".Thisisexplainedinparagraph2.209.Notealsothatwhen"lotsof"isusedwithanuncountnounasthesubjectofaverb,theverbissingular,eventhoughthequantifierlooksplural.Hethoughtthatlotsoflovelymoneywasthesourceofhappiness."Anyof"isexplainedmorefullyinparagraph2.205.2.203Whenyouwanttorefertoeachmemberofaparticulargroup,youcanuse"eachof"andapluralnoungroup.Eachofthedrawingsisslightlydifferent.Wefeelquitedifferentlyabouteachofourchildren.385 Workouthowmuchyoucanaffordtopayeachofthem.Notethat"eachone"and"everyone"canbeusedbefore"of"insteadof"each",foremphasis.Thisviewofpovertyinfluenceseachoneofus.Everyoneofthemisgivenafinancialtarget.2.204Whenthequantifier"eachof"isusedwithapluralnoungroup,theverbafterthenoungroupisalwayssingular.2.205"Anyof"canrefertooneorseveralpeopleorthings,ortopartofsomething.Notethatifitisthesubjectofaverb,whenitreferstoseveralthings,theverbisplural,andwhenitreferstoapartofsomething,theverbissingular.Shehasthosecoats.Shemighthavebeenwearinganyofthem.Hardlyanyofthesefindtheirwayintoconsumerproducts.Hasanyofthisbeenhelpful?Itwasmoreexpensivethananyoftheothermagazineswewerenormallyabletoafford.2.206Therearethreecomparativequantifiers,whichcanbeusedbeforenoungroups."Lessof"isusuallyusedwithsingularnoungroupsanduncountnoungroups,"fewerofisusuallyusedwithpluralnoungroups,and"moreof"isusedwithallthreetypesofnoungroup.Ienjoycookingfarmorenow,becauseIdolessofit.Fewerofthesechildrenwillbecomebored.Hewasfarmoreofanexistentialist.Notethat"moreof"issometimesusedinfrontofanoungrouptointensifyit.Hecouldhardlyhavefeltmoreofafoolthanhedidatthatmoment.Shewasmoreofaflirtthanever.Americaismuchmoreofaclasslesssociety.Notealsothat"lessof"issometimesusedinsteadof"fewerof",butmanypeoplethinkthatthisisnotcorrect.omitting"of"2.207Whenthecontextmakesitclear,orwhenyouthinkthatthepersonyouaretalkingtowillunderstandwhatyoumean,youcansometimesreducethestructuretothequantifieronly.Forexample,ifyouaretalkingaboutapplicationsforajobandthereweretwentycandidates,youcansay"Somewereverygood"ratherthan"Someofthemwereverygood".Afewcrossedoverthebridge.Somepartscanbeseparatedfromthewhole.Ihavefourbins.Ikeeponeinthekitchenandtherestinthedustbinarea.Mostofthebookshadbeenpackedintoanenormoustrunkandtheremainderpiledontopofit.USAGENOTE2.208Youcanaddadjectivesto"anumberof"and"aquantityof"toindicatehowlargeorsmallanamountornumberofthingsis.Therearealargenumberofstudents.Wehadalimitednumberofpeopletochoosefrom.Thenovelprovidesanenormousquantityofinformation....atinyquantityofacid."Anamountof"isalwaysusedwithadjectives,andisusuallyusedwithuncountnouns.Hecouldn"tstophimselffromsippingasmallamountofthewater.Hehasalargeamountofresponsibility.Itonlyinvolvesasmallamountoftime.Therehastobeacertainamountofsacrifice.Theyhavedoneavastamountofahardwork.Thepluralformsof"quantity","number",and"amount"areused,especiallywhenreferringtoseparateamounts....groupswhichemploylargenumbersoflow-paidworkers.Enormousamountsofmoneyarespentonadvertising.submodifyingquantifiers2.2O9Whenaquantifiercontainsanadjective,youcanput"very"infrontoftheadjective....averygreatdealofwork....averylargeamountofmoney.2.210Somequantifierscanbesubmodifiedusing"quite".I"vewastedquiteenoughofmylifehere.Quiteafewoftheemployeesarebeginningtorealisethetruth.Mostofthemhavehadquitealotofexperience.385 ...quitealargeamountofindustry.Hereisalistofquantifierswhichcanbesubmodifiedby"quite":enoughafewalotofalargeamountofasmallamountofanumberofalargenumberofTalkingaboutamountsofthings:partitives2.211Whenyouwanttotalkaboutaparticularquantityofsomethingyoucanuseapartitivestructurewhichconsistsofaparticularpartitivelinkedby"of"toanothernoun.Thepartitivesareallcountnouns.Whoownsthisbitofland?...portionsofmashedpotato.Ifthepartitiveissingular,thentheverbusedwithitisusuallysingular.Ifitisplural,theverbisalsoplural.Apieceofpaperislifeless.Twopiecesofmetalwerebeingrubbedtogether.Notethatallpartitivesconsistoftwoormorewords,because"of"isneededineverycase."Of"isprintedinthelistsbelowasareminder.2.212Whenthenounafterthepartitiveisanuncountnoun,youcanusecountnounssuchas"bit","drop","lump",or"piece"asthepartitive.Here"sabitofpaper....adropofblood....acobwebcoveredwithlittledropsofdew....atinypieceofmaterial....apinchofsalt....specksofdust.Thesepartitivescanbeusedwithout"of"whenitisobviouswhatyouaretalkingabout.Hesatdowninthekitchenbeforeaplateofcoldham,buthehadonlyeatenonepiecewhenthephonerang.2.213Hereisalistofpartitivesusedwithuncountnouns:amountofbitofblobofclumpofdashofdropofgrainofheapofknoboflumpofmassofmorselofmountainofpieceofpileofpinchofpoolofportionofscrapofsheetofshredofsliceofspeckofspotoftouchoftraceofSomeofthesepartitivesarealsousedwithpluralnounswhichrefertothingswhichtogetherformamass....ahugeheapofstones....apileofmaterials.Hereisalistofpartitivesusedwithbothuncountandpluralnouns:amountofclumpofheapofmassofmountainofpileofportionof2.214Manynounswhichindicatetheshapeofanamountofsomethingcanalsobepartitiveswithuncountorpluralnouns....aballofwool...columnsofsmoke....aringofexcitedfaces.Hereisalistofpartitivesindicatingtheshapeofamountofsomething:ballofcolumnofringofshaftofsquareofstickofstripofthreadoftuftofwallofManynounswhichindicatebothshapeandmovementcanalsobeusedaspartitives.Itblewajetofwaterintotheair....aconstantstreamofchildrenpassingthroughthedoor.Hereisalistofpartitivesindicatingbothshapeandmovement:dribbleofgushofgustofjetofspurtofstreamoftorrentofThisuseofpartitivestoindicateshape,andshapeandmovement,isaproductivefeatureofEnglishbecauseyoucanuseanynounindicatingshapeinthisway.Forexampleyoucantalk385 about"atriangleofsnookerballs".ProductivefeaturesareexplainedintheIntroduction.PRODUCTIVEFEATURE2.215Therearemanynounswhichrefertogroupsthatcanbeusedaspartitives.Theyarelinkedby"of"topluralnounswhichindicatewhatthegroupconsistsof.Itwasevaluatedbyanindependentteamofinspectors.Agroupofjournalistsgatheredattheairporttowatchustakeoff....abunchofflowers.Hereisalistofpartitivesreferringtogroups:audienceofbunchofclumpofcompanyoffamilyofflockofgangofgroupofherdofteamoftroupeofThisuseofpartitivesreferringtogroupsisaproductivefeatureofEnglishbecauseyoucanuseanynounreferringtoagroupofpeopleorthingsinthisway.Forexample,youcantalkabout"anarmyofvolunteers".ProductivefeaturesareexplainedintheIntroduction.measurementnouns2.216Nounsreferringtomeasurementsareoftenusedinpartitivestructurestorefertoanamountofsomethingwhichisaparticularlength,area,volume,orweight.Uncountnounsareusedafter"of"instructuresreferringtolength,andbothuncountandpluralnounsareusedinstructuresreferringtoweight....tenyardsofvelvet.Sugarownsonlyfivehundredsquaremetresofland.Idrinkapintofmilkaday....threepoundsofstrawberries....10ouncesofcheese.Nounsreferringtomeasurementsareexplainedinparagraphs2.267to2.274.referringtocontentsandcontainers2.217Youcanusepartitiveswhenyouwanttorefertothecontentsofacontaineraswellastothecontaineritself.Forexample,youcanrefertoacartonfilledwithmilkas"acartonofmilk".Iwenttobuyabagofchips.Thewaiterappearedwithabottleofredwine....apacketofcigarettes....apotofhoney....tubesofglue.Youcanalsousepartitivestorefertothecontentsonly.Theydrankanotherbottleofchampagne.Sheateawholeboxofchocolates.Hereisalistofpartitivesreferringtocontainers:bagofbarrelofbasinofbasketofbottleofbowlofboxofbucketofcanofcartonofcaseofcaskofcrateofcupofglassofjarofjugofmugofpackofpacketofplateofpotofsackofspoonoftablespoonoftankofteaspoonoftinoftuboftubeoftumblerof2.218Youcanadd"-ful"tothesepartitivesreferringtocontainers.Hebroughtmeabagfulofsweets.Pourabucketfulofcoldwaferontheash....acupfulofboiledwater....atankfulofpetrol.Hereisalistofpartitivesreferringtocontainerswhichcanverycommonlybeusedwith"-ful":bagbasketboxbucketcupplatespoontablespoontankteaspoonWhenpeoplewanttomakeanounendingin"-ful"plural,theyusuallyaddan"-s"totheendoftheword,asin"bucketfuls".Howeversomepeopleputthe"-s"infrontof"-ful",asin"bucketsful".Sheladledthreespoonfulsofsugarintomytea.Theywerecollectingbasketfulsofapples....twoteaspoonfulsofpowder....ateaspoonsfulofmilk.2.219Youcanalsoadd"-ful"tootherpartitives.385 Eleanorwasholdinganarmfulofredroses.Iwentoutsidetothrowahandfulofbreadtothebirds.Hetookanothermouthfulofwhisky....ahousefulofchildren.ThisisaproductivefeatureofEnglish.ProductivefeaturesareexplainedintheIntroduction.2.220Youcansometimesuseamassnouninsteadofapartitivestructure.Forexample,"twoteas"meansthesameas"twocupsoftea",and"twosugars"means"twospoonfulsofsugar".Wedrankacoupleofbeers.Iaskedfortwocoffeeswithmilk.Massnounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.29to1.32.referringtopartsandfractions2.221Youcanuseapartitivewhenyouwanttotalkaboutapartorafractionofaparticularthing.Ispentalargepartofmylifeinbroadcasting.ThesystemisbreakingdowninmanypartsofAfrica.AnappreciableportionoftheuniversitybudgetgoesintotheCommunityServicesarea....amassmovementinvolvingallsegmentsofsociety.Hereisalistofpartitivesreferringtoapartofsomething:partofportionofsectionofsegmentofreferringtoindividualitems2.222Youcanuseapartitivewithanuncountnounreferringtothingsofacertaintypewhenyouwanttorefertooneparticularthingofthattype....anarticleofclothing.Iboughtafewbitsoffurniture.Anyitemofinformationcanbeaccessed.Hereisalistofpartitivesreferringtoonethingofaparticulartype:articleofbitofitemofpieceofHereisalistofuncountnounsreferringtothingsofacertaintypethatareoftenusedwiththepartitiveslistedabove:adviceapparatusbaggageclothingequipmentfurniturehomeworkinformationknowledgeluggagemachinerynewsresearch"pairof"2.223Somepluralnounsrefertothingswhicharenormallythoughttoconsistoftwoparts,suchastrousersorscissors.Someothersrefertothingswhicharemadeintwos,suchasshoesorsocks.Whenyouwanttotalkaboutoneofthesetwo-partitems,ortwo-itemscanusepartitive"pair"linkedtothesepluralnounsby"of"....apairofjeans....apairoftights....adozenpairsofsunglasses.Iboughtapairoftennisshoes.Ismashedthreepairsofskis.Thesepluralnounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.42to1.47.PRODUCTIVEFEATURE2.224Wheneveryouwanttotalkaboutalimitedamountofsomething,toindicatetheareathatsomethingoccupies,ortospecifyaparticularfeaturethatithas,youcanuseanoungroupwhichindicatestheamountorthenatureofthethinglinkedby"of"toanoungroupwhichindicateswhatthethingis.Forexample,ifyousay"aforestofpines",youaretalkingaboutalargeareaoftrees.Similarly,youcantalkabout"aborderofroses".Thisstructurecanbeextendedverywidely,sothatyoucantalkabout"acityofdreamingspires",forexample.ThisisoneofthemostproductivefeaturesofEnglish.ProductivefeaturesareexplainedintheIntroduction.Referringtoanexactnumberofthings:numbers2.225Whenyouwanttorefertoanexactnumberofthings,youusenumberssuchas"two","thirty",and"777"whicharecalledcardinalnumbers,orsometimescardinals.I"mgoingtoaskyouthirtyquestions....twohundredandsixtycopiesoftherecord.ThecardinalnumbersarelistedintheReferenceSectionandtheiruseisexplainedinparagraphs2.230to2.243.2.226Whenyouwanttoidentifyordescribesomethingbyindicatingwhereitcomesinaseriesorsequence,youuseanordinalnumber,oranordinal,suchas"first","second","fourteenth",or"twenty-seventh".385 Shereceivedavideocameraforherfourteenthbirthday.Sherepeatedthisescapeforthesecondandlasttime.TheordinalnumbersarelistedintheReferenceSectionandtheiruseisexplainedinparagraphs2.249to2.256.2.227Whenyouwanttoindicatehowlargeapartofsomethingiscomparedtothewholeofit,youuseafractionsuchas"athird"and"three-quarters".AthirdoftheAmericanforceswereinvolved.Thebottlehadbeenaboutthree-quartersfullwhenhe"dstarted.Fractionsareexplainedinparagraphs2.257to2.266.2.228Whenyouwanttorefertoasize,distance,area,volume,weight,speed,ortemperature,youcandosobyusinganumberorquantifierinfrontofameasurementnounsuchas"feet"and"miles".Hewasaboutsixfeettall.Iwalkedtenmiles,thereandback,toWoodbridgeeveryday.Measurementnounsareexplainedinparagraphs2.267to2.274.Ifyoudonotknowtheexactnumber,size,orquantityofsomething,youcangiveanapproximateamountormeasurementusingoneofagroupofspecialwordsandexpressions.Theseareexplainedinparagraphs2.281to2.288.2.229Whenyouwanttosayhowoldsomeoneorsomethingis,youhaveachoiceofwaysinwhichtodoit.Theseareexplainedinparagraphs2.275to2.288.Referringtothenumberofthings:cardinalnumbers2.230Ifyouwanttorefertosomeorallofthethingsinagroup,youcanindicatehowmanythingsyouarereferringtobyusingacardinalnumber.ThecardinalnumbersarelistedintheReferenceSection.ByChristmas,wehadtencows.Whenyouuseadeterminerandanumberinfrontofanoun,youputthedeterminerinfrontofthenumber....thethreeyoungmen....mytwodaughters.Watchtheeyesofanytwopeopleengrossedinconversion.AllthreecandidatesarecomingtoBlackpoollaterthisweek.Whenyouputanumberandanadjectiveinfrontofanoun,youusuallyputthenumberinfrontoftheadjective....twosmallchildren....fifteenhundredlocalresidents....threebeautifulyounggirls."one"2.231"One"isusedasanumberinfrontofanountoemphasizethatthereisonlyonething,toshowthatyouarebeingprecise,ortocontrastonethingwithanother."One"isfollowedbyasingularnoun.ThatistheonebigreservationI"vegot.Hebalancedhimselfononefoot.Therewasonlyonegateintothepalace.ThistreatywassignedoneyearaftertheSuezCrisis.Itwasnegativeinonerespectbutpositiveinanother."One"canalsobeused,likeothernumbers,asaquantifier.Oneofmystudentssoldmeherticket....oneofthefewgreatnovelsofthecentury.Iwasoneofthemostexperiencedorganisersoncampus."One"alsohasspecialusesasadeterminerandapronoun.Theseareexplainedinparagraph1.234andparagraphs1.157to1.160.2.232Whenalargenumberbeginswiththefigure"1",the"1"canbesaidorwrittenas"a"or"one"."One"ismoreformal....amilliondollars....ahundredandfiftymiles.Overonemillionpoundshasbeenraised.talkingaboutnegativeamounts2.233Thenumber0isnotusedinordinaryEnglishtoindicatethatthenumberofthingsyouaretalkingaboutiszero.Insteadthenegativedeterminer"no"orthenegativepronoun"none"isused,or"any"isusedwithanegative.Theseareexplainedin385 paragraphs4.45and4.65to4.67.numbersandagreement2.234Whenyouuseanynumberexcept"one"infrontofanoun,youuseapluralnoun.Thereweretenpeoplethere,allmen....ahundredyears....ahundredandonethings.2.235Whenyouuseanumberandapluralnountotalkabouttwoormorethings,youusuallyuseapluralverb.Youuseasingularverbwith"one".Sevenguerrillaswerewounded.Thereisoneclue.However,whenyouaretalkingaboutanamountofmoneyortime,oradistance,speed,orweight,youusuallyuseanumber,apluralnoun,andasingularverb.Threehundredpoundsisalotofmoney.Tenyearsisalongtime.Threemilesisgenerallytakentobetheboundaryofacountry"sairspace.90milesanhourismuchtoofast.Ninetypoundsisallsheweighs.Waysofmeasuringthingsareexplainedinparagraphs2.267to2.274.2.236Youcanusecardinalnumberswithbothordinals(seeparagraphs2.249to2.256)andpostdeterminers(seeparagraph2.44).Whenyouuseacardinalnumberwithadeterminerfollowedbyanordinalnumberorapostdeterminer,thecardinalnumberusuallycomesafterthedeterminerandtheordinalorpostdeterminer.Thefirsttwoyearshavebeenverysuccessful....throughoutthefirstfourmonthsofthisyear....thelasttwovolumesoftheencyclopedia....inthepreviousthreeyearsofhisreign.Notethatsomepostdeterminerscanbeusedlikeordinaryclassifyingadjectives(seeparagraph2.44).Whentheyareusedlikethis,thecardinalnumbercomesbeforethem.Hehaswrittentwopreviousnovels....twofurtherexamples.2.237Wheneitherthecontextmakesitclear,oryouthinkthatyourlisteneralreadyknowssomething,youcanusethecardinalnumberwithoutanoun.Thosetwoarequitedifferent.Whencardinalnumbersareusedlikethis,youcanputordinalnumbers,postdeterminers,orsuperlativeadjectivesinbetweenthedeterminerandthecardinalnumber.Iwanttotellyouabouttheprogrammes.Thefirstfouraredevotedtouniversities.Theothersixaremasterpieces.Thebestthirtyhavethepotentialtobesuccessfuljournalists.2.238Whenyouuse"dozen","hundred","thousand","million",or"billion"toindicateexactnumbers,youput"a"oranothernumberinfrontofthem....ahundreddollars....sixhundredandtenmiles....athousandbillionpounds....twodozendiapers.2.239Whenyouuse"dozen","hundred","thousand","million",or"billion"theyremainsingularevenwhenthenumberinfrontofthemisgreaterthanone.2.240Youcanuse"dozen","hundred","thousand","million",or"billion"without"of"inalessprecisewaybyputting"several","afew",and"acoupleof"infrontofthem....severalhundredpeople.Afewthousandcarshavegone....lifeacoupleofhundredyearsago.2.241Whenyouwanttoemphasizehowlargeanumberiswithoutstatingitprecisely,youcanuse"dozens","hundreds","thousands","millions",and"billions"inthesamewayascardinalsfollowedby"of".That"sgoingtotakehundredsofyears....hundredsofdollars.WetravelledthousandsofmilesacrossEurope....languagesspokenbymillionsofpeople.Wehavedozensoffriendsinthecommunity.385 Youcanput"many"infrontofthesepluralforms.Inavetravelledmanyhundredsofmileswiththem.USAGENOTE2.242Peopleoftenusethepluralformswhentheyareexaggerating.Iwasmeetingthousandsofpeople.Doyouhavetofillinhundredsofformsbeforeyougo?Youcanalsoemphasizeorexaggeratealargenumberbyusingthesewordsinqualifyingprepositionalphrasesbeginningwith"by"....abookwhichsellsbythemillion....peoplewhogiveinjectionsbythedozen.Calculatorslikethisarenowsellingbythehundredthousand.numbersaslabels2.243Cardinalnumberscanbeusedtolabeloridentifythings.Room777oftheStanleyHotel.Number11DowningStreet.numbersasquantifiers2.244Youcanalsousecardinalnumbersasquantifierslinkedby"of"toanoungroupreferringtoagroup.Youdothiswhenyouwanttoemphasizethatyouaretalkingaboutapartorallofagroup.Isawfouroftheseprogrammes.Threeofthequestionstodayhavebeenaboutdemocracy.Iuseplastickitchenbins.Ihavefourofthem.Alleightofmygreat-grandparentslivedinthecity.AllfourofuswantedtogetawayfromtheEarl"sCourtarea.Theclerklookedatthesixofthemandsaid,"Allofyou?"Ifinditlessworryingthanthetwoofyouaresuggesting.Quantifiersareexplainedinparagraphs2.194to2.210.numberquantifiersaspronouns2.245Cardinalnumberscanbeusedtoquantifysomethingwithoutthe"of"andthenoungroup,whenitisclearwhatyouarereferringto....agroupofpainters,nineorteninall.Oftheotherwives,twoaredancersandoneisasinger....thetallerstudentofthetwo....breakfastfortwo.numbersasqualifiers2.246Cardinalnumberscanalsobeusedafterpronounsasqualifiers.Iamawoman,andyouthreearenot.InthefallwetwoaregoingtoEngland.numbersincompoundadjectives2.247Cardinalnumberscanbeusedaspartofacompoundadjective,(seeparagraphs2.98to2.107).Thecardinalnumberisusedinfrontofanountoformacompoundadjectivewhichisusuallyhyphenated.Hetookoutafive-dollarbill.Iwroteafive-pagesummaryofthesituation.Notethatthenounremainssingularevenwhenthenumberistwoormore,andthatcompoundadjectiveswhichareformedlikethiscannotbeascomplements.Forexample,youcannotsay"Myessayisfive-hundred-word".Insteadyouwouldprobablysay"Myessayisfivehundredwordslong".2.248Cardinalnumbersaresometimesusedwithgeneraltimewordssuchas"month"and"week".Youdothiswhenyouwantdescribesomethingbysayinghowlongitlasts.Ifthethingisreferredtowithanuncountnoun,youusethepossessiveform(seeparagraphs2.180to2.192)ofthegeneraltimeword.Sheisalreadyhadatleastninemonths"experience.OnFridayshehadbeengiventwoweeks"notice.Sometimestheapostropheisomitted.Theywantedthreeweeksholidayandthreeweekspay.Thedeterminer"a"isusuallyusedwhenyouaretalkingaboutasingleperiodoftime,although"one"canbeusedinsteadwhenyouwanttobemoreformal.She"sonayear"sleavefromHunterCollege.Shewasonlygivenoneweek"snotice.Cardinalnumberscanalsobeusedwithgeneraltimewordsasmodifiersofadjectives.Shewasfourmonthspregnant.Therainsaretwomonthslate.Hisrentwasthreeweeksoverdue.385 Referringtothingsinasequence:ordinalnumbers2.249Ifyouwanttoidentifyordescribesomethingbyindicatingwhereitcomesinaseriesorsequence,youuseanordinalnumber.Quietlytheytooktheirseatsinthefirstthreerows.Flora"sflatisonthefourthfloorofthisfive-storeyblock.Theystoppedatthefirstofthetrees.Notethatyoucanalsouse"following","last","next","preceding","previous",and"subsequent"likeordinalnumberstoindicatewheresomethingcomesinaseriesorsequence.Thefollowingmorninghecheckedoutofthehotel....thelastrungsofthefire-escape....atthenextgeneralelection.Thetheorystatedintheprecedingchaptersisinvaluable.Imentionedthisinapreviousprogramme....thesubsequentcareerpatternsofthosetakingdegrees."Following","subsequent","previous",and"preceding"areonlyusedtoindicatethepositionofsomethinginasequenceintimeorinapieceofwriting."Next"and"last"areusedmoregenerally,forexampletorefertothingsinrowsorlists.TheordinalnumbersarelistedintheReferenceSection.2.250Ordinalsareoftenusedinfrontofnouns.Theyarenotusuallyusedascomplementsafterlinkverbslike"be".Theyareusuallyprecededbyadeterminer....thefirstdayofautumn.Hetookthelifttothesixteenthfloor....onhertwenty-firstbirthday....hisfather"ssecondmarriage.Insomeidiomaticphrasesordinalsareusedwithoutdeterminers.Thepictureseemsatfirstglancechaotic.Imight.Onsecondthoughts,no.Almostallbabies—especiallyfirstbabies—havefretfulspell.writtenforms2.251Ordinalscanbewritteninabbreviatedform,forexampleindatesorheadingsorinveryinformalwriting.Youwritethelasttwolettersoftheordinalafterthenumberexpressedinfigures.Forexample,"first"canbewrittenas"1st","twenty-second"as"22nd","hundredandthird"as"103rd",and"fourteenth"as"14th"....onAugust2nd....the1stDivisionoftheSovereign"sEscort....the11thCavalry.ordinalswith"of"2.252Youcanspecifywhichgroupthethingreferredtobyanordinalbelongstobyusingthepreposition"of"aftertheordinal.ThisisthethirdofaseriesofprogrammesfromtheUniversityofSussex.Tonywasthesecondoffoursorts.Whenordinalsareusedlikethis,theyusuallyrefertoonepersonorthing.However,whentheyareusedwitha"to"-infinitiveclauseofanotherqualifyingphraseorclauseafterthem,theycanrefertoonepersonorthingortomorethanone."First"isusedlikethismorethantheotherordinals.Iwasthefirsttorecover.Theyhadtobethefirsttogo.Theproposals—thefirstfor22years—amounttoanewcharterforthementallyill....thefashioninwhichTheodoretreatstheEuropeans,thefirsthehasencountered.aspronouns2.253Youcanuseanordinaltorefertoamemberofagroupthatyouhavealreadymentionedortosomethingofthekindalreadymentioned,andyoucanomitthenounwhichidentifiesthething.InAugust1932twoofthegroup"smemberswereexpelledfromthepartyandathirdwassuspended.Thethirdchildtriestooutdothefirstandsecond.Asecondpheasantflewup.Thenathirdandafourth.2.254Theadjectives"next"and"last"canbeused,likeordinals,bythemselveswhenthecontextmakesthemeaningclear.Youmissedonemeal.Thenextisonthetableinhalfanhour.Smithyremovedthelastofthescrews.ordinalsusedasadverbs2.255Theordinal"first"isalsousedasanadverbtoindicatethat385 somethingisdonebeforeotherthings.Otherordinalsarealsosometimesusedtoindicatetheorderinwhichthingsaredone,especiallyininformalEnglish.Peoplealsouseordinalsasadverbswhentheyaregivingalistofpoints,reasons,oritems.Thisisexplainedfullyinparagraph10.79.2.256Theuseofordinalsinexpressingfractionsisexplainedinparagraphs2.258and2.260.Theuseofordinalstoexpressdates,asin"theseventeenthofJune",isexplainedinparagraph5.87.Ordinalnumberscanbeusedinfrontofcardinalnumbers.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs2.236to2.237.Referringtoanexactpartofsomething:fractions2.257Whenyouwanttoindicatehowlargeapartofsomethingiscomparedtothewholeofit,youuseafraction,suchas"athird",followedby"of"andanoungroupreferringtothewholething.Fractionscanalsobewritteninfigures(seeparagraph2.265).2.258Whenyouexpressafractioninwords,thewayyoudosodependsonwhetherthefractionissingularorplural.Ifitissingular,youwriteorsayanordinalnumberorthespecialfractionterms"half"or"quarter",witheitherthenumber"one"oradeterminersuchas"a"infrontofthem.Thefractionislinkedtoanoungroupby"of".Thisstateproducesathirdofthenation"soil....aquarterofaninch.Youcantakeafifthofyourmoneyoutondemand.Atenthoftheworkingpopulationwillbewritingmaterialforcomputers.Forestscoveronethirdofthecountry....onethousandthofadegree....onequarterofthetotalpopulation.Anadjectivecanalsobeplacedafterthedeterminerandbeforethefraction....thefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury.Ireadthefirsthalfofthebook....thesouthernhalfofEngland....inthelastquarterof1980.2.259Ifyouareusing"half"infrontofapronoun,youstilluse"of"afterthe"half".NearlyhalfofitcomesfromtheMiddleEast.Morethanhalfofthemhavegonehome.Halfofushavelostourjobs.Notethatwhenthefraction"ahalf"isusedwith"of"asaquantifieryouusuallywriteorsayitas"half"withoutadeterminer."Ahalf"and"onehalf"arerarelyused.Theylosthalfoftheirpay.Halfofthepeoplewenttoprivateschools.IhadcrossesmorethanhaltofAmerica.2.260Ifthefractionisplural,youputacardinalnumberinfrontofapluralformoftheordinalnumberorspecialfractionword"quarter"....thepoorertwothirdsoftheworld.Thejourneyisgoingtotakethreequartersofanhour....fourfifthsofthemoney.Ninetenthsofthemliveontheland...3millionthsofacentimetre.When"half"isusedwithwholenumbersoramounts,itisusedwiththedeterminer"a"....oneandahalfacresofland....fourandhalfcenturies.agreementwithverb2.261Whenyoutalkaboutfractionsofasinglething,youuseasingularformofaverbafterwards.Halfofourworkistodesignprogrammes.Twothirdsoftheplanet"ssurfaceiscoveredwithwater.Twofifthsoftheforestwasremoved.However,whenyoutalkaboutfractionsofanumberofthings,youuseapluralformofaverbafterwards.TwothirdsofChad"sexportswerecotton.Aquarterofthestudentswereseenindividually.NearlyhalfofJakarta"sonemillionworkersareintheinformalsector.385 fractionsaspronouns2.262Whenitiscleartoyourlistenerorreaderwhoorwhatyouarereferringto,eitherbecauseofthecontextorbecauseyouandyourlistenerorreaderknowwhatismeant,youcanusefractionsaspronounswithoutthequantifying"of"andnoungroupafterthem.Ofthepeoplewhoworkhere,halfareFrenchandhalfareEnglish.Twothirdsweresterilized.OnefifthareappointedbytheRegionalHearthAuthority.numbersfollowedbyfractions2.263Besidestheiruseasquantifierslinkedby"of"toanoungroup,fractionscan,alsobeusedafterawholenumberoramountplus"and",withanounplacedafterthefraction.Thenounmustbepluralevenifthenumberis"one".You"vegottositthereforoneandahalfhours....fiveandaquarterdays....morethanfourandahalfcenturiesago.Ifyouareusing"a"insteadof"one",the"and"andmfractioncomeafterthenoun....amileandahalfbelowthesurface....amileandaquarterofmotorway."half"aspredeterminer2.264Besidesbeingusedwith"of"asaquantifier,"half"canalsobeusedasapredeterminer,(seeparagraph1.236),directlyinfrontofadeterminer.Imethalfthegirlsattheconference.Thefarmerssoldoffhalftheirland....halfapoundofcoffee....halfabottleofmilk.Notethat"half"isalwaysusedwith"of"beforeapronoun(seeparagraph2.259).fractionsexpressedinfigures2.265Youcanwriteafractioninfigures,forexample"1/2","1/4","3/4"and"2/3".Thesecorrespondto"ahalf","aquarter","threequarters"and"twothirds"respectively.2.266Fractionsareoftengiveninaspecialformasanumberofhundredths.Thistypeoffractioniscalledapercentage.Forexample"threehundredths",expressedasapercentage,is"threepercent".Itcanalsobewrittenas"threepercent"or"3%"."Ahalf"canbeexpressedas"fiftypercent","fiftypercent",or"50%".90percentofmostfoodiswater.About20percentofstudentaccountantsarewomen.Before196045%ofBritishtradewaswiththeCommonwealth.Youcanusepercentagesontheirownasnoungroupswhenitisclearwhattheyreferto.Ninetypercentwereselfemployed....interestat10%perannum.Talkingaboutmeasurements2.267Youcanrefertoasize,distance,area,volume,weight,speed,ortemperaturebyusinganumberorquantifierinfrontofameasurementnoun.Measurementnounsarecountable.Theygrowtotwentyfeet....blocksofstoneweighinguptoahundredtons.Reducethetemperaturebyafewdegrees.Averageannualtemperaturesexceed20centigrade.Otherwaysofexpressingdistanceareexplainedinparagraphs6.71to6.72.Measurementnounsreferringtosize,area,volume,andweightareoftenusedinpartitivestructures(seeparagraphs2.211to2.224)suchas"apintofmilk"and"apoundofonions".Theycanalsobeusedasqualifiersbeginningwith"of"(seeparagraph2.300).2.268TherearetwosystemsofmeasurementusedinBritain—theimperialsystemandthemetricsystem.Eachsystemhasitsownmeasurementnouns.Hereisalistoftheimperialunitsofmeasurementindicatingsize,distance,area,volume,andweight:inchfootyardmile~acre~pintquartgallon~ouncepoundstonehundredweighttonNotethatthepluralof"foot"is"feet",but"foot"canalsobeusedwithnumbers.Similarly"stone"isoftenusedinsteadof"stones".Hereisalistofthemetricunitsofmeasurementindicatingsize,distance,area,volume,and385 weight:millimetrecentimetremetrekilometre~hectare~millilitrecentilitrelitre~milligramgramkilogramtonne2.269Measurementnounsareoftenusedasthecomplementsoflinkverbssuchas"be","measure"and"weigh".Thefishwasabouteightfeetlong.Itmeasuresapproximately26incheswidex25incheslong....asquareareameasuring900metresoneachside.Itweighsfiftyormorekilos.Theuseofadjectivesasthecomplementsoflinkverbsisexplainedinparagraphs3.133to3.138.adjectivesaftermeasurements2.270Whenmeasurementnounsthatgivethesizeofsomethingareusedascomplements,theycanoftenbefollowedbyanadjectivewhichmakesitclearexactlywhatthemeasurementrefersto.Hewasaboutsixfeettall.Thespearswereaboutsixfootlong....aroom2metreswide.Thewaterwasfifteenfeetdeep....alayerofstonefourmetresthick.Hereisalistoftheadjectivesthatfollowmeasurementnounsindicatingsize:broaddeephighlongtallthickwideNotethatyoudonotsay"twopoundsheavy"but"twopoundsinweight"instead.prepositionalphrasesaftermeasurements2.271Similarly,somemeasurementnounscanbefollowedbyprepositionalphrasesbeginningwith"in"....ablockoficeonecubicfootinsize.Iputonnearlyastoneinweight.Theyarethirtycentimetresinlength....depositsmeasuringuptoakilometreinthickness.Itwascloseontenfeetinheight.Hereisalistofprepositionalphrasesusedaftermeasurements:inareaindepthindistanceinheightinlengthinsizeinthicknessinvolumeinweightinwidthmeasurementnounsusedasmodifiers2.272Measurementnounscanalsobeusedasmodifiersinfrontofanounwhenyouwanttodescribethingsintermsoftheirmeasurements....a5foot9inchbed....70foothighmoundsofdust....12x12inchtiles....afive-poundbagoflentils.Notethatthemeasurementnounissingular.USAGENOTE2.273Ifyouwanttodescribefullythesizeofanobjectorarea,youcangiveitsdimensions:thatis,yougivemeasurementsofitslengthandwidth,orlength,width,anddepth.Whenyougivethedimensionsofanobject,youseparatethefiguresusing"and","by",orthemultiplicationsign"x"....planksofwoodaboutthreeinchesthickandtwofeetwide.Theislandmeasuresabout25milesby12miles.LakeNyasais450mileslongbyabout50mileswide.Theboxmeasuresapproximately26incheswidex25inchesdeepx16incheshigh.inchesnigh.Ifyouaretalkingaboutasquareobjectorarea,yougivethelengthofeachsidefollowedbytheword"square".Eachfamilyhasonlyoneroomeightortenfeetsquare.Thesitemeasuresroughly35feetsquare."Square"isusedinfrontofunitsoflengthwhenexpressingarea."Cubic"isusedinfrontofunitsoflengthwhenexpressingvolume....afarmcovering300squaremiles.Thebrainofthefirstape-menhadbeenaboutthesamesizeasthatofagorilla,around500385 cubiccentimetres.Youexpresstemperatureindegrees,usingeitherdegreescentigradeordegreesFahrenheit.Notethatineverydaylanguagethemetrictermcentigradeisusedtoindicatetemperature,whereasinscientificlanguagetheterm"Celsius"isusedwhichreferstoexactlythesamescaleofmeasurement.2.274Youtalkaboutthespeedofsomethingbysayinghowfaritcantravelinaparticularunitoftime.Todothis,youuseanounsuchas"mile"or"kilometre",followedby"per","a",or"an",andatimenoun.Thecarcoulddoonlyforty-fivemilesperhour.Windspeedsattheairportwere160kilometresperhour.Warshipsmovealabout500milesperday.Talkingaboutage2.275Whenyouwanttosayhowoldsomeoneis,youhaveachoiceofwaysinwhichtodoit.Youcanbeexactorapproximate.Similarly,whenyouwanttosayhowoldsomethingis,youcanusedifferentways,someexact,andsomeapproximate.2.276Whenyouwanttotalkaboutaperson"sexactage,youcandosobyusing•"be"followedbyanumber,andsometimes"yearsold"afterthenumberIwasnineteen,andhewastwenty-one.I"monly63.Sheistwenty-fiveyearsold.Iamfortyyearsold.•"of"(andlesscommonly"aged")andanumberafteranoun...achildofsix....twolittleboysagedaboutnineandeleven.•acompoundadjective,usuallyhyphenated,consistingofanumber,followedbyasingularnounreferringtoaperiodoftime,followedby"old"...atwenty-two-year-oldstudent....afive-month-oldbaby....MrWatt"srattling,ten-year-oldcar....aviolationofasix-year-oldagreement.•acompoundnounconsistingofanumberfollowedby"-year-old"Theservantwasapalelittlefourteen-year-oldwholookedhardlymorethanten.Allthesix-year-oldsaretaughtbyoneteacher....MelvinKalkhoven,atall,thinthirty-five-year-old.indicatingapproximateage2.277Whenyouwanttotalkaboutaperson"sageinanapproximateway,youcandosobyusing•"in",followedbyapossessivedeterminer,followedbyapluralnounreferringtoaparticularrangeofyearssuchas"twenties"and"teens"Hewasinhissixties.Ididn"tmaturetillIwasinmyforties....thegroupswhoarenowintheirthirties....whenIwasinmyteens.Notethatyoucanuse"early","mid-","middle",or"late"toindicateapproximatelywheresomeone"sagecomesinaparticularrangeyears.Hewastheninhislateseventies.Shewasinhermid-twenties.Janeisonlyinherearlyforties.•"over"or"under"followedbyanumberShewaswelloverfifty.Shewasonlyalittleoverfortyyearsold.Thereweren"tenoughpeoplewhowereunder25.Notethatyoucanalsouse"above"or"below"followedby"theageof"andanumber.55percentofthemwerebelowtheageoftwenty-one.•acompoundnounindicatingagroupofpeoplewhoseageismoreorlessthanaparticularnumber,whichconsistsof"over"or"under"followedbythepluralformoftheparticularnumberTheover-sixtiesdonotwanttobeturnedoutoftheirhomes.Schoolingforunder-fivesshouldtieexpanded.2.278Youcanputseveraloftheabovestructuresafteranountoindicatetheageofaperson385 ofthing....awomaninherearlythirties....helpforelderlyladiesover65.Shehadfourchildrenundertheageoffive.2.279Ifyouwanttoindicatethatsomeone"sageissimilartosomeoneelse"sage,youcanusestructuressuchas"ofhisage"and"ofherparentage"afteranoun.The"of"isoftendropped.InFrancemostfolkofMike"sagearedoingtheirNationalService.It"seasytomakefriendsbecauseyou"rewithpeopleofyourownage.Shewillhaveatoughtimewhensheplayswithchildrenherownage.indicatingtheageofathing2.280Ifyouwanttosaywhattheageofathingis,youcanuse•"be"followedbyanumberfollowedby"yearsold"It"satleastathousandmillionyearsold.Thehousewasaboutthirtyyearsold.Notethatyoucanalsousethispatternafteranoun....rocks200millionyearsold.•acompoundadjectiveindicatingthecenturywhensomethingexistedorwasmade,whichconsistsofanordinalnumberand"century"...asixth-centurychurch....lifeinfifth-centuryAthens.Approximateamountsandmeasurements2.281Ifyoudonotknowtheexactnumber,size,orquantityofsomething,youcangiveanapproximateamountormeasurementusingoneofagroupofspecialwordsandexpressions.Someofthesewordsandexpressionsareputinfrontofaquantityandsomeareputafterit.Hereisalistofsomeofthewordsandexpressionsusedtogiveapproximateamountsandmeasurements:aboutalmostamaximumofaminimumofapproximatelyaroundatleastatmostatthemaximumatthemostlessthanmaximumminimummorethannearlynomorethanoddorlessormoreorsoorthereaboutsorunderoverroughlysomesomethinglikeunderupto2.282Someoftheseindicatethatanumberisaminimumfigureandthattheactualfigureisormaybelarger.Hereisalistofexpressionswhichindicateaminimumnumber:aminimumofatleastminimummorethanormoreoverplus2.283Youput"aminimumof","morethan",and"over"infrontofanumber.Heneededaminimumof26Democraticvotes....aschoolwithmorethan1300pupils.TheBritishhavebeenontheislandforoverathousandyears.Youput"ormore"and"plus"afteranumberoramount,and"minimum"afteranamount....achoiceofthreeormorepossibilities.ThisistheworstdisasterIcanrememberinmy25yearsplusasapoliceofficer.Theyshouldbegetting£38aweekminimum.Youput"atleast"infrontofanumberorafteranumberoramount.Shehadatleastadozenbrandies.Imusthaveslepttwelvehoursatleast!2.284Someoftheseexpressionsareusedtoindicatethatanumberisamaximumfigureandthattheactualfigureisormaybesmaller.Hereisalistofexpressionswhichindicateamaximumnumber:almostamaximumofatmostatthemaximumatthemostlessthanmaximumnearlynomorethanorlessorunderunderuptoUSAGENOTE2.285Youput"almost","amaximumof","lessthan","nearly","nomorethan","under",and"upto"infrontofanumber.Thecompanynowsuppliesalmost100ofParis"srestaurants.385 Theseloansmustberepaidoveramaximumofthreeyears....apuppylessthansevenweeksold.Shehadnearlyfiftydollars.Wemanagedtofinishtheentirejobinunderthreemonths.Theirbodiesmightbeuptoametrewide.Youput"atthemaximum","atmost","atthemost","maximum","orless",and"orunder"afteranumber.TheymighthaveIQsof10or50atthemaximum.Theimagestakethirty-sixhoursmaximum.Theareawouldyieldonly200poundsofriceorless....12hoursaweekorunder.expressingapproximateamounts2.286Someoftheseexpressionsareusedtoindicatethatanumberisapproximateandthattheactualfigurecouldbelargerorsmaller.Hereisalistoftheexpressionsindicatingthatanumberisapproximate:aboutapproximatelyaroundoddorsoorthereaboutsroughlysomesomethinglikeUSAGENOTE2.287Youput"about","approximately","around","roughly","some",and"somethinglike"infrontofanumber.About85studentswerethere.Everyyearwehaveapproximately40pupilswhotakemathematics.Itwouldcostaround35millionpounds.Itcostsroughly£55ayeartokeepacatinfood.TheyhavetopayAmericasome$683,000thisyear.Harringtonhascheatedusoutofsomethinglikethirtythousandquidoverthepasttwoyears.Youput"odd"and"orso"afteranumberoramount,and"orthereabouts"afteranamount....ahundredoddacres.Forhalfaminuteorso,neitherofthemspoke.Getthetemperatureto30Corthereabouts.2.288Youcanindicatearangeofnumbersusing"between"and"and",or"from"and"to",orjust"to".Mostofthefarmsaroundherearebetweenfourandfivehundredyearsold.Myhospitalgroupscontainfromtentotwentypatients....peasantsowningtwotofiveacresofland.Notetheuseof"anything"before"between"and"from",toemphasizehowgreattherangeis.Anaveragerateofanythingbetween25and60percentisusual.Itisajobthattakesanythingfromtwotofiveweeks.Expandingthenoungroup:qualifiers2.289Thissectiondealswithstructureswhichcanbeusedtoqualifyheadwords;thatis,structureswhichcanbeusedafterheadwordstoaddfurtherinformationaboutthepersonorthingreferredto.Thesearecanqualifiersorqualifyingstructures.Theheadwordisusuallyanounbutcanbeanindefinitepronounor"those".2.290Qualifierscanconsistofoneormorewords.Thequalifierswhicharedealtwithinthissectionare•prepositionalphrases...agirlwithredhair....themaninthedarkglasses.Theuseofprepositionalphrasesasqualifiersisexplainedinparagraphs2.292to2.307.•adjectivesfollowedbyphrasesorclauses...machinerycapableofclearingrubbleoffthemainroads....thesortofweaponslikelytobedeployedagainstit....aconceptinconceivableahundredyearsearlier.Theuseofadjectivesfollowedbyphrasesorclausesasqualifiersisexplainedinparagraphs2.308to2.309.•non-finiteclauses...asimpledevicetotestlungfunction....twooftheproblemsmentionedabove.Hegesturedtowardsthethreecardslyingonthetable.385 Theuseofnon-finiteclausesasqualifiersisexplainedinparagraphs2.310to2.318.•noungroupsgivingfurtherinformationaboutothernoungroups.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs2.319to2.320.2.291Someotherstructurescanalsobeusedasqualifiers.Theseareexplainedfullyinothersections.Theyinclude•onewordqualifierssuchas"galore"and"concerned"whichareexplainedinparagraphs2.62to2.66.•relativeclausesShortlyaftertheshooting,themanwhohaddoneitwasarrested.MooresvilleisthetownthatJohnDillingercamefrom.Relativeclausesareexplainedinparagraphs8.83to8.116.•placeadverbsandtimeadverbs...downinthedungeonbeneath....areflectionoflifetodayinEngland.Adverbsoftimeareexplainedinparagraphs5.7to5.83andadverbsofplaceareexplainedinparagraphs6.82to6.100.Nounswithprepositionalphrases2.292Ingeneral,anyprepositionalphrasewhichdescribesorclassifiessomethingcanbeuseddirectlyafteranounorpronountoqualifyit....themanincharge....afilmaboutfourmenonholiday.Shereachedintotheroombehindher.2.293Inparticular,thereareseveralkindsofprepositionalphrasewhichareusuallyonlyusedasqualifiers.Ofthese,prepositionalphrasesbeginningwith"of"arethemostnumerous.Othersincludeusesof"with","in"and"by"."of"2.294Manynounsreferringtothingsandactionscanbeexpandedbyusingprepositionalphrasesbeginningwith"of"asqualifiersafterthem.Thisallowsthenountobeexpandedwithawiderangeofmeanings.Youcanuse"of"withnounsreferringtofeelingssuchas"love"and"fear"toindicatewhatthefeelingrelatesto;forexample,"fearofflying"and"loveofanimals".Furthermeaningsaredescribedmthefollowingparagraphs.WARNING2.295Personalpronounsarenotusuallyputafter"of".Forexample,youcannotsay"Joycewasthedaughterofhim"or"thepagesofit".Possessivedeterminersareusedinsteadtoindicatepossession.Theseareexplainedinparagraphs1.192to1.207.2.296Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwith"of"canbeusedtoindicatewhatsomethingconsistsof....giftsofoliveoil....strongfeelingsofjealousy.Theycanalsobeusedtoindicatewhatthesubjectmatterofsomethingis....apictureofahouse....Gretchen"saccountofherinterviewwithNichols....theideaofdeath.2.297Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwith"of"canbeusedtosaythatsomethingbelongstoorisassociatedwithsomeoneorsomething.COBUILDisatrademarkofWilliamCollinsSons&Co.Ltd.No.28wasthetownhouseofSirWinstonChurchill.Joycewasthedaughterofthevillagecobbler.Theactingabilityofthepupilsisadmirable....thebeautyoftheWelshlandscape.Fourboyssatonthefloorofthelivingroom.Ellenaimlesslyturnedthepagesofhermagazine.Notethatapostrophes("s)structuresaremuchmorefrequentlyusedtosaythatsomethingbelongstosomeoneorsomething.Apostrophes("s)isexplainedinparagraphs2.180to2.192.2.298Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwith"of"canbeusedtosaythatsomeoneorsomethinghasaparticularquality....awomanofenergyandambition....problemsofvaryingcomplexity....aflowerofmonstrousproportions.385 Ahouseholdofthissizeinevitablyhasproblems."Of"canalsousedinfrontofanumbertoindicatesomeone"sage....awomanoftwenty-two....achildofsix.Otherwaysofindicatingageareexplainedinparagraphs2.275to2.280.2.299Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwith"of"canbeusedwithnounsreferringtoanactiontoindicatewhoorwhatisperformingtheaction....thearrivalofthepolice....thegrowthofmodernindustry.Theycanalsobeusedtoshowwhoorwhatsomeonedoessomethingto.Forexample,ifyouaretalkingaboutpeoplewhosupportascheme,youcancallthem"thesupportersofthescheme"....supportersofthehungerstrike....criticsoftheTradeUnionMovement....thecreatoroftheuniverse....astudentofEnglish....thecauseofthetragedy."Of"structuresarealsousedtoindicatethethingaffectedbyanaction....thedestructionoftheircity....theappointmentofRobertCourtneySmithastheofficialreceiver.2.300Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwith"of"andcontainingmeasurementareusedtoindicatehowgreatanarea,speed,distance,ortemperatureis.Therewerefiresburningoveratotalareaofabout600squaremiles.Itcanbarelymaintainaspeedof25kilometresanhour....anaverageannualtemperatureof20.Waysofmeasuringthingsareexplainedinparagraphs2.267to2.274.2.301Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwith"with"canbeusedtosaythatsomeoneorsomethinghasaparticularcharacteristic,feature,orpossession....agirlwithredhair....agirlwithaforeignaccent....abigcarwithrecliningseats....amanwithaviolenttemper....themanwiththegun....thosewithlargefamilies.Theycanalsobeusedtoindicatewhatsomethinghasonorinit....asheetofpaperwithwritingonit....aroundboxwithsomebuttonsinit....awhite,plainenvelopewithhernameprintedonit....fragmentsofwrappingpaperwithbitsofstickytapestilladheringtothem.2.302Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwith"in"canbeusedtoindicatewhatsomeoneiswearing....agrey-hairedmaninaraincoat....themaninthedarkglasses....littlegroupsofpeopleinblack.2.303Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwith"by"canbeusedafteranounreferringtoanactiontoindicatewhoorwhatisperformingit....hisappointmentbytheKing....thecompressionofairbythepiston.2.304Somenouns,especiallyabstractnouns,needtobefollowedbyaprepositionalphrasetoshowwhattheyrelateto.Thereisoftenlittleornochoiceaboutwhichprepositiontouseafteraparticularnoun.Idemandedaccesstoatelephone....hisauthorityoverthem....thesolutiontoourenergyproblem....thebondbetweenmotherandchild.2.305Hereisalistofnounswhichusuallyoroftenhave"to"afterthem:accessaddictionadherenceanswerantidoteapproachdisloyaltyexceptionfidelityrecoursereferencerelevancesusceptibilitytestimonythreat385 affrontallegianceallergyallusionalternativeattachmentaversioncontributiondamagedevotionimmuneincitementintroductionprefacepreludereplyresistancereturnsequelsolutionvulnerabilitywitnessHereisalistofnounswhichusuallyoroftenhave"for"afterthem:admirationappetiteaptitudebidcravingcreditcuredemanddesiredisdaindislikedisregarddisrespecthungerloveneedprovisionquestreciperegardremedyrespectresponsibilityroomsearchsubstitutesympathysynonymtastethristHereisalistofnounswhichusuallyoroftenhave"on"afterthem:assaultattackbanclaimcommentconcentrateconstraintcrackdowncurbdependenceeffectembargoholdinsistencereflectionreliancerestrictionstancetaxHereisalistofnounswhichusuallyoroftenhave"with"afterthem:affinitycollisioncollusionconnectioncontrastcorrespondencedatedealingsdissatisfactionencounterfamiliarityidentificationintersectionintimacyinvolvementlinkparityquarrelrelationshipsympathyHereisalistofnounswhichareusuallyfollowedbyoneoftwoprepositions.Thelistindicatesthechoiceofprepositionsavailable:agreementaboutagreementonargumentagainstargumentforbattleagainstbattleforcaseagainstcasefordebateaboutdebateondecisionaboutdecisionontransitionfromtransitiontoHereisalistofothernounsusuallyfollowedbyaprepositions.complexaboutcrimeagainstgrudgeagainstinsuranceagainstreactionagainstsafeguardagainstangeratbondbetweendeparturefromescapefromexceptfromfreedomfromquotationfromforayintorelapseintoawarenessofauthorityovercontroloverAsyoucanseefromthelistsandexamplesgivenabove,itisoftenthecasethatwordswithasimilarmeaningaretypicallyfollowedbythesamepreposition.Forexample,"appetite","craving","desire","hunger",and"thirst"areallfollowedby"for".2.306Somenounsarerelatedtoverbswhicharealwaysoroftenfollowedbyaparticularpreposition.Thesenounsarefollowedbythesameprepositionastheirrelatedverbs,andtheyareusedtoindicatethethingthatisaffectedbytheaction.Forexample,"to"isusedafterboththeverb"refer"andtherelatednoun"reference".Wehavealreadyreferredtothisphenomenon....reverentreferencestotheimportanceofhome.Theyswimaboutbusilysearchingforfood....thesearchforfood.Iwanttoescapefromhere....anescapefromreality.2.307Somenounsreferringtoafeelingorstatearerelatedtoanadjectivewhichisusuallyfollowedbyapreposition.Thesenounsarefollowedbythesameprepositionastheirrelatedadjectives.Forexample,"of"isusedaftertheadjective"aware"andtherelatednoun"awareness".Shewasquiteawareofhercurrentsituation....thepublic"sincreasingawarenessoftheproblems.HewasangryatSallyGardnerforaccusinghim....herangeratthekids.Iam,ofcourse,familiarwithyourwork....familiaritywithwesternideas.Itiscleanandfreefrompollutantsandinfections.385 ...freedomfromoppression.Nounswithadjectives2.308Whenadjectivesareusedinqualifyingclausesafternounsorpronounstheycanbefollowedby•prepositionalphrases...machinerycapableofclearingrubbleoffthemainroads....awarningtopeopleeagerforaquickcure....thoseresponsiblefortheproject....theviciouspovertycyclesocommoninsingle-parentfamilies.•"to"-infinitiveclauses...thesortofweaponslikelytobedeployedagainstit.Ithasbeendirectedagainstthoseleastabletoretaliate.•adjunctsoftimeorplace...aconceptinconceivableahundredyearsearlier.Forthefacilitiesavailablehere,Imustaskforafee.Unfortunately,theworkvisibleinthislocationislate-nineteenth-centuryrestoration.Notethatyoucanuseadjectivesasqualifierswhentheyareprecededbyadjunctsoftimeormeasurement....thosestillalive....asmallhillabout400feethigh."Notealsothatafewadjectives,suchas"present"and"responsible",canbeusedontheirownafteranounorpronoun.Theuseoftheseadjectivesisexplainedinparagraphs2.62to2.66.otherqualifyingstructures2.309Therearesomeotherstructures,especiallythosewhichindicatecomparison,degree,orresult,whichofteninvolveaqualifier.Inparticular,somekindsofsubmodifiersofadjectivesoftenhaveaqualifiertocompletetheirmeaning.Petercamein,moreexcitedthananyonehadseenhimbefore.Ralphwastooangrytothinkclearly....steelcylindersstrongenoughtosurviveanuclearcatastrophe....agrandpianoasbigastwocoffins.Thewinterhasbeensobitterthatthestreamwaslow.Technologyhasmadesuchspectacularadvancesthatitisdifficulttokeepup.Theuseofcomparativeadjectivesplus"than"afternoungroupsisexplainedinparagraphs2.111to2.113.Otherwaysofcomparingthingsareexplainedinparagraphs2.128to2.144.Theuseof"so...that"and"such...that"isexplainedinparagraphs8.58to8.63.Nounswithnon-finiteclauses2.310Therearethreetypesofnon-finiteclauseswhichcanbeusedasqualifiers.Theseare"to"-infinitiveclauses(seeparagraphs2.311to2.316),pastparticipleclauses(seeparagraph2.317),andpresentparticipleclauses(seeparagraph2.318).with"to"-infinitiveclauses2.311A"to"-infinitiveclauseisoftenputafternounsinordertoshowwhatthethingreferredtoisintendedtodo.ThegovernmentofMexicosetupaprogrammetodevelopnewvarietiesofwheat....asimpledevicetotestlungfunction.Theyneedpeopletoworkinthefactories.2.312Youcanrefertosomethingorsomeonethatshouldorcanhavesomethingdonetothembyusingaclausecontaininga"to"-infinitiveafteranounorindefinitepronoun.Imakenotesinthebackofmydiaryofthingstobemendedorreplaced....whenI"vehadsomethingtoeat.Youcanalsouseaclauseconsistingofa"to"-infinitivefollowedbyapreposition....aroomwithnothinginitexceptastringcottosleepon,alecterntowriteonandtwowoodenshelves.Herememberedhehadnothingtowritewith.2.313Youcanalsousea"to"-infinitiveclausewhenyouwanttosaythatyouaretalkingabout,forexample,thefirst,oldest,oronlypersonwhodidsomething....thefirstwomantobeelectedtothecouncil....thenextpersontospeak....theoldestpersontobechosen.2.314Aclausecontaininga"to"-infinitiveisusedaftersomeabstractnounstoshowwhatactiontheyrelateto.385 ...peoplewhodidn"thavetheopportunitytogotouniversity....tryingtothinkofawaytostophim.2.315Manyofthesenounsarerelatedtoverbsoradjectiveswhicharealsooftenfollowedby"to"-infinitiveclauses.Forexample,a"to"-infinitiveclauseisusedafterboththeverb"need"andthenoun"need",andafterboththeadjective"able"andtherelatednoun"ability".Ineedtoborrowfivethousanddollars....theneedtopreservesecrecyabouttheirintentions.Imaybeabletohelpyou....theabilitytoread.Itfailedtogrow....ourfailuretoadaptourselvestomodemlife.2.316Hereisalistofnounswhichusuallyoroftenhavea"to"-infinitiveclauseafterthem:abilityattemptbidchancecompulsiondesiredisinclinationfailureinabilityneedopportunityreadinessreasonrefusalunwillingnessurgewaywillingness2.317Apastparticipleclausecanbeuseddirectlyafteranountoshowthatsomethinghasbeenproducedoraffectedbyanaction....agirtcalledPatricia....dressesmadeofpaper....twooftheproblemsmentionedabove....themachinealreadymentioned....aministerappointedbythePrimeMinister....astorywrittenbyanine-year-oldgirl....instrumentsdesignedtoextendtherangeofoursenses.2.318Apresentparticipleclausecanbeuseddirectlyafteranountoindicatethatsomethingisdoingsomething.Hegesturedtowardsthethreecardslyingonthetable....awickershopping-basketcontaininggroceries....thosestillworking....thescreamofamandyingintorment.2.319Whenyouwanttogivefurtherinformationaboutsomeoneorsomethingbyusinganoungroupwhichdescribesthemoridentifiesthem,youcanputthisnoungroupaftertheheadword.Thisisoftencalledapposition.Theuseofnoungroupsinappositioniscloselyassociatedwithdefiningandnon-definingrelativeclauseswhichareexplainedinparagraphs8.83to8.111.2.320Ifyouputthisnoungroupafterthemainnoungroup,acommaisalmostalwaysputafterthemainnoungroupbecausethesecondnoungroupisseparatefromit,notpartofit....thesifaka,abeautifulcreaturewithpurewhitefur....OrvilleWright,thefirstmantofly....DanMelnick,theheadofMGM....SteveRace,themusicianandbroadcaster.Hermother,aCanadian,diedwhenshewassix....abookbyadistinguishedScotsman,RamseyWeir.Ifyouputthisnoungroupbeforethemainnoungroup,youcansometimeschoosewhethertouseacommatoseparatethetwonoungroupsornot....theAmericanwriterAlvinToffler....Joan"shusband,JimInglis....myhusbandGeorge.ContentsofChapter3page3.2-126Indicatinghowmanyparticipantsareinvolved:transitivity1133.9-14Talkingabouteventswhichinvolveonlythesubject:intransitiveverbs1143.15-26Involvingsomeoneorsomethingotherthanthesubject:transitiveverbs1173.27-32Verbswheretheobjectrefersbacktothesubject:reflexiveverbs1193.33-46Verbswithlittlemeaning:delexicalverbs1203.47-55Verbswhichcanbeusedinbothintransitiveandtransitiveclauses1243.56-59Verbswhichcantakeanobjectoraprepositionalphrase126385 3.60-68Changingyourfocusbychangingthesubject:ergativeverbs1263.69-73Verbswhichinvolvepeopledoingthesamethingtoeachother:reciprocalverbs1283.74-83Verbswhichcanhavetwoobjects:ditransitiveverbs1293.84-117Extendingorchangingthemeaningofaverb:phrasalverbs1313.118-126Verbswhichconsistoftwowords:compoundverbs1383.127-182Describingandidentifyingthings:complementation1393.133-138Describingthings:adjectivesascomplementsoflinkverbs1403.139-148Sayingthatonethingisanotherthing:noungroupsascomplementsoflinkverbs1413.149-155Commenting:"to"-infinitiveclausesaftercomplements1423.156-161Describingaswellastalkingaboutanaction:otherverbswithcomplements1433.162-172Describingtheobjectofaverb:objectcomplements1443.173-178Describingsomethinginotherways:adjunctsinsteadofcomplements1463.179-182Indicatingwhatrolesomethinghasorhowitisperceived:thepreposition"as"1463.183-213Talkingaboutcloselylinkedactions:usingtwoverbstogetherinphase1473.190-202Talkingabouttwoactionsdonebythesameperson:phaseverbstogether1483.203-213Talkingabouttwoactionsdonebydifferentpeople:phaseverbsseparatedbyanobject1503Makingamessage3.1Whenyoumakeastatement,youuseaclause.Aclausewhichisusedtomakeastatementcontainsanoungroup,whichreferstothepersonorthingthatyouaretalkingabout,andaverbgroup,whichindicateswhatsortofaction,process,orstateyouaretalkingabout.Thenoungroup,whichusuallycomesinfrontoftheverbgroup,iscalledthesubjectoftheverbortheclause.Forexample,intheclause"Ellenlaughed","Ellen"isthesubject.TheformationofnoungroupsisexplainedinChapter1and2.Averbgroupusedinastatementisfinite.Theelementsofafiniteverbgroupandtheirformdependonwhattenseyouwanttouseandwhetheronepersonorthingisperformingtheaction,ormorethanone.TheformationofverbgroupsisexplainedintheReferenceSection.Quiteofteninstatementstheverbgroupisasingleword,anditisquitecommontotalkaboutthe"verb"ofaclause.Whenyousaysomething,youcanbetalkingaboutanactionthatinvolvesoneormoreparticipants.Indicatingparticipantsinaclauseiscalledtransitivity.Seeparagraphs3.2to3.126.Youcanalsobedescribingsomeoneorsomething,orsayingthattheyareaparticularthing.Describingandidentifyingthingsiscalledcomplementation.Seeparagraphs3.127to3.182.Athirdkindofstatementinvolvestalkingabouttwoactionsthatarecloselylinked.Thisiscalledphase.Seeparagraphs3.183to3.213.Althoughthischaptermainlydescribesfiniteclauses,theinformationthatitgivesabouttransitivityandcomplementationalsoappliestonon-finiteclauses,thatis,clauseswhoseverbisaninfinitiveoraparticiple.Non-finiteverbgroupscanbefollowedbyobjects,adjuncts,andcomplements,justasfiniteverbgroupscan.Thischapterdealsmainlywiththeuseofverbsinactiveclauses,wherethesubjectistheperformerofanactionratherthenthepersonorthingaffectedbyanaction.Theuseofverbsinpassiveclauses,wherethesubjectisthepersonorthingaffected,isexplainedinparagraphs10.8to10.24.Indicatinghowmanyparticipantsareinvolved:transitivity3.2Inthisgrammar,transitivityisexplainedinrelationtotheclauseasawhole.Manygrammarsdealwithtransitivityintermsofthewayinwhichaverbselectsobjects.However,theverb,whileusuallycentralinclausestructure,isnotnecessarilychosenfirst.Thisgrammarexplainssubject,verb,andobjectrelationsbydescribinghowstatementsarecreated.intransitiveverbs3.3Ifanactionoreventinvolvedonlyonepersonorthing,youmentiononlytheperformeroftheaction(thesubject)andtheaction(theverb).Thegirlscreamed.Iwaited.Anawfulthinghashappened.Clausesorthiskindarecalledintransitiveclauses.Verbwhichoccurinintransitiveclausesare385 calledintransitiveverbs.However,youcanthenmentionanotherpersonorthingwhichisinvolvedusingaprepositionalphrase.Shewalkedacrossthestreet.Intransitiveverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.9to3.14.3.4Iftheactionoreventinvolvesanotherpersonorthingwhichtheactionaffects,relatesto,orproduces,youputanoungroupreferringtothemaftertheverbgroup.Thisiscalledtheobjectoftheverborclause.Ifitisnecessarytodistinguishitfromotherobjects,itiscalledthedirectobject.Heclosedthedoor.Ihatesport.Someofthewomennoticedme.Clauseswhichhaveadirectobjectarecalledtransitiveclauses,andverbswhichoccurintransitiveclausesarecalledtransitiveverbs.Transitiveverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.15to3.26.Reflexiveverbsanddelexicalverbsarespecialkindsoftransitiveverbs.Theyareexplainedinparagraphs3.27to3.32and3.33to3.46.3.5ThemajorityofverbsinEnglishgiveyoutheoptionofpresentinganeventeitherasinvolvingthesubjectonlyorasinvolvingthesubjectandsomeoneorsomethingelseasadirectobject.Hepaintseveryday.Yarkovpaintsvividportraitsoffriendsandacquaintances.GusaskedmewhetherI"dliketohavedinnerwithhim,Iaccepted.Iacceptedtheinvitation.Thismeansthatmostverbscanbeusedintransitiveclausesaswellasintransitiveclauses.Verbswhichcanbeusedineithertypeofclauseareexplainedinparagraphs3.47to3.55.Withsomeverbs,thethingaffectedbytheactioncanbeputastheobjectoftheverborastheobjectofaprepositionaftertheverb.Theseverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.56to3.59.Ergativeverbsareaspecialkindofverbwhichcanbeusedinintransitiveortransitiveclauses.Theyareexplainedinparagraphs3.60to3.68.3.6Therearetwokindsofreciprocalverbs,whichrefertoactionswhichinvolvepeopledoingthesamethingtoeachother.Onekindintransitiveortransitiveclauses;theotherkindisusedinintransitiveclauses,withorwithoutaprepositionalphrasementioningoneoftheparticipants.WemetatHargreaves"place.IhadmethiminZermatt.Wearguedoverthisquestionforalongtime.Iarguedwiththismanforhalfanhour.Reciprocalverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.69to3.73.3.7Asmallnumberoftransitiveverbsalsoallowyoutomentionapersonwhobenefitsfromanactionorreceivessomethingasaresult.Theclausethenhasbothadirectobjectandaindirectobject.PiggyhandedRalphhisglasses.HisunclehadgivenhimbooksonIndia.Shesendsyouherlove.Shepassedhimhiscup.Verbswhichcantakeanindirectobjectaswellasadirectobjectarecalledditransitiveverbs.Theyareexplainedinparagraphs3.74to3.83.phrasalverbs,compoundverbs3.8Someverbshavetwoorthreeparts.Thesearephrasalverbsandcompoundverbs.Phrasalverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.84to3.117,andcompoundverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.118to3.126.Talkingabouteventswhichinvolveonlythesubject:intransitiveverbs3.9Whenyouaretalkingaboutanactionoreventwhichdoesnotinvolveanyoneoranythingotherthanthesubject,youuseanintransitiveverb.Herwholebodyached.Suchpeoplestillexist.Myconditiondeteriorated.385 Manyintransitiveverbsdescribephysicalbehaviourorthemakingofsounds.Bobcoughed.Vickiweptbitterly.Thegatesqueaked.3.10Hereisalistofverbswhicharenormallyusedinintransitiveclausesandwhichusuallyoroftenhavenoadjunctafterthem:acheadvancearisearrivebleedblushceasecollapsecoughcracklecrydecaydepartdeterioratediedigressdinedisappeardisintegratedozedroopeconomizeelapseensueeruptevaporateexistexpirefaintfallfalterfidgetflinchflourishfluctuategleamgrowlhappenhesitatehowlitchkneellaughmoanoccurpausepersistprosperquiverrecederelentriseroarscreamshineshiversighsleepslipsmilesnarlsneezesnoresnortsobsparklespeaksqueaksquealstinksubsidesulksurrenderswimthrobtinglevanishvaryvibratewaitwaverweepwiltworkyawnAfewoftheseverbsareusedtransitivelyinidiomsorwithveryspecificobjects,buttheyareintransitiveinalltheircommonmeanings.intransitiveverbsfollowedbyprepositionalphrases3.11Manyintransitiveverbsalwaysortypicallyhaveanadjunctafterthem.Withsome,theadjunctmustbeaprepositionalphrasebeginningwithaparticularpreposition.Thisuseofaprepositionallowssomethingaffectedbytheactiontobementioned,astheobjectofthepreposition.Everythingyouseeherebelongstome.Landlordsoftenresortedtoviolence.Isympathizedwiththem.I"mrelyingonBill.Heyearnedforacademicrecognition.3.12Hereisalistofverbswhichalwaysortypicallyhaveaparticularprepositionafterthemwhentheyareusedwithaparticularmeaning:raveabout~insureagainstplotagainstreactagainst~hintat~alternatebetweendifferentiatebetweenoscillatebetween~appealforatoneforcareforclamourforhopeforlongforoptforpayforqualifyforstriveforyearnforstemfromsufferfrom~believeinconsistinculminateindabbleinindulgeininvestinresultinwallowin~lapseinto~complainofconceiveofconsistofdespairoflearnofsmackofthinkoftireof~adheretoalludetoamounttoappealtoaspiretoassenttoattendtobelongtobowtoclingtodefertodictatetoleadtolistentoobjecttorefertorelatetoresorttoreverttostoopto~alternatewithassociatewith385 ~detractfromemanatefromemergefromradiatefromshrinkfrombetonfeedoninsistonspyontrampleon~consortwithcontendwithflirtwithgrapplewithsympathizewithteemwithHereisalistofverbswhichcanhaveeitheroftwoprepositionsafterthem:aboundinaboundwithcaterforcatertoconformtoconformwithcontributetocontributetowardsdependondependupondoteondoteuponembarkonembarkuponendinendwithengageinengageonenthuseaboutenthuseovergravitatetogravitatetowardshungerafterhungerforimproveonimproveuponliaisebetweenliaisewithlustafterlustforprevailonprevailuponprofitbyprofitfromrelyonrelyuponrevolvearoundrevolveroundspringfromspringoutofNotethatsomeintransitiveverbscanbeusedinthepassivewhentheyfollowedbyapreposition.Seeparagraph10.23.3.13Withotherverbs,theadjunctafterthemcanbeavarietyofprepositionalphrases,oranadverb.Theadjunctisoftenanadjunctofplace.SeeChapter6forinformationontheseadjuncts.Verbsofmovementareusuallyoroftenfollowedbyadjunctsofdirection.Hewentbacktohisownroom.Itravelledsouth.Hereisalistofverbsofmovement:comecrawlcreepdriftflowgallopglidegohurtleplungerunsoarspringstrolltravelwalk"Look","gaze",and"stare"arealsofollowedbyadjunctsofdirection.Verbsofpositionareusuallyfollowedbyadjunctsofportion.Donaldwaslyingonthebed.ShelivesinLausanne.Iusedtolivehere.Hereisalistofverbsofposition:bebelonghanglieliveremainsitbestandstaysituatedVerbssuchas"extend"or"stretch"arefollowedbyadjunctsindicatingextent.Thestormwe"reinnowextendsallthewayfromheretoNewfoundland.Thereareafewverbswhicharealwaysfollowedbyadjunctsofothersorts.Itbehavesratherlikeasquirrel.TheChild-minders"ActionMovementhassuccessfullycampaignedformanyimprovements.Ihopedthattheabsorptionofpoisonhadn"tprogressedtoofar.Hereisalistofverbswhicharealwaysfollowedbyadjunctsofothersorts:actbehavecampaignprogressverbswhichareoccasionallytransitive3.14Thereareasmallnumberofverbswhichareusuallyintransitivebutwhichcanbetransitivewhenusedwithoneparticularobject.Theobjectisusuallydirectlyrelatedtotheverb.Forexample,"smile"isusuallyusedintransitivelywiththenoun"smile".Forexample,"Hesmiledapatientsmile"isaliteraryalternativetosaying"Hesmiledpatiently".Thefocusisonthetypeofsmileratherthanontheactofsmiling.Stevesmiledhisthin,cruelsmile.Heappearstohavelivedthelifeofanyotherrichgentleman.Alicelaughedascornfullaugh.385 Ioncedreamedaverynicedreamaboutyou.Hereisalistofverb,whichcanonlybeusedtransitivelywhentheobjectisdirectlyrelatedtotheverb:dance(adance)die(adeath)dream(adream)laugh(alaugh)live(alife)sigh(asigh)smile(asmile)Amorecommonwayoffocusingonthenoungroupistouseadelexicalverbsuchas"give","take",or"have",asin"Marygavehimareallylovelysmile".Seeparagraphs3.33to3.46formoreinformationabouttheuseofdelexicalverbs.Involvingsomeoneorsomethingotherthanthesubject:transitiveverbs3.15Manyverbsdescribeeventsthatmust,inadditiontothesubject,involvesomeoneorsomethingelse.Someoftheseverbscanonlybeusedintransitiveclauses.Theextraprofitjustifiestheinvestment.Hehadcommittedadisgracefulaction.Theywantedanassistantintheboxoffice.Thismeansthattheyarefollowedbyadirectobject.Shehadfriends.Childrenseekindependence.Thetrialraisedanumberofquestions.3.16Manyverbswhichareonlyusedintransitiveclausescantakealargerangeofobjects.Forexample,therearemanythingsyoucan"want":money,arest,success,andsoon.Shewantedsomehelp.Iputmyhandonthedoor.Shedescribedherbackground.lstillsupportthegovernment.HehadalwayslikedMrPhillips.Japanhasapopulationofaboutahundredmillion.Sometransitiveverbshavearestrictedrangeofobjects,becauseoftheirmeaning.Forexample,theobjectoftheverb"kill"mustbesomethingthatisalive.Theobjectoftheverb"waste"mustbesomethingyoucanuse,suchastime,money,orfood.Theykilledhugeelephantswithtinypoisoneddarts.Whywastemoneyonthem?3.17Hereisalistofverbswhicharetransitive:achieveaddressadmireaffectaffordavoidbearbelieveblamebuildbuycalmcarrycatchclaimcommitcompleteconcernconsidercontrolconvincecorrectcovercreatecutdamagedefydemanddescribedesigndesiredestroydiscoverdiscussdisplaydodreadenjoyequalexchangeexpectexperienceexpressfavourfearfillfindfreegetgivegrantguardhandlehatehavehearheathirehitincludeinfluenceintroduceissuejustifykeepkillknowlacklikelistlovelowermaintainmakemeanmentionnameneedownplantpleasepreferpreventprocessproducepronounceprotectprovideraisereachreceiverecommendrecordreleaserememberremoverentreportrespectrevealriskseeseeksellshockspecifyspotsupporttaketeasetestthreatentrustupsetusevaluewantwastewearwelcomeNotethat"do"and"have"arealsoveryoftenusedasauxiliaries.SeetheReferenceSectionforthisuse.385 "Havegot"and"hasgot"areoftenusedinsteadofthepresenttenseof"have"whentalkingaboutpossession.Theformsof"have"behavelikeauxiliarieswhenusedlikethisbefore"got"."Hadgot"issometimesusedwhenreferringtothepast,but"had"isoftenusedinstead.I"vegotanumbrella.She"sgotadegree.He"dgotoverfiftyhorses."Measure"and"weigh"aresometimesconsideredtobetransitiveverbswhenusedtostatemeasurementsandweights.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph2.269."Cost"isusedtostatethecostofsomething,asin"Anadultticketcosts90p".humanobjects3.18Whenyouaretalkingaboutsomethingthataffectsapersonratherthanathing,itisnormalinEnglishtosaywhothatpersonis.Therefore,verbssuchas"anger","thank",and"warn",whichinvolveaffectingpeople,usuallyoccurintransitiveclauses.Myquestionsangeredthecrowd.Hersuddendeathhadsurprisedeverybody.Bluesuitsyou.Moneydidnotinteresthimverymuch.LebelbriefedCaronontheeventsoftheafternoon.3.19Hereisalistofverbswhichusuallyhaveahumanobject:angerbriefcomfortcontactfrighteninterestsuitsurpriseteasethanktroublewarntransitiveverbswhichneedanadjunct3.20Withsometransitiveverbs,youhavetogiveadditionalinformationaboutwhatisgoingonbyusinganadjunctaftertheobjectoftheverb.Someverbstypicallyhaveaprepositionalphrasebeginningwithaparticularprepositionaftertheirobject.Thejudgebasedhisdecisiononconstitutionalrights.Hehadsubjectedmetothepressureoffinancialruin.Mr.ClaudeCheysoonregardsthethirdworldashistoppriority.Hereisalistofverbswhichalwaysorusuallyhaveaparticularprepositionaftertheirobject:regardasviewas~mistakeforswapfor~dissociatefrompreventfrom~depriveofremindofridofrobof~accustomtoascribetoattributetocomparetocondemntoconfinetoconsigntodedicatetoentitletolikentoowetoreturntosubjecttosubordinateto~acquaintwithassociatewithconfrontwithengravewithpeltwithplywithtrustwithWiththefollowingverbs,thereisachoiceofpreposition:dividebydivideinto~incorporateinincorporateinto~baseonbaseuponlavishonlavishupon~entrusttoentrustwithequatetoequatewithpresenttopresentwithsupplytosupplywith3.21Otherverbsaretypicallyfollowedbyanadjunct,butnotonecontainingaparticularpreposition.Theadjunctisoftenanadjunctofplace.Heplacedthebabyonthewoman"slap.Ipositionedmychairoutsidetheroom.Heneverputsanythingaway.Hetreatedhislabourerswithkindness.Hereisalistofverbswhichusuallyhaveanadjunctofsomekindaftertheirobject:bringchuckconveycramdirectdragescortflinghoistjabjotlayleadplacepointpositionpropputripsendsetshovesmearstickstorethrowthrusttietreatAdjunctsareexplainedinChapter6.3.22Notethatsomeverbsofmovementandpositionaretransitive,notintransitive;theyare385 followedbynoungroupsreferringtoplacesratherthanbyadverbsorprepositionalphrases.Thisisbecausetheverbsthemselvesindicatethatyouaretalkingaboutmovementorpositionofaparticularkind.Forexample,"enter"impliesmovement"into"aplaceand"occupyimpliesposition"in"aplace.Astheynearedtheoutskirtsofthecitythetrafficthickened.Itwasdarkbythetimetheyreachedtheirhouse.Asmallornamentalpooloccupiedthecentreoftheroom.Roaringaircraftfilledthesky.Hereisalistoftransitiveverbsofmovement:approachenterleavenearreachroundHereisalistoftransitiveverbsofposition:covercrowdfillinhabitoccupythrongSomeverbsofmovementcanbefollowedeitherbyanoungrouporbyaprepositionalphrase.Seeparagraph3.59.3.23Notethatevenverbswhicharealmostalwaysfollowedbyadirectobjectcanoccasionallybeusedintransitively.Thisispossibleinveryrestrictedcontexts.Forexample,ifyouarecontrastingtwoactions,notnecessarytosaywhatelseisinvolved.Moneymarketsaretheplaceswherepeoplewithmoneybuyandsell.Somepeoplebuildwhileothersdestroy.Wegave,theytook.Ifyouusealistofdifferentverbsforemphasis,youdonotneedtonametheobject.Theysetouttoberude:todefy,threaten,ortease.Ifyourepeataverbinordertocontrastitwithasimilaraction,ortoemphasizeit,theobjectcanbeomitted.Shehadceasedtoloveasshehadonceloved.3.24Verbswhichdescribefeelingsandattitudescansometimesbeusedwithoutanobject,particularlyinthe"to"-infinitiveform.Thisisbecausetheobjectisassumedtobepeopleingeneral.Forexample,"please"usuallyrequiresanobject,butyoucansay"Helikestoplease",meaninghelikestopleasepeople.Helikestoshock.Shewasanxioustoplease.Hemustbeconvincedifheistoconvince.Ihaveatendencytotease.reportingverbs3.25Thereisalargegroupofverbs,suchas"say","suggest"and"think",whichareusedtoreportwhatpeoplesayorthink.Theyarecalledreportingverbs.Theyarefollowedbya"that"-clausewhichiscalledthereportedclause.Shesaidthatshewouldcome.Thereportedclauseisoftenthoughtofasbeinganobject,andsotheseverbsareusuallysaidtobetransitiveverbs.Inthisgrammar,reportingverbsareexplainedinChapter7.Reportingverbssuchas"advise"and"persuade",whichhaveanobjectwhichreferstothepersonbeingaddressed,areexplainedinparagraphs7.71and7.72.Somereportingverbscantakeastheirobjectanounsuchas"question"or"story"whichreferstosomethingthatissaidorwritten.Theseverbsarelistedinparagraph7.78.Sometakeanobjectwhichreferstoaneventorfact,andisthereforecloselyrelatedtoa"that"-clause.Thesearelistedinparagraph7.79.Verbssuchas"believe"and"know"whichcanbeusedasreportverbsbutwhichareordinarytransitiveverbswhenusedwithanothercommonmeaningareincludedinthelistsoftransitiveverbsgivenabove.3.26Mosttransitiveverbscanbeusedinthepassive.Seeparagraphs10.8to10.21.Verbswheretheobjectrefersbacktothesubject:reflexiveverbsPRODUCTIVEFEATURE3.27Ifanactionusuallyinvolvestwodifferentpeoplebutyouwanttotalkaboutacasewherethesamepersonisinvolvedtwice,youcanuseareflexivepronounastheobjectofaclause.Forexample,itisusualtoblamesomeoneelseifsomethinggoeswrong,butyoucansay"Iblamemyselfforwhathappened"ifyouaretheonlypersoninvolvedintheblaming.Althoughafewverbsaretypicallyusedwithreflexivepronouns,youcanactuallyusea385 reflexivepronounastheobjectofanytransitiveverb,whenthemeaningallowsyoutodoso.Iblamemyselffornotpayingattention.Shefreedherselffrommyembrace.Afterthemeeting,heintroducedhimselftome.Ihaddecidedtokillmyself.Don"tdeceiveyourself.WeAmericansmustaskourselvesseveralquestions.Theinsect,ineffect,iseatingitself.ThisisaproductivefeatureofEnglish.ProductivefeaturesareexplainedintheIntroduction.Reflexivepronounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.115to1.122.3.23Notethattheverbs"busy","content",and"pride"aretruereflexiveverbstheymustbeusedwithareflexivepronoun.Hehadbusiedhimselfinthelaboratory.ConradandIcontentedourselveswithexpressingourrelief.Heprideshimselfonhistidiness.3.29Anothersmallgroupofverbscanonlytakeanobjectwhichreferstoapersonwhentheobjectisareflexivepronoun.Forexample,youcan"expressanopinion"andyoucan"expressyourself",meaningthatyoucanputideasintowords,butyoucannot"expressaperson".ProfessorBaxendaleexpressedhimselfveryforcibly.Sheenjoyedherselfenormously.HeappliedhimselftolearninghowParliamentworked.Hereisalistofverbswhichtakeareflexivepronounastheirobjectwhenyourefertoaperson:applycomposedistanceenjoyexcelexertexpressstrain3.30Someverbswhichnormallydonothaveobjects,becausetheyinvolveonlytheperformeroftheaction,canhaveareflexivepronounastheirobjectifyouwanttoemphasizethatthesubjectisdoingsomethingthataffectshimselforherself.Youcanthereforesay"Billwashedhimself"ratherthan"Billwashed".Ialwayswashfivetimesaday.Childrenwereencouragedtowashthemselves.Istoodinthekitchenwhileheshaved.Hepreferstoshavehimselfbeforebreakfast.Ashtonhadbehavedabominably.Heisoldenoughtobehavehimselflikeagentleman.TheEskimoesareadaptingtochange.You"vegottobewillingtoadaptyourself.Hereisalistofverbswhichhavesensesinwhichyoucanuseareflexivepronounforemphasis:acclimatizeadaptbehavedresshidemovereadjustshaveundresswash3.31NotethatreflexivepronounsarenotusedasmuchinEnglishasinsomeotherlanguageswhentalkingaboutactionsthatyoudotoyourself.Asmentionedabove,youwouldusuallysay"Iwashed"ratherthan"Iwashedmyself"inEnglish.Sometimesanoungroupwithapossessiveisusedinstead.Forexample,youwouldsay"Icombedmyhair"ratherthan"Icombedmyself".3.32Notethatrefineverbsarenotusedinthepassive.Verbswithlittlemeaning:delexicalverbs3.33Thereareanumberofverycommonverbswhichareusedwithnounsastheirobjecttoindicatesimplythatsomeoneperformsanaction,notthatsomeoneaffectsorcreatessomething.Theseverbshaveverylittlemeaningwhentheyareusedinthisway.Forexample,"had"in"Shehadashower"hasverylittlemeaninginitself.Mostofthemeaningofthesentenceiscarriedbythenoun"shower".Wewerehavingajoke.Rogergaveagrinofsheerdelight.HetookasteptowardsJack.verbswhichareoftendelexical3.34Inthissectionwefocusontheverycommonverbswhich385 areusedinthistransitivestructure.Theyarecalleddelexicalverbs,andthestructurewhichconsistsofadelexicalverbfollowedbyanoungroupiscalledadelexicalstructure.Hereisalistofverbswhichareusedasdelexicalverbs.Thefirstfourareverycommonlyusedinthisway.givehavemaketake~doholdkeepsetNotethat"havegot"isnotusedinsteadof"have"indelexicalstructures.DelexicalstructuresareverycommonincurrentEnglish.Althoughthetotalnumberofdelexicalverbsissmall,theyincludesomeoftheverycommonestwordsinthelanguage.DelexicalstructurescontributetotheimpressionoffluencyinEnglishgivenbyaforeignuser.3.35Inmanycases,thereisaverbwhichhasasimilarmeaningtothemeaningofthedelexicalstructure.Forexample,theverb"look"meansalmostthesameas"havealook".Whenthewordisaverb,asin"Ilookedroundtheroom",youarefocusingontheactionoflocking.Whenyouusethewordasanouninadelexicalstructure,youarenaminganevent,somethingwhichiscomplete.Thisstructureoftenseemstobepreferredtoastructureinwhichtheverbhasgreaterprominentwhichcorrespondstothedelexicalstructureisoftenintransitive.Shemadeasignal.Shesignalledforataxi.Acouplewerehavingadrinkatatablebythewindow.Afewstudentsweredrinkingatthebar.Shegaveanamusedlaugh.Theybothlaughed.Hegaveavaguereply.Theyrepliedtohisletter.Therearealsosomeverbswhicharetransitive.Ihadaglimpseofthespeedometer.Iglimpsedabrightflashofgoldontheleft.Hegavealittlesniff.Isniffedtheroom.Comistookaphotographofher.TheyphotographedthepigeonsinTrafalgarSquare.3.36Thenounwhichistheobjectofthedelexicalverbisofteninthesingularandisusuallyprecededbytheindefinitearticle.Shemadearemarkabouttheweather.ShegaveacrywhenIcamein.Imighttakeastroll.Therearesomecountnounswhicharealmostalwaysusedinthesingularafteradelexicalverb.Hereisalistofthesenouns:cryfeelgrousegrumbleneedreadsmelltastetryNotethatthesewordsaremorecommonlyusedasverbsinthelanguageasawhole.3.37Youcanalsouseadelexicalverbfollowedbyapluralnoun.Shetooklittleladylikesipsofthecolddrink.HetookphotographsofVitainhersummerhouse.Thenewspaperhadmadedisparagingremarksabouthiswife.3.38Itisalsooccasionallypossibletofollowadelexicalverbwithanuncountnoun.Wehavemadeprogressinbothscienceandart.Caltookchargeofthissideoftheireducation.3.39Onedifferenceinmeaningbetweenusingadelexicalstructureandaverbwithasimilarmeaningisthatthedelexicalstructurecangivetheimpressionthattheeventyouaredescribingisbrief.Forexample,"Shegaveascream"suggeststhattherewasonlyonequickscream,whereas"Shescreamed"doesnotsuggestthattheeventwasbrief.Mr.Suttongaveashoutoftriumph.Zoegaveasighofrelief.Hegavealaugh.3.40Anotherreasonforchoosingadelexicalstructureisthatyoucanaddfartherdetailsabout385 theeventbyusingadjectivesinfrontofthenoun,ratherthanbyusingadverbs.Itismorecommon,forexample,tosay"Hegaveaquickfurtiveglanceroundtheroom"thantosay"Heglancedquicklyandfurtivelyroundtheroom",whichisfelttoberatherclumsyandunnatural.HegavealonglectureaboutRoosevelt.Shehadagoodcry.BennmadeasincerepersonalappealtotheCommittee.TheselegendsholdaromanticfascinationformanyJapanese.3.41Therearesomenounsusedindelexicalstructureswhichdonotcorrespondinformtoaverbwhichhasasimilarmeaningtothedelexicalstructure.Sometimesthereissuchaverb,buttheformisslightlydifferent.Workexperienceallowsstudentstomakemoreeffectivecareerdecisions.ThePrimeMinisterdecidedshehadheardenough.HemadetheshortestspeechI"veeverheard.Iainspokecandidlyaboutthecrash.Inothercases,thereisnocorrespondingverbwithasimilarmeaningatallandsothereisnootherstructurethatcanbeused.Hehadbeenoutalldaytakingpicturesofthefighting.Thatisaveryfoolishattitudetotake.Shemadeanumberofrelevantpoints.Trynottomakesomuchnoise.nounsusedwith"have"3.42Inmostcases,onlyonedelexicalverbisusedwithanyparticularnoun.Thefollowingexamplesshownounswhichareusedafter"have".Theyhaveadesperateneedtocommunicate.TheAmericanshadanonchalantbeliefintheirtechnologicalsuperiority.Shehadhadagoodcry.Let"snothaveaquarrel.Wecouldhaveatalk.Hereisalistofnounswhichareusedafter"have":beliefchatcrydancefallgrousegrumbleneedquarrelrespectsleeptalknounsusedwith"take"3.43Thefollowingexamplesshownounswhichareusedafter"take".HisworkwastotakephotographswhileflyingoverGermany....kidstakingturnstouseaplaygroundslide.Hewastakingnochances.Shewaspreparedtotakegreatrisks.MrKorwintakesaprotectionistattitudetowardswomenwho,heclaims,lookforsomeonetotakecareofthem.Davistooktheleadinblamingthepilots.TheGovernmentfoughtagainstsuggestionsthatitshouldtakefullblamefortheaffair.Hereisalistornounswhichareusedafter"take".Thefirstsetofnounsarecountnouns;thesecondsetofnounsareuncountnounsoralwayseithersingularorplural:attitudechancedecisioninterestphotophotographpictureriskturn~blamecarechargeconsequencesformleadoffenceofficepowerresponsibilityshapetimetroublenounsusedwith"give"3.44Manynounscanbeusedafter"give".Someofthesenounsrefertoverbalorfacialactions.Using"give"withoneofthesenounsoftensuggeststhattheactionisinvoluntaryorthatitisnotnecessarilydirectedatotherpeople.Forexample,"Shegaveascream"suggeststhatshecouldnothelpscreaming.Theyoungcashiergaveapatientsigh.Rogergaveagrinofsheerdelight.Hegaveashrillgaspofshock.Bothofthemgaveaninvoluntarylittlegiggle.Hegaveararechuckle.Hereisalistofnounswhichrefertoverbalorfacialactions:385 chucklecrygaspgigglegringroanlaughscowlscreamshoutshrieksighsmilesniffsniggerwhistleyellAnothergroupofnounsareoftenprecededbyanindirectobjectbecausetheydescribeactivitieswhichinvolvesomeoneelse,apartfromthesubject.Theygaveusawonderfullywarnwelcome.Elainegavehimahug.Hegaveherhandasqueeze.Hegavehimagoodkick.Shegavehimalongkiss.Hereisalistofnounswhichcanbeprecededbyanindirectobject:clueglancehinthugkickkisslookpunchpushringshoveslapsqueezewelcomeAthirdgroupofnounsrefertospeechactions.TheOxfordpoetryprofessorisrequiredtogivealectureeveryterm.LordYoungwillbegivingafirst-handaccountoftheeconomicdifficultiestheRussiansarestrugglingtoovercome.SirStephenBrownhasgivenwarningthatconflictovertheplanscouldleadtoaconstitutionalcrisis.Hereisalistofnounswhichrefertospeechactions:accountadviceanswerexampleinformationinterviewlecturenewsreasonreportspeechsummarytalkthoughtwarning3.45Manynounscanbeusedafter"make".Thedelexicalstructuresusingalotofthesenounsarecloselyrelatedtoreportingstructures,whichareexplainedinChapter7.Thereisusuallyarelatedverbwhichcanbeusedfollowedbyareportedclause.Shemadearemarkabouttheweather.AllenremarkedthatattimeshethoughthewasbackinAmerica.Nowandthenshemakesacommentonsomething.HenryCecilcommentedthatthegroundwastoofirm.Ihaven"tmadeafullconfession,sir.Foxconfessedthathehadstolenthemoney.Thecricketersmadeapublicprotestagainstapartheid.ShewasgreetedbysupportersprotestingthatReaganhadbetrayedhisallies.Imadeasecretsignaltohim.TheBankofEnglandsignalledthattherewouldbenochangeininterestrates.Youmadetherightdecision.Onecandidateresigned,decidingthatbankingwasnotforher.Hereisalistofnounswhichareusedafter"make"andhavearelatedreportingverb:arrangementclaimcommentconfessiondecisionpromiseprotestremarksignalsuggestionOthernounsusedwith"make"expressspeechactionsotherthanreports,ordescribechange,results,effort,andsoon.I"llmakesomeenquiriesforyou.Theyagreedtomakeafewminorchanges.McEnroewasdesperatetomakeonelastbigefforttowinWimbledonagain.Hemadeanattempttocalmdown.ItwasputtohimthathewasmakingaseriouschargeagainstMrsThatcher.Hereisalistofothernounswhichareusedafter"make":appealattemptchangechargecontributioneffortenquiryimpressionnoisepointprogressrecoverysoundspeechstartsuccessNotethat,unliketheothernounsinthislist,"progress"isuncountable.nounsusedwith"have"and"take"3.46Thereareanumberofnounswhichcanbeusedafter385 either"have"or"take"."Have"ismorecommonwiththesenounsinBritishEnglish,whereas"take"ismorecommoninAmericanEnglish.Onegroupofthesenounsrefertophysicalactivities.I"dratherhaveaswim.Haveadrink.Shedecidedtotakeastrollalongthebeach.Ilookabath,mysecondthatday.Hereisalistofnounswhichrefertophysicalactivities:bathbreakdrinkholidayjogpaddlerestrunshowerstrollswimwalkAnothergrouprefertoactionswhichinvolveusingoursenses.Sheshouldletadoctorhavealookatyou.EvenLallyhadalittlesipofwine.AHarvardscientistwasonceallowedintohaveapeep.Meadowslookabiteofmeat.Hereisalistofnounswhichrefertosuchactions:bitefeellookpeepsipsmellsnifftasteVerbswhichcanbeusedinbothintransitiveandtransitiveclauses3.47Thereareseveralreasonswhyyoucanuseverbsinintransitiveaswellastransitiveclauses.3.48Oneimportantreasonforusingverbsinintransitiveaswellastransitiveclausesisthatmanyverbshavemorethanonecommonmeaning.Forexample,theverb"run"isintransitivewhenitisusedinthesense"tomovequickly".But"run"istransitivewhenitisusedinthesense"tomanageoroperate".Theharerunsatenormousspeed.Sherunsahotel.Shereflectedforamomentandthendecidedtobackout.Hisideasreflectedtheinfluenceofprogressivethinkers.Icanmanageperfectlywellonmyown.Icannolongermanagemylife.Shemovedrathergracefully.Thewholeincidenthadmovedherprofoundly.3.49hereisalistofverbswhichcanbeusedinintransitiveaswellastransitiveclauses,dependingonwhichmeaningyouareusing:addaimbeatblowcallchangecheatcountdrawdressdriveescapeexercisefitflyfollowhangheadholdhurtleaklosemanagemeetmissmovepassplaypointpressproposereflectrunshootshowsinkspreadstandstretchstrikestudytendtouchturnwin3.50ManyverbsinEnglishcanbeusedwithorwithoutanobject,withthesamebasicmeaning.Theobjectisnotneededwhenitisobviouswhattypeofthingyouaretalkingabout.Forexample,youcouldsayeither"Sheeatsfoodslowly"or"Sheeatsslowly".Itisobviousinthiscontextthatwhatsheeatsisfood,andsoyouonlymentionfoodifyouwanttoemphasizethefact(whichisunlikely),orifyouwanttosaywhathindoffoodsheeats.Withverbslikethese,younormallyuseanobjectonlywhenyouwanttobespecificorwhenyouwanttocontrastwhathappenedononespecificoccasionwithwhathappensnormally.Forexample,youwouldsay"I"vebeenstudyinghistory",asopposedto"I"vebeenstudying",onlyifyouwantorneedtomentionthesubjectspecifically,orifyounormallystudysomethingelse....ahealthypersonwhoeatssensibly.Twiceaweekheeatsanappleforlunch.Fatherneversmokedordrank.385 Hedrankagooddealofcoffee.Hehadwon—andshehadhelped.Shecouldhelphimtoescape.Icookedforabouteightdirectors.Shehadnevercookeddinnerforanyone.Iwashedandironedforthem.Sheironedmyshift.Rudolphwavedandwentintothehouse.Shesmiledandwavedherhand.Shesatandtyped.Shetypedalettertothepaperinquestion.Youneedtogivetheobjectwhenitisdifferentfromtheonethatpeoplewouldnormallyassociatewiththeverb.Forexample,"towave"isusuallyinterpretedasmeaning"towaveyourhand",soifsomethingelseisbeingwaved,youhavetomentionit.Hewavedapieceofpaperinhislefthand.CharliewashedSusan"sfeet.Manygrowerssavetheirownseeds.Youalsomentiontheobjectwhenyouwarntosaysomethingspecificaboutit.Hewashedhissummerclothesandputthemaway.Bondwavedacheerfulhand.Icouldsavequitealotofmoney.3.51Hereisalistofverbswhichcanbeusedwithoutanobjectwhenitisobviouswhatsortofthingisinvolved:borrowchangecleancookdrawdrinkdrivedusteatfilmhelpironlearnlendmarrypaintparkpointreadridesavesingsmokespendstealstudytypewashwavewriteobjectalreadymentioned3.52Thereisanothergroupofverbswhichareusuallytransitivebutwhichcanbeusedintransitivelywiththesamemeaning.Theseareverbswheretheobjectisobviousbecauseithasalreadybeenmentioned.Forexample,ifyouhavealreadymentionedtheplacewheresomethinghappened,youcansay"Ileft",withoutnamingtheplaceagain.Atlastshethankedthemandleft.Heturnedawayandwalkedquicklyupthepassage.Ilockedthedoorandfollowed.Iwasinthemiddleofaquietmealwhenthetanksattacked.Shedidnotlookroundwhentheheentered.Thesentryfiredatthedoctorandfortunatelymissed.OnlytwoorthreehundredmenbelongedtotheUnionbeforethewar,nowthousandsjoined.3.53Hereisalistofverbswhichcanbeusedwithoutanobjectwhentheobjecthasalreadybeenmentioned:acceptaimanswerapproachaskattackbeginbiteblowboardcallcheckchooseconsiderdirectdryenterexplainfitfollowforgetgainguessimprovejoinjudgeknowleadleavelosemindmissmovenoticeobserveofferorderpassphoneplayproducepullpushrememberringrulesearchsearchsharesignstriketelephoneunderstandwatchwin3.54Ifyouthinkthattheobjectmaynotbeobviousfromwhathasbeensaidorifyouparticularlywanttodrawattentiontoit,youmentionit.AllIknowisthatMichaelandIneverleftthehouse.MissLindleyfollowedRoseintotheshop.Heattackedtheenemybynight.IenteredtheDuke"scabinwithoutknocking.Shethrewthefirstdartandmissedtheboardaltogether.385 IhadjoinedanathleticclubinChicago.3.55Therearenotmanyverbswhicharealwaystransitiveoralwaysintransitive.Thedecisionaboutwhetherornottomentionanobjectislefttotheusers.Iftheythinkthatthepeoplereadingorlisteningtothemwillhavenodifficultyinworkingoutwhatpersonorthingisaffectedbytheaction,thentheycanleaveouttheobject.Iftheythinkthatthiswillnotbeclear,theywilluseanobjectinordertopreventmisunderstanding.Themainreasonsforomittingtheobjectarethatitisobviousfromthemeaningoftheverbitself,orthatitisobviousfromwhathasalreadybeensaid.Verbswhichcantakeanobjectoraprepositionalphrase3.56Thereisasmallgroupofverbswhichcanbefollowedbyeitheranobjectoraprepositionalphrase.Theverb"fight"isoneoftheseverbs,sothat,forexample,youcansay"Hefoughttheenemy"or"Hefoughtagainsttheenemy".ThePolishArmyfoughttheGermansfornearlyfiveweeks.Hewasfightingagainsthistory.TheNewZealandrugbyteamplayedSouthAfrica"sSpringboks.Inhisyouth,ThomashadplayedagainstGlamorgan.3.57Thereisusuallylittledifferenceinmeaningbetweenusingtheverbonitsownandfollowingitwithapreposition.Forexample,thereisverylittledifferenceinmeaningbetween"brush"and"brushagainst","gnaw"and"gnawat",and"hiss"and"hissat"inthefollowingexamples.Herarmbrushedmycheek.Somethingbrushedagainstthebackoftheshelter.Rabbitsoftengnawthewoodworkoftheycages.Insectshadbeengnawingatthewood.TheyhissedtheMayorattheceremony.Fredericahissedathim.3.58Hereisalistofverbswhichcanbeusedwithadirectobjectoraprepositionalphrase,withlittledifferenceinmeaning:boo(at)brush(against)check(on)distinguish(between)enter(for)fight(against)fight(with)gain(in)gnaw(at)hiss(at)infiltrate(into)jeer(at)juggle(with)mock(at)mourn(for)nibble(at)play(against)rule(over)sip(at)sniff(at)tug(at)twiddle(with)verbsofmovement3.59Manyoftheverbswhichcantakeanobjectoraprepositionalphraseareverbssuchas"wander"and"cross"whichdescribephysicalmovement.Theprepositionisonewhichindicatesplace,andsoallowsyoutoemphasizethephysicalpositionofthesubjectinrelationtotheobject.Hewanderedthehillsinhissparetime.HewanderedthroughthestreetsofNewYork.IcrossedtheMississippi.ThecarhadcrossedovertherivertoLongIsland.Weclimbedthemountain.Iclimbedupthetree.Hereisalistofverbswhichdescribemovement,andtheprepositionsthatcanfollowthem:chase(after)climb(up)cross(over)jump(over)leap(over)roam(over)roam(through)skirt(round)walk(through)wander(through)Changingyourfocusbychangingthesubject:ergativeverbs3.60Someverbsallowyoutodescribeanactionfromthepointofviewoftheperformeroftheactionorfromthepointofviewofsomethingwhichisaffectedbytheaction.Thismeansthatthesameverbcanbeusedtransitively,followedbytheobject,orintransitively,withouttheoriginalperformerbeingmentioned.Inthefirstexamplebelow,"thedoor"istheobjectoftheverb"opened",butinthesecondexample"thedoor"isthesubjectof"opened"andthereisnomentionofwhoopenedthedoor.385 WhenIopenedthedoor,therewasLaverne.Suddenlythedooropened.Anexplosionshooktherooms.Thewholeroomshook.Notethattheobjectofthetransitiveverb,whichisthesubjectoftheintransitiveverb,usuallyreferstoathing,notaperson.Verbswhichcanhavethesamethingastheirobject,whentransitive,ortheirsubject,whenintransitive,arecalledergativeverbs.FormanystudentsofEnglish,theergativeverbisanewidea,andmaytakealittletimetolearn.However,itisanimportanttypeofverb,asthecommonexamplesbelowmakeclear.ThereareseveralhundredergativeverbsinregularuseincurrentEnglish.3.61Manyergativeverbsdescribeeventswhichinvolveachangefromonestatetoanother.Hewasslowinghispace.Shewasawarethattheaircraft"staxiingpacehadslowed.Ishatteredtheglass.Winebottleshadshatteredalloverthepavement.Heshouldhaveclosedthebeaches.Thestreetmarketshaveclosed.TheDirectoroftheBudgethaschangedhistitlebutnothisauthority.Overthenextfewmonthstheirworkpatternchanged.Thedriverstoppedthecar.Abigcarstopped.3.62Hereisalistofergativeverbswhichdescribeeventswhichinvolveachangeofsomekind:agebeginbendbleachbreakburnburstchangeclosecontinuecrackdarkendecreasediminishdispersedoubledrowndryemptyendfadefinishgrowimproveincreaseopenquickenrotshattershrinkshutslowsplitspreadstartsuckstopstretchtearthickenwidenworsen3.63Therearemanyotherergativeverbswhichrelatespecificallytocertainareasofmeaning.Forexample,thereareanumberwhichrelatetofoodandcooking,otherswhichdescribephysicalmovement,andotherswhichinvolveavehicleastheobjectofthetransitiveverborthesubjecttheintransitiveverb.I"veboiledanegg.Theporridgeisboiling.I"mcookingspaghetti.Thericeiscooking.Thebirdsturnedtheirheadssharplyatthesound.Vorster"sheadturned.Sherestedherheadonhisshoulder.Herheadrestedontheedgeofthetable.Shehadcrashedthecartwice.Pollock"scarcrashedintoaclumpoftrees.3.64Hereisalistofverbsrelatingtofood,physicalmovement,andvehicles:bakeboilcookdefrostfrymeltroastsimmerthicken~balancedropmoverestrockshakespinstandsteadyswingturn~backcrashdriveflyparkreverserunsailrestrictionsonergativesubjects3.65Notethatsomeverbsareusedergativelywithoneortwonounsonly.Forexample,youcansay"Hefiredagun"or"Thegunfired".Youcanalsosay"Hefiredabullet",butyouwouldnotnormallysay"Thebulletfired".Irangthebell.385 Thebellrang.Acarwassoundingitshorn.Ahornsoundedinthenight.Hehadcaughthissleeveonasplinterofwood.Thehatcaughtonaboltandtore.3.66Hereisalistofverbswhichcanbeusedergativelywiththenoun,orkindofnoun,thatisgiven:catch(anarticleofclothing)fire(agun,rifle,pistol)play(music)ring(abell,thealarm)show(anemotionsuchasfear,anger)sound(ahorn,thealarm)ergativeverbswhichneedadjuncts3.67Thereareasmallnumberofergativeverbswhichusuallyhaveanadverbofotheradjunctwhentheyareusedintransitively.Thisisbecauseyouchoosethisstructurewhenyouwanttoemphasizehowsomethingbehaveswhenaffectedinsomeway,andsothepersonwhodoestheactionisnotimportant.IlikethenewRangeRover.Ithandlesbeautifully.Woolwasheswellifyoutreatitcarefully.Hereisalistofergativeverbswhichusuallyhaveanadjunctwhentheyareusedintransitively:cleanfreezehandlemarkpolishsellstainwashcomparisonofpassivevoiceandergativeuse3.68Notethatergativeverbsperformasimilarfunctiontothepassivebecausetheyallowyoutoavoidmentioningwhoorwhatdoestheaction.Forexample,youcouldsay"Janefrozealotofpeasfromthegarden".Ifyouwerenotinterestedinwhofrozethembutinwhatshefroze,youcouldsay"Alotofpeaswerefrozen",usingthepassivevoice.Ifyouwereinterestedinhowtheyfroze,youcouldsay"Thepeasfromgardenfrozereallywell",makinguseofthefactthattheverbisergative.Forinformationaboutthepassive,see10.8to10.24.Verbswhichinvolvepeopledoingthesamethingtoeachother:reciprocalverbs3.69Someverbscandescribeprocesseswhichinvolvetwopeopleortwogroupsofpeopledoingthesamethingtoeachother.Forexample,"JohnandMaryargued"meansthatJohnarguedwithMaryandMaryarguedwithJohn.Thepairofyouhavearguedaboutthatforyears.Hecameoutandwehugged.Theycompetedfuriously.Theseverbsarecalledreciprocalverbs.3.70Oneofthestructuresinwhichyouusereciprocalverbsiswherethetwogroupsareputtogetherinapluralsubjectandtheverbisthenusedintransitively.Theirfacestouched.Theirchildrenarealwaysfighting.Theykissed.3.71Whenyouwanttoemphasizethatbothparticipantsareequallyinvolvedintheaction,youput"eachother"or"oneanother"aftertheverbgroup.Weembracedeachother.Theykissedeachotheringreeting.Theyfoughteachotherdesperatelyforit.Itwasthefirsttimetheyhadtouchedoneanother.Hereisalistofreciprocalverbswhichareusedtransitivelywiththepronouns"eachother"and"oneanother":consultcuddleembraceengagefighthugkissmarrymatchmeettouchWithsomeverbsyouneedtouseapreposition,usually"with",infromof"eachother"or"oneanother".You"vegottobeabletocommunicatewitheachother.ThirdWorldcountriesarecompetingwitheachotherforarestrictedmarket.Hisvisitorsagreedwithoneanothertoproceedtothecoffee-house.Hereisalistofreciprocalverbswhichmustbefollowedby"with"beforethepronouns"each385 other"and"oneanother":agreealternatearguebalanceclashcoincidecollidecombinecommunicateconflictconsultcontendcontrastconverseco-operatedisagreeengageintegratematemergemixquarrelstruggleHereisalistofverbswhichareusedwithaprepositionotherthan"with":compete(against)compete(with)correspond(to)correspond(with)fight(against)fight(with)part(from)relate(to)separate(from)talk(to)talk(with)Notethat"consult,"engage",and"fight"canbeusedeithertransitivelyorwithapreposition.3.72Intheexamplesgivenabove,theuserofthelanguageobviouslybelievesthatbothpeopleorgroupsareequallyinvolvedintheevent,becausebotharethesubject.However,theusermaywanttosuggestthatonepersonisresponsiblefortheactionorhasstartedit.Inthiscase,anoungroupwhichreferstothatpersonisputinsubjectposition.Iftheverbcanbeusedtransitively,anoungroupreferringtotheotherparticipantisusedastheobjectoftheverb.Heembracedher.Shemarriedayoungengineer.Youcouldmeetmeatarestaurant.TheAlgerianswerefightingtheFrencharmyintheirmountains.Iftheverbneedsaprepositionafterit,theothernoungroupisusedastheobjectofthepreposition.Ourreturncoincidedwiththearrivalofbadweather.YouthsclashedwithpoliceinBelfast.Thedistributionofaidcorrespondstoneed.3.73Peoplesometimesmakeonepersonorgroupthesubjectwhentheeventisaviolentorunpleasantone,inordertomakethemappearaggressiveorresponsiblefortheviolence.Forexample,theheadline"Policeclashwithyouths"mightsuggestthatthepolicewereresponsefortheclash,eventhoughtheyouthsalsoclashedwiththepolice.Paulcollidedwithalargemaninasweat-stainedshirt.Theroleofworkerconflictswiththeroleofmother.Shelikedhimevenwhenshewasquarrellingwithhim.Verbswhichcanhavetwoobjects:ditransitiveverbs3.74Sometimesyoumaywanttotalkaboutaneventwhichinvolvessomeoneinadditiontothepeopleorthingsthatarethesubjectandobjectoftheclause.Thisthirdparticipantissomeonewhobenefitsfromtheactionorreceivessomethingasaresult.Theybecometheindirectobjectoftheclause.Thedirectobject,asusual,isthepoisonorthingthatsomethingisdoneto.Forexample,in"IgaveJohnabook","John"istheindirectobjectand"thebook"isthedirectobject.Verbswhichcantakebothadirectobjectandanindirectobjectarecalledditransitiveverbs.Theindirectobjectisputimmediatelyaftertheverbgroup,infrontofthedirectobject.Dadgavemeacar.DrRobeyhandedDavidapriceofstring.Shebroughtmeaboiledeggandtoast.HehadlentTimthemoney.Amanpromisedhimajob.indirectobjectsinprepositionalphrases3.75Insteadofputtingtheindirectobjectinfrontofthedirectobject,itispossibletoputitinaprepositionalphrasethatcomesafterthedirectobject.Hehandedhisroomkeytothereceptionist.RalphpassedamessagetoJack.Hegaveittome.Thisstructureisusedparticularlyincaseswhereyouwanttofocusontheindirectobject.Youcanuseit,forexample,whentheindirectobjectissignificantlylongerthanthedirectobject.HehadtaughtEnglishtoalltheyouthofCeylonandIndia.TheExpressoffered$100toanyreaderwhocouldrelatewhatBalhadsaid.3.76Itisnormaltousethisprepositionalstructurewhenthedirectobjectisapronounsuchas385 "it"or"them".ItookthebottleandofferedittoOakley.Woodwardfinishedthesecondpageandpassedittotheeditor.Itwastheonlypoundhehadandhegaveittothelittleboy.Godhassentyoutome.Thisisbecausepronounsusuallyrefertothingsthathavealreadybeenmentioned,thatis,toinformationthatisknowntoyourhearerorreader.InEnglish,newinformationusuallycomesattheendoftheclause.So,whentheindirectobjectisnewinformationandthedirectobjectisnot,theindirectobjectisputattheendoftheclause.NotethatininformalspokenEnglish,somepeopleputtheindirectobjectinfrontofthedirectobjectwhenbothobjectsarepronouns.Forexample,somepeoplesay"Hegavemeit"ratherthan"Hegaveittome".Bothpronounsareunstressedandbothrefertoinformationthatisalreadyknown,andsoitdoesnotmatterwhatordertheycomein.3.77Ifyouwanttoputtheindirectobjectinaprepositionalphrase,youusethepreposition"to"withsomeverbs,especiallyoneswherethedirectobjectissomethingwhichistransferredfromonepersontoanother.MrSchellwrotealettertheotherdaytotheNewYorkTimes.Ihadlentmyapartmenttoafriendfortheweekend.Itookouttheblackboxandhandedittoher.Hereisalistofverbswhichcanhaveanindirectobjectintroducedby"to":accordadvanceawardbringdealfeedforwardgivegranthandleaseleavelendloanmailofferowepasspayplaypostquotereadrentrepaysellsendserveshowsingtakeleachtellwrite3.78Iftheactionyouaredescribinginvolvesonepersondoingsomethingwhichwillbenefitanotherperson,youcanusethepreposition"for"tointroducetheindirectobject.Heleftanoteforheronthetable.Hepouredmorechampagneforthethreeofthem.Hehadsavedanappleforthebeggar.Hereisalistofverbswhichcanhaveanindirectobjectintroducedby"for":bookbringbuildbuycashcookcutdesignfetchfindfixgetguaranteekeepleavemakemixorderpaintpickplaypourpreparereservesavesecuresetsingsparetakewinwriteUSAGENOTE3.79Notethattheverbs"bring","leave","play","sing","take",and"write"areinbothofthelists(3.77and3.78).Thatisbecausethereareafewverbswhichcantakeeither"to"or"for"infrontoftheindirectobject,dependingonthemeaningyouwanttoexpress.Forexample,"Karenwrotealettertoherboyfriend"meansthattheletterwasaddressedtoherboyfriendandwasforhimtoread,"Karenwrotealetterforherboyfriend"meansthatherboyfriendwantedtosendsomeoneelsealetterandKarenwasthepersonwhoactuallywroteit.USAGENOTE3.80Therearesomeditransitiveverbswheretheindirectobjectalmostalwayscomesinfrontofthedirectobjectratherthanbeingintroducedby"to"or"for".Forexample,yousay"Hebegrudgedhisdaughterthebreadsheate"and"Sheallowedhersononlytwopoundsaweek".Itwouldbeveryunusualindeedtosay"Sheallowedtwopoundsaweektoherson".Hereisalistofverbswhichdonotusuallyhavetheirindirectobjectintroducedby"to"or"for":allowaskbegrudgebetcausechargecostdenydrawenvyforgivegrudgepromiserefuseNotethat"wish"canbeusedasthissortofditransitiveverbwhenitsdirectobjectisawordorphraselike"luck","goodluck",or"happybirthday".3.81Whenyouuseapassiveformofaditransitiveverb,eitherthedirectobjectortheindirect385 objectcanbecomethesubject.See10.20forfullinformation.USAGENOTE3.82Whenthesubjectandtheindirectobjectrefertothesameperson,youcanuseareflexivepronounastheindirectobject.Roseboughtherselfapieceofcheeseforlunch.Hehadgothimselfacar.Hecookedhimselfanomelette.Reflexivepronounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.115to1.122.transitiveuses3.83Mostoftheverbslistedaboveasditransitiveverbscanbeusedwiththesamemeaningwithjustadirectobject.Heleftanote.Shefetchedajugfromthekitchen.However,thefollowingverbsalwaysorusuallyhavebothadirectobjectandanindirectobject:accordadvanceallowdenyfeedgivehandlendloansaveshowtellwriteAfewverbscanbeusedwiththepersonwhobenefitsfromtheaction,orreceivessomething,asthedirectobject.Ifedthebabywhenshewoke.Iforgiveyou.Hereisalistoftheseverbs:askenvyfeedforgivepayteachExtendingorchangingthemeaningofaverb:phrasalverbs3.84Thereisaspecialgroupofverbswhichconsistoftwoorthreewords.Thesearecalledphrasalverbs.Theyconsistof•averbfollowedbyanadverb:Hesatdown.Ralphstoodonhisheadandfellover.Thecoldweathersetin.•averbfollowedbyapreposition:Shelookedafterherinvalidmother.Shesailedthroughherexams.TheotherdayIcameacrossaletterfromBrunelwritteninthefastyearofhislife.•oraverbfollowedbyanadverbandapreposition.Youmaycomeupagainstunexpecteddifficulties.Ilookforwardtoreadingit.Famehascreptuponheralmostbyaccident.Bycombiningaverbandanadverborprepositioninthisway,wecanextendtheusualmeaningoftheverborcreateanewmeaning,differentfromanythattheverbhasonitsown.Youcannot,therefore,alwaysguessthemeaningofaphrasalverbfromtheusualmeaningsoftheverbandtheadverborpreposition.Inthecaseofafewphrasalverbs,thefirstpartisnotfoundindependentlyasaverb.Forexample,therearephrasalverbs"sumup","tamperwith","zeroinon",butnoverbs"sum","tamper",or"zero".Notethatphrasalverbsareneverwrittenasasinglewordorwithahyphen.3.85Mostphrasalverbsconsistoftwowords.Theseareexplainedbelowinparagraphs3.86to3.111.Three-wordphrasalverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.112to3.114.3.86Somephrasalverbsareusedinintransitiveclauses.Manyoftheseareverbplusadverbcombinations.Rosamundwentawayforafewdays.Theboyswerefoolingaround.Shemusthavedozedoff.3.87Hereisalistofphrasalverbswhichconsistofanintransitiveverbandanadverb:backawaybackdownbackoffbalanceoutcomeupcooloffcreepincropupgetalonggetbygetupgiveinoptoutownuppassawaypayupspringupstandbackstanddownstandin385 bargeinbearupboiloverbouncebackbowdownbowoutbranchputbreakawaybreakoutbuttincampoutcastaboutcatchonchangedownchangeupcheckupchipinclimbdowncloseincloudoverclubtogethercomeaboutcomealongcomeapartcomeawaycomebackcomedowncomeforwardcomeincomeoncomeoutcomeroundcometocryoffcuddleupcurlupcutindieawaydiedowndieoutdineoutdoublebackdozeoffdragondropbackdropbydropouteaseupebbawayendupfadeawayfadeoutfallapartfallawayfallbackfallbehindfalloutfalloverfallthroughfightbackfizzleoutflareupfoolaroundforgeaheadgetaboutgetaheadglazeovergoaheadgoalonggoaroundgoawaygobackgodowngoongooutgoundergoupgrowuphangbackhangtogetherhitoutholdonlanduplashoutletupliebackliedownliveinlookaheadlookbacklookinloomupmakeoffmeetupmeltawaymountupmoveoffmoveovernodoffpineawayplayaroundpopuppressaheadpressedonpushaheadpushonrearuprideupringoffriseuprollaboutrollinrolloverrotawayrunawayrunoutrushinseizeupsellupsetinsettledownsettleinsettleupshoparoundsimmerdownsinkinsitaroundsitbacksitdownslipupspeakupsplashoutstandoutstartoutstayinstayonstayupsteamupstepasidestepbackstepdownstepinstickaroundstockupstopbystopoffstopovertagalongtailawaytailofftaperofftickovertouchdowntuneinwadeinwaitaboutwaitupwalkoutwasteawaywatchoutwearoffweighinintransitivephrasalverbswithprepositions3.88Otherphrasalverbsusedinintransitiveclausesareverbplusprepositioncombinations.Skitripsnowaccountfornearlyhalfofallschoolvisits.I"mjustaskingforinformation....theargumentsthatstemfromgossip.Notethatthenoungroupsattheendoftheaboveexamples("nearlyhalfofallschoolvisits","information",and"gossip")areobjectsoftheprepositionsandnotdirectlyobjectsoftheverbs.3.89Hereisalistofphrasalverbswhichconsistofanintransitiveverbandapreposition:abidebyaccountforallowforanswerforaskafteraskforbankonbargainforbreakintobreakwithbroodonbumpintoburstintocallforcalloncareforcomeacrosscomebetweendrawondrinktodwelloneatintoembarkonenterintoexpandonfallforfallintofallonfeelforflickthroughfrownupongetatgetintogetovergoaboutgoagainstleapatlevelwithliebehindliveforliveofflivewithlookafterlookintolooktomakeformeetwithpartwithpickatpickonpitchintoplanforplanonplayatrompthroughrunacrossrunintoruntosailthroughseetoseizeonsetaboutsettleforsettleonskateoversmileonstandforstemfromstickatstickbystumbleacrossstumbleon385 comebycomeforcomefromcomeintocomeundercomeuponcountoncmacrossdawnondealwithdisposeofgoforgrowonhangontoheadforhitonholdwithjumpatkeeptolaughatlaunchintolayintoplayonpokeatporeoverprovideforpuzzleoverrattlethroughreasonwithreckononreckonwithreckonwithoutriseabovetakeaftertakeagainsttamperwithtanglewithtriflewithtumbletowadethroughwaitonwalkintowatchforworryat3.90Inthecaseofsomeintransitivephrasalverbs,thesecondwordcanbeaprepositionifthesecondthinginvolvedneedstobementioned,orcanbeanadverbifthesecondthinginvolvedisclearfromthecontext.Icouldhangaroundyouroffice.We"llhavetohangaroundforawhile....adogwhohadlaggedbehindtheothers.Afterawhite,Iseeheisdeliberatelylaggingbehind.3.91Hereisalistofintransitivephrasalverbswhosesecondwordcanbeaprepositionoranadverb:askaroundbendoverbreakthroughbustleaboutcomeacrosscomeaftercomealongcomebycomedowncomeincomeoffcomeoncomeovercomethroughcomeupcrossovercrowdarounddowithoutfallbehindfalldownfalloffgatheraroundgetingetoffgetongetroundgoaboutgoalonggodowngoingoroundgothroughgoupgowithouthangaroundjoininknockaboutlagbehindleanoverlieaboutlookroundlookthroughloungeaboutmoveaboutpassbypassoverpushbypushpastpushthroughrallyroundrunaroundrundownrunupscrapethroughseeroundshinethroughshowthroughsitaroundspilloverstandaroundstopbytripovertransitivephrasalverbs3.92Anothergroupofphrasalverbsarenearlyalwaysusedintransitiveclauses,becausetheverbtakesadirectobject.Ileftmypackbehindandtookonlyawaferbottle.MorristrackedHilarydowninthebathroom.Shereadthepoemoutquietly.3.93Hereisalistofphrasalverbswhichconsistofatransitiveverbandanadverb:addonbeatupblotoutboardupbringaboutbringalongbringbackbringdownbringforwardbringinbringoffbringoutbringroundbringupbuyoutbuyupcalloffgiveawaygivebackgiveoffhammerouthanddownhandinhandonhandouthandoverhandroundhaveonhireoutholddownholduphuntdownhushupkeepbackpointoutprintoutpullapartpulldownpushaboutpusharoundpushoverputaboutputacrossputaroundputacrossputdownputforwardputoffputonputoutputthroughspelloutspinoutstampoutstepupstickdownsummonupswitchontakeaparttakeawaytakebacktakedowntakeintakeontakeuptalkovertalkroundtearapart385 callupcarryoffcarryoutcastasidecatchoutchaseupchatupcleanoutconjureupcountoutcrossoffcrossoutcutbackcutdowncutoffcutupdealoutdigupdodowndoupdragindragoutdragupdreamupdrinkindriveoutdrumupeatawayeatupexplainawayfightofffininfillupfilteroutfindoutfixupfollowupfrightenawaygatherupkickoutknockdownknockoutknockoverlapuplaydownlayonlayoutleavebehindleaveoutletdownletinletoffletoutliftuplivedownmeltdownmessupmixupnaildownnotedownorderaboutpackoffpassdownpassoverpassroundpatchuppaybackpayoutphaseinphaseoutpickoffpickoutpiecetogetherpindownpinupplaybackplaydownpluginputtogetherputupreadoutreasonoutreeloffrinseoutripoffripupropeinropeoffrubinruboutruleoutrushthroughscaledownscreenoffsealoffseeoffseekoutselloffsendupsetapartsetasidesetbacksetdownshakeoffshakeupshootdownshrugoffshutawayshutinshutoffshutoutsizeupsmoothoversnapupsoakupsortoutsoundoutteardowntearuptellaparttelloffthinkoverthinkthroughthinkuptrashoutthrowawaythrowoffthrowonthrowouttidyawaytiedowntieuptipofftipuptireouttonedowntopuptrackdowntradeintryontryoutturndownturnonuseupwarnoffwashawayweedoutweighoutweighupweighupwinbackwinoverwipeawaywipeoutwipeupPhrasalverbswhichconsistofatransitiveverbandaprepositionareexplainedinparagraphs3.108to3.111.3.94Alargegroupofphrasalverbscanbeusedinintransitiveaswellastransitivestructures.Oftenthisisbecauseaphrasalverbhasmorethanonemeaning.Forexample,"breakin"isusuallyintransitivewhenitisusedinthesenseof"getintoaplacebyforce".But"breakin"istransitivewhenitisusedinthesenseof"getsomeoneusedtoanewsituation".Ifthedoorislocked,Iwilltrytobreakin.Brodylikedtobreakinhisassistantsslowly.Aplanetookoff.Gretchentookoffhercoat.Theenginecutout.Shecutoutsomecolouredphotographsfromamagazine.3.95Hereisalistofphrasalverbswhichcanbeusedinintransitiveaswellastransitiveclauses,dependingonwhichmeaningisbeingused:addupbailoutblackoutbreakincallincarryongetdowngetingetoutgettogethergiveuphangoutkickoffknockaboutknockofflayoffleaveofflookoutputinrolluprundownrunoffrunoversetforthsumupswitchofftakeofftearoffthrowuptuckin385 clearoutcutoutdrawondrawoutdrawupdressupdropoffdroproundfightbackfinishupholdoffholdoutjoinupkeepawaykeepdownkeepinkeepoffkeeponkeepoutkeepuplookupmakeoutmakeupmessaboutmissoutpassoffpassonpayoffpickuppullinsetoffsetoutshowoffshowupsplitupstickoutstickupstowawaystrikeoutstringalongturnawayturnbackturninturnoutturnroundturnupwinddownwindupworkoutwrapup3.96Thereareafewphrasalverbswhichonlyhaveonemeaning,outwhichcanbeeithertransitiveorintransitive,itispossibletousethemintransitivelybecausetheobjectiseitherobviousorcanbeguessedparticularcontext.Itwon"ttakemeamomenttoclearaway.Brodybegantoclearawaythesoupbowls.3.97Hereisalistofphrasalverbswhichhaveonlyonemeaningbutwhichcanbeusedintransitively:answerbackbreatheinbreatheoutcallbackclearawayclearupcoverupdrinkuphelpoutopenuptakeovertidyawaywashupergativephrasalverbs3.98Justaswithordinaryverbs,somephrasalverbsareergativeverbs;thatis,youcanusetheobjectofthetransitiveverbasthesubjectoftheintransitiveverb.Theguerrillasblewuptherestaurant.Thegasworksblewup.Iwon"twakehimupjustyet.Hewokeupinthemiddleofthenight.Seeparagraphs3.60to3.68forinformationaboutergativeverbs.3.99Hereisalistofergativephrasalverbs:backupblockupblowupbookinbreakoffbreakupbuckupbuildupburnupcheckincheckoutcheerupclosedowndryupgetoffheatuphurryuplineupmoveonopenuppeeloffpullthroughruboffshutupsignupslowdownspreadoutstartoffthawoutwakeupwarmupweardownwearout3.100Inthecaseofsomeergativephrasalverbs,thesecondwordcanbeaprepositioniftheotherthinginvolvedneedstobementioned,orcanbeanadverbiftheotherthinginvolvedisclearfromthecontext....leavesthathadbeenblownoffthetrees.Myhatblewoff.3.101Hereisalistofergativephrasalverbswhosesecondwordcanbeaprepositionoranadverb:blowoffchipoffgetdowngetthroughgetupmovedownmoveuppeeloffpokethroughstickinstickonobjectposition3.102Whenyouareusingaphrasalverbinatransitiveclauseandtheobjectisashortnoungroup,youusuallyhaveachoiceastowhereyouputtheobject.Itcanbeplacedeitherafterthesecondwordofthephrasalverborafterthefirstwordandbeforethesecondword.Ifilledupajarwithpotassiumpermanganate.Shefilledmyglassup.Hehandedoverthebox.MrsKaulhandedtheflowersovertoJudy.3.103However,whentheobjectconsistsofalongnoungroup,itismorelikelytocomeafterthesecondwordofthephrasalverb,sothetwopartsofthephrasalverbarenotseparatedtoowidely.Inthisway,attentionisfocusedontheinformationcontainedinthenoungroup,ratherthanonthesecondwordofthephrasalverb.TheauthoritieshaveturneddownarequestbytheArgentineEmbassytoexaminethe385 wreckageoftheplane.3.104Whentheobjectisapronounsuchas"me","her",or"it",itusuallycomesbeforethesecondwordofthephrasalverb.Thisisbecauseitisnotnewinformation,andsoitisnotputinapositionofprominenceattheendoftheclause.Iwaiteduntilhehadfilleditup.Georgehandeditovertooneofthetribesmen.3.105Iftheobjectofaphrasalverbisanabstractnounsuchas"hope","confidence",or"support",itusuallycomesafterthesecondwordofthephrasalverb.So,althoughyoucansay,"Hebuilthisbusinessup",youusuallysay,"Wearetryingtobuilduptrustwiththeresidents".Similarly,althoughyoucansay"Heputmyparentsupforthenight",younormallysay,"Thepeasantsareputtingupalotofresistance".Thenewspaperswhippedupsympathyforthem.Theyattemptedtodrumupsupportfromthestudents.Hedidn"tholdoutmuchhopeforthem.3.106Withasmallnumberofphrasalverbs,theobjectisalwaysplacedbetweenthefirstandthesecondwordsoftheverb.Forexample,youcansay"Ican"ttellyourbrothersapart"butnot"Ican"ttellapartyourbrothers".CaptainDeanwasstillorderingeverybodyabout.Iansweredhimbackandtookmychances.Notethatmostoftheseverbstakeahumanobject.Hereisalistofphrasalverbswhichalwaysbelonginthisgroupwhentheyareusedtransitively:answerbackaskinbashaboutbindoverbookinbringfoundbringtobrushoffcallbackcarrybackcatchoutchurnupcountindragdowndressdowndroproundfeeloutgetawayhearouthelpalonginviteininviteoutinviteoverjollyalongkeepunderknockaboutmessaboutmoveaboutmuckaboutorderaboutplayalongplaythroughpullaboutpulltopushaboutpusharoundpushtorunthroughseethroughsendaheadsendawaysendupshutupsitdownslaparoundstandupstareoutstringalongtalkroundtearaparttellaparttipofftrussupturfoutSomephrasalverbshavemorethanonetransitivesensebutbelonginthisgroupwhentheyareusedwithoneparticularmeaning.Forexample,"takeback"belongsinthisgroupwhenitmeans"remindsomeoneofsomething"butnotwhenitmeans"regainsomething".ThescentofthehaytookAshbacktolong-agoeveningsinDevon.Philiptookbackhisglassesandlookedatthesmoke.Hereisalistofphrasalverbswhichbelonginthisgroupwhenusedwithaparticularmeaning:bowloverringdownbringoutbuoyupcutoffdooverdrawoutgetbackgetoutgiveuphaveonhurryupkeepupkickaroundknockoutknockupnaildownpassanpindownpullapartpusharoundputdownputoutseeoutsetupshakeupshowaroundshowupstartoffstraightenouttakebacktakeintakeoffthrowabouttossabouttripupturnonwardoffwindupprepositionalobjects3.107Rememberthatwhenaphrasalverbconsistsofanintransitiveverbfollowedbyapreposition,thenoungroupalwayscomesafterthepreposition,evenwhenitisapronoun.Anumberofreasonscanaccountforthischange.Theyhaddealtwiththeproblemintelligently.IfIwentawayandleftyouintheflat,wouldyoulookafterit?Thereisalistofphrasalverbswhichconsistofanintransitiveverbandaprepositioninparagraph3.89.transitivephrasalverbswithprepositions3.108Somephrasalverbsconsistofatransitiveverbandapreposition.Theyhaveonenoungroupafterthefirstword,astheobjectoftheverb,andasecondnoungroupafterthesecondword,astheobjectofthepreposition.Theyagreedtolethimintotheirsecret.385 Thefarmerthreatenedtosethisdogsonthem.They"llholdthatagainstyouwhenyouapplynexttime.3.109Hereisalistofphraseverbswhichconsistofatransitiveverbandapreposition:buildintobuildondrawintodrumintofrightenintoholdagainstkeeptolaybeforeleaveoffletintolumberwithmakeofputonputontoputthroughreadintosetagainstsetbacksetontalkintothrustuponwriteintoprepositionoradverb3.110Inthecaseofsometransitivephrasalverbs,thesecondwordcanbeaprepositionifthethirdthinginvolvedneedstobementioned,orcanbeanadverbifthethirdthinginvolvedisclearfromthecontext.Rudolphshowedthemaroundthetheatre.Comeon.I"llshowyouaround.3.111Hereisalistoftransitivephrasalverbswhosesecondwordcanbeaprepositionoranadverb:crossoffdabonhawkaroundhurlaboutkeepoffknockofflopoffpusharoundscruboffshowaroundshutinsinkinintransitivethree-wordphrasalverbs3.112Mostphrasalverbsconsistoftwowords:averbandapreposition.However,thereareanumberofphrasalverbswhichconsistofthreewords:averb,anadvert,andapreposition.Mostthree-wordphrasalverbsareintransitive.Theprepositionattheendisfollowedbyitsownobject.Hisgirlfriendwalkedoutonhim.Bythe1990"s,societywillhavefaceduptotheinevitable.Hesuddenlyburstinonmeonemorning.Thelocalpeoplehavetoputupwithalotoftourists.TerryHolbrookcaughtupwithme.3.113Hereisalistofintransitivethree-wordphrasalverbs:beinforbeontobeardownonboildowntobreakoutofbrushuponbumpupagainstburstinoncalloutforcatchupwithchimeinwithclampdownoncleanupaftercomeacrossascomedownoncomedowntocomedownwithcomeinforcomeontocomeoutincomeoutofcomeoutwithcomeupagainstcomeuptocomeupwithcrackdownoncreepuponcrowdinoncryoutagainstcryoutforcutbackondatebacktodoawaywithdoublebackonfaceuptofallbackonfallinwithgetawaywithgetdowntogetinongetoffwithgetontogetonwithgetroundtogetuptogiveupongoalongwithgobackongodownwithgoinforgooffwithgoovertogothroughwithgrowoutofkeepinwithkeeponatkeepupwithkickoutagainstleaduptoliveuptolookdownonlookforwardtolookoutfortookuptomakeawaywithmakeoffwithmakeuptomatchuptomeasureuptomissoutonmonkeyaboutwithplayalongwithplayaroundwithputupwithreaduponrunawaywithrunoffwithrunupagainstshyawayfromsitinonsnapoutofstickoutforstickupforsuckuptotakeupwithtalkdowntotieinwithwalkawayfromwalkawaywithwalkoffwithwalkoutonwriggleoutofzeroinon3.114Afewthree-wordphrasalverbsaretransitive.Thedirectobjectoftheverbcomesimmediatelyaftertheverb.Asecondnoungroupisputafterthepreposition,asnormal.Multinationalcompaniescanplayindividualmarketsoffagainsteachother.Krooptriedtotalkheroutofit.I"lltakeyouuponthatgenerousinvitation.Hereisalistoftransitivethree-wordphrasalverbs:385 dooutoffrightenoutofletinforletinonplayoffagainstputdownasputdowntoputuptotakeoutontakeupontalkoutof3.115Itisnotpossibletohaveindirectobjectswithphrasalverbs.Theonlyobjectsyoucanhavearedirectobjectsoftheverbandobjectsofprepositions.3.116Thereisonewayinwhichaprepositionthatispartofaphrasalverbbehavesdifferentlyfromanordinarypreposition.Normally,whentheobjectofaprepositionisputatthebeginningofaquestionorarelativeclause,itcanbeprecededbythepreposition,especiallyinformalspeechorwriting.Forexample,youcansay"Fromwhichstudentdidyougetthebook?"and"thedocumentonwhichheputhissignature".However,iftheprepositionispartofaphrasalverb,itcannotbeputbeforeitsobjectinsuchstructures.Youhavetosay"Whatareyougettingat?"not"Atwhatareyougetting?",and"thedifficultieswhichheranupagainst"not"thedifficultiesagainstwhichheranup".Whoweretheylaughingat?Thiswasonecomplicationhehadnotbargainedfor.3.117Mostphrasalverbswhichcontainatransitiveverbcanbeusedinthepassive.Socanafewphrasalverbswhichcontainanintransitiveverbandapreposition.Seeparagraphs10.17to10.23.Verbswhichconsistoftwowords:compoundverbs3.118Thereareanumberofverbssuchas"cross-examine"and"test-drive"whichconsistoftwowords.Theyaresometimescalledcompoundverbs.Hewouldhavebeencross-examinedonanyevidencehegave.Takethebabyalongifyoucan"tfindanyonetobaby-sit.Itisnotwisetohitch-hikeonyourown.WARNING3.119Itisimportanttorealizethatyoucannotalwaysguessthemeaningofacompoundverbifyouarenotalreadyfamiliarwithit.Forexample,to"soft-soap"doesnotmeantousesoapwhichissoft;itmeanstoflattersomeoneinordertopersuadethemtodosomethingforyou.writtenformsofcompoundverbs3.120Compoundverbsareusuallywrittenwithahyphen.Noonehadcross-referencedtheformsbefore.Childrenice-skatedonthesidewalks.However,somecompoundverbsmaybewrittenwithaspacebetweenthewordsandsomemaybewrittenassinglewords.Forexample,both"roller-skate"and"rollerskate"areused,asare"baby-sit"and"babysit".formofcompoundverbs3.121Manycompoundverbsconsistofanounplusaverb.Itmaysoonbecomeeconomicallyattractivetomass-producehepatitisvaccines.Othersconsistofanadjectiveplusaverb.Somebodyhadshort-changedhim.3.122Afewcompoundverbsconsistofwordswhichseemstrangebecausewedonotnormallyusethemassinglewordsontheirown,forexample"pooh-pooh"and"shilly-shally".Sallyhadpooh-poohedtheideaofthreegoodmealsaday.Theirpolicywastohesitate,toshilly-shally,totemporise.Othercompoundverbslookstrangebecausetheyhavebeenborrowedfromforeignlanguages,forexample"ad-lib"and"kow-tow".Theyad-libbedsomuchthatthewritersdespairedofthem.Heresentshavingtokow-towtoanyoneoranything.intransitivecompoundverbs3.123Onegroupofcompoundverbsaretypicallyusedinintransitiveclauses.Manypeoplewindow-shoppedintheglassofthegreatstore.Ifyoukeeptotherules,youmayroller-skate.Hehaslearnedtolip-read.Ibaby-satforafriend.Hereisalistofintransitivecompoundverbs:baby-sitback-pedalgoose-stephitch-hikeice-skatejack-knifekow-towlip-readplay-actroller-skateshilly-shallytouch-typewater-skiwindow-shopwolf-whistle3.124Anothergroupofcompoundverbsaretypicallyusedintransitiveclauses:385 Youcanspin-dryitanditwillstillretainitsshape.Sendittothelaundry.Don"tdrycleanit.Atfirstwecold-shoulderedhim.Theyill-treatedourancestors.Hereisalistoftransitivecompoundverbs:back-combblow-drycold-shouldercourt-martialcross-checkcross-examinecross-questioncross-referencedouble-crossdouble-glazedry-cleanfield-testforce-feedfrog-marchghost-writeill-treatpooh-poohproof-readrubber-stampshort-changeshort-weightsoft-soapspin-dryspoon-feedstage-managetape-recordtoilet-trainwrong-foot3.125Athirdgroupofcompoundverbsmaybeusedinintransitiveaswellastransitiveclauses.Hechain-smokedcheapcigars.Thehusbandislefttochain-smokeinthewaiting-room.Itriedtoad-libajoke.Thecommentatordecidedtoad-lib.Hereisalistofcompoundverbswhichcanbetransitiveorintransitive:ad-libbottle-feedbreast-feedbulk-buychain-smokecriss-crossdeep-frydouble-checkdouble-parkmass-produceshort-circuitsight-readspring-cleanstir-frytie-dye3.126Onlythesecondpartofacompoundverbinflects.Ifthesecondpartisusedonitsownasaverb,thecompoundverbusuallyinflectsinthesamewayastheverbonitsown.SeetheReferenceSectionforanexplanationofhowtoinflectverbs.Describingandidentifyingthings:complementation3.127Ifyouwanttodescribesomeoneorsomething,forexampletosaywhoorwhattheyareorwhatqualitiestheyhave,youuseoneofaspecialsetofverbs.Theseverbsarecalledlinkverbsorcopulas.Cigarettesmokingisdangeroustoyourhealth.Thestationseemedaverysmallone.HelookedEnglish.Ibecameenormouslyfondofher.Themostcommonlinkverbsare"be","become","look","remain",and"seem".complements3.128Alinkverblinksasubjectandacomplement.Thesubject,asusual,comesfirstandthecomplementcomesaftertheverb.Thecomplementdescribesoridentifiesthesubject;itisastructurebuiltaroundeitheranadjectiveoranoun.Hergeneralknowledgeisamazing.Thechildrenseemedfrightened.That"saverydifficultquestion.I"mtheChairmanoftheHowardLeagueforPenalReform.SuleimanSallebecamethefirstPresidentofEritrea.Theuseoflinkverbswithcomplementsisexplainedinparagraphs3.133to3.155.Someotherintransitiveverbsaresometimesusedwithcomplements.Seeparagraphs3.156to3.161.verbswithobjectcomplements3.129Someverbs,suchas"make"and"find"areusedwithbothanobjectandacomplement.Thecomplementdescribestheobjectandiscalledtheobjectcomplement.Thelightsmademesleepy.Ifoundtheforestquitefrightening.Theseverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.162to3.172.prepositionalphrases3.130Insteadofacomplement,youcanoftenuseaprepositionalphraseoranotherkindofadjunct.Thecoffinwasinthefrontgarden.Ibegantogetinapanic.Thesestructurescanalsobeusedinsteadofobjectcomplements.Anattackofmalariacankeepamanoffworkforthreedays.385 Formoreinformationaboutadjunctsthatcanbeusedafterlinkverbs,seeparagraphs3.173to3.182."it"with"be"3.131"Be"isoftenusedwith"it"asanimpersonalsubject.Thisstructureisusedtocommentonplaces,situations,actions,experiences,andfacts.Itwasveryquietinthehut.ItwasawkwardkeepingmynewsfromTed.It"sstrangeyoushouldcometoday.Someotherlinkverbsareoccasionallyusedinasimilarway.Theuseof"it"asanimpersonalsubjectisexplainedinparagraphs10.31to10.45."there"with"be"3.132"Be"isoftenusedwith"there"asitssubjecttoindicatetheexistenceofsomething.Thereisanotherexplanation.Thereisrearbathroomwithapanelledbath.Thisuseof"there"isexplainedinparagraphs10.46to10.55.Describingthings:adjectivesascomplementsoflinkverbs3.133Manyadjectivescanbeusedascomplements.Iamproudofthesepeople.Theyseemedhappy.Youdon"twantthemtobecomesuspicious.TheyhaveremainedloyaltotheGovernment.Theycanbemodifiedinvariouswaysorhavevariousstructuresafterthem.Wewereveryhappy.Yoursuspicionsareentiretycorrect.Theirhallwaslargerthanhiswholeflat.Hewascapableofextraordinarykindness.Adjectivesusedafterlinkverbs,andthestructuresusedwiththem,areexplainedinparagraphs2.45to2.57.3.134Hereisalistofverbswhichcanbeusedaslinkverbswithanadjectiveasthecomplement:be~appearfeellookproveseemsmellsoundtaste~becomecomefallgetgogrowkeepremainstayturnNotethatthethirdgroupofverbsrefertochangingortoslayingthesame.3.135Someverbsinthesecondgrouplistedabovehavespecialfeatures."Appear","prove",and"seem"areoftenfollowedby"tobe"andacomplement,insteadofdirectlybyacomplement.Marywasbreathingquietlyandseemedtobeasleep.Thetaskofinspectingitprovedtobeexactingandinteresting.Seeparagraph3.193forinformationonusinga"to"-infinitiveclauseaftertheseverbs.3.136Withsomeverbsinthesecondgroup,especially"feel","look",and"seem",youcanusethepastparticipleofatransitiveverbasacomplement.Theotherchildlookedneglected.Thequarrelofthenightbeforeseemedforgotten.3.137Whenyouareusingthesecondgroupofverbstosaywhatqualitiessomeoneorsomethingseemstohave,youmaywanttomentionthepersonwhoseviewpointyouaregiving.Youcandothisbyusingaprepositionalphrasebeginningwith"to".Itusuallycomesafterthecomplement.Theylookedallrighttome.Itsoundsunnaturaltoyou,Iexpect.3.138Youcannotusealladjectiveswithalllinkverbs.Someverbs,suchas"be"and"look",areusedwithawiderangeofadjectivesandsomeareusedwitharestrictedrange.Forexample,"taste"isusedonlywithadjectiveswhichdescribethetasteofsomething:"go"isusedprimarilywithadjectiveswhichindicatecolourormadness;and"fall"isusedmainlywith"asleep","ill",and"silent".Seawatertastesnasty.Itsfleshtastedsweet.385 Jackwentred.Theworldhasgonecrazy.Hefellasleepatthetable.Thecourtroomfellsilent.Sayingthatonethingisanotherthing:noungroupsascomplementsoflinkverbs3.139Noungroupscanbeusedascomplementsafterthefollowinglinkverbs:bebecomeremain~feellookproveseemsound~constitutemakerepresent~compriseformqualities3.140Youcanusedescriptivenounsornoungroupsafter"be","become","remain","feel","look","prove","seem","sound","constitute",and"represent"toindicatewhatqualitiessomeoneorsomethinghas.Theirpolicyonhighereducationisanunmitigateddisaster.Healwaysseemedacontrolledsortofman.Ifeelabitofafraud.Theresultsoftheseexperimentsremainasecret.HistalkswiththeRussiansconstitutedabreakthrough."Make"isonlyusedasalinkverbwithacomplementwhichindicateswhethersomeoneisgoodataparticularjob.He"llmakeagoodpresident.using"one"3.141With"be","become","remain","feel","look","prove","seem",and"sound"youcanuseanoungroupbasedon"one"insteadofusinganadjectiveonitsownasacomplement.Thenoungroupconsistsof"a"or"an"followedbytheadjectiveand"one",ifyoursubjectissingular.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Theschoolislarge",youcansay"Theschoolisalargeone".Thesoundisafamiliarone.Theimpressiontheregiongivesisstillaruralone.Ifyoursubjectisplural,youcanusetheadjectivefollowedby"ones".MymemoriesofaLondonchildhoodarehappyones.Anotherkindofcomplementconsistsof"one"followedbyaprepositionalphraseorarelativeclause.Theirstorywasindeedoneofpassion.Theproblemisonethatalwaysfacesasocietywhenitfindsitselfthreatened.size,age,colour,shape3.142Ifyouwanttomakeastatementaboutthesize,age,colour,orshapeofsomething,youcanuseanoungroupbasedon"size","age","colour",or"shape"afterthelinkverbsmentionedinthepreviousparagraph.Thenoungroupbeginswithadeterminerandhasanadjectiveinfrontofthenounorthepreposition"of"afterit.It"sjusttherightsize.Theopposingforcewouldbeaboutthesamesize.Thewallsareadelicatepalecreamcolour.Hisbodywasthecolourofbronze.Itisonlythesizeofamouse.3.143Youcanusenoungroupsbeginningwith"a"or"an",orpluralnoungroupswithoutadeterminer,after"be","become","remain","comprise",and"form",tosaywhattypeofpersonorthingsomeoneorsomethingis.Heisageologist.OurfriendOttoisn"tanAmerican.Heisnowateenager.Theairmovedalittlefasterandbecamealightwind.Theybecamefarmers.PromisesbyMPsremainedjustpromises.Thesearchesformedabarriertothetide.3.144Youcanusenamesornoungroupsreferringtoaparticularpersonorthingafter"be","become","remain","constitute","represent","comprise",and"form"toindicateexactlywhoorwhatsomeoneorsomethingis.385 ThisisDesiree,myfather"ssecondwife.He"snowtheDirectoroftheOfficeofManagementandBudget.ThefounderofthecompanyistheEnglishtheatredirectorPeterBrook.Thedownstairstelevisionroombecamemyroomforreceivingvisitors....thefouryoungmenwhocomprisedtheTVcrew.3.145Whenyouuseanoungroupindicatingauniquejoborpositionwithinanorganization,youdonothavetoputadeterminerinfrontofthenoun.AtonetimeyouwantedtobePresident.Hewentontobecomeheadofoneofthecompany"slargestdivisions.3.146Personalpronounsaresometimesusedascomplementstoindicateidentity.Notethattheobjectpronounsareused,exceptinveryformalspeechorwriting.It"smeagain.Possessivepronounsarealsousedascomplements,toindicateidentityortodescribesomething.Thisoneisyours.Thisplaceismine.Indefinitepronounsaresometimesusedtodescribesomething,usuallywithaqualifyingstructureafterthem.it"snothingserious.You"resomeonewhodoeswhatshewants.Pronounsareusuallyusedascomplementsafter"be".3.147Theuseofnoungroupscontainingmeasurementnounsafter"be"andotherverbsisexplainedinparagraphs2.269to2.271.Theuseofnon-finiteclausesascomplementsisexplainedinparagraphs10.27and10.97.combinationsofverbsandprepositions3.148Someverbsfunctionaslinkverbswhentheyarefollowedbyaparticularpreposition.Theobjectoftheprepositiondescribesorclassifiesthesubjectoftheverb.Hisfearturnedintounreasoningpanic.Taylor"sfascinationwithbeesdevelopedintoanobsession.Anautobiographyreallyamountstoawholeexplanationofyourself.Hereisalistofverbandprepositioncombinationswhichfunctionaslinkverbs:amounttochangeintochangetodevelopintogrowintoturnintoturntoTheseallhavethesamebasicmeaningas"become",exceptfor"amountto",whichhasasimilarmeaningto"constitute".Thephrasalverb"makeup"alsofunctionsasalinkverb.Woodmadeup65%oftheCongo"sexports.Commenting:"to"-infinitiveclausesaftercomplements3.149Thereareseveralwaysinwhicha"to"-infinitiveclausecanbeusedafteracomplementtocommentonsomeoneorsomethinginrelationtoanaction.commentingonbehaviour3.150Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeoneshowsaparticularqualitywhentheydosomething,youcanusea"to"-infinitiveafteradescriptivecomplement.MostpeoplethinkIambravetodothis.Ithinkmyfatherwasabravemantodowhathedid.Thecomplementcanbeanadjective,oritcanbeanoungroupconsistingof"a"or"an"followedbyanadjectiveandanoun.commentingonsuitability3.151Youcansaythatsomeoneorsomethingwoulddoaparticulartaskbetterthananyoneoranythingelsebyusinga"to"-infinitiveclauseafteracomplement.HewasabsolutelytherightmantogotoParisandnegotiate.Shemaybeanidealpersontolookafterthechildren.Heisjustthemantocooltheirreformingzeal.Thecomplementmustbeanoungroupcontaininganadjectivesuchas"right","ideal",or"best",or"justthe"followedbythenoun"person","man",or"woman".Youcannotuseadjectivesascomplementsinconstructionsofthiskind.Forexample,youcansay,"Hewastheidealpersontoleadtheexpedition",butyoucannotsay,"Hewasidealtoleadtheexpedition".Insteadofa"to"-infinitiveclause,youcansometimesuseaprepositionalphrasebeginningwith"for".Inthisstructure,anadjectivecanbeusedasthecomplement.He"snottherightmanforit.385 Theyareidealforthisjob.3.152Ifyouwanttoexpressyourfeelingaboutanevent,youcanuse"to"-infinitiveclauseafteracomplement.Itseemedsuchaterriblethingtohappen.The"to"-infinitiveconsistsof"to"andanintransitiveverb,usually"happen".Thecomplementmustbeanoungroupconsistingof"a"or"an",anadjective,andanoun.Youcannotuseanadjectivealoneinconstructionofthiskind.Forexample,youcansay"Itwasawonderfulthingtohappen",butyoucannotsay"Itwaswonderfultohappen".3.153Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeoneiswillingorunwillingtodosomething,youcanusea"to"-infinitiveclauseafteracomplement.Theywerewillingtorisklosingtheirjobs.lamanxioustomeetMrsBurton-Cox.Sheiseagertosucceed.Heisunwillingtoanswerquestions.Iwasreluctanttoinvolvemyselfinthisprivatefight.Thecomplementmustbeanadjectivesuchas"willing"or"unwilling".Youcannotusenoungroupsascomplementsinconstructionsofthiskind.Forexample,youcansay"Hewaswillingtocome",butyoucannotsay"Hewasawillingpersontocome".3.154Ifyouwanttoshowyouropinionofsomethingbyindicatingwhattheexperienceofdoingsomethingtoitislike,youcanusea"to"-infinitiveclauseafteracomplement.Itsfleshisparticularlygoodtoeat.It"sanicethingtohave.Itisapleasantthingtoremember.Shewaseasytotalkto.Thecomplementcanbeanadjective,oritcanbeanoungroupconsistingof"a"or"an"followedbyanadjectiveandanoun.Notethatthe"to"-infinitivemustbethe"to"-infinitiveofatransitiveverborofanintransitiveverbfollowedbyapreposition.3.155Ifyouwanttoshowyouropinionofanaction,youcanuseatransitive"to"-infinitiveclauseafteracomplement.Theythoughtthiswasasensiblethingtodo.Thisisaveryfoolishattitudetotake.The"to"-infinitiveisusually"todo","tomake",or"totake".Thecomplementmustbeanoungroupconsistingof"a"or"an",anadjective,andanoun.Youcannotuseanadjectivealoneinconstructionsofthiskind.Forexample,youcansay"Itwasasillythingtodo",butyoucannotsay"Itwassillytodo".Describingaswellastalkingaboutanaction:otherverbswithcomplements3.156Someintransitiveverbscanbeusedwithadjectivesaftertheminthesamewayaslinkverbs.Georgestoodmotionlessforatfeastaminute.Pugindiedinsaneattheearlyageofforty.However,itisclearthattheseverbsarenotjustlinkverbs."Georgestoodmotionless"doesnotmeanthesameas"Georgewasmotionless".Inthesentence"Georgestoodmotionless",theverb"stand"isperformingtwofunctions:itistellingusthatGeorgewasstanding,anditisalsoactingasalinkverbbetween"George"andthecomplement"motionless".Hereisalistofverbswhichcanbeusedinthisway:hangliesitstand~gazestare~emergeescapegopasssurvive~blushflamegleamglowrun~beborndiereturnWaysinwhichtheseverbscanbeusedwithcomplementsarediscussedinthefollowingparagraphs.Adjectivesaresometimesusedincombinationwithotherverbs,butareseparatedfromthemainclausebyacomma.Thisuseisdealtwithinparagraph8.135.USAGENOTE3.157Youcanuseadjectivesdescribingstatesafter"hang","lie","sit",and"stand".Iusedtolieawakewatchingtherainseepthroughtheroof.Asparrowliesdeathinthesnow.385 FrancisMarrouxsatashen-facedbehindthewheel.Shestoodquitestill,facinghim."Gaze"and"stare"canbeusedinasimilarwaywithalimitedsetofadjectives.Shestaredathimwide-eyed.3,158Youcanusesomecombinationsofverbsandadjectivestosaythatsomethingdoesnothappentosomeoneorsomething,orthatsomeonedoesnothavesomething."Go","pass","emerge","escape",and"survive"areoftenusedincombinationslikethese.Theadjectivestheycombinewithareoftenformedbyadding"un-"topastparticiples.Suchmenoftengounrecognisedintheirlifetime.Ithinkthatonthisoccasiontheguiltyshouldgounpunished.HereinSohohepassedunnoticed.Fortunatelyweallescapedunscathed.Mostly,theygounarmed.Thechildrenalwayswentnaked.3.159Verbssuchas"blush","flame","gleam","glow",and"run"canbeusedwithcolouradjectivesafterthemtosaywhatcoloursomethingisorwhatcolouritbecomes.Theyblewintothecharcoaluntilitglowedred.Thetreesflamedscarletagainstthegrass.3.160"Die","return",andthepassiveverb"beborn"canhaveeitheradjectivesornoungroupsascomplements.Shediedyoung.Hediedadisappointedman.IfhehadfoughtintheFirstWorldWar,hemighthavereturnedaslightlydifferentman.Thesegirlshavetoworkhardbecausetheywerebornpoor.Hewasbornaslave.3.161Somecombinationsofverbandadjectivearefixedphrases.Youcannotusetheverbinfrontofanyotheradjective.Iwantedtotravellight.Thechildrenranwild.Theresponse"Ohdon"t"waswearingthinwithuse.Describingtheobjectofaverb:objectcomplements3.162Sometransitiveverbscanhaveacomplementaftertheirobject.Thiscomplementdescribestheobject,andisoftencalledtheobjectcomplement.Willie"sjokesmadeheruneasy.IfindtheBritishlegalsystemextremelycomplicated.Someoftheseverbsareusedtosaythatsomeoneorsomethingischangedorgivenanewjob.Othersareusedtoindicateaperson"sopinionofsomeoneorsomething.Forinformationonhowtousetheseverbsinthepassive,seeparagraph10.21.3.163Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeoneorsomethingcausesapersonorthingtohaveaparticularquality,youcanuseoneofagroupoftransitiveverbs,withanadjectiveasthecomplement.Hesaidwaltzesmadehimdizzy.They"redrivingmecrazy.Thenhiscaptorhadknockedhimunconscious.Shepaintedhereyelidsdeepblue.Hewipedthebottledrywithadishcloth.Hereisalistofverbswhichcanbeusedinthisway:cutdrivegetknockmakepaintpatpickplanerenderrubsendshootsweepturnwipeMostoftheseverbscanhaveonlyoneadjectiveoraverysmallrangeofadjectivesastheircomplement.However"make"and"render"canbeusedwithawiderangeofadjectives.3.164Youcanalsouse"keep","hold",and"leave"transitivelywithanadjectiveascomplement,tosaythatsomeoneorsomethingiscausedtoremaininaparticularstate.Thelightthroughthethincurtainshadkeptherawake.Leavethedooropen.Holditstraight.385 3.165Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeoneisgivenanimportantjob,youcanuse"make","appoint","crown",or"elect"withanoungroupreferringtothejobascomplement.In1910Asquithmadehimajuniorminister.Thenounusedasthecomplementdoesnotusuallyhaveadeterminerwhenitreferstoauniquejob.RamsayMacDonaldappointedhimSecretaryofStateforIndia.verbsofopinion3.166Sometransitiveverbswiththegeneralmeaning"consider"canbeusedwithanadjectiveornoungroupascomplementtosaywhatsomeone"sopinionofapersonorthingis.Theyconsiderhimanembarrassment.DoyoufindhisviewofAmericainteresting?Hereisalistoftheseverbs:accountbelieveconsiderfindholdjudgepresumereckonthink"Prove"canalsohaveanadjectiveoranoungroupasacomplement,althoughitmeans"show"not"consider".Hehadprovedthemallwrong.3.167Theseverbsareoftenusedinthepassive."Believe","presume","reckon",and"think"arenearlyalwaysusedinthepassiveinthesestructures.Inmanywaysthegatheringcouldbeconsideredsuccessful.30bomberswerebelievedshotdown.3.168Alltheverbslistedinparagraph3.166except"account"canalsobeusedwitha"to"-infinitiveclauseaftertheirobjectindicatingwhatsomeonethinksapersonorthingislikeordoes.ShehadalwaysconsideredGeorgeGarforthtobeaverypresentableyoungman.seeparagraph3.207forinformationaboutusinga"to"-infinitiveclauseaftertheobjectoftheseverbs.3.169Youcanusetheverbslistedin3.166with"it"astheirobjectfollowedbyacomplementanda"to"-infinitiveclausetoshowsomeone"sopinionofanaction.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Shefoundbreathingdifficult",youcansay"Shefounditdifficulttobreathe".Gretchenfounditdifficulttospeak.Hethoughtitrighttoresign.Heconsideredithisdutytogo.Theseareexamplesof"it"beingusedinanimpersonalway.Formoreinformationabouttheimpersonaluseof"it",seeparagraphs10.31to10.45.describingandnaming3.170Ifyouwanttosaythatpeopleuseaparticularword,wordgroup,ornametodescribeorrefertosomeoneorsomething,youcanusetheword,wordgroup,ornameasthecomplementofoneofagroupoftransitiveverbs.Peoplewhodidnotlikehimcalledhimdull.Theycalledhimanidiot.EveryonecalledherMolly.Hegothistrialandwasdeclaredinnocent.Theynamedtheplace"TumboKutu".Hereisalistofverbswhichcanbeusedinthisway.Thefirstgroupcanhaveanadjectiveastheircomplement;thesecondgroupcanhaveanoungroupastheircomplement;andthethirdgroupcanhaveanameastheircomplement.callcertifydeclarelabelpronounceterm~brandcalldeclaredesignatelabelproclaimterm~callchristendubnamenickname3.171Thepassiveverbs"beentitled","beheaded",and"beinscribed"areusedwithatitleorinscriptionastheircomplement.Herpamphletswereboldlyheaded:"HungryReliefFund".3.172Afewtransitiveverbscanbeusedwithanadjectiveastheircomplementtosaythatsomeoneorsomethingisinaparticularstatewhensomethinghappenstothem,orispreferredtobeinthatstate.Morethanfortypeoplewereburnedalive....asoupwhichcanbeservedcold.385 Theyfounditdead.Doyouwantitwhiteorblack?Hereisalistofverbswhichcanbeusedinthisway:borneatfindleavelikepreferserveshowwantSometimesapastparticipleorapresentparticipledescribingastateisusedasthecomplement.Shefoundherselfcaughtinavicioustidalcurrent.MaureencameinandfoundKatesittingonastraightchairstaringatthewindow.Thisparticiplestructureislikeaphasestructure.Seeparagraphs3.205and3.213.Describingsomethinginotherways:adjunctsinsteadofcomplements3.173Whenyouwanttogiveinformationaboutsomeoneorsomethingbydescribingtheircircumstances,youcansometimesuseaprepositionalphraseafteralinkverb,ratherthanacomplement.3.174Youcanusemanykindsofprepositionalphraseafter"be".Hewasstillinastateofshock.IwalkedhomewithBill,whowasinaverygoodmood.Shehadanolderbrotherwhowasinthearmy.I"mfromDortmundoriginally....peoplewhoareunderpressure.Summerhillisaschoolinwhichplayisofthegreatestimportance.Thisbookisforanywomanwhohaseversaid"IfonlyIknewwheretofindhelp."useafterotherverbs3.175Someotherlinkverbscanbeusedwithamorerestrictedrangeofprepositionalphrases.Heseemedinexcellenthealth.Wedoaskpeopletokeepintouchwithus.Thesemethodshavegraduallyfallenintodisuse.Hegotintotroublewiththepolice.Hereisalistofotherlinkverbsthatareusedwithprepositionalphrases:appearfallfeelgetkeepremainseemstayadjunctsofplace3.176Someverbswhichareusedwithcomplementscanalsobeusedwithadjunctsofplaceafterthem.She"sinCalifornia.I"llstayherewiththechildren.Thecatwasnowlyingonthesofa.Hereisalistoftheseverbs:bekeepremainstay~hangliesitstandFormoreinformationaboutadjunctsofplace,seeparagraphs6.53to6.72and6.82to6.93.adjunctsoftime3.177"Be"canbeusedwithadjunctsoftimetosaywhensomethingtookplaceorwilltakeplace.Thatfinalmeetingwason3November.Formoreinformationaboutadjunctsoftime,seeparagraphs5.84to5.110.useintransitivestructures3.178Prepositionalphrasescanalsobeusedintransitivestructurestosaythatsomeoneorsomethingiscausedtobeinaparticularstate.They"llgetmeouroftrouble.Thefearofbeingdiscoveredkeepmeonthealert.Indicatingwhatrolesomethinghasorhowitisperceived:thepreposition"as"3.179Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwith"as"canbeusedaftersomeintransitiveandtransitiveverbs.Thenoungroupsfollowing"as"haveasimilarmeaningtocomplements.useinintransitivestructures3.180Prepositionalphrasesbeginningwith"as"canbeusedaftercertainintransitiveverbstoindicatewhatroleorfunctionthesubjecthas,orwhatidentitytheypretendtohave.Bleachremovescolourartactsasanantisepticanddeodoriser.385 HeservedasKennedy"sambassadortoIndia.TheyattemptedtogetanagentposingasatelephonerepairmanintotheSteinresidence.Hereisalistofverbswhichcanbefollowedby"as"inthisway:actcomedoublefunctionpassposeserve"Work"canalsobeusedinthisway,whenithasahumansubject.Myfatherworkedasadraughtsmaninashipyard.3.181Anumberoftransitiveverbscanbeusedwith"as"aftertheirobject.Withsome,anoungroupisusedafter"as".The"as"phrasedescribestheroleoftheobjectorwhatitisthoughttobe.Iwantedtousehimasanagent.Itreatedbusinessasagame.Hereisalistoftransitiveverbswhichcanbeusedwith"as"andanoungroup:grandcastcategorizecertifycharacterizechooseclasscondemnconsiderdefinedenouncedepictdescribediagnoseelectestablishgivehallidentifyintendinterpretlabelnameperceiverecognizeregardscornseesuggesttaketreatuseviewWithothers,anadjectiveisusedafter"as".Theadjectiveindicateswhatqualityorcharacteristictheobjectisthoughttohave.Partymembersandofficialsdescribedhimasbrilliant.Theyregardedmanualworkasdegrading.Hereisalistoftransitiveverbswhichcanbeusedwith"as"andanadjective:brandcategorizecertifycharacterizeclasscondemndefinedenouncedepictdescribediagnoseestablishlabelperceiveregardscornseeview3.182"Lookupon","referto",and"thinkof"canalsobeusedwith"as"inthisway."As"mustbefollowedbyanoungroupwhenusedwith"referto".Insomehouseholdsthemanwasreferredtoas"themaster".Talkingaboutcloselylinkedactions:usingtwoverbstogetherinphase3.183Thissectiondescribesthewaysinwhichyouusetwoverbsinaclauseinordertotalkabouttwoactionsorstateswhicharecloselylinked.Thisstructureiscalledphase.Thesetwoactionsmaybeperformedbythesameperson.Seeparagraphs3.190to3.202.Shestoppedspeaking.Davislikestotalkabouthorses.Alternatively,theactionsmaybeperformedbydifferentpeople.Iftheyare,theperformerofthesecondactionstheobjectofthefirstverb.Seeparagraphs3.203to3.213.Idon"twantthemtofeelI"veslightedthem.Oneofthegroupbeganpumpingherchesttohelpherbreathe.3.184Notethatthefirstverbneedsthesecondverbafteritbecauseitdoesnotgiveenoughinformationonitsown.Forexample"Iwant"doesnotgiveenoughinformationtobeausefulstatement,but"Iwanttotalktoyou"does.Someoftheverbsdealtwithbelow,forexample"want"and"like",canalsobeordinarytransitiveverbs,withanoungroupafterthem.Transitiveverbsareexplainedinparagraphs3.15to3.26.3.185Ifyouwanttotalkabouttwoactionsthatarelesscloselylinked,yourefertoeachactioninaseparateclause.WaysofcombiningclausesareexplainedinChapter8.verbforms3.186Thefirstverbinvolvedinaphasestructureisthemainverbofthestructure.Itisusuallyfinite;thatis,itinflectsfortenseandagreesinnumberwiththesubjectoftheclause.Iwantedtocomehome.Lonniewarnstosay"sorry".MoreandmorepeoplearecomingtoappreciatethecontributionwhichMuslimsmaketooursociety.However,itcanbeanon-finiteform.385 ThereisatendencyforteacherstoadvisepeopletotaketheirbestschoolsubjectsatALevel.3.187Thesecondverbinthecombinationisalwaysnon-finite,whichmeansthatitdoesnotinflectfortenseandorchangeitsformatall.Castletriedtoread.Theyhadbeentryingtoread.Informationaboutfiniteandnon-finiteformscanbefoundintheReferenceSection.3.188Therearefournon-finiteverbformsthatareusedforthesecondverbinphase:•thepresentparticiple•the"to"-infinitiveform•theinfinitivewithout"to"•thepastparticipleNotethattheinfinitewithout"to"andthepastparticipleformoftheverbareusedinonlyafewcombinations.Otherkindsof"-ing"formandinfinitivearealsosometimesused.Theyarecombinationsofnon-finiteforms.Thoseveryclosetotheblastriskbeingburnt.NeitherRitanorIrecalledeverhavingseenher.Shewantedtobereassured.Theyclaimedtohaveshotdown22planes.3.189Thepositionof"not"innegativephasestructuresisexplainedinparagraphs4.53and4.54.Talkingabouttwoactionsdonebythesameperson:phaseverbstogether3.190Whenyouaretalkingabouttwoactionsthataredonebythesameperson,youusethesecond,non-finite,verbdirectlyafterthefirstverb.Childrenenjoyplayingalongsideeachother.Youdeservetoknowthetruth.3.191Someverbsarealwaysfollowedbyapresentparticipleclauseinphasestructuresofthiskind.HecontemplatedsettingupaprivateestateinHungary.Icouldavoidputtingtoomuchweightonmyarm.Hemissedhavingsomeonetodislike.Irecallbeingveryimpressedwiththeofficialanthems.Hereisalistofverbswhichareusedwithapresentparticiple,butnota"to"-infinitive:admitadoreappreciateavoidcelebratecommenceconsidercontemplatedeferdelaydenydescribedetestdiscontinuedislikedreadendureenjoyexplainfancyfinishgoimaginekeeplieloathementionmindmisspostponepractiserecallreportresentresistrisksitstandstopsuggestTheseverbsarealsosometimesusedwithapassive"-ing"form.Theyenjoybeingpraised."Admit","celebrate","deny","mention",and"recall"arequiteoftenusedwithaperfect"-ing"form.Carmichaelhaddeniedhavingseenhim.3.192Notethat"need"canbeusedwithapresentparticipleafterit,butthepresentparticiplethenhasthesamemeaningasapassive"to"-infinitive.Forexample,"Thehouseneedscleaning"meansthesameas"Thehouseneedstobecleaned"."Require"and"want"arealsooccasionallyusedinthesameway,althoughsomepeopledonotlikethisuseof"want".3.193Otherverbsareusedwitha"to"-infinitiveclause.MrsBabcockhadalwayslongedtogotoIreland.Sheforgottobringasuitcase.Shewishestoaskafavourofyou.Hereisalistofverbswhichareusedwitha"to"-infinitive,butnotapresentparticiple:acheafforddecidedemandhesitatehopeplanpledgesweartend385 agreeaimappeararrangeaskattemptcarechooseclaimconsentdaredeservedesiredisdainendeavourexpectfallfightforgetgrowhappenhelpintendlearnlivelongmanagemeanneedneglectofferoptpaypreparepretendpromiseprovereckonrefuseresolvescornseekseemsurvivethreatenventurevolunteervotevowwaitwantwishMostoftheseverbscanbeusedwithapassiveinfinitive.Sherefusedtobephotographed.Hedeservestobeshot.Thefollowingverbsfromtheabovelistarenotusuallyusedwithapassiveinfinitive,becauseoftheirmeanings:claimdareforgetintendteammanagemeanneglectpretendthreatentroubleventure"Appear","claim","happen","pretend","prove","seem",and"tend"arequiteoftenusedwithaperfectinfinitive.Theyseemedtohavedisappeared.Notethat"help"isalsofollowedbytheinfinitivewithout"to".Coffeehelpedkeephimalert.USAGENOTE3.194Notethat"afford"isalwaysprecededbyamodal,andthat"care"isnormallyusedwithanegative.Canweaffordtoignorethissourceofpowerasothersourcesofenergyarediminishing?Iwouldn"tcaretoputmoneyintoit.3.195Theuseof"have"followedbya"to"-infinitiveclauseisexplainedinparagraph4.248.verbsusedwitheitherform3.196Afewverbscanbeusedwitheitherapresentparticipleclauseora"to"-infinitiveclausewithoutalteringthemeaningoftheverb.Itstartedraining.Averycoldwindhadstartedtoblow.Maureenbegandancing.Annebegantocry.Babiesprefersleepingontheirback.RussiansprefertogivegiftsatNewYear.Webothlovedancing.Helovestotalkaboutmetalwork.Hereisalistofverbswhichcanbefollowedeitherbyapresentparticipleora"to"-infinitivewithoutgreatlyalteringthemeaning:attemptbeginbotherceasecontinuedeservetearhatelikelovepreferstarttryNotethat"bother"isoftenusedwithanegativeorabroadnegative.Hedidn"tbothercomplainingaboutit.Wehardlyevenbothertocleanit.3.197Withafewverbs,themeaningisaltereddependingonwhetheryouuseapresentparticipleclauseora"to"-infinitiveclause.Theseverbsare"come","goon","remember",and"regret".Ifsomeone"comesrunning,flying,orhurtling"somewhere,theymoveinthatway.Ifyou"cometodosomething",yougraduallystartdoingit.WhentheyheardIwasleaving,theybothcamerunningout.Peoplecametobelievethatallthingswerepossible.Withtheotherverbs,thedifferenceinmeaningrelatestothetimingoftheaction.Ifyou"goondoingsomething",youcontinuetodoit,butifyou"goontodosomething",yousubsequentlystartdoingit.WewentonfightingtheIncomesPolicyfor18monthsafterthat.Shewentontotalkaboutthepoliticalconsequences.385 Ifyou"rememberdoingsomething",youdiditinthepast,butifyou"remembertodosomething",youdoitatthepresenttime.IrememberpromisingthatIwouldtry.Shemustremembertogetthewoodundercover.Likewise,ifyou"regretdoingsomething",youhavealreadydoneit,butifyou"regrettodosomething",youhavetodoitatthepresenttime.Shedidnotregretacceptinghisoffer.Iregrettosayrentswentup."Regret"isonlyusedwiththe"to"-infinitiveofasmallnumberofverbswhichsharethemeaningofgivingorreceivinginformation.Theseverbsare:announceinformlearnsayseetell3.198Whenyouhaveachoicebetweenapresentparticipleanda"to"-infinitive,youdonotusethepresentparticipleifthefirstverbisinacontinuoustense.TheThirdWorldisbeginningtoexporttotheWest.Thebigcloudswerestartingtocoverthesun.Educationalbudgetsarecontinuingtoincrease.Withverbsthatcannotbefollowedbya"to"-infinitive,younormallyuseanoungroupinsteadofthepresentparticiple.IknewMissHeadwouldjustbefinishinghercellopractice.3.199Notethatafewverbs,principally"need","want","have","buy",and"choose",areusedwithanobjectanda"to"-infinitivewhentalkingabouttwoactionsperformedbythesameperson.The"to"-infinitivemustbetransitive.Itisunderstoodasqualifyingthenoun,ratherthanbeingcloselyconnectedwiththefirstverb.Iwantedsomegoodstoplaceinthewindow.Shechosethecorrectonetoputinherbag."to"-infinitiveshowingpurpose3.200Notethatverbswhichindicateadeliberateactionaresometimesfollowedbya"to"-infinitiveclausewhichexpressespurpose.Severalwomenmovedtohelpher.Thecaptainstoppedtoreloadthemachine-gun.Thisisnotaphasestructurebecausethefirstverbhasacompletemeaningofitsown;thesecondverbisgivingareasonforthefirstaction,notcompletingtheinformationaboutit.Notethatinthisstructure,"to"canbeextendedtothephrase"inorderto".Seeparagraphs8.43to8.46formoredetails.USAGENOTE3.201Whenthebaseformof"try"isused,forexampleasanimperativeorwithamodal,itissometimesusedwith"and"followedbythebaseformofthesecondverb,ratherthanwitha"to"-infinitive.Thetwoactionsseemtobeseparate,becauseofthe"and",butareinfactverycloselylinked.Tryandgetatorchoralight,it"sterriblydarkdownhere.I"lltryandanswerthequestion.Somespeakersconsiderthistobeinformalorincorrect."Come"and"go"areoftenusedinasimilarwaywith"and",insimpletensesaswellasinthebaseform.Theverbafter"and"canalsoinflect.Comeandseemewheneveryoufeeldepressed.Iwentandfetchedanotherglass."get"withapastparticiple3.202IninformalEnglish,"get"issometimesusedwithapastparticipledirectlyafterit,inastructurewithapassivemeaning.Thenhegotkilledinaplanecrash.Talkingabouttwoactionsdonebydifferentpeople:phaseverbsseparatedbyanobject3.203Ifyouwanttotalkabouttwocloselylinkedactionswhichareperformedbydifferentpeople,youfollowthefirstverbwithanobject.Thisobjectthenfunctionsasthesubjectofthesecondverb.Forexample,in"SheaskedGinnytocollectthebook","Ginny"isthepersonwhoisasked,andsheisalsothepersonwhoperformstheactionofcollectingthebook.Isawhimlookingatmynameonthedoor.Sheknewherfatherwouldn"tdaretostopherassociatingwithherfriends.Theylefthertolieonthewoodenfloor.Thecommittee"slawyershadadvisedcertainpeopletostayaway.385 useofpossessivedeterminer3.204Notethatwhenthesecondverbisapresentparticiple,apossessivedeterminerissometimesusedinfrontofit,insteadofapronoun.Thisisratherformal....asetofprofessionalethicstopreventtheirdiscussingtheirclientswiththepublic.ShedidnotlikemylivinginLondon.Notethatapossessivedeterminerisonlyusedinthiswaywhenthesecondverbcanhaveahumansubject.3.205Someverbsareusedwithanobjectandapresentparticipleclause.HecaughtHooperlookingathim.Shefelthergriptightening.lheardhimgaspingandshrieking.Hereisalistofverbswhichareusedwithanobjectandapresentparticiple:catchdescribefeelfindhearimaginekeepleavelikenoticeobservepicturepreventsaveseesendspotstopwantwatch"Listento"alsobelongsinthisgroup.Theobjectafteritistheobjectofthepreposition"to".IlistenedtoKaspartalking.Theseverbsaresometimesusedwithapassive"-ing"form,butnotusuallywithaperfect"-ing"form.Hefelthimselfbeingsnatcheduprightandshovedacrossaflatspace.3.206Someoftheverbsintheaboveparagraphcanalsobeusedwithaninfinitivewithout"to".Shefeltherhairriseonthebackofherneck.DrHochstadtheardhergasp.Thereisaslightchangeofmeaningdependingonwhichformisused.Ifyouchoosethepresentparticiple,youemphasizethattheactioncontinuedhappeningforaperiodoftime.ButIlayon,listeningtohersinging.IlookedoverandsawJoestaringatme.Ifyouchoosetheinfinitivewithout"to",youemphasizethattheactioncompleted.WelistenedtoJennyfinishtheSonnet.Itwasthefirsttimeshehadheardhimspeakofhislife.Hereisalistofverbswhichcanbeusedwithapresentparticipleoraninfinitivewithout"to",withthechangeofmeaningdescribedabove:feelhearlistentonoticeobserveseewatchNotethattheseverbscanonlybeusedintheactivewhentheyarefollowedbyaninfinitivewithout"to".Seealsoparagraph3.209.transitiveverbswitha"to"-infinitive3.207Otherverbsareusedwithanobjectanda"to"-infinitiveclause.Hissisterhadtaughthimtosew.Iencouragestudentstodotheseexercisesathome.Hereisalistofverbswhichareusedwithanobjectanda"to"-infinitive:adviseallowaskbegcausechallengechoosecommandcompeldaredefyenableencourageexpectforbidforcegethelpinduceinspireinstructintendinviteleadleavelikemeanmoveobligeorderpaypermitpersuadepreferpressprogrammepromptrecruitremindteachtelltraintrusturgeusewantwarnNotethatsomeoftheverbsintheabovelistareusedforreportingorders,requestsandadvice.Formoreinformationonthisuse,seeparagraph7.36.Hereisalistofverbswhicharealwaysorusuallyusedinthepassivewhenfollowedbya"to"-infinitive:allegeassumedeemdiscoverknowlearnrequirerumourunderstand385 believeclaimconsiderestimatefeelfindprovereckonreportsayseethinkTheyrefertosaying,thinking,ordiscovering.The"to"-infinitivethatfollowsthemismostcommonly"be"or"have",oraperfectinfinitive.Thehousewasbelievedtobehaunted.Overathirdofthepopulationwasestimatedtohavenoaccesstothehealthservice....theprimitivemoleculeswhicharebelievedtohavegivenrisetolifeonEarth.usingthepassive3.208Ifyoudonotknowwhothesubjectofthesecondverbis,oryoudonotwanttomentionthem,youcanuseapassiveconstruction.Agardenerwasimmediatelysackedifhewascaughtsmoking.Iwasaskedtocomeforafewdaystohelpthem.Theirchildrenarelefttoplayamongtherubble.Thefollowingverbsarenotusuallyusedinthepassivewhenfollowedbyapresentparticiple:feelimaginelikelistentopreventsavestopwantThefollowingverbsarenotusuallyusedinthepassivewhenfollowedbya"to"-infinitive:defygetlikepreferwant3.209"Hear","observe",and"see"arenotusedwitha"to"-infinitivewhentheyareactivebuttheycanbeusedwitheitherapresentparticipleora"to"-infinitivewhentheyarepassive.Youusethemwithapresentparticiplewhenyouwanttoshowthattheactiondescribedbythesecondverbtookplaceoveraperiodoftime.Aterroristwasseenstandinginthemiddleoftheroad.Hercompanionscouldbeheardplayinggames.Ifa"to"-infinitiveisused,youareimplyingthattheactionwascompleted.Shecoulddistinctlybeseentohesitate.Thebabywasseldomheardtocry.Seealsoparagraph3.206.3.210Thereisagroupofverbsusedinphasestructureswitha"to"-infinitivewhicharefollowedbythepreposition"for"anditsobject,ratherthanbyadirectobject.Theobjectof"for"istheperformerofthesecondaction.HearrangedforWaddelltohavetheservicesofanothersolicitor.Theycalledforactiontobetakenagainsttheunions.Iwaitedforhimtospeak.Notethatthe"to"-infinitiveisoftenapassiveone.Hereisalistofverbswhichcanbeusedinthisway:appealapplyarrangeaskcallclamourlongoptpaypleadpressvotewaitwishyearn3.211Afewverbsarefollowedbyanobjectandaninfinitivewithout"to",notapresentparticipleora"to"-infinitive.Theyare"let","make",and"have"inthesenseof"causetohappen"or"experience".Jennylethimtalk.Myfathermademegofortheinterview....sothathecouldlieinadarkenedroomandhaveherbringhimmealsontrays.Verbswhichcanbeusedeitherwithaninfinitivewithout"to"orwithapresentparticipleareexplainedinparagraph3.206.3.212Aspecialuseof"have"inphasestructuresistosaythatthesubjectcausessomethingtobedealtwithbysomeoneelse.Inthiscase,"have"isfollowedbyanobjectreferringtothethingdealtwith,andthenbythepastparticipleofatransitiveverborofanintransitiveverbfollowedbyapreposition.Hewenttohaveacavityfilledandhadaninjection.Thisstructureisalsousedtosaythatsomethingbelongingtothesubjectof"have"isaffectedinsomeway.She"djustlostherjobandhadsomemoneystolen.Ifyouwanttomentiontheperformerofthesecondaction,youuse"by"followedbyanoungroup.GaryJonestwicehadhisfacetrampledonbyButts.385 "Get"canalsobeusedwithanobjectandapastparticipletotalkaboutcausingsomethingtobedealtwithoraffectedinsomeway.Wemustgetthecarrepaired.OneofthesedaysIamgoingtogetmyselfelectedtoParliament."want"and"need"withpastparticiple3.213"Want"isalsousedwithanobjectandapastparticiple,toindicatethatyouwouldlikesomethingtobedone.lwantthewholeapproachchanged.Idon"twantyouhurt."Need"isusedinasimilarway,usuallywhentheobjectissomethingthatbelongstothesubject.Youneedyoureyesighttested.ContentsofChapter4page4.2-42Statements,questions,orders,andsuggestions1534.6-9Makingstatements:thedeclarativemood1544.10-11Askingquestions:theinterrogativemood1554.12-16"Yes/no"-questions1554.17-30"Wh"-questions1564.31-35Tellingsomeonetodosomething:theimperativemood1594.36-42Otherusesofmoods1604.43-94Negation1624.43-75Formingnegativestatements1624.76-82Formingnegativestatements:negativeaffixes1664.83-90Formingnegativestatements:broadnegatives1674.91-94Emphasizingthenegativeaspectofastatement1684.95-262Usingmodals1694.97-101Themainusesofmodals1704.102-109Specialfeaturesofmodals1704.110-117Referringtotime1724.118Indicatingpossibility1734.119-122Indicatingability1734.123-145Indicatinglikelihood1734.146-149Indicatingpermission1764.150-157Indicatingunacceptability1764.158-159Interactingwithotherpeople1774.160-176Givinginstructionsandmakingrequests1774.177-185Makinganofferoraninvitation1794.186-193Makingsuggestions1794.194-199Statinganintention1804.200-205Indicatingunwillingnessorrefusal1814.206-214Expressingawish1814.215-219Indicatingimportance1824.220-226Introducingwhatyouaregoingtosay1834.227-251Expressionsusedinsteadofmodals1844.252-262Semi-modals1864Varyingthemessage4.1Thischapterdealswiththreedifferentwaysinwhichthemeaningofasentencecanbevaried,byalteringtheorderofwordsorbyaddingotherwordstotheverbgroup.Paragraphs4.2to4.42explainhowmoodisusedtodistinguishbetweenthemaintypesofsentence,forexamplehowitisusedtodistinguishstatementsandquestions.Paragraphs4.43to4.94explainhownegativewordsareusedtoindicatetheoppositeofsomethingortheabsenceofsomething.Paragraphs4.95to4.262explainhowmodalsareusedtotalkaboutpossibility,ortoindicatetheattitudeofthespeakertothehearerortowhatisbeingsaid.Statements,questions,orders,andsuggestions4.2Sentencescanbeusedtodomanydifferentthings.385 Themostcommonuseistogiveinformation.IwenttoGlasgowUniversity.Carolwasoneofmysister"sbestfriends.Sometimesyouuseasentencetoobtaininformation,ratherthantogiveit.Whereismyfather?WhatdidyousaytoMyra?Howlonghaveyoubeenoutofthiscountry?Atothertimesyouwanttoexpressanopinion,giveanorder,makeasuggestion,ormakeapromise.That"sanexcellentidea.Goaway,allofyou.Shallwelistentothenews?Ifyouhaveanyquestions,I"lldomybesttoanswerthem.Whensomeonesaysorwritesasentence,theyneedtoindicatewhattheyaretryingtodowithit,sothatitwillbeclear,forexample,thattheyareaskingaquestionandnotmakingastatement.mood4.3Oftenitisorderofwordswhichindicateswhichwayasentenceisbeingused.Forexample,ifyousay"HeisNorwegian",thewordordermakesitclearthatyouaremakingastatement.Ifyousay"IsheNorwegian?",thewordorderindicatesthatyouareaskingaquestion.Anotherwayofindicatingwhichwayasentenceisbeingusedistobeginitwithaverb,ratherthanwiththesubject.Forexample,ifyousay"GivethisbooktoMichael",itisclearthatyouaregivinganorderorinstruction,ratherthanmakingastatementoraskingaquestion.Thesewaysofdistinguishingbetweenusesoflanguageareexamplesofmood.Themainclauseofeverysentenceisinaparticularmood.4.4TherearethreemainmoodsinEnglish.Theyarethedeclarativemood,theinterrogativemood,andtheimperativemood.Thedeclarativemoodisthemoodusedinmostmainclauses.Statementsarealmostalwaysmadeusingthedeclarativemood.Whenaclauseisinthismood,thesubjectisplacedinfrontoftheverb.Thedeclarativemoodissometimescalledtheindicativemood.IwanttotalktoMrCastle.GertrudelookedatAnne.We"llgiveyoufifteenpoundsnow.Theinterrogativemoodisthemoodusuallyusedinquestions.Inclausesinthismood,thesubjectisoftenplacedafterthemainverborafteranauxiliaryverb.Issheveryupset?Whereismyfather?HaveyoumetHalliday?Didyougivehimmyletter?Theimperativemoodisthemoodusedtotellsomeonetodosomething.Inclausesintheimperativemood,thesubjectisusuallyomittedandthebaseformoftheverbisused.Givehimagoodbook.Showmethecompletemanuscript.Thereisafourthmoodcalledthesubjunctivemood.ThisisafeatureofEnglishverbswhichsometimesoccursinsubordinateclauses.Thesubjunctivemoodisnotusedtodistinguishbetweendifferentusesoflanguage,andisthereforenotdealtwithinthischapter.Clausesinwhichthesubjunctivemoodoccursareexplainedinparagraphs7.40,8.41.and8.46.4.5Thewaysinwhichmoodisusedareexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs.Paragraphs4.6to4.9explainhowthedeclarativemoodisusedtomakestatements.Paragraphs4.10to4.30explainhowtheinterrogativemoodisusedtoaskquestions.Paragraphs4.31to4.35explainhowtheimperativemoodisusedtotellsomeonetodosomething.Otherusesofthedeclarative,interrogative,andimperativemoodsareexplainedinparagraphs4.36to4.42.Makingstatements:thedeclarativemood4.6Whenyouaregivinginformation,youusethedeclarativemood.Weatedinneratsix.Ilikereadingpoetry.385 Japanhadagreedtorestrictcarshipments.4.7Whenyouareexpressinganopinion,youusuallyusethedeclarativemood.Ithinksheisabrilliantwriter.It"sagoodthingFatherisdeaf.Heoughttohaveletmeknowhewasgoingout.makingpromises4.8Whenyoumakeapromise,youusethedeclarativemood.IshalldoeverythingIcantohelpyou.I"llhaveitsentdownbyspecialdelivery.emphasis4.9Youcanemphasizeastatementbyputting"do","does",or"did"infrontofthebaseformoftheverb.IdofeelsorryforRoger.Alittleknowledgedoesseemtobeadangerousthing.Hehadnotimeorenergytoplaywithhischildrenortalkwithhiswife,buthedidbringhomearegularsalary.Askingquestions:theinterrogativemood4.10Whenyouaskaquestion,youusuallyusetheinterrogatemood.typesofquestions4.11Therearetwomaintypesofquestion,question.Questionswhichcanbeansweredby"yes"or"no"arecalled"yes/no"questions."Isheyouronlychild?"—"Yes.""Areyouplanningtomarrysoon?"—"No.""CanIhelpyou?"—"Yes,I"dliketobookasingleroom,please.""Areyouinterestedinfacing?"—"Yes,Iloveit.""Areyouasingeraswellasanactress?"—"No,I"mnotasingeratall.""Didyougothrough?"—"No,Ididn"tbother."Theactualanswertoa"yes/no"-questionisnotalways"yes"or"no".Forexample,ifyouasksomeone"Doyoureadinbed?",theymightsay"Sometimes"or"Never".Ifyousaytosomeone"DoyoulikeMichaelJackson?",theymightsay"Ithinkhe"swonderful".Butthequestions"Doyoureadinbed?"and"DoyoulikeMichaelJackson?"arestill"yes/no"-question,because"yes"and"no"arethekindofanswersthequestionerexpects."Sometimes"willbeinterpretedasaweak"yes"answer,"never"asastrong"no"answer,and"Ithinkhe"swonderful"asastrong"yes"answer."Yes/no"-questionsarefullyexplainedinparagraphs4.12to4.16.Theothermaintypeofquestionbeginswitha"wh"-wordsuchas"what","where",or"when".Whenyouaskaquestionofthistype,theanswercannotbe"yes"or"no"."Whoishe?"—"AmancalledBoylan.""Whydidn"tyouaskme?"—"Iwasafraidto.""Whereishenow?"—"He"satuniversity."Thistypeofquestioniscalleda"wh"-question.When"wh"-wordsareusedaspronounsoradverbsatthebeginningofa"wh"-question,theyarecalledinterrogativepronounsorinterrogativeadverbs."Wh"-questionsareexplainedinparagraphs4.17to4.30."Yes/no"-questionsPositionofauxiliaryverbs4.12Ina"yes/no"-question,ifthereisanauxiliaryverb,theauxiliaryverbcomesfirst,followedbythesubject,thenthemainverb.Areyoustayinghere,byanychance?HadMaryJaneslepthere?Willtheylikemygarden?Canhereadyet?Ifthereismorethanoneauxiliaryverb,thefirstauxiliaryverbcomesatthebeginningoftheclause,followedbythesubject,followedbytheotherverbs.Hadhebeenmurdered?Hasitbeenthrownaway,perhaps?Forinformationaboutauxiliaries,seetheReferenceSection.4.13Ifthereisnoauxiliaryverb,youput"do","does",or"did"atthebeginningoftheclause,infrontofthesubject,followedbythebaseformofthemainverb.DoyouunderstandwhatI"msaying?Doesithurtmuch?DidyoumeetGeorgeinFrance?385 Notethatifthemainverbis"do",youstillput"do","does",or"did"atthebeginningoftheclause,infrontofthesubject.Dotheydotheworkthemselves?DoesDaviddothissortofthingoften?4.14Iftheverbis"be",youdonotuse"do".Yousimplyputtheverbatthebeginningoftheclause,followedbythesubject.Areyouokay?IssheRicky"ssister?AmIright?Wasitlonelywithoutus?Iftheverbis"have",youusuallyput"do","does"or"did"atthebeginningoftheclause,infrontofthesubject.Dohedgehogshaveintelligence?Doesanyonehaveaquestion?Didyouhaveagoodflight?However,whenyouuse"have"inthesenseof"own"or"possess",youdonotneedtouse"do","does",or"did".Youcansimplyput"have","has",or"had"atthebeginningoftheclause.Thisisaslightlyformaluse.Haveweanythingelseweoughttotalkaboutfirst?Hasheanyideawhatit"slike?Ifyouuse"havegot"or"hasgot"ina"yes/no"-question,youput"have"or"has"atthebeginningoftheclause,followedbythesubject,followedby"got".HaveyougotanybrochuresonHolland?Hasshegotacar?"Havegot"and"hasgot"areexplainedinparagraph3.17.4.15Youcanaskforconfirmationthatsomethingistruebymakingastatementinthedeclarativemood,thenaddinganexpressionsuchas"isn"tit?"or"wasshe?".Constructionslikethesearecalledtagquestions.Youaddanegativeexpressionsuchas"isn"tit?"toapositivestatement,andapositiveexpressionsuchas"wasshe?"toanegativestatement.Whenyouaddanegativeexpressiontoapositivestatement,youexpectmeanswer"yes".Whenyouaddapositiveexpressiontoanegativestatement,youexpecttheanswer"no"."David"sisquiteaniceschool,isn"tit?"—"Yes,itis.""Youdon"talwaysrememberthem,doyou?"—"No.""Youaregoingtodothis,aren"tyou?"—"Yes.""Wedon"twantthesetablesherelikethis,dowe?"—"No,DrKirk."Tagquestionsareexplainedindetailinparagraphs10.122to10.130.Positiveexpressionssuchas"areyou?"canalsobeaddedtopositivestatements.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph4.40."either/or"questions4.16Yousometimesaskaquestioninwhichyoumentiontwoormorepossibleanswers.Youlinkthepossibleanswerswith"or".Forexample,youmightsay"Isheawakeorasleep?"or"Doyoulikeyourcoffeewhiteorblack?"Youexpecttheactualanswertoyourquestiontobeoneoftheanswersyouhavementioned.Words,wordgroups,andclausescanallbelinkedinthisway.Questionslikethesearesometimescalled"either/or"question."Isitaboyoragirt?"—"Abeautifulboy.""Wasithealthyordiseased?"—"Diseased,I"mafraid.""Willyouhaveyourwhisky,ordoyouwantdinnerstraightaway?"—"Whisky.Makeitalargeone.""Wh"-questions4.17Whenyouasksomeonea"wh"-question,youwantthemtospecifyaparticularperson,thing,place,reason,method,oramount.Youdonotexpectthemtoanswer"yes"or"no"."wh"-words4.18"Wh"-questionsbeginwitha"wh"-word."Wh"-wordsareasetofpronouns,adverbs,anddeterminerswhichall,withtheexceptionof"how",beginwith"wh-".Hereisalistofthemain"wh"-words:howwhatwhenwherewhichwhowhomwhosewhy385 "Wh"-wordassubject4.19Whena"wh"-wordisthesubjectofaverb,orwhenitformspartofthesubject,thewordorderoftheclauseisthesameasthatofaclauseinthedeclarativemood,i.e.thesubjectisputfirst,followedbytheverb.Whoinvitedyou?Andthenwhathappened?Whichmattressisbest?"wh"-wordasobjectoradverb4.20Whena"wh"-wordistheobjectofaverborpreposition,orwhenitformspartoftheobject,orwhenitisanadverb,thepositionofthesubjectistheusualoneintheinterrogativemood;thatisitcomesafterthefirstverbintheclause.WhatamIgoingtodowithoutyou?Whichgraphareyougoingtouse?WhyhasCherubiniwrittenthis?Whenwouldyoubecomingdown?Ifyouareusingthesimplepresenttenseorthesimplepasttenseofanyverbexcept"be",youput"do","does",or"did"infrontofthesubject.Whatdoyoureallythink?Whichdepartmentdoyouwant?Wheredoesshelive?Howdoyouknowwhatit"slike?WhendidyoulastseeJohnCartwright?Ifyouareusingthesimplepresenttenseorthesimplepasttenseof"be",themainverbgoesinfrontofthesubject.Youdonotuse"do","does",or"did".Whereisthestation?Howwasyourmeeting?Whenwasthelasttimeyoucleanedthegarage?4.21Inconversation,a"wh"-questionsometimesconsistsofa"wh"-wordonitsown.Forexample,ifyousaytosomeone"I"mlearningtotype",theymightsay"Why?",meaning"Whyareyoulearningtotype?"."Hesawasnake."—"Where?""IhavetogotoGermany."—"When?""Iknewyouwerelandingtoday."—"How?"A"wh"-questioncanalsoconsistofanoungroupcontaininga"wh"-word.Forexample,ifyousaytosomeone"Igaveyourbooktothatgirl",theymightsay"Whichgirl?",meaning"Whichgirldidyougivemybookto?"."Heknewmycousin."—"Whichcousin?""Whowasyourfriend?"—"Whatfriend?"4.22Thepronoun"who"isusedtoaskquestionsaboutaperson"sidentity."Who"canbethesubjectorobjectofaverb.Whodiscoveredthis?Whowereherfriends?Whoareyouexpecting?Whodidhemarry?InmoreformalEnglish,"whom"issometimesusedinsteadof"who"astheobjectofaverb.Whomshallwecall?Whomdidyousee?"Who"and"whom"canalsobetheobjectofapreposition.When"who"istheobjectofapreposition,theprepositionisputattheendoftheclause.Whodidyoudancewith?WhodoIpaythisto?When"whom"istheobjectofapreposition,theprepositionisputatthebeginningoftheclause,infrontof"whom".Forwhomweretheysupposedtodoit?Towhomisabroadcasterresponsible?4.23"Whose"isusedasadeterminerorpronountoaskwhichpersonsomethingbelongstoorisassociatedwith.Whosebabiesdidyouthinktheywere?Whosebodywasit?Whoseisthat?4.24"Which"isusedasapronounordeterminertoasksomeonetoidentifyaspecificpersonor385 thingoutofanumberofpeopleorthings.Whichisthebestrestaurant?Whichisherroom?Whichdoyoulikebest?Whichdoctordoyouwanttosee?When"which"isadeterminer,itcanbepartoftheobjectofapreposition.Theprepositionisusuallyputattheendofthequestion.Whichstationdidyoucomefrom?Whichlandwilltheyhavepassedover?"when"and"where"4.25"When"isusedtoaskquestionsaboutthetimesomethinghappened,happens,orwillhappen.Whendidyoufindher?Whendowehavesupper?Ginny,whenareyoucominghome?"Where"isusedtoaskquestionsaboutplace,position,ordirection.Wheredoesshelive?Whereareyougoing?Wheredoyougotocomplain?"why"4.26"Why"isusedtoaskaquestionaboutthereasonforsomething.Whyareyouhere?WhydoesAmywanttogoandseehisgrave?Whydoesshetreatmelikethatwhenwe"resucholdfriends?"Why"issometimesusedwithoutasubjectandwiththebaseformofaverb,usuallytoaskwhyanactionisorwasnecessary.Whywakemeup?Whybotheraboutme?Whymakeapointofit?"Whynot"canbeusedwiththebaseformofaverb,inordertomakeasuggestionortoaskwhyaparticularactionhasnotbeentaken.Whynotenditnow?Whynotreadabook?IfitwasHaldeman,thenwhynotsayso?"how"4.27"How"isusuallyusedtoaskaboutthemethodusedfordoingsomething,oraboutthewayinwhichsomethingcanbeachieved.Howdoweopenit?Howareyougoingtogetthat?Howcouldheexplainittoher?Howdidheknowwhenyouwerecoming?"How"isalsousedtoaskquestionsaboutthewayapersonfeels,aboutthewaysomeoneorsomethinglooks,oraboutthewaysomethingsounds,feels,ortastes.Howareyoufeelingtoday?"HowdoIlook?"—"Verynice."Howdidyoufeelwhenyoustoodupinfrontoftheclass?"how"withotherwords4.28"How"canbecombinedwithotherwordsatthebeginningofquestions."Howmany"and"howmuch"areusedtoaskwhatnumberofthingsthereareorwhatamountofsomethingthereis."Howmany"isfollowedbyapluralcountnoun.Howmanypeoplearethere?Howmanylanguagescanyouspeak?Howmanytimeshaveyoubeen?"Howmuch"isfollowedbyanuncountnoun.Howmuchmoneyhavewegotinthebank?Justhowmuchtimehaveyoubeendevotingtothis?"Howmany"and"howmuch"canbeusedwithoutafollowingnounwhenyoudonotneedtomakeitclearwhatsortofthingyouaretalkingabout.Howmanydidyoufind?Howmuchdidhetellyou?Howmuchdoesitcost?385 Howmuchdotheyreallyunderstand?"Howlong"isusedtoaskaboutthelengthofaperiodoftime.Howlonghaveyoulivedhere?Howlongwillittake?Howlongcanshelivelikethis?Howlongagowasthat?"Howlong"isalsousedtoaskquestionsaboutdistance,althoughthisuseislesscommon.Howlongisthesideofthattrianglethere?"Howfar"isusedinquestionsaboutdistanceandextent.Howfarcanwesee?HowfarisittoMontrealfromhere?Howfarhaveyougotwithyourhomework?Youcancombine"how"withanadjectivewhenyouareaskingtowhatextentsomethinghasaparticularqualityorfeature.Howbig"syouroverdraftatthemoment?Howoldareyourchildren?4.29"What"canbeapronounordeterminer,oritcanbeusedincombinationwith"if"or"for"."What"isusedasapronountofindoutvariouskindsofspecificinformation,forexampledetailsofanevent,themeaningofawordorexpression,orthereasonforsomething.What"swrongwithhismother?Whathashappenedtohim?WhatistheCupFinal?Whatkeepsyouhangingaroundhere?"What"canbeusedtoasksomeone"sopinionofsomething.Whatdoyouthinkaboutthepresentpoliticalsituation?"What"isoftenusedastheobjectofapreposition.Theprepositionusuallygoesattheendofthequestion.Whatareyouinterestedin?Whatdidhedieof?Whatdoyouwanttotalkabout?"What"isusedasadeterminertofindouttheidentityofsomethingortoaskwhatkindofthingitis.Whatbooksdoessheread?Whatchurchdidyousayyouattend?"Whatif"goesinfrontofaclauseinthedeclarativemood.Itisusedtoaskwhatshouldbedoneifaparticulardifficultyoccurs.Whatifit"sreallybadweather?Whatiftheydidn"twanttopartwithit,whatwouldyoudothen?Youput"what"atthebeginningofaquestionand"for"attheendofitwhenyouwanttoknowthereasonforsomethingorthepurposeofsomething."Whatareyoustaringfor?"meansthesameas"Whyareyoustaring?"."Whatisthishandlefor?"means"Whatisthepurposeofthishandle?".Whatareyougoingfor?Whatarethoselightsfor?"What"canalsobeusedincombinationwith"about"or"of".Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph4.41."whatever","wherever",and"whoever"4.30Ifyouwantaquestiontosoundmoreemphatic,youcanuse"whatever"insteadof"what","wherever"insteadof"where",or"whoever"insteadof"who".Whateveristhematter?Whereverdidyougetthis?Whoeverheardofabishopresigning?Tellingsomeonetodosomething:theimperativemoodordersandinstructions4.31Whensomeonegivesaveryclearorderorinstruction,theyusuallyusetheimperativemood.Stopher.Putthatgundown.Tellyourmotherassoonaspossible.385 Writteninstructionsaregivenintheimperativemood.Boilupalittlewaterwithwashingupliquidinit.Frythechoppedonionandpepperintheoil.Anordercanbemademoreforcefulbyputting"you"infrontoftheverb.Yougetinthecar.Youshutup!adviceandwarnings4.32Youcanusetheimperativemoodwhenyouaregivingadviceorawarning.Besensible.Youbecareful.Oftenadviceorawarningisexpressedinanegativeform.Youformanegativeimperativebyputting"don"t"or"donot"infrontofthebaseformoftheverb.Don"tbeafraidofthem.Don"tbediscouraged.Donotmoveoutofyourhomewithoutgettinglegaladvice.Youcanalsoformanegativeimperativebyputting"never"infrontofthebaseformofaverb.Neveropenthefrontdoorwithoutlookingthroughthepeephole.Anotherwayofgivingadviceorawarningistouseoneofthemodals"should"or"oughtto"inadeclarativesentence.Youshouldgettoknowhimbetter.Youshouldn"tkeepeggsintherefrigerator.Thisuseisexplainedindetailinparagraph4.219.4.33Youusetheimperativemoodwhenyouareappealingtosomeonetodosomething.Comequickly...Comequickly...Hurry!Youcanmakeanappealmoreforcefulbyputting"do"infrontoftheverb.Dohelpmeout.Andnow,pleasedostopcrying.4.34Youcanusetheimperativemoodwithsomeverbswhenyouareexplainingsomethingandyouwantthelistenerorreadertothinkaboutaparticularthingorpossibility,ortocomparetwothings.Take,forinstance,thenewproposalsforstudentloans.Imagine,forexample,anassemblylineworkerinafactorymakingchildren"sblocks.Butsupposeforamomentthattheautomobileindustryhaddevelopedatthesamerateascomputers.Forexample,compareatypicalpoorcountrylikeIndonesiawitharichonelikeCanada.Consider,forexample,thecontrastbetweenthewayschoolstodaytreatspaceandtime.Hereisalistofverbswhichareusedinthisway:compareconsidercontrastimaginelookatpicturesupposetake4.35"Let"isusedinimperativesentencesinfourdifferentways:•itisusedtogiveanorderorinstructionLetPhilliphavealookatit.•youuseitfollowedby"us"whenyouaremakingasuggestionaboutwhatyouandsomeoneelseshoulddo."Letus"isalmostalwaysshortenedto"Let"s".Let"sgooutside.Let"screepforwardonhandsandknees.•youuseitfollowedby"me"whenyouareofferingtodosomethingLetmetakeyourcoat.•inveryformalEnglish,itisusedtoexpressawish.Letthejoybeuniversal.Letconfusionlive!Letthebestmanorwomanwin.Otherusesofmoods4.36Youcanconfirmthatsomethingistruebyaskingaquestionusingthedeclarativemood.Soyouadmitsomethingiswrong?Thenyouthinkwecankeepit?Whenyouaskaquestionusingthedeclarativemood,youexpecttheanswer"yes",unlessyouuseanegativeconstruction,inwhichcaseyouexpecttheanswer"no".385 "Youmeanit"sstillhere?"—"Ofcourse.""Youneverlearnedthedeafanddumbalphabet?"—"No,never."Questionsexpressedinthedeclarativemoodoftenbeginwithaconjunction.Soyou"resatisfied?Andyouwilllistendutifully?instructing4.37Youcangiveaninstructioninafairlyinformalwaybyusingadeclarativesentencewith"you"asthesubject.Youputthemonthandthetemperatureonthetopline.Youtakethebusuptothelandingstageattwelve-thirty.Youjustbungitintheoven.offersandinvitations4.38Whenyouaremakinganofferoraninvitation,youusuallyusea"yes/no"-questionbeginningwithamodalsuchas"can"or"would".Thisuseisexplainedindetailinparagraphs4.177to4.182.CanIhelpyou?CanIgiveyoualift?Wouldyoulikemetogetsomethingforyou?Wouldyoulikesomecoffee?WouldyouliketogotoErnie"sfordinner?Youcanmakeanofferorinvitationinamoreinformalwaybyusingtheimperativemood.Notethatyoucanonlydothiswhenitisclearthatyouarenotgivinganorder.Haveacigar.Cometomyplace.Comein,MrsKintner.Youcanaddemphasisbyputting"do"infrontoftheverb.Dohaveachocolatebiscuit.Dohelpyourselves.requests,orders,andinstructions4.39Whenyouaremakingarequest,youusuallyusea"yes/no"-questionbeginningwithoneofthemodals"could","can",or"would".CouldIaskyouafewquestions?CanIhavemyhatback,please?Wouldyoumindhavingawordwithmyhusband?Youcanalsogiveanorderorinstructionusinga"yes/no"-questionbeginningwithamodal.WillyoutellWatsonIshallbeinalittlelate?Theseusesareexplainedindetailinparagraph4.160to4.170.rhetoricalquestions4.40Whenyouusea"yes/no"-questiontoofferhelportomakearequest,youstillexpecttheanswer"yes"of"no".However,peoplesometimessaythingswhichseemlike"yes/no"-question,althoughdonotexpectanansweratall.Theyareusingthe"yes/no"-questionformtoexpressastrongfeeling,opinion,orimpression.Forexample,insteadofsaying"That"sanuglybuilding",someonemightsay"Isn"tthatanuglybuilding?.Orinsteadofsaying"Youneverseemtogetupset",someonemightsay"Don"tyouevergetupset?".Questionslikethesearecalledrhetoricalquestions.Doesn"tthewholeset-upstrikeyouascrazy?Can"tyouseethatI"mbusy?Hasn"tanyoneroundheregotanysense?Doesnothingeverworryyou?Anotherkindofrhetoricalquestionconsistsofastatementfollowedbyanexpressionsuchas"areyou?"or"isit?".Forexample,someonemightsay"Soyouarethenewassistant,areyou?"or"Sothey"recomingtotea,arethey?".Soyouwanttobeanactress,doyou?Soyoucameuptositbesideme,didyou?Rhetoricalquestionscanalsobeginwith"how".Theyusuallyexpressafeelingofshockorindignation.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Youareverycruel",someonemightsay"Howcanyoubesocruel?".Howcanyousaysuchthings?Howdareyouspeaktomelikethat?Rhetoricalquestionsaredealtwithfullyinparagraph10.121.4.41Youcanaskaquestionconsistingof"whatabout"or"whatof"infrontofanoungroup,withoutaverb.Youaskaquestionlikethistoremindsomeoneofsomething,ortodrawtheir385 attentiontosomething.Withthiskindofquestion,youoftenexpectanaction,ratherthanareply.Whatabouttheothersonthelist?Whataboutyourbreakfast?Butwhatofthegrowingdisadvantagesofhavingtoomanychildren?4.42Thereareseveralwaysinwhichyoucanmakeasuggestion:•youcanusethemodal"could"inadeclarativesentence(seeparagraph4.187)Wecouldhavetea.Youcouldgetsomeonetodressupasapirate.•youcanuseanegative"wh"-questionbeginningwith"why"Whydon"twejustgivethemwhattheywant?Whydon"tyouwritetoheryourself?•youcanuseaquestionconsistingof"whatabout"or"howabout"infrontofanon-finiteclauseWhataboutbecominganactor?Howaboutusingmakeuptodramatizeyourfeatures?•youcanusetheimperativemood."Givethemarewardeach,"Isuggested.Youcanalsomakeasuggestionaboutwhatyouandsomeoneelsemightdobyusing"let"s".Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph4.35.NegationFormingnegativestatements4.43Whenyouwanttosaythatsomethingisnottrue,isnothappening,orisnotthecase,younormallyuseanegativestatement.Negativestatementscontainwordslike"not","never",or"nowhere".Theyarecallednegativewords.HereisthelistofnegativewordsinEnglish:neithernevernonobodynonenoonenornotnothingnowhereNegativewordsindicatetheoppositeofsomethingoranabsenceofsomething.4.44Therearesomeotherwordssuchas"unhappy"or"meaningless"whichgiveanegativemeaningtoastatementbecausetheycontainanegativeaffixsuchas"un-"or"-less".Thesewordsareexplainedinparagraphs4.76to4.82.Anothergroupofwordssuchas"scarcely"and"seldom"canbeusedtomakeastatementalmostnegative.Thesewordsarecalledbroadnegatives.Theyareexplainedinparagraphs4.83to4.90.4.45Ifastatementabouttheexistenceofsomethinghasanegativewordinit,youuse"any"(not"no")asadeterminerinfrontofthefollowingnoungroup.Youcanalsouseawordbeginningwith"any-"suchas"anyone"or"anywhere".Wehadn"tanymoney.Hewritespoetryandnevershowsittoanyone.Itisimpossibletoparkthecaranywhere.Foranotheruseof"any"seeparagraph2.168.WARNING4.46Itisalmostalwaysunacceptabletousetwonegativewordsinthesameclause.Forexample,youdonotsay,"Idon"tnevergothere",or"Idon"tknownothing".4.47Theuseofnegativesinreportstructuresisexplainedinparagraph7.13.Theuseofnegativeswithmodalsisexplainedinparagraph4.105."not"4.48Themostcommonlyusednegativewordis"not".Itsusewithdifferentverbscorrespondstothewaytheseverbsareusedin"yes/no"-questions(seeparagraphs4.12to4.14).positioninverbgroups4.49When"not"isusedwithaverbgroupwhichcontainsanauxiliaryverb,itcomesafterthefirstverbinthegroup.Theycouldnotexistintheirpresentform.Theymightnotevennotice.Unemploymenthasnotbeenamajorcauseoftherecentevents.Hehadnotattendedmanymeeting.Iwasnotsmiling.Thecouncilwasnotentitledtoanyrebate.385 adding"do"4.50Ifthereisnoauxiliaryverb,youput"do","does",or"did"afterthesubject,followedby"not"or"-n"t",followedbythebaseformofthemainverb.Theydonotneedtotalk.HedoesnotspeakEnglishverywell.Ididn"tknowthat."Be"and"have"areexceptionstothis;thisisexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs4.51and4.52.Theshorteningof"not"to"-n"t"isexplainedinparagraphs4.55and4.56.4.51Iftheverbis"be",youdonotuse"do".Yousimplyput"not"or"-n"t"aftertheverb.Itisnotdifficulttoseewhytheywereunsuccessful.Thereisnotmuchpointinheadingsouth.Thatisn"talwaysthewisestcourse.4.52Iftheverbis"have",youusuallyput"do","does",or"did"afterthesubject,followedby"not"or"-n"t",followedbythebaseform"have".Sydney"snewoperahousedoesnothaveaparkinglot.Hedidn"thaveaverygrandsalary.Youcansimplyput"not"or"-n"t"aftertheverb,butthisuseislesscommon.Hehadn"tenoughmoney.Ihaven"tanypaperstosaythatIhavebeentrained.Ifyouuse"havegot",youput"not"or"-n"t"after"have",followedby"got".Ihaven"tgotthelatestfigures.Hehasn"tgotadaughter."Havegot"isexplainedinparagraph3.17.4.53When"not"isusedwithan"-ing"formora"to"-infinitiveclause,itisplacedinfrontofthe"-ing"formor"to"-infinitive.Westoodthere,notknowingwhatwasexpectedofus.Helostoutbynottakingadegreeatanotheruniversity.Trynottoworry.Ittookavastamountofpatiencenottostranglehim.4.54Whenaclausecontainsafiniteverbgroupandanon-finiteverbgroup,youput"not"eitherwiththefiniteornon-finitegroup,dependingonthemeaningyouwanttoexpress.Forexample,youcansayeither"Marytriednottosmile"or"Marydidnottrytosmile",buttheyexpressdifferentmeanings.ThefirstmeansthatMarytriedtoavoidsmiling.ThesecondmeansthatWarydidnoteventrytosmile.However,withsomeverbswhichareusedwith"to"-infinitiveclauses,themeaningisthesamewhether"not"isplacedwiththemainverborwiththe"to"-infinitive.Shedidnotappeartohavedoneanything.Henryappearsnottoappreciatemyexplanation.Itdidn"tseemtobotherthematall.Theyseemednottonoticeme.Hereisalistofverbswhichareusedwith"to"-infinitives.Withallofthese,themeaningoftheclauseisthesame,whether"not"isputinfrontoftheverborinfrontoftheverborinfrontofthe"to"-infinitive:appearexpecthappenintendplanseemtendwantwishTheuseoftwoverbsinaclausetotalkabouttwoactionsorstatesiscalledphase.Phaseisdealtwithinparagraphs3.183to3.213.Notethatwithsomereportingverbsthemeaningisthesamewhetheryouput"not"infrontofthereportingverborinfrontofthemainverb.Thisisexplainedinparagraph7.13.contractionsof"not"4.55InspokenEnglishandininformalwrittenEnglish,"not"isoftenshortenedto"-n"t"after"be"or"have"orafteranauxiliary."-n"t"isattachedtotheendoftheverb.Marigoldisn"treallymyauntatall.Hedoesn"tbelieveinanything.Ihaven"theardfromherrecently.Notethat"cannot"isshortenedto"can"t","shallnot"isshortenedto"shan"t",and"willnot"isshortenedto"won"t".Hereisacompletelistoftheshortenedformsyoucanuse:aren"tdidn"thasn"tmightn"tshouldn"t385 isn"twasn"tweren"tdoesn"tdon"thadn"thaven"tcan"tcouldn"tmustn"toughtn"tshan"twon"twouldn"tUSAGENOTE4.56Notethatiftheverbisalreadyshortenedandaddedtoitssubject,youcannotshorten"not"to"-n"t".Thismeans,forexample,thatyoucanshorten"sheisnot"to"sheisn"t"or"she"snot",butnotto"she"sn"t".Itisn"teasy.It"snoteasy.Ihaven"thadtime.I"venothadtime.Notethatyoucannotadd"-n"t"to"am".Youcanonlyuse"I"mnot"astheshortenedform.I"mnotexcited.Theform"aren"tI"isusedinquestions.Formoreinformation,seeparagraph10.125.Inquestions,"not"isusuallyshortenedto"-n"t"andaddedtothefirstverbintheverbgroup.Didn"tshewinattheOlympics?Hasn"theputonweight?Aren"tyoubored?However,informalEnglish,itisalsopossibletoput"not"afterthesubject.Didhenothavebrothers?Wasitnotratherabsurd?otherusesof"not"4.57Youcanalsouse"not"withalmostanywordorwordgroupinaclause.Forexample,youcanuseitwithnoungroups,adjectives,adverbs,prepositionalphrases,andquantifiers.Youusuallydothisinordertobemoreforceful,careful,polite,hesitant,andsoon.Thefollowingparagraphs4.58and4.59describesomeoftheseuses.4.58"Very"isoftenusedafter"not"tosoftenthenegativemeaningofaclause.Youcanput"very"infrontofanadjectivecomplement,infrontofacomplementthatcontainsanadjective,orinfrontofanadverb.Thissoundsmorepoliteorhesitantthanusing"not"without"very".Hisattitudeisnotverylogical.It"snotverystrongtea,itwon"tstain.Hewasn"taverygoodactor.Sheshookherhead,butnotveryconvincingly.Youcanuse"not"with"absolutely","altogether","entirely",or"necessarily"inasimilarway.Youdothisinordertosoundmorepoliteorlesscritical.Shewasn"tabsolutelyconvincedofherusefulness.Iwasnotaltogethersure.Theyarenotentirelyreliable.Scienceisnotnecessarilyhostiletohumanvalues.Youcanuse"not"infrontofacomplementwhichhasanegativemeaningtoindicatethatthethingyouaredescribinghasinfactsomegoodqualities,althoughyoudonotwanttomakethemsoundbetterthantheyreallyare.Thisstructureisoftenusedwithwordswhichhaveanegativeaffixsuchas"un-"or"-less".Well,itcertaintyisnotahindrance.It"snotabadstart.It"sasmallpoint,butnotanunimportantone.Americaisverywelldeveloped,butnotlimitless.Wordswithnegativeaffixesarediscussedinparagraphs4.76to4.82.4.59"Not"canbeusedtocontrastonepartofaclausewithanother.Using"not"inthiswayemphasizesthepositivepartofastatement.Heheldherarminhishand,nothard,butfirmly.Wemovesteadily,notfast,notslow."Weretheystillinterested?"—"Notjustinterested.Overjoyed."Iwillmoveeventually,butnotfromSuffolk.It"snotahugehotel,butit"sverynice.4.60"Never"isusedtosaythatsomethingwasnotorwillnoteverbethecase.Whenitisusedwithaverbgroupwhichcontainsanauxiliaryverb,"never"isputafterthefirstverbintheverbgroupandinfrontofthemainverb.Iwouldnevertrustmyjudgementagain....atypeofglasswhichisrareandisneverused.Thenumberofpeoplewhodiedwillneverbeknown.385 Thirtyyearsago,themanwasneverexpectedtowashthedishesorhelpwiththechildren.Ihadneverbeentothisbigtownbefore.I"veneverdonesomuchworkinanmylife.However,youcanput"never"infrontofthefirstwordintheverbgroupinordertoemphasizethenegativeaspectofastatement.Ineverwouldhaveguessedifhehadn"ttoldme.Therewasnosuchperson—thereneverhadbeen.4.61Ifthemainverbisthesimplepresentorsimplepastof"be","never"usuallycomesaftertheverb.Shewasnevertooproudtolearn.I"mneververykeenonkeepingacarformorethanayear.Therewereneveranypeopleinthehouse.However,youcanput"never"infrontofasimpleformof"be"foremphasis.Thereneverwasenoughhotwaferathome.Itneverwasveryclear.Thereneverisanygreatchange.withsimpleformsofotherverbs4.62Ifthemainverbisthesimplepresentorsimplepastofanyverb,except"be","never"comesinfrontoftheverb.Ineverwanttoseeyouinmyclassesagain.Shenevergoesabroad.Heneverwenttouniversity.Heneverdidanyhomework.emphasis4.63Youcanmakeanegativestatementmoreemphaticbyusing"newer"followedby"do","does",or"did"infrontofthebaseformofmeverb.Forexample,insteadofsaying"lnevermethim",youcansay"lneverdidmeethim".Ineverdoseehernow.Weneverdidfindthegauzepad.Ineverdidwantacouncilhouse.Somepeopleneverdoadjustadequately."never"inimperatives4.64"Never"canbeusedatthebeginningofimperativestructures.Neverchangeawheelnearadrain.Neverdryclothesinfrontofanopenfire.Imperativestructuresareexplainedinparagraph4.4andinparagraphs4.31to4.35."no"4.65"No"isageneraldeterminerwhichisusedinfrontofsingularandpluralnoungroupstosaythatsomethingdoesnotexistorisnotavailable.Therewasnomoneyforanoperation.Wehadnounion,nobodytolookafterus.Hehasnoambition.Icouldseenotracks.Generaldeterminersareexplainedinparagraphs1.208to1.235.4.66InspokenEnglish,"-n"t"isoftenusedwith"any"insteadof"no".Forexample,insteadofsaying"Ihadnomoney",youcansay"hadn"tanymoney".Theyhadn"tmeantanyharmtoher.Ican"tseeanyhopeinit."none"4.67Thepronoun"none"isusedtosaythatthereisnotasinglethingofperson,ornotevenasmallamountofaparticularthing.Iwaitedforcommentsbutnonecame.Theentireareaiscoveredwithshallowlakes,nonemorethanafewyardsindepth.Wehavebeenseeingdifficultieswherenoneexist.Foranotheruseof"none"seeparagraph1.154."noneof"4.68"Noneof"isaquantifier.Noneofthetownspeoplehadeverseensuchweather.Noneofthishashappenedwithoutourconsent.Foranexplanationof"noneof"seeparagraphs2.195to2.197andparagraph2.202.wordsbeginningwith"no"4.69Therearefourwordsbeginningwith"no-"whichareusedinnegativestatements."Nothing","noone",and"nobody"areindefinitepronouns."Nowhere"isanindefiniteplaceadverb.There"snothingyoucando.NobodyinherhouseknowsanyEnglish.385 There"salmostnowherelefttogo.Indefinitepronounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.127to1.140,indefiniteplaceadverbsareexplainedinparagraphs6.90and6.100.4.70"Nothing","noone","nobody"and"nowhere"canbefollowedby"but"tomean"only".Forexample,"Therewasnothingbutcheese"meansthattherewasonlycheese.Ilookbackonthisperiodwithnothingbutpleasure.Heheardnoonebuthisuncles.Indefinitepronounsandadvertswhichbeginwith"any"canbeusedinsimilarstructures.However,inthesestructures"but"means"except",ratherthan"only".IcouldneverspeakaboutanythingbutbusinesstoIvan.It"sbeenyearssincehehastakenhertovisitanyonebutthechildren.4.71"Neither"and"nor"areusedtogethertosaythattwoalternativesarenotpossible,likely,ortrue."Neither"goesinfrontofthefirstalternativeand"nor"goesinfrontofthesecondone.NeitherMargaretnorJohnwasthere.Theyhadneitherfoodnormoneyuntiltheendoftheweek.4.72"Neither"canbeusedonitsownasareply,torefertotwoalternativeswhichhavealreadybeenmentioned."DoesthatmeanYesorNo?"—"Neither".4.73Ifaclausecontainsanegativeword,particularly"not",youcanuse"neither"or"nor"tonegateasecondclause.Inthesecondclause,youput"neither"or"nor"first,followedbytheverb,followedbythesubject.Thisisn"tadazzlingachievementbutneitherisitanegligibleone.Thesepeoplearenotinsane,noraretheyfools.Ifthereisanauxiliary,itisplacedinfrontofthesubjectinthesecondclause.Theorganizationhadbrokennorules,butneitherhaditactedresponsibly.IdonotwishtoberudetoyoubutneitherdoIwishtoberudetoSimon.4.74"Neither"canbeusedonitsowninfrontofasingularnounreferringtoeachoftwothingswhenyouaremakinganegativestatementaboutbothofthem.Forexample,"Neitherpartnerbenefitedfromtheagreement"meansthattheretwopartnersandthenegativestatementappliestobothofthem.NeitherreportmentionedtheAmericans.Inrealityneitherpartywasenthusiastic.Neithersexhasamonopolyonthoughtoremotion.Neitherparentisthegoodoneorthebadone.Notethatinthisstructure"neither"isusedwithasingularverb.4.75When"neither"isfollowedby"of",itisusedasaquantifiertonegativeasetoftwothings."Neitherof"isfollowedbyapluralnoungroup.Neitherofuswashavinganyluck.Neitheroftheboysscreamed.Neitherofthemwasmakinganysound."Neitherof"isnormallyusedwithasingularverb.Neitheroftheseextremesisdesirable.Neitheroftheseopinionsprovesanything.However,itisalsopossibletouseapluralverb.Neitherofthechildrenwerethere.Quantifiersareexplainedinparagraphs2.193to2.210.Formingnegativestatements:negativeaffixes4.76Aprefixsuchas"un-"or"dis-"canbeaddedtothebeginningofsomewordstogivethemtheoppositemeaning.Wordswithprefixescanbelookedupinanygooddictionary.Thesuffix"-less.isaddedtotheendofwordstogivethemanegativemeaning.Sheaskedustoherhousewhichwasverysmallanduntidy.AtlastJanetsatdown,asshewasbreathless.Hereisalistofcommonnegativeprefixes:a-anti-counter-de-dis-ex-il-im-in-ir-mal-mis-non-un-"un-"4.77Themostcommonoftheseprefixesis"un-".Itcanbeaddedtomanyadjectives,adverbs,andverbs.385 Theywereunhappywiththewaythingsweregoing.Theydescribedwhattheysaw,sometimestruthfullyandatothertimesuntruthfully.Sheunpackedstraightaway."Un-"canalsobeaddedtosomenouns.Shewantedtosavehersisterfromunhappiness."in-","il-","ir-"4.78Anothercommonprefixis"in-".Itisaddedtosomeadjectives,adverbs,andnounsinsteadof"un-".Thefootpathwasinvisible.Someradiationcontinuesalmostindefinitely.There"senormousinefficiencyinthesystem."Il-"isaddedtosomeadjectives,adverbs,andnounsbeginningwith"l"."Im-"isaddedtootherswhichbeginwith"b","m",or"p",and"ir-"isaddedtosomewhichbeginwith"r".Hewasreachedanillogicalconclusion.Thewindowswillbealmostimpossibletoopen.Iwasacrazy,irresponsibleadventurer."dis-"4.79"Dis-"isaddedtosomeverbs,adjectives,nouns,andadverbs.Idislikedchangeofanykind.Iwasbecomingdisconnected.Hegavealookofdisapproval.Shejustgetsdisagreeablyrebellious.4.80"Non-"isaddedtosomeadjectivesandnouns....apeaceful,non-violentprotest.Trafficsignalswereinadequateornon-existent.Thematchwasanon-event.Theoilcompaniesstubbornlypursuedacourseofnon-cooperation.4.81Thesuffix"-less"canbeaddedtomanynounsinordertoformnegativeadjectives.Theywerecompletelyhelpless.Manypeoplewereintearsandalmostspeechless.Thatwasverythoughtlessofyou....acold,heartlesssmile.Hereisalistofcommonwordswhichhavethesuffix"-less":breathlesscarelesschildlesscountlessdoubtlessendlessharmlessheartlesshelplesshomelesshopelesslandlesslifelesslimitlessmeaninglessmercilessmindlessmotionlessnamelessneedlesspointlesspowerlessrelentlessrestlesssenselessshapelessspeechlessthoughtlessuselessworthless4.82Youcanadd"-less"tomanyothernounswhenitisclearfromthecontextthatyouaretalkingaboutalackofsomething.Thisisanexampleofaproductivefeature.ProductivefeaturesareexplainedintheIntroduction.Formingnegativestatements:broadnegatives4.83Anotherwayinwhichyoucanmakeastatementnegativeisbyusingabroadnegative.Broadnegativesareadverbslike"rarely"and"seldom"whichareusedtomakeastatementalmosttotallynegative.Theestimatedsaleswillhardlycoverthecostofmakingthefilm.Wewerescarcelyabletomove.Kuwaitliesbarely30mitesfromtheIraniancoast.Hereisalistofthemostcommonbroadnegatives:barelyhardlyrarelyscarcelyseldom4.84Thepositionofabroadnegativewithinaclauseissimilartothatof"never"(seeparagraphs4.60to4.62).4.85Whenyouuseabroadnegativewithaverbgroupwhichcontainsanauxiliaryverb,youputitafterthefirstwordintheverbgroupandinfrontofthemainverb.Icouldscarcelybelievemyeyes.MrAl-Fayedisrarelyphotographedwithhisfamily.Hiseyeshadhardlyclosed.4.86Iftheverbisthesimplepresentofsimplepastof"be",thebroadnegativeusuallycomesaftertheverb.385 Examinerswereseldomunkind.Thenewpressuregroupisbarelysixmonthsold.Theofficewashardlyeverempty.Thelagoonsarerarelydeep.Theresultswerescarcelyencouraging.withotherverbs4.87Iftheverbisthesimplepresentofsimplepastofanyverbexcept"be",thebroadnegativeusuallycomesinfrontoftheverb.Heseldombathed.Marshararefyfelthungry.JohnhardlyeverspoketothePress.Itisalsopossibletoputabroadnegativeaftertheverb,butthisislesscommon.Theyclimbrarelyanddonothavemuchreasonto.Theymetsoseldom.asfirstwordintheclause4.88InformalorliteraryEnglish,abroadnegativeissometimesplacedatthebeginningofaclauseforemphasis.Ifyouareusingaverbwithanauxiliary,thefirstwordintheverbgroupisplacedafterthebroadnegative,followedbythesubjectandthentheremainderoftheverbgroup.Seldomhassocietyofferedsowidearangeofleisuretimeactivities.Hardlyhadwerecoveredfromthisappallingshockwhenhewereapproachedbyayacht.Ifthereisnoauxiliary,youputthesimplepresentorsimplepastof"do"afterthebroadnegative,followedbythesubject,followedbythebaseformofthemainverb.Seldomdidaweekpasswithoutarequestforassessment.Rarelydolocalmatchesliveuptoexpectations.Notethat"barely"and"scarcely"arenotoftenusedinthisway.USAGENOTE4.89Ifyoumakeatagquestionoutofastatementthatcontainsabroadnegative,thetagontheendofthestatementisnormallypositive,asitiswithothernegatives.Tagquestionsareexplainedinparagraphs10.122to10.130.She"shardlytherightpersonforthejob,isshe?Youseldomseethatsortofthingthesedays,doyou?Youcanmodify"rarely"and"seldom"byputting"so","very","too",or"pretty"infrontofthem.Youcanalsomodify"rarely"byusing"only".Ithappenssorarely.Womenwereveryseldomconvicted.Hetooseldommakesthefirstgreeting.Mostpeoplegotochurchonlyrarely.Ifyouwanttosaythereisverylittleofsomething,youcanuseabroadnegativewith"any"orwithawordwhichbeginswith"any-".Thebondsshowbarelyanyinterest.Hardlyanybodycame.Infact,itisseldomanyofthese.Withscarcelyanywarning,thesoldierscharged.Sometimestwoorthreerelativesareadmitted,butrarelyanyfriends."almost"4.90Insteadofusingabroadnegative,youcanuse"almost"followedbyanegativewordsuchas"no"or"never".Forexample,"Therewasalmostnofoodleft"meansthesameas"Therewashardlyanyfoodleft".They"vealmostnomoneyforanything.Thecarsthinnedouttoalmostnone.Theywereveryprivatepeople,withalmostnofriends.Menalmostneverbeganconversations.Emphasizingthenegativeaspectofastatement4.91Youcanadd"atall"toanegativestatementinordertomakeitmoreemphatic.Youuse"atall"withanynegativeword,with"without",orwithabroadnegative.Shehadnowritingabilityatall."There"snoneed"saidJimmie.—"Noneatall".Theyruneducationwithoutanycontrolatallfromcentralgovernment.Hehardlyreadanythingatall.Broadnegativesareexplainedinparagraphs4.83to4.90.4.92Youcanput"whatsoever"after"none"and"nothing"inordertoemphasizethenegative385 aspectofastatement."Youdon"tthinkhehasanychanceofwinning?"—"Nonewhatsoever."Therewasnocompromiseofprincipleinvolved,nonewhatsoever.You"llfindyourselfthinkingaboutnothingwhatsoever.If"no"isusedasadeterminerinanoungroup,youcanput"whatsoever"afterthenoungroup.Thereisnoneedwhatsoevertoteachchildrenhowtobehave.Therewasnodebatewhatsoever,noteveninParliament.Youcanalsouse"whatsoever"innegativestatementswhichcontain"any"orawordwhichbeginswith"any-".Youarenotentitledtoanyaidwhatsoever.Hewasdevoidofanytalentwhatsoever.IknewIwasn"tlearninganythingwhatsoever.4.93Youcanput"ever"afternegativewordsinordertoemphasizethenegativeaspectofastatement.Ican"tsayIeverhadmuchinterestinfishing.Nobodyeverleavestheairport.Inevereverbelievedwewouldhavesuchsuccess.4.94Thereareseveralexpressionswhichcanbeusedtoemphasizeanegativestatementwhichcontains"not".Theseinclude"intheleast","theleastbit","intheslightest",and"abit".Idon"tmindintheleast,Ireallydon"t.Neitherofthemanagerswastheleastbitrepentantafterwards.Idon"treallyenvyyouintheslightest.They"renotabitinterested.If"intheleast"and"intheslightest"areusedwithverbs,theyareplacedeitherimmediatelyaftertheverboraftertheobject,ifthereisone.Iwouldn"thaveobjectedintheleast.ShedidnotworryBillyintheleast.Theweatherhadn"timprovedintheslightest.If"intheleast"isusedwithanadjective,itisputinfrontofit."Intheslightest"usuallycomesafteranadjective.Iwasn"tintheleastsurprised.Shewasn"tworriedintheslightest."Theleastbit"and"abit"areonlyusedwithadjectivesandareplacedinfrontoftheadjective.I"mnottheleastbitworried.They"renotabitinterested.Usingmodals4.95Languageisnotalwaysusedjusttoexchangeinformationbymakingsimplestatementsandaskingquestions.Sometimeswewanttomakerequests,offers,orsuggestions,ortoexpressourwishesorintentions.Wemaywanttobepoliteortactful,ortoindicateourfeelingsaboutwhatwearesaying.Wecandoallthesethingsbyusingasetofverbscalledmodals.Modalsarealwaysusedwithotherverbs.Theyareaspecialkindofauxiliaryverb.HereisalistofthemodalsusedinEnglish:cancouldmaymightmustoughttoshallshouldwillwouldInsomegrammars,"dare","need",and"usedto"arealsoreferredtoasmodals.Inthisgrammar,wecallthesewordssemi-modals.Theyaredealtwithseparatelyinparagraphs4.252to4.262."Ought"issometimesregardedasamodal,ratherthen"oughtto".Forafurthernoteaboutthis,seeparagraph4.102.Modalsaresometimescalledmodalverbsormodalauxiliaries.4.96Themainusesofmodalsareexplainedinparagraphs4.97to4.101.Specialfeaturesofmodalsaredescribedinparagraphs4.102to4.109.Waysofreferringtotimewhenusingmodalsareexplainedinparagraphs4.110to4.117.Waysofusingmodalstosaywhethersomethingispossibleareexplainedinparagraphs4.118to4.157.Waysofusingmodalswheninteractingwithotherpeopleareexplainedinparagraphs4.158to4.226.385 Expressionswhichcanbeusedinsteadofmodalsaredescribedinparagraphs4.227to4.251.Semi-modalsareexplainedinparagraphs4.252to4.262.Themainusesofmodals4.97Modalsaremainlyusedwhenyouwanttoindicateyourattitudetowardswhatyouaresaying,orwhenyouareconcernedabouttheeffectofwhatyouaresayingonthepersonyouarespeakingorwritingto.4.98Whenyouaregivinginformation,yousometimesusemodalstoindicatehowcertainyouarethatwhatyouaresayingistrueorcorrect.Forexample,ifyousay"MrWilkinsistheoldestpersoninthevillage"youaregivingadefinitestatementoffact,ifyousay"MrWilkinsmustbetheoldestpersoninthevillage",themodal"must"indicatesthatyouthinkMrWilkinsistheoldestperson,becauseyoucannotthinkofanyoneinthevillagewhoisolderthanMrWilkins.Ifyousay"MrWilkinsmightbetheoldestpersoninthevillage",themodal"might"indicatesthatyouthinkitispossiblethatMrWilkinsistheoldestperson,becauseheisveryold.4.99Youcanusemodalstoindicateyourattitudetowardsthethingsyouintendtodo,orintendnottodo.Forexample,ifyousay"Iwon"tgowithoutSimon",youareexpressingstrongunwillingnesstodosomething.Ifyousay"Ican"tgowithoutSimon"youareexpressingunwillingness,butatthesametimeyouareindicatingthatthereisaspecialreasonforyourunwillingness,ifyousay"Icouldn"tgowithoutSimon",youareindicatingthatyouareunwillingtogowithoutSimon,becausetodosowouldbeunfairormorallywrong.4.100Whenyouuselanguage,youareaffectingandrespondingtoaparticularpersonoraudience.Modalsareoftenusedtoproduceaparticulareffect,andthemodalyouchoosedependsonseveralfactors,suchastherelationshipyouhavewithyourlistener,theformalityorinformalityofthesituation,andtheimportanceofwhatyouaresaying.Forexample,itwouldnormallyberudetosaytoastranger"Openthedoor",althoughyoumightsayitinanemergency,oryoumightsayittoaclosefriendorachild.Normally,youwouldsaytoastranger"Willyouopenthedoor?","Wouldyouopenthedoor?",or"Couldyouopenthedoor?",dependingonhowpoliteyouwanttobe.4.101Modalshavespecialusesinthreekindsofcomplexsentence:•theyareusedinreportedclausesWilsondroppedahintthathemightcome.IfeltthatIwouldliketowakeherup.FormoreinformationaboutreportedclausesseeChapter7.•theyareusedinconditionalstructuresIfthebosseshadknownthathevotedliberal,hewouldhavegotthesack.Ifonlythingshadbeendifferent,shewouldhavebeenfarhappierwithGeorge.Formoreinformationaboutthesestructuresseeparagraphs8.25to8.42.•theyareusedinpurposeclauses.Hestoleundertheverynosesofthestoredetectivesinorderthathemightbearrestedandpunished.Theymarchedusthroughthetown,sothattheycouldsaytothepeople,"LookatthegreatBritisharmy."Formoreinformationaboutthesestructuresseeparagraphs8.47and8.48.Specialfeaturesofmodals4.102Modalsarefollowedbythebaseformofaverb.Imustleavefairlysoon.Ithinkitwillberathernice.Therichoughttopaythetuitionfeesoftheirsonsanddaughters.Notethat"ought"issometimesregardedasamodal,ratherthan"oughtto"."Ought"isthensaidtobefollowedbya"to"-infinitive.4.103Sometimesamodalisfollowedbythebaseformofoneoftheauxiliaryverbs"have"or"be",followedbyaparticiple.Whenamodalisfollowedby"be"andapresentparticiple,thisindicatesthatyouaretalkingaboutthepresentorthefuture.Peoplemaybewatching.Yououghttobedoingthis.Theplaywillbestartingsoon.Whenamodalisfollowedby"have"andapastparticiple,thisindicatesthatyouaretalkingaboutthepast.385 Youmusthaveheardofhim.Shemayhavegonealready.Ioughttohavesentthemoney.Inpassivestructures,amodalisfollowedby"be"or"havebeen"andapastparticiple.Thenameofthewinnerwillbeannounced.Theyoughttobetreatedfairly.Suchchargesmayhavebeenjustified.Amodalisneverfollowedbytheauxiliaryverb"do",orbyanothermodal.noinflections4.104Modalsdonotinflect.Thismeansthereisno"-s"forminthethirdpersonsingular,andthereareno"-ing"or"ed"forms.There"snothingIcandoaboutit.Iamsurehecandoit.Imustleavefairlysoon.SheinsistedthatJimmustleave."Could"issometimesthoughttobethepasttenseof"can".Thisisdiscussedinparagraphs4.113and4.114.negatives4.105Negativesareformedbyputtinganegativewordsuchas"not"immediatelyafterthemodal.Inthecaseof"oughtto",youputthenegativewordafter"ought"."Cannot"isusuallywrittenasoneword,"cannot".Youmustnotworry.Heoughtnottonavedone.Icannotgoback.After"could","might","must","ought","should",and"would","not"isoftenshortenedto"-n"t"andisaddedtothemodal.Youmustn"ttalkaboutRonlikethis.PerhapsIoughtn"ttoconfessthis."Shallnot","willnot",and"cannot"areshortenedto"shan"t","won"t",and"can"t"."Maynot"isnotshortenedatall.Ishan"tgetmuchworkdonetonight.Hewon"tbefinishedforatleastanotherhalfanhour.Ican"tgowithyou.questions4.106Questionsareformedbyputtingthemodalinfrontofthesubject.Inthecaseof"oughtto",youput"ought"infrontofthesubjectand"to"afterit.Couldyougivemeanexample?Oughtyoutomakesomenotesaboutit?Mightn"titsurprisepeople?Whycouldtheynotleaveheralone?Therearemanyquestionswecannotanswer,butmustwenotatleastaskthem?4.107Modelsareusedinquestiontags.Theycan"tallberight,canthey?Youwon"tforgetthecanary,willyou?Withanegativetag,theshortenedformofthenegativeisused.Itwouldbehandy,wouldn"tit?It"llgiveyoutimetothinkaboutit,won"tit?Questiontagsareexplainedinparagraphs10.122to10.130.4.108InspokenEnglish,when"will"and"would"areusedafterapronoun,theyareoftenshortenedto"-"ll"and"-"d"andaddedtothepronoun.Ihopeyou"llagree.She"llbeallright.They"dbothcalleachotherhorriblenames.IfIwentbackonthetrain,it"dbebetter."Will"and"would"cannotbeshortenedlikethiswhentheyareusedontheirown,withoutafollowingverb.Forexample,youcansay"Paulsaidhewouldcome,andIhopehewill",butyoucannotsay"Paulsaidhewouldcome,andIhopehe"ll".4.109Yousometimesuseamodalonitsown,withoutafollowingverb.Youdothiswhenyouarerepeatingamodal.Forexample,ifsomeonesays"IexpectMargaretwillcometonight",youcansay"Ihopeshewill",meaning"Ihopeshewillcome"."Imustgo."—"Isupposeyoumust.""Youshouldhavebecomeanarchaeologist."—"You"redeadright,Ishould."385 Ifyoucan"tdoit,we"llfindsomeonewhocan.Youcanalsoomittheverbfollowingamodalwhenthisverbhasjustbeenusedwithoutamodal,orwithadifferentmodal.Forexample,ifsomeonesays"Georgehasfailedhisexam",youcansay"Ithoughthewould",meaning"Ithoughthewouldfailhisexam".Youlearnedtodealwitheachother.Weneverwill.Theyhadcometobelievethatitnotonlymustgoonforeverbutthatitshould.Howeveryoucannotomittheverb"be"afteramodalwhenyouhavejustuseditwithoutamodal.Forexample,ifsomeonesays"Isheateacher?",youcannotsay"Ithinkhemight".Youmustsay"Ithinkhemightbe".Linguisticsisnotyetascienceandperhapsneverwillbe.TheBoard"smethodsarenotasstringentastheycouldbe.Relationsbetweenthetwocountrieshavenotbeenassmoothastheymighthavebeen.Thefeatureoflanguageinwhichyouomitcertainwordstoavoidrepeatingthemiscalledellipsis.Formoreinformationaboutellipsisinverbgroupsseeparagraphs9.49to9.69.Referringtotime4.110Modalsdonotusuallyindicatewhetheryouaretalkingaboutthepast,thepresent,orthefuture.Usuallyyouindicatethisinotherways,forexamplebyputtinganauxiliaryverbandaparticipleafterthemodal.Sometimesthegeneralcontextmakesitclearwhetheryouaretalkingaboutapast,present,orfutureeventorsituation.thefuture:"shall"and"will"4.111"Shall"and"will"areexceptionstothis."Shall"alwaysindicatesthatyouaretalkingaboutafutureeventorsituation.Ishalldowhatyousuggested.Eventuallyweshallfindasolution."Will"usuallyindicatesthatyouaretalkingaboutafutureeventorsituation.Thefarmerwillfeelmoreresponsibletowardshisworkers.Hewillnotreturnformanyhours.However"will"issometimesusedtotalkaboutpresentsituations.Youwillnotfeelmuchloveforhimatthemoment.Thisuseof"will"isdescribedinparagraph4.124.4.112"Could"and"would"aresometimesdescribedaspasttenseformsof"can"and"will".Howeverthisistrueinonlyafewminorways.Theseareexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs.abilityinthepast:"could"4.113"Could"canberegardedasthepasttenseof"can"ifyouaresimplytalkingabouttheabilityofapersonorthingtodosomething.Forexample,ifyouaretalkingaboutalivingperson,youcansay"HecanspeakRussianandFinnish".Ifyouaretalkingaboutadeadperson,youcansay"HecouldspeakRussianandFinnish".Forafullerexplanationoftheseusesseeparagraphs4.119to4.121.reportedspeech4.114"Could"and"would"aresometimesusedinplaceof"can"and"will"whenyouarereportingwhatsomeonehassaid.Forexample,ifamanhassaid"Icancome",youmightreportthisas"Hesaidthathecouldcome".Similarly,ifhehassaid,"Iwillcome",youmightreportthisas"Hesaidthathewouldcome".ForafullexplanationofreportedspeechseeChapter7.regularityinthepast:"would"4.115"Would"isusedtotalkaboutsomethingthathappenedregularlyinthepast,butnolongerhappens.Shewouldsitcrossleggedinherredrobes.Amanwithalistwouldcomeroundandsayyoucouldgooffduty.Whenyouuse"would"likethis,youoftenaddanadjunctoftime.Shewouldoftenhearhimgrumbling.Onceinawhileshe"dgivemesomelilactotakehome.EverydayI"dringuphomeandaskedifthey"dchangedtheirminds.Youcanuse"usedto"insteadof"would"."Usedto"isexplainedinparagraphs4.258to4.262.thinkingaboutthefuture:"would"4.116"Would"isalsousedinstoriestotalkaboutthethoughtsthatsomeoneishavingaboutthefuture.Forexample,iftheheroofastoryisthinkingthathewillseeagirlcalledJanethenextday,theauthormightsimplysay"HewouldseeJanethenextday".Hewouldrecognizeitwhenhehearditagain.385 Theywouldreachthecastlesometime.4.117When"would"isusedwith"not"totalkaboutsomethingthathappenedinthepast,ithasaspecialmeaning.Itisusedtosaythatsomeonewasunwillingtodosomething,orrefusedtodosomething.Theyjustwouldnotbelievewhatwetoldthem.Afterallthis,Iwouldn"tcomebacktothefarm.Theuseofmodalstoexpressunwillingnessorarefusalisexplainedinparagraphs4.200to4.205.Indicatingpossibility4.118Thefollowingfoursectionsexplainthedifferentwaysinwhichmodalsareusedtotalkaboutthepossibilityofsomethinghappeningorbeingdone.Paragraphs4.119to4.122explainhow"can"and"could"areusedtotalkabouttheabilityofapersonorthingtodosomething.Paragraphs4.123to4.145explainhowmodalsareusedtoexpressdegreesofcertaintyaboutpast,present,andfuturesituationsandevents.Paragraphs4.146to4.149explainhowmodalsareusedtosaythatsomethingispermissible.Paragraphs4.150to4.157explainhowmodalsareusedtosaythatsomethingisforbiddenorunacceptable.Indicatingability4.119"Can"isusedtosaythatsomeonehasaparticularskillorability.Youcansitreadandwrite.Somepeoplecanskibetterthanothers.Hecannotdance....thegirlwhocan"tact."Could"isusedtosaythatsomeonehadaskillorabilityinthepast....thegoodolddayswheneveryonecouldread,writeanddoarithmetic.Icouldbarelywalk.Hecouldkickpenaltygoalsfromanywhere.4.120"Can"isalsousedtosaythatsomeoneisawareofsomethingthroughoneoftheirsenses.Icanseeyou.Icansmellit.Can"tyou?"Could"isusedtosaythatsomeonewasawareofsomethingthroughoneoftheirsensesonaparticularoccasioninthepast.Icouldseeafewfaintstarsinaclearpatchofsky.Icouldfeelmyheartbumping.Everyoneinthevillagecouldhearhervoice.4.121"Can"and"could"arealsousedtosaythatsomethingorsomeoneiscapableofhavingaparticulareffect,orofbehavinginaparticularway.Itcanbeveryunpleasant.Artcanbeusedtocommunicate.Ithinkunionscanbestupid,intransigent,pigheaded.Hecouldbeverystiff,couldHaggerty.Hecouldreallyfrightenme,andyetatthesametimehecouldbethemostgentleandcourteousofmen.WARNING4.122Youcannotuse"can"or"could"tosaythatsomeoneorsomethingwillhaveaparticularabilityinthefuture.Insteadyouuse"beableto"or"bepossibleto"."Beableto"and"bepossibleto"canalsobeusedtotalkaboutsomeone"sabilitytodosomethinginthepresentorthepast."Beableto"and"bepossibleto"aredealtwithinparagraphs4.228to4.235.Indicatinglikelihood4.123Thefollowing,paragraphsexplainhowmodalsareusedtoexpressdifferentdegreesofcertaintyaboutpast,present,andfuturesituationsandevents.Paragraphs4.124to4.131explainthemainwaysinwhichmodalsareusedtoexpressdegreesofcertainty.Paragraphs4.132to4.138explainspecialusesofmodalswhentalkingaboutpossiblefuturesituations.385 Paragraphs4.139to4.145explainspecialusesofmodalswhentalkingaboutpossiblesituationsinthepast.assumption:"will"and"would"4.124Youuse"will"whenyouareassumingthatsomethingisthecase,andyoudonotthinkthereisanyreasontodoubtit.Thoseofyouwhoarefamiliarwiththegamewillknowthis.Hewillbealittleoutoftouch,althoughhe"sarapidlearner.Mostlistenerswillhaveheardofhormones.Similarly,youuse"willnot"or"won"t"whenyouareassumingthatsomethingisnotthecase.Theaudiencewillnotbeawareofsuchexactdetails.Youwon"tknowGordon.He"sournewdoctor.After"you",youcanuse"would"insteadof"will",ifyouwanttobemorepolite.YouwouldagreethattheUntiedStaresshouldbeinvolvedinassistingthesecountries.certainty:"would"and"should"4.125Youalsouse"would"tosaythatsomethingiscertaintohappeninparticularcircumstances.Evenanilliteratepersonwouldunderstandthat.Fewpeoplewouldagreewiththisasageneralprinciple.Apicnicwouldn"tbeanyfunwithoutyou.Alter"I",youcanuse"should"insteadof"would".TheveryfirstthingIshoulddowouldbetoteachyouhowtocook.Ishouldbeveryunhappyonthecontinent.belief:"must"and"cannot"4.126Youuse"must"toindicatethatyoubelievesomethingisthecase,becauseofparticularfactsorcircumstances.Oh,youmustbeSylvia"shusband.Fashionmustaccountforasmallpercentageofsales.Thisarticlemusthavebeenwrittenbyawoman.Whenyouareindicatingthatsomethingisnotthecase,youuse"cannot".Youdonotuse"mustnot".(Seeparagraph4.130.)Thetwoconflictingmessagescannotpossiblybothbetrue.Youcan"thaveforgottenme.Hecan"thavesaidthat.Hejustcan"t.4.127Youuse"could","might",or"may"tosaythatthereisapossibilityofsomethinghappeningorbeingthecase."May"isslightlymoreformalthan"could"or"might";otherwisethereisverylittledifferenceinmeaningbetweenthesemodals.Don"teatit.Itcouldbeatoadstool.Hisroutefromthebusstopmightbethesameasyours.Inrarecasesthejawmaybebrokenduringextraction.4.128Ifyouput"well"after"could","might",or"may",youareindicatethatitisfairlylikelythatsomethingisthecase.Itcouldwellbethatrichpeopletreasurepeacemorehighlythanpoorpeople.Youmightwellberight.Ithinkthatmaywellhavebeentheintention.4.129Youuse"mightnot"or"maynot"tosaythatitispossiblethatsomethingisnotthecase.HemightnotbeinEnglandatall.Thatmightn"tbetrue.Thatmaynotsoundveryimposing.4.130Youuse"couldnot"or"cannot"tosaythatitisimpossiblethatsomethingisthecase....knowledgewhichcouldnothavebeengainedinanyotherway.Itcouldn"tpossiblybepoison.Kissingercannotknowwhatthesituationisinthecountry.Youcan"ttalktothedead.4.131"Could"issometimesusedinnegativeconstructionswiththecomparativeformofanadjective.Youuse"could"likethistosaythatitisnotpossibleforsomeoneorsomethingtohavemoreofaparticularquality.Icouldn"tbehappier.Youcouldn"tbemorewrong.Thesettingcouldn"thavebeenlovelier.Hecouldhardlyhavefeltmoreashamedofhimself.4.132Thefollowingparagraphsexplainhowmodalsareusedwhenyouaretalkingaboutpossiblefuturesituations.Theusesof"must","cannot","could","might",and"may"aresimilarto385 theiruseswhenyouaretalkingaboutpossiblesituationsinthepresent.4.133Youuse"will"tosaythatsomethingiscertaintohappenorbethecaseinthefuture.Theywillseeeverything.Thepriceoffoodwillgoup.TheservicewillhavebeenrunningforayearinMay."Begoingto"canalsobeusedtosaythatsomethingiscertaintohappeninthefuture.Thisuseof"begoingto"isdealtwithinparagraph4.237.certainty:"shall"4.134"Shall"isalsousedtosaythatsomethingiscertaintohappen.Youusuallyuse"shall"whenyouaretalkingabouteventsandsituationsoverwhichyouhavesomecontrol.Forexample,youcanuse"shall"whenyouaremakingaresolutionorapromise.IshallbeleavingassoonasIamready.Verywell,mydear.Youshallhavethecoat.Ofcourseheshallhavewater."You"llmakealotofmoney."—"Ishalloneday."certainty:"must"and"cannot"4.135Youuse"must"tosaythatsomethingiscertaintohappenbecauseofparticularfactsorcircumstances.Computerinterviewingandrudimentarycomputerdiagnosismusteventuallyleadtocomputerdecision-making.Youuse"cannot"tosaythatsomethingiscertainnottohappenbecauseofparticularfactsorcircumstances.Youdonotuse"mustnot".Europecannothopetoforgeauniteddefencepolicywithoutfirstsettingitsinternalquarrels.Therepressioncan"tlast.expectation:"should"and"oughtto"4.136Youuse"should"or"oughtto"tosaythatyouexpectsomethingtohappen.WeshouldbeatBricelandbydinnertime.Thiscourseshouldbequiteinterestingforyou.TheCourtofAppealoughttobeabletohelpyou.Itoughttogetbetterasitgoesalong."Should"and"oughtto"arealsousedwhenyouaretalkingabouttheimportanceofdoingsomething.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph4.219.possibility:"could","might",and"may"4.137Youuse"could","might",or"may"tosaythatitispossiblethataparticularthingwillhappen.England"snextfixtureinSalzburgcouldbethedecisivematch.Therivercouldeasilyoverflow.Theymightbeabletorememberwhathesaid.Clericalworkmaybeavailablefortwostudentswhowanttolearnaboutpublishing.4.138Ifyouput"well"after"could","might",or"may",youareindicatingthatitisfairlylikelythatsomethingwillhappenorbethecase.Whenitisfinisheditmaywellbethelargestcathedralintheworld.Wemightwellgetinjured.Ifyouput"possibly"or"conceivably"after"could","might",or"may",youareindicatingthatitispossible,butfairlyunlikely,thatsomethingwillhappenorbethecase.Theseconditionscouldpossiblybeaccepted.Ratescouldconceivablyrisebyasmuchasawholepercentagepoint.talkingaboutthepast4.139Thefollowingparagraphsexplainhowyouusemodalswhenyouaretalkingaboutpossiblesituationsinthepast.4.140Youuse"should"or"oughtto"with"have"tosaythatyouexpectsomethingtohavehappenedalready.DearMom,youshouldhaveheardbynowthatI"mO.K.Youalsouse"should"or"oughtto"with"have"tosaythatsomethingwasexpectedtohappen,althoughithasnotinfacthappened.Muskieshouldhavewonbyahugemargin.Sheoughttohavebeenhomebynow.4.141Youuse"would"with"have"totalkaboutactionsandeventsthatwerepossibleinthepast,althoughtheydidnotinfacthappen.Denialwouldhavebeenuseless.Iwouldhavesaidyes,butJulietalkedusintostayingathome.Youwouldn"thavepushedhim,wouldyou?4.142Youuse"could"or"might"with"have"tosaythattherewasapossibilityofsomething385 happeninginthepast,althoughitdidnotinfacthappen.Itcouldhavebeenawful.Icouldeasilyhavespentthewholeyearonit.Youcouldhavegotajoblastyear.Alotofmendiedwhomighthavebeensaved.Youmighthavefounditverydifficult.4.143Youalsouse"could","might",or"may"with"have"tosaythatitispossiblethatsomethingwasthecase,butyoudonotknowwhetheritwasthecaseofnot.Itisjustpossiblethatsuchasmallcreaturecouldhavepreyedondinosaureggs.GrandpapamighthavesecretlymarriedPepita.Imayhaveseemedtobeoverreacting.4.144Youuse"mightnot"or"maynot"with"have"tosaythatitispossiblethatsomethingdidnothappenorwasnotthecase.Theymightnothaveconsideredmeastheirfriend.Myfathermightn"thavebeentoblame.Theparentsmaynothavebeenreadyforthispregnancy.4.145Youuse"could"withanegativeand"have"tosaythatitisimpossiblethatsomethinghappenedorwasthecase.Itcouldn"thavebeenwrong.Themoneywasnot,andnevercouldhavebeen,thepropertyoftheWorkers"Party.Indicatingpermission4.146"Can"isusedtosaythatsomeoneisallowedtodosomething.Youcandriveavanupto3-toncapacityusinganordinarydrivinglicence.Ifyouaregivingpermissionforsomething,youuse"can".Youcanborrowthatpenifyouwantto.Youcangooffdutynow.Shecangowithyou.formalpermission:"may"4.147Inmoreformalsituations,"may"isusedtogivepermission.Youmayspeak.Theymaydoexactlyastheylike.permissioninthepast"could"4.148"Could"isusedtosaythatsomeonewasallowedtodosomethinginthepast.Wecouldgotoanypartoftheislandwewantedto.WARNING4.149Youcannotuse"can"or"could"tosaythatsomeonewillbeallowedtodosomethinginthefuture.Insteadyouuse"beableto"."Beableto"isdealtwithinparagraphs4.228to4.235.Indicatingunacceptability4.150Modalsareoftenusedinnegativestructurestosaythatanactionisforbiddenorunacceptable.prohibition:"cannot"4.151"Cannot"isusedtosaythatsomethingisforbidden,forexamplebecauseofaruleorlaw.Childrencannotbatheexceptinthepresenceoftwolifesavers.We"reawfullysorrywecan"tletyoustayhere.prohibition:"maynot"4.152"Maynot"isusedinasimilarwayto"cannot",butismoreformal.Ifthepublisherdecidestooptforanetprice,theretailermaynotsellthatbookbelowthepublisher"sprice.Communionmaynot,onprinciple,becelebratedbyonewhoisnotordained.prohibition:"willnot"4.153"Willnot"isusedtotellsomeoneveryfirmlythattheyarenotallowedtodoaparticularthing.Usually,thespeakerhasthepowertopreventthehearerfromdoingthisthing."I"lljustgoupstairs."—"Youwillnot."Untilwehavecuredyou,youwon"tbeleavinghere.prohibition:"shallnot"4.154"Shallnot"isusedtosayformallythataparticularthingisnotallowed."Shallnot"isoftenusedinwrittenrules,laws,andagreements.Personsunder18shallnotbeemployedinnightwork.EqualityofrightsunderthelawshallnotbedeniedorabridgedbytheUnitedStatesorbyanyState."Shan"t"isusedinasimilarwayto"willnot"and"won"t".385 Youshan"tleavewithoutmypermission.prohibition:imperatives4.155Youcanalsosaythatsomethingisnotallowedbyusinganimperativesentence.Imperativesentencesareexplainedinparagraph4.4andinparagraphs4.31to4.35.undesirableactions:"shouldnot"4.156"Shouldnot"isusedtotellsomeonethatanactionisunacceptableorundesirable.Youshouldnottakeherhelpforgranted.Youshouldn"tdothat.Youshouldn"tbsounfriendly.4.157"Mustnot"isusedtosaymuchmorefirmlythatsomethingisunacceptableorundesirable.Youmustnotacceptit.Youmustn"tdothat.Youmustn"tbreatheawordofthistoanyone.Interactingwithotherpeople4.158Youoftensaythingsinordertogetsomeonetobehaveinaparticularway.Forexample,youmaywantsomeonetotakeaparticularaction,toacceptanoffer,ortogivetheirpermissionforsomethingtobedone.Inthesesituations,modalsareoftenused.Themodalyouchoosedependsonseveralfactors.Themainonesare:•theformalityorinformalityofthesituation•therelationshipbetweenyourselfandthepersonyouarespeakingto•thedegreeofpolitenessyouwanttoshow.Inparticularsituations,otherfactorscanbeimportant.Forexample,ifyouaremakinganofferorsuggestion,themodalyouchoosemaydependonhowpersuasiveyouwantcobe.4.159Thefollowingsectionsexplainhowtousemodalsindifferentsituations.Paragraphs4.160to4.176explainhowtogiveinstructionsandmakerequests.Paragraphs4.177to4.185explainhowtomakeanofferoraninvitation.Paragraphs4.186to4.193explainhowtomakesuggestions.Paragraphs4.194to4.199explainhowtostateanintention.Paragraphs4.200to4.205explainhowtoexpressunwillingnessorarefusaltodosomething.Paragraphs4.206to4.214explainhowtoexpressawish.Paragraphs4.215to4.219explainhowtoindicatetheimportanceofdoingsomething.Paragraphs4.220to4.226explainvariouswaysofintroducingwhatyouaregoingtosay.Givinginstructionsandmakingrequests4.160Whenyougiveaninstructionormakearequest,youusuallyuseamodalinaninterrogativesentence.Youuse"will","would","can",or"could"with"you"totellsomeonetodosomething,ortoasksomeonetodosomething.Youuse"can","could","may",or"might"with"I"or"we"orwithotherpersonalpronounsornoungroupstoasksomeone"spermissiontodosomething.Instructionsandrequestsarealwaysmademorepolitebyadding"please"."Please"andothermarkersofpolitenessareexplainedinparagraph4.176.instructionsandappeals4.161,"would",and"could"areusedwith"you"intwoways:•youusethemtogiveaninstructionoranorder•youusethemtoaskforhelporassistanceinstructions4.162"Will"isusedtogiveaninstructionororderinafairlydirectway.Itisslightlylessforcefulthanusingtheimperative.Willyoupleasetakehertohercubicle?Willyouplease,atonce,packupandleave."Will"isusedtoaskforhelpinfairlyinformalsituations.Mummy,willyouhelpme?instructionsandappeals:"would"4.163When"would"isusedtogiveaninstructionororder,itismorepolitethan"will".WouldyoutellherthatAdrianphoned?Wouldyouaskthemtoleave,please?When"would"isusedtoaskforhelp,itislessinformalandmorepolitethan"will".Wouldyoudomeafavour?385 instructionsandappeals:"could"4.164When"could"isusedtogiveaninstructionororder,itismorepolitethan"would".Couldyoumakeoutherbill,please?Couldyoujustswitchtheprojectoronbehindyou?When"could"isusedtoaskforhelp,itismorepolitethan"would".Couldyoushowmehowtodothis?appeals:"can"4.165"Can"canbeusedwith"you"toaskforhelp.Youusuallyuse"can"whenyouarenotsurewhethersomeonewillbeabletohelpyouornot.Ohhello.Canyouhelpme?I"vebeentryingtogetaLondonnumberfortenminutesandIcan"tgetthrough.requests4.166"Can","could","may",and"might"areusedwith"I"or"we"whenyouareaskingforsomething,orareaskingpermissiontodosomething.Thesemodalscanalsobeusedwith"he","she",or"they",orwithothernoungroups,whenyouareaskingforsomethingonbehalfofsomeoneelse.Forexample,youcansay"Cansheborrowyourcar?"or"Couldmymotheruseyourtelephone?"requests:"can"4.167"Can"isusedtomakearequestinasimpleanddirectway.CanIaskaquestion?"CanIchangethis?"Iaskedtheboxofficelady,offeringhermyticket.requests:"could"4.168"Could"ismorepolitethan"can".CouldIhaveabottleofVermouth,please?CouldIjustinterruptaminute?requests:"can"t"and"couldn"t"4.169Youcanmakearequestsoundmorepersuasivebyusing"can"t"or"couldn"t"insteadof"can"or"could".Forexample,youcansay"Can"t"Icomewithyou?"insteadof"CanIcomewithyou?".Can"twehavesomemusic?Couldn"twestayhere?4.170"May"and"might"aremoreformalthan"can"and"could".Peopleusedtobetaughtthat,whenaskingforsomething,itwascorrecttosay"may"ratherthan"can",and"might"ratherthan"could".However"can"and"could"arenowgenerallyused.Requestsbeginningwith"might"areunusual,andareconsideredbymostpeopletobeold-fashioned.MayIhaveacigarette?Maywehavesomethingtoeat?MayIaskwhatyournameis?MightIinquireifyouaretheowner?4.171"Wouldlike"canbeusedwith"I"or"we"inadeclarativesentencetogiveaninstructionororder.Itisfollowedby"you"anda"to"-infinitiveclause.Penelope,Iwouldlikeyoutogetusthefiles."Want"canbeusedinasimilarwayto"wouldlike".Thisuseof"want"isdealtwithinparagraph4.240.4.172Aninstructionorordercanalsobegivenusing"will"inadeclarativesentence.Thisformisusedwhenthespeakerisangryorimpatient.Youwillgoandgetoneofyourparentsimmediately.Youwillgivemethosenow.4.173"Shall"issometimesusedinadeclarativesentencetogiveaninstructionororder.Thisisaveryformaluse.Afterteno"clockatnightthereshallbequietnessontheuppercorridor.4.174Theimperativemoodcanalsobeusedtogiveaninstructionororder.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph4.31.4.175Youcanuse"wouldlike"or"shouldlike"inadeclarativesentencetomakearequest."Wouldlike"and"shouldlike"arefollowedbya"to"-infinitiveclauseoranoungroup.Iwouldliketoaskyouonequestion.I"dliketohavealittletalkwithyou.Ishouldlikealargecutlet,please.4.176Allthewaysofgivinginstructionsormakingrequestsdescribedabovecanbemademorepolitebyusing"please".CanIspeaktoNicolaplease?Couldyoutellmepleasewhattimetheflightarrives?PleasemayIhavethekey?Youcanalsomakearequestmorepolitebyaddingthenameofthepersonyouareaddressing385 atthebeginningorendofyourquestion.Martin,couldyoumakeusadrink?CanItalktoyou,Howard?Anotherwayofmakingarequestmorepoliteistoaddanadverbsuchas"perhaps"or"possibly"afterthesubjectoftheverb.CouldIperhapsbringafriendwithme?MayIpossiblyhaveawordwithyou,please?Makinganofferoraninvitation4.177Modalsareoftenusedtomakeanofferoraninvitation.Youuse"will"or"would"with"you"toasksomeonetoacceptsomething,ortomakeaninvitation.Youuse"can","may","shall",or"should"with"I"or"we"whenyouareofferingtohelpsomeone.Someofthesestructuresaresimilartothosedescribedintheprevioussection.offersandinvitations:"will"4.178"Will"isusedwith"you"inaninterrogativesentencetooffersomethingtosomeone,ortomakeaninvitationinafairlyinformalway.Youuse"will"whenyouknowthepersonyouaretalkingtoquitewell.Willyouhaveawhisky,Doctor?Willyoustayforlunch?offersandinvitations:"would"and"wouldn"t"4.179Amorepolitewayofofferingsomethingormakinganinvitationistouse"would"withaverbwhichmeans"tolike".Wouldyoulikeadrink?Wouldyoucaretostaywithus?Ifyouwanttosoundmorepersuasivewithoutseemingimpoliteorinsistent,youcanuse"wouldn"t"insteadof"would".Wouldn"tyouliketocomewithme?Wouldn"tyoucareforsomemorecoffee?offersofhelp:"can"4.180Whenyouareofferingtodosomethingforsomeone,youusuallyuse"can"followedby"I"or"we".CanIhelpyouwiththedishes?Canwegiveyoualiftintotown?offersofhelp:"may"4.181"May"isalsousedwhenyouareofferingtodosomethingforsomeone.Itislesscommonthan"can",andisratherformalandold-fashioned.MayIhelpyou?MayIbeofservicetoyou?offersofhelp:"shall"and"should"4.182Youcanalsouse"shall"or"should"whenyouareofferingtodosomething.Ifyouarefairlyconfidentthatyourofferwillbeaccepted,youuse"shall".ShallIshutthedoor?ShallIspellthatforyou?Ifyouareuncertainwhetheryourofferwillbeaccepted,youuse"should".ShouldIgiveheraring?emphasizingability:"can"4.183Ifyouwanttoemphasizeyourabilitytohelp,youcanmakeanofferusing"can"inadeclarativesentence.Ihaveacar.IcandropDaisyoffonmywayhome.Icanpopinattheshoptomorrow.persuasiveinvitations:"must"4.184Ifyouwanttomakeaninvitationinaverypersuasiveway,youcanuseadeclarativesentencebeginningwith"you"and"must".Youmustlunchwithmetomorrow.Youmustcomeandvisitme.Youonlyuse"must"likethiswithpeoplewhoyouknowwell.4.185Otherwaysofmakinganofferorinvitationaredealtwithinparagraph4.38.Makingsuggestions4.186Suggestionscanbemadebyusingamodalinadeclarativeorinterrogativesentence.Thesubjectofthesentenceisusually"we"or"you".4.187Youcanmakeasuggestionbyusing"could"inadeclarativesentenceor"couldn"t"inaninterrogativesentence.WecouldgosledgingupatWilmington.Youcouldhaveanurserythere.385 Couldn"tyoujustbuildmorefactories?Couldn"tsomeinternationalagreementbeconcludedtobantheseweapons?4.18SIfyouaremakingasuggestionandyouwanttoindicatethatyoufeelstronglythatitisagoodidea,youcanuse"should"or"oughtto".YoushouldaskNorryaboutthis.Ithinkyoushouldgetintouchwithyoursolicitor.Weoughttocelebrate.Let"sgetabottleofchampagne.Ithinkyououghttotryadifferentapproach.Amorepolitewayofmakingasuggestionthatyoufeelstronglyaboutistouse"shouldn"t"or"oughtn"tto"inaninterrogativesentence.Shouldn"tweatleastgiveherachance?Oughtn"twetophonethepolice?4.189Ifyouaresuggestinganactionandyouaretryingtopersuadesomeonethatitshouldbedone,youuse"must".Youonlyuse"must"likethiswhenyouaretalkingtosomeoneyouknowwell.Youmustsayhellotoyourdaughter.Wemustgototheplace,perhapshaveaweekendthere.4.190Ifyouwanttomakeasuggestioninaverypoliteway,youcanuse"might"with"you"inadeclarativesentence."Might"isfollowedbyaverbmeaning"tolike"or"towant".Youmightliketocommentonhislatestproposal.Ithoughtperhapsyoumightliketocomealongwithme.Youcanalsomakeapolitesuggestionbyusingasentencebeginningwith"Itmightbe",followedbyanoungrouporadjectiveanda"to"-infinitiveclause.Ithinkitmightbeagoodideatostoptherecordingnow.Itmightbewisetoconsultthewinewaiter.4.191Youcanalsomakesuggestionsusingtheexpressions"mightaswell"and"mayaswell".Youuse"mightaswell"whenwhatyouaresuggestingseemstobetheonlysensiblecourseofaction,althoughyouarenotenthusiasticaboutit.Hemightaswelltakethecar.Wemightaswellcallthewholethingoff.Youuse"mayaswell"toshowthatitisnotimportanttoyouwhetheryoursuggestionisacceptedornot.Youmayaswellopenthemall.Wemayaswellgiveheracopy.suggesting:"shall"4.192Youcanmakeasuggestionaboutwhatyouandsomeoneelsecoulddobyusinganinterrogativesentencebeginningwith"shall"and"we".Shallwegoandseeafilm?Shallwegoontoquestionnumbersix?Shallwetalkaboutsomethingdifferentnow?4.193Otherwaysofmakingsuggestionsartdescribedinparagraph4.42.Statinganintention4.194Intentionsareusuallystatedbyusing"will","shall",or"must"inadeclarativesentence.Thesubjectis"I"or"we".intentions:"will"4.195Theusualwaytostateanintentionistouse"I"or"we"with"will".Theshortenedforms"I"ll"and"we"ll"areverycommon.IwillcallyouwhenIamready.Wewillstayhere.I"llwriteagainsometime.We"lldiscussthatlater.Youstateyourintentionnottodosomethingusing"willnot"or"won"t".Iwillnotfollowher.Iwon"tkeepyouanylonger.Wewon"tletthemthroughthegate.4.196Youcanindicatethatyouareverydeterminedtodosomethingbyusingthefullform"Iwill"or"wewill"andstressing"will".Youcanindicatethatyouareverydeterminednottodosomethingeitherbyusing"Iwon"t"or"wewon"t"andstressing"won"t",orbyusing"Iwillnot"or"wewillnot"andstressing"not".intentions:"shall"4.197Anotherwayofstatinganintentionistouse"I"or"we"with"shall".This385 useisslightlyold-fashionedandratherformal.Ishallbeleavingsoon.Ishallmakesomeenquiriesandcallyouback.Weshallbeaveryprogressivegroup.Youcanindicatethatyouareverydeterminednottodosomethingbyusing"shallnot"or"shan"t".Thisismoreemphaticthanusing"willnot"or"won"t".Ishallnotreturnunlesspaidtodoso.Ishan"tgobackthere.intentions:"must"4.198Ifyouwanttoindicatethatitisimportantthatyoudosomething,youcanuse"must"with"I".Imustleavefairlysoon.Imustaskheraboutthat.Ihaven"tseenherforages,Imustphoneherup.4.199Waysofstatinganintentionwithoutusingamodalareexplainedinparagraphs4.241to4.244.Indicatingunwillingnessorrefusal4.200Unwillingnessorarefusalcanbeexpressedbyusingamodalinanegativedeclarativesentence.Thesubjectisusually"I"or"we",butotherpersonalpronounsornoungroupscanbeused.4.201Ifyouwanttosayfirmlythatyouareunwillingtodosomething,youuse"willnot"or"won"t".IwillnothearawordsaidagainsttheNationalHealthService.Iwon"tleaveyou.Youcan"tmakeme!Ifyouarerefusingtodosomething,youcanjustsay"Iwon"t"."Tellmeyoursecret."—"Iwon"t.Itwouldn"tbeasecretifltoldyou.""You"lljusthavetosearcheverysingleone."—"Well,Iwon"t!"Youcanuse"won"t"tosaythatsomeoneelseisunwillingtodosomething.Hewon"tgiveheradivorce.4.202Ifyouwanttosaythatyouwereunwillingtodosomethinginthepast,youuse"wouldnot"or"wouldn"t".HethoughtIwasafreakbecauseIwouldn"tcarryaweapon.4.203Ifyouwanttoindicatethatyouhavestrongfeelingswhichpreventyoufromdoingsomething,youuse"cannot"or"can"t".Icannotleaveeverythingforhim.Ican"tgiveyouup.4.204"Couldn"t"isusedintwowaystoexpressunwillingnesstodosomething.Youuseittoindicatethatyouareunwillingtodosomethingbecauseyouareafraid,embarrassed,ordisgusted.Icouldn"tpossiblygooutnow.Icouldn"tlethimtouchme.Youuseittoindicatethatyouareunwillingtodosomethingbecauseyouthinkitwouldbeunfairormorallywrong.Icouldn"tleaveHilarybehindtocopeonherown.Icouldn"ttakeyourlastcigarette.4.205Otherwaysofexpressingunwillingnessaredescribedinparagraphs4.245to4.247.Expressingawish4.206Wishescanbeexpressedbyusingamodalinadeclarativesentence.4.207Youcansaywhatsomeonewantsbyusing"would"followedbyaverbmeaning"tolike".Aftertheverbmeaning"tolike"youputa"to"-infinitiveclauseoranoungroup.Iwouldliketoknowthedate.Iwouldprefertosaynothingaboutthisproblem.We"dliketokeepyouhere.Oh,Ihopeitwillbetwins,I"dlovetwins.4.308Youcansaywhatsomeonedoesnotwantbyusing"wouldnot".Iwouldnotliketoseeit.Wewouldn"tliketoloseyou.Normally,whenyouareusing"would"with"like"tosaywhatsomeonedoesnotwant,youput"not"after"would".Ifyouput"not"after"like",youchangethemeaningslightly.385 Forexample,ifyousay"Iwouldnotliketobeastudent",youmeanyouarenotastudentanddonotwanttobeone.Butifyousay"Iwouldlikenottobeastudent",youmeanyouareastudentanddonotwanttobeone.Allofuswouldlikenottohavenuclearweapons.Youcanalsosaywhatsomeonedoesnotwantbyusing"would"withaverbmeaning"todislike".Iwouldhatetomovetoanotherhousenow.Personally,Iwouldloathetobedraggedintothisdispute.wishes:"should"4.209Youcanalsosaywhatsomeonewantsordoesnotwantbyusing"should"."Should"islesscommonthan"would",andslightlymoreformal.Ishouldliketoliveinthecountry.Ishouldhatetoseethemdisappear.preference:"wouldrather","wouldsooner"4.210Youcansaythatsomeoneprefersonesituationtohappenbyusing"wouldrather"or"wouldsooner".Hewouldratherhaveleftit.She"dratherbeleftalone.I"dsoonerwalkthandoanyofthesethings.wishes:"wouldhave"4.211Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeonewantedsomethingtohappen,althoughitdidnothappen,youuse"wouldhave"andapastparticiple.Iwouldhavelikedtohearmorefromthepatient.Shewouldhavelikedtoremainjustwhereshewas.USAGENOTE4.212Anotherwayofsayingthatyouwantsomethingistouse"wouldn"t"withaverborexpressionsuchas"mind"or"objectto"whichisnormallyusedtorefusesomething.Iwouldn"tmindbeingamanagerofastore."Drink,Ted?"—"Iwouldn"tsayno,Bryan,"regret:"wouldthat"4.213Inveryold-fashionedEnglish,"would"isusedwithoutasubjecttoexpressawishthatasituationmightbedifferent,ortoexpressregretthatsomethingdidnothappeninthepast."Would"isfollowedbya"that"-clause."Aretheybetteroffnowthantheyweretwoyearsago?"—"Wouldthattheywere."Wouldthatthedevelopmentshadbeensoeasy.When"I","he","she",or"it"isthesubjectofthe"that"-clause,theverbisusually"were",not"was".WouldthatIwereyoungagain,andsheinmyarms.Twoyearsagoweweretoldthattheywouldbemuchbetteroffbynow.Wouldthattheywere.hopesandwishes:"may"4.214InveryformalEnglish,"may"isusedininterrogativesentencestoexpressahopeorwish.Longmaytheycontinuetodoit.Mayhejustifyourhopesandrisetothetop.Indicatingimportance4.215Modalscanbeusedindeclarativesentencestosaythatitisimportantthatsomethingisdone.Differentmodalsindicatedifferentdegreesofimportance.4.216"Must"beusedinthreecommonwaystotalkabouttheimportanceofdoingsomething.Youuse"must"with"you"or"we"tourgesomeonetodosomething,becauseyoufeelitisimportant."Mustnot"isusedtourgesomeonenottodosomething.Youmustcomeatonce.Wemustacceptthetruthaboutourselves.Youmustnotworry.Youmustn"tlethersufferforit.Youuse"must"tosaythatsomethingisrequiredbyaruleorlaw.Peoplewhoqualifymustapplywithinsixmonths.EuropeanCommunitystandardsmustbemet.Youuse"must"tosaythatitisnecessarythatsomethinghappensorisdone,inorderthatsomethingelsecanhappen.Meadowsmusthaverain.Toidentifyapoisonyoumustbeableeithertocarryoutachemicalanalystsorobservethepoisonatworkonthevictim."Haveto","havegotto",and"needto"canbeusedinsteadof"must"totalkabouttheimportanceofdoingsomething.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs4.243and4.249.385 4.217Ifyouwanttosaythatanactionwillbenecessaryinthefuture,youuse"willhaveto"or"willneedto".Theywillhavetopayfortherepairs.MrSmithwillhavetomakethefuneralarrangements.Youwillneedtocoveritwithsomekindofsheeting.Electricclockswillneedtobereset.4.218"Shallhaveto"issometimesusedinsteadof"willhaveto"after"I"or"we".Thisisaslightlyformaluse.IshallhavetospeakaboutthattoPeter.Weshallhavetoassumethatyouareright.4.219"Should"and"oughtto"areusedinthreedifferentwayswhenyouaretalkingabouttheimportanceofdoingsomething.Youuse"should"or"oughtto"whenyouaretryingtohelpsomeonebyadvisingthemtodosomething.Cartonsteelknivesshouldbewipedcleanafteruse.Youshouldclaimyourpension3-4monthsbeforeyouretire.Yououghttotryadifferentapproach.Youuse"should"or"oughtto"whenyouaresayingthatsomethingistherightorcorrectthingtodo.WeshouldsendherapostcardfromEastbourne.Whoeverdiscoversthebodyshouldcontactthefamilydoctor.Weoughttostaywithhim.Yououghtnottodothat.Youuse"should"or"oughtto"with"have"andapastparticipletosaythatsomethingwasdesirableinthepast,althoughitdidnotinfacthappen.Onesailorshouldhavebeenasleepandoneonwatch.Weoughttohavestayedintonight.Amorejuniormemberofstaffoughttohavedonethework.Youalsouse"should"and"oughtto"tosaythatyouexpectsomethingtohappen.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph4.136.Introducingwhatyouaregoingtosay4.220Sometimesyouintroducewhatyouaregoingtosaybyusingamodalfollowedbyaverbsuchas"say"of"ask"whichreferstotheactofsayingsomething.Youcanalsocombineamodalwithaverbsuchas"think"or"believe"whichreferstotheholdingofanoption.Youuseamodalinordertosoundmorepolite,ortoindicateyourfeelingsaboutwhatyouaregoingtosay.Instructureslikethese,thesubjectisusually"I".Sometimesyouuseanimpersonalstructurebeginningwith"it"or"you".Forexample,insteadofsaying"Ioughttomentionthathehadneverbeenthere",youcansay"Itoughttobementionedthathehadneverbeenthere".importance:"must"4.221Ifyoufeelstronglythatwhatyouaresayingisimportant,youuse"must".Imustapologisetoyou.Imustobject.Itmustbesaidthatitneverreallycameuptoexpectations.importance:"should"and"oughtto"4.222Ifyoufeelthatitisimportantorappropriatethatsomethingissaid,youindicatethatyouaregoingtosayitbyusing"should"or"oughtto".Ishouldexplainatthispointthattherearetwodifferentsortsofmicroscope.ItshouldalsobesaidthatIlearnedagreatdealfromtheexperience.Ioughttostressthatthiswasnotatrial.PerhapsIoughttoconcludewithaslightlymorelight-heartedquestions.politeness:"can"and"could"4.223Ifyouwanttosaysomethingduringadiscussion,youcanindicatepolitelythatyouaregoingtosayitbyusing"can".PerhapsIcanmentionanotherpossibility.IfIcanjustinterveneforonemoment.Ifyouwanttobeevenmorepolite,youuse"could".PerhapsIcouldjustillustratethisbymentioningtwocasesthatIknowofpersonally.PerhapsIcouldjustaskyouthis...4.224Youalsouse"can"and"could"whenyouarementioninganopinionorawayof385 describingsomething."Can"suggeststhatyouapproveoftheopinionordescription.Englishcanbeseenasanexpressivediscipline."Could"ismoreneutral.Youcouldarguethatthisisirrelevant.Youcouldcallitapoliticaloffence.4.225"May"and"might"canalsobeusedtomentionanopinionorawayofdescribingsomething."May"suggeststhatyouapproveoftheopinionordescription.Itismoreformalthan"can".This,itmaybeadded,greatlystrengthenedhiminhisresolve."Might"alsosuggeststhatyouapproveoftheopinionordescription.Youuse"might"whenyouthinkthereisapossibilitythatthepersonyouaretalkingtowilldisagreewithyou.Youmightsayshe"sentitledtogetangry.That,onemightargue,isnottooterrible.4.226Ifyouarestatinganopinionofyourown,youcanindicatepolitelythatyouaregoingtostateitbyusing"should".Ishouldthinkitwouldlastquitealongtime."Would"isusedinasimilarway,butislesscommon.Iwouldguessitmaywellcomedowntocost.Expressionsusedinsteadofmodals4.227Severalordinaryverbsandfixedexpressionsareusedtoexpressthesameattitudesandideasasmodals.Theseverbsandexpressionsareexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs.Eachgroupofparagraphscorrespondstoanearliersectioninthechapterdealingwiththeuseofmodalsinaparticulartypeofsituation.4.228"Beableto"and"bepossibleto"canbeusedinsteadof"can"and"could"tosaywhetherornotsomethingispossible.Thesubjectof"beableto"and"beunableto"usuallyreferstoapersonofgroupofpeople,butitcanrefertoanylivingthing.Itcanalsorefertosomethingorganizedoroperatedbypeople,suchasacompany,acountry,oramachine.Thesubjectof"bepossibleto"isalwaystheimpersonalpronoun"it".4.229Ifyouwanttosaythatitispossibleforsomeoneorsomethingtodosomething,youcanuse"beableto".Allmembersareabletoclaimtravellingexpenses.Thegoliathfrogisabletojumpthreemetresorso.Youuse"beableto"withanegativetosaythatitisnotpossibleforsomeoneorsomethingtodosomething.Theyarenotabletorunfastorthrowaball.4.230Youcanalsouse"beunableto"tosaythatitisnotpossibleforsomeoneorsomethingtodosomething.IamhavingmedicaltreatmentandI"munabletowork.TerryWoganisunabletobewithus.4.231Youcanalsouse"bepossibleto"with"it"asthesubjecttosaythatsomethingispossible.Youusuallyusethisexpressiontosaythatsomethingispossibleforpeopleingeneral,ratherthanforanindividualperson.ItispossibletoreachTunheimonfoot.Isitpossibletoprogrammeacomputertospeak?Ifyouuse"bepossibleto"tosaythatsomethingispossibleforaparticularpersonorgroup,youput"for"andanoungroupafter"possible".Itispossibleforustomeasurehisprogress.It"spossibleforeachdepartmenttosupportnewmembers.Youuse"bepossibleto"withanegativetosaythatsomethingisnotpossible.Itisnotpossibletoquantifytheeffect.4.232Youcanalsouse"beimpossibleto"tosaythatsomethingisnotpossible.Itisimpossibletofixtheexactmomentintimewhenithappened.ItisimpossibleforaEuropeantounderstandTewdros.4.233Tochangethetenseof"beableto","beunableto",or"bepossibleto",or"beimpossibleto",yousimplychangetheformof"be"toanappropriatesimpletense.Thedoctorwillbeabletospendmoretimewiththepatient.385 Theirparentswereunabletosendthemanymoney.Itwasnotpossibletodismisscrowdbehaviourasacontributingfactor.Itwasimpossibleforthehusbandtoobeythisorder.4.234Allmodalsexcept"can"and"could"canbeusedwiththeseexpressions.Amachineoughttobeabletodothis.TheUnitedStateswouldbeunabletoproduceanywood.Itmaybeimpossibletopredictwhichwaythingswilldevelop.4.235"Usedto"canbeusedwith"beableto"and"bepossibleto".Youusedtobeabletogotothedoctorforthat.Itusedtobepossibletobuysecond-handwigs.Formoreinformationabout"usedto"seeparagraphs4.258to4.262.sayinghowlikelysomethingis4.236Youcanuse"haveto"or"havegotto"insteadof"must"toindicatethatyouthinkthecase,becauseofparticularfactsorsomethingiscircumstances."Thatlooksaboutright."—"Ithastobe."Moneyhasgottobethereason.4.237Youcanuse"begoingto"insteadof"will"tosaythatsomethingcertaintohappenorbethecaseinthefuture.Thechildrenaregoingtobefishermenoffarmers.Lifeisgoingtobeabiteasierfromnowon.4.238Youcanuse"beboundto"tosayemphaticallythatsomethingiscertaintohappeninthefuture.Marion"sboundtobebacksoon.Itwasboundtohappensoonerorlater.They"dbeboundtoknowifitwasallright.4.239Insteadofbeginningaquestionwith"can"or"could"whenyouaremakingarequest,youcanbeginitwith"is"andtheimpersonalpronoun"it".After"it",youputanexpressionsuchas"allright"andeithera"to"-infinitiveclauseoran"if"-clause.Isitallrightforhimtocomeinandsitandreadhispaper?Isitokayifwehavelunchhere?4.240Youcanuse"want"insteadof"wouldlike"togiveaninstructionormakearequest."Want"ismoredirectandlesspolitethan"wouldlike".Iwantyoutoturntothefrontoftheatlas.Iwanttoknowwhatyouthinkaboutthis.Iwanttohavethispellettakenout."Wanted"isalsosometimesused.Itismorepolitethan"want".Iwantedtoask.MrNicholson,whatwastheeffectofthatnewsreelonyou?Goodmorning,IwantedtobookaholidayintheSouthofFrance.4.241Youcanuse"begoingto"insteadof"will"tostateanintention.IamgoingtotalktoBoris.I"mgoingtoshowyouourlittleschool.4.242Youuse"intendto"tostateafairlystrongintention.IintendtogotoCannesforamonthinAugust.Idon"tintendtostaytoolong.4.243Youuse"bedeterminedto"or"beresolvedto"toindicateaverystrongintentiontodosomething."Beresolvedto"isratherformal.I"mdeterminedtotry.ShewasresolvedtomarryarichAmerican.4.244Youcanuse"haveto"or"havegotto"insteadof"must"toindicatethatitisimportantthatyoudosomething.Ihavetogethomenow.It"ssomethingIhavegottoovercome.4.245Youcanuse"Iamnot"insteadof"Iwillnot"tosayfirmlythatyouateunwillingtodooracceptsomething."Iamnot"isfollowedbyapresentparticiple.Iamnotstayinginthishospital.I"mnothavingdirtyrugs.4.246Youcanuse"refuse"insteadof"willnot"whenyouarerefusingtodosomething."Refuse"isfollowedbya"to"-infinitiveclause.Irefusetolistpossiblereasons.Irefusetopay.385 4.247Youcanuse"unwilling"or"reluctant"witha"to"-infinitiveclausetosaythatsomeoneisnotwillingtodooracceptsomething.Heisunwillingtoanswerthequestions.Iamalwaysreluctanttoexplainanythingasanexpressionofnationalcharacter.Youcanuseseveraladjectiveswith"not"tosaythatsomeoneisunwillingtodooracceptsomething.Exportersarenotwillingtosupplygoodsoncredit.I"mnotpreparedtoteachhimanything.Thompsonisnotkeentoseehistoryrepeatitselftooexactly.indicatingimportance4.248Youcanuse"haveto"or"havegotto"insteadof"must"tosaythatsomethingisnecessaryorextremelyimportant.Thepinetreehastoproducepolleningiganticquantities.Wehavetolookmorecloselyattherecordoftheirworktogether.Thishasgottobeputright.You"vegottobeabletocommunicate.4.249"Needto"canalsobeusedinsteadof"must".Weneedtochangethebalanceofpower.Youdonotneedtoworry.4.250Youcanalsosaythatsomethingisimportantornecessarybyusingasentencebeginningwiththeimpersonalpronoun"it",followedby"is",anadjectivesuchas"important"or"necessary",anda"that"-clause.Itisimportantthatyoushouldknowpreciselywhatisgoingon.Itisessentialthatimmediateactionshouldbetaken.Itisvitalthatbabiestravelingovernment-approvedcarriers."Important"and"necessary"canalsobefollowedbya"to"-infinitiveclause.It"simportanttorecognisewhatindustryneedsatthismoment.Itisnecessarytoexaminethisclaimbeforeweproceedanyfurther.4.251Youcanuse"hadbetter"insteadof"should"or"oughtto"tosaythatsomethingistherightorcorrectthingtodo.Youuse"hadbetter"with"I"or"we"toindicateanintention.Youuseitwith"you"whenyouaregivingadviceorawarning.IthinkIhadbettershowthistomybrother.Hedecidedthatwehadbettermeet.You"dbettergo.Semi-modals4.252"Dare","need",and"usedto"canbeusedasmodals,ortheycanbeusedinotherways.Whentheyareusedasmodals,theyhavesomecharacteristicswhichothermodalsdonothave.Forthesereasons,theyaresometimescalledsemi-modals.Theuseof"dare"and"need"asmodalsisexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs4.253to4.257.Theuseof"usedto"asamodalisexplainedinparagraphs4.258to4.262."dare"and"need"4.253When"dare"and"need"areusedasmodals,theyhavethesamemeaningaswhentheyarefollowedbya"to"-infinitiveclause.However,theyarenormallyusedasmodalsonlyinnegativesentencesandinquestions.Nobodydaredisturbhim.Noparentdaretreattheirchildanalytically.Withhisfather,heneednotfear.Howdareyouspeaktomelikethat?Needyougososoon?"Darenot"and"neednot"areoftenshortenedto"daren"t"and"needn"t".Idaren"tringJeremyagain.Weneedn"tworryaboutthat.4.254Unlikeothermodals,"dare"hassomeinflectedformswhichareoccasionallyused.Inthesimplepresenttense,thethirdpersonsingularformcanbeeither"dare"or"dares".Whenitcomes,shedarenotexpressherfeelings.Whatnobodydaressuggestisthatwomenbetoldtostayathome.Inthesimplepasttense,either"dare"or"dared"canbeused."Dare"ismoreformalthan"dared".Hedarenottakehiseyesoffhisassailant.Hedarednotshowhewaspleased.385 "Need"isnotinflectedwhenitisusedasamodal.4.255Normally,modalscannotbeusedwithothermodals.However"dare"canbeusedwith"will","would,"should",and"might".Noonewilldareoverridewhatthetownsdecide.Iwouldn"tdaregotoEurope.Ishouldnotdaredogmatizeaboutamattersuchasthis.4.256Unlikeothermodels,"dare"canbeusedwiththeauxiliaryverb"do".Wedonotdareexamineit.Don"tyoueverdarecomehereagain!Inordinaryspeech,"didnotdare"and"didn"tdare"aremuchmorecommonthan"darednot"or"darenot".Shedidnotdareleavethepath.Ididn"tdarespeakormove.Wedidn"tdaresaythatmanyofuswouldprefertogohome.4.257Besidesbeingusedasmodals,"dare"and"need"areusedinotherwaysinwhichtheyarenotfollowedbythebaseformofanotherverb,verbscanbefollowedbya"to"-infinitiveclause,and"need"isacommontransitiveverb.4.258"Usedto"hasnoinflectedforms,andcannotbeusedwithothermodals.SheusedtogetquitecrosswithLally....theseWesternsthatusedtodosowellinHollywood.Whatdidweusedtocallit?However,"usedto"canbeusedwiththeauxiliaryverb"do".Thisisexplainedinparagraphs4.261and4.262."Used"issometimesregardedasamodal,ratherthan"usedto"."Used"isthensaidtobefollowedbya"to"-infinitive.4.259"Usedto"isusedtosaythatsomethinghappenedregularlyorexistedinthepast,althoughitnolongerhappensorexists."Usedto"issimilarto"would"whenitisusedtodescriberepeatedactionsinthepast.However,unlike"would","usedto"canalsodescribepaststatesandsituations.I"mnotquiteasmadasIusedtobe.Actressesusedtobeveryreluctanttoweartightcorsets.Theuseof"would"totalkaboutthingswhichhappenedregularlyinthepastisdealtwithinparagraph4.115.omittingthefollowingverbgroup4.260"Usedto"canbeusedonitsownwithoutafollowingverbgroupwhenitisclearfromthecontextwhatthesubjectmatteris.Peopledon"tworkashardastheyusedto.Idon"tfeelBritishanymore.NotasmuchasIusedto.negatives4.261"Usedto"isnotcommoninnegativestructures.Ininformalspeech,peoplesometimesmakenegativestatementsbyputting"didn"t"infrontof"usedto".Theydidn"tusedtomindwhatwedid.However,manypeopleconsiderthisusetobeincorrect.Anotherwaytoformthenegativeistoput"never"infrontof"usedto".WhereIwasbefore,weneverusedtohavepostersonthewalls.Sometimes"not"isputbetween"used"and"to".Thisisafairlyformaluse.Itusednottobetaxable.Somegrammarbooksgiveacontractedformforthenegative,"usedn"tto"or"usen"tto".Thisisnowrarelyused,andisthoughttobeveryold-fashioned.questions4.262Younormallyformquestionswith"usedto"byputting"did"infrontofthesubject,followedby"usedto"."Wh"-questions,areformedbyputtingthe"wh"-wordatthebeginning,followedby"usedto".Didyouusedtoplaywithyourtrains?Whatusedtoannoyyoumostabouthim?Youcanformnegativequestionsbyputting"didn"t"infrontofthesubjectand"not"afterit,followedbythesubjectand"usedto".Didn"ttheyusedtomind?InmoreformalEnglish,"did"isputinfrontofthesubjectand"not"afterit,followedby"usedto".Didshenotusedtosmile?385 ContentsofChapter5page5.1-6Introduction1885.7-25Thepresent1895.8-16Thepresentingeneral:thesimplepresent1895.17-20Accentonthepresent:thepresentcontinuous1905.21-25Emphasizingtimeinthepresent:usingadjuncts1915.26-51Thepast1915.27-30Statingadefinitetimeinthepast:thesimplepast1925.31-32Accentonthepast:thepastcontinuous1925.33-36Thepastinrelationtothepresent:thepresentperfect1925.37-39Eventsbeforeaparticulartimeinthepast:thepastperfect1935.40-51Emphasizingtimeinthepast:usingadjuncts1935.52-62Thefuture1955.53-57Indicatingthefutureusing"will"1955.58-59Otherwaysofindicatingthefuture1965.60-62Adjunctswithfuturetenses1965.63-68Otherusesoftenses1965.64Vividnarrative1965.65Firmplansforthefuture1965.66-68Forwardplanningfromatimeinthepast1975.69-83Timingbyadjuncts1975.75-83Emphasizingtheunexpected:continuing,stopping,ornothappening1995.84-112Timeexpressionsandprepositionalphrases2005.84-98Specifictimes2005.99-110Non-specifictimes2035.111Subordinatetimeclauses2055.112Extendedusesoftimeexpressions2055.113-144Frequencyandduration2055.114-122Adjunctsoffrequency2065.123-134Adjunctsofduration2085.135-136Indicatingthewholeofaperiod2105.137-142Indicatingthestartorendofaperiod2115.143-144Durationexpressionsasmodifiers2125ExpressingtimeIntroduction5.1Whenyouaremakingastatement,youusuallyneedtoindicatewhetheryouarereferringtoasituationwhichexistsnow,existedinthepast,orislikelytoexistinthefuture.Thepointintimethatastatementrelatestoisusuallyindicatedinpartbytheverbgroupusedintheclause.Asetofverbformsthatindicateaparticularpointintimeorperiodoftimeinthepast,present,orfutureiscalledatense.Thesetofformsbelongingtoaparticulartenseisusuallyobtainedbytheadditionofinflectionstothebaseformoftheverb,orbytheinclusionauxiliariesormortalsintheverbgroup.smile...smiledwassmiling...hasbeensmiling...hadsmiledwillsmile...maysmileSomeverbshaveirregularformsforpasttenses.fight...fighting...foughtgo...going...wentForinformationaboutalltheseformsandwhichtensestheyreferto,seetheReferenceSection.5.2Sometimesthepointintimethattheclauserelatestoissufficientlyindicatedbythetenseoftheverbgroup,andnoothertimereferenceisrequired.However,ifyouwanttodrawattentiontothetimeoftheaction,youuseanadjunctoftime.She"smovingtomorrow.385 Recordprofitswereannouncedlastweek.HewasbetterafterundergoingsurgeryonSaturday.Anadjunctoftimecanbeanadverb,anoungroup,oraprepositionalphrase.Formoregeneralinformationaboutadjuncts,seethebeginningofChapter6.positionofadjuncts5.3Adjunctsoftimenormallycomeattheendofaclause,aftertheverborafteritsobjectifthereisone.Youcanputmorefocusonthetimebyplacingtheadjunctatthebeginningoftheclause.MrShamirwillvisitWashingtonnextmonth.Lastmonth,MrHurdaskedhisofficialstoreportbacktohim.Iwasplayinggolfyesterday.Yesterdaytheatmosphereatthefactorywastense.Iftheadjunctisanadverb,itcanalsocomeimmediatelyafter"be"orafterthefirstauxiliaryinaverbgroup.Sheisnowprettywell-knowninthiscountry.Cooperhadoriginallybeenduetoretirelastweek.Publicadvertisementsforthepostwillsoonappearinthenationalpress.54Someverbformsareusedtosaythataneventtakesplacecontinuouslyoveraperiodoftime,orisrepeatedseveraltimes.Youmayalsowanttosayhowlongsomethinglasts,orhowoftenithappens.Todothis,adjunctsofdurationandadjunctsoffrequencyareused.Americahasalwaysbeenhighlyinfluential.Peoplewhocomeinwithenquiriesareoftenveryshyaboutmakingthem.1,000dogsareputdowndaily,accordingtoR.S.P.C.A.figures.Theywouldgoontalkingforhours.Adverbsoffrequencyareexplainedandlistedinparagraphs5.114to5.122.Adverbsofdurationareexplainedandlistedinparagraphs5.123to5.144.5.5Thefollowingparagraphsdescribethewaysinwhichyoucanrefertothepresent,thepast,andthefuture.Aftereachofthese,thereisasectiononthewaysinwhichyouuseadjunctswitheachtense.Therearesomeadjunctswhichareusedmainlywiththepasttenses.Theseareexplainedinparagraph5.41.Adjunctswhichareusedwithfuturetensescanbefoundinparagraphs5.60to5.62.5.6Thischapterdealsonlywiththechoiceoftenseinmainclauses.Sometimes,thepointintimethataclauserelatestoisnotindicatedbyanadjunct,butbyasubordinateclause.Subordinateclausesoftimeareintroducedbyconjunctionswhichrefertotime,suchas"since","until","before"and"after".Forinformationaboutthetenseoftheverbinthesubordinateclause,seeparagraph8.9.Thepresent5.7Insituationswhereyouarediscussinganexistingstateofaffairs,youuseaverbwhichisinthepresenttense.Usually,theverbtenseissufficienttoindicatethatyouarereferringtothepresent.Younormallyonlyuseanadjunctoftimeforemphasis,ortorefertosomethingwhichisunrelatedtothepresentmoment.Thepresentingeneral:thesimplepresent5.8Ifyouwanttotalkaboutyourthoughtsandfeelingsatthepresentmoment,oraboutyourimmediatereactionstosomething,youusethesimplepresent.I"mawfullybusy.Theybothtastethesame.God,helooksawful.Iwantabreathoffreshair.Youcanalsousethesimplepresenttotalkaboutaphysicalfeelingthatisaffectingyouorsomeoneelse.Ifeelheavy.Ido.Ifeeldrowsy.Mystomachhurts.Note,however,thatifyouaretalkingaboutphysicalperceptionssuchasseeingandhearing,younormallyusethemodal"can",althoughthesimplepresentisoccasionallyused.Icanseethefishingboatscomingin.Icansmellit.Can"tyou?Iseeaflatstretchofground.Ihearapproachingfeet.385 generalpresentincludingpresentmoment5.9Ifyouwanttotalkaboutasettledstateofaffairswhichincludesthepresentmomentbutwheretheparticulartimereferenceisnotimportant,youusethesimplepresent.MydadworksinSaudiArabia.HelivesintheFrenchAlpsneartheSwissborder.Heisaverygoodbrother.Welovehim.She"sadoctor"sdaughter.Meanwhile,AtlanticCityfacesanotherdilemma.generaltruths5.10Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethingisalwaysorgenerallytrue,youusethesimplepresent.Neartheequator,thesunevaporatesgreaterquantitiesofwater.Amoleculeofwaterhastwoatomsofhydrogenandoneofoxygen.Achemicalreactionoccursinthefuelcell.Windmillsintendedforelectricitygenerationrotaterapidlyandhaveasmallnumberofvanes.regularorhabitualactions5.11Ifyouwanttotalkaboutsomethingthataparticularpersonorthingdoesregularlyorhabitually,youusethesimplepresent.Doyousmoke?Igetupearlyandeatmybreakfastlisteningtotheradio.usedinreviews5.12Youusuallyusethesimplepresentwhenyouarediscussingwhathappensinabook,play,orfilm.InthefilmheplaysthecentralcharacterofCharlesSmithson.Inthoseearlychapters,hedoeskeephimselfverymuchinthebackground.USAGENOTE5.13Youcanusethesimplepresentoftheverb"say"whenyouaredescribingsomethingyouhavereadinabook.Thecriminaljusticesystem,theauthorsays,hasfailedtokeeppacewiththedrugproblem.TheBiblesaysloveofmoneyistherootofallevil.usedincommentaries5.14Onradioandtelevision,commentatorsoftenusethesimplepresentwhendescribinganeventsuchasasportsmatchoraceremonyatthetimethatitishappening.AndyGraytakestheballupfieldagain,passestoMcInallyontheedgeofthebox.Heturns,shoots—andafinesavefromGrobbelaar.usedinreporting5.15Whenyouarereportingwhatsomeonesaidtoyouatsomepointintherecentpast,youcanusethesimplepresentofareportingverbsuchas"hear"or"tell".I"veneverbeengreyhound—racingmyself,buttheytellmeit"safascinatingsport.TherearesomefinerailingsinWestminsterAbbey,Ihear.Ihearyou"removing.Gracesaysyoutoldhertocomeoverhere.Formoredetailedinformationaboutreportingverbs,seeChapter7.5.16Whencommentingonwhatyouaresayingordoing,youusethesimplepresentofaperformativeverbsuchas"admit","promise","reject",or"enclose".Formoreinformationonperformativeverbs,seeparagraphs10.102to10.105.This,Iadmit,wasmyfavouriteactivity.Iencloseasmallchequewhichmaycomeinhandy.Ileaveitwithconfidenceinyourhands,Emmanuel.Accentonthepresent:thepresentcontinuous5.17Ifyouwanttotalkaboutsomethingthatishappeningatthemomentyouarespeaking,youusethepresentcontinuous.We"rehavingameeting.Comeandjoinin.WhatamIdoing?I"mlookingoutofthewindow.Myheadisaching.I"malreadyfeelingtense.5.18Ifyouwanttoemphasizethepresentmomentortoindicatethatasituationistemporary,youusethepresentcontinuous.Onlyonehospital,atAngal,isfunctioning.We"retryingtocreateamoredemocraticsociety.She"sspendingthesummerinEurope.I"mworkingasaBritishCouncilOfficer.5.19Youalsousethepresentcontinuoustoindicatechanges,trends,development,and385 progress.Thevillageischangingbutitisstillundisturbed.Hishandwritingisimproving.Worldenergydemandisincreasingatarateofabout3%peryear.5.20Ifyouwanttotalkaboutahabitualactionthattakesplaceregularly,especiallyonewhichisnewortemporary,youusethepresentcontinuous."You"redrinkingtoomuch."—"Onlyathome.Nooneseesmebutyou."Doyouknowifshe"sstillplayingthesedays?She"sseeingalotmoreofthem.Emphasizingtimeinthepresent:usingadjuncts5.21Youdonotnormallyneedtouseanadjunctoftimeorothertimeexpressionwithpresenttenses,butyoucanaddtheminordertoemphasizetheimmediatepresentorgeneralpresent,ortocontrastthepresentwiththepastorfuture.We"reworkingwithRobertHardyjustatthismoment,recordinganautumnseries.We"resafenow.What"sthematterwithyoutoday,Marnie?Ihaven"tgotagrantthisyear.generaltruths5.22Ifyouareusingthesimplepresenttotalkaboutsomethingthatisalwaysorgenerallytrue,youcanreinforceorweakenyourstatementbyusinganadverb.Babiesnormallyloseweightinthebeginning.Theofficialattitudeisusuallyoneofridicule.Traditionally,theCommunistPartydoeswellinlocalelections.Hereisalistofcommonadverbsthatcanbeusedtomodifyyourstatementinthisway:alwaysgenerallymainlynormallyoftentraditionallyusuallyTheuseofthesimplepresenttotalkaboutgeneraltruthsisexplainedinparagraph5.10.regularactions5.23Whenyouusethesimplepresenttosaythatanactiontakesplaceregularly,youcanuseanadjunctoffrequencytobemorespecificabouthowoftenithappens.Severalgroupsmeetweekly.Ivisitheraboutonceeverysixmonths.Itseldomrainsthere.Ineverdrinkalone.Theuseofthesimplepresenttotalkaboutregularactivitiesisexplainedinparagraph5.11.Moreinformationaboutadjunctsoffrequency,includingalistofthemostcommonones,canbefoundinparagraphs5.114to5.122.frequentactions5.24Thepresentcontinuousisalsousedwithadjunctsoffrequencywhenyouwanttoemphasizehowoftentheactiontakesplace.Thisisoftendonetoexpressdisapprovalorannoyance.Theadjunctoffrequencyisplacedaftertheauxiliaryverb.You"realwayslookingforfaults.It"salwaysraining.Andshe"salwaystalkingtohimonthetelephone.Theyareforeverbeingknockeddownbycars.Theuseofthepresentcontinuoustotalkaboutfrequent,habitualactionsisexplainedinparagraph5.20.adjunctswithpresenttenses5.25Notethatmanyadjunctsoftimesuchas"now"and"today"whichrefertothepresenttimearealsosometimesusedwithothertenses.However,thereareafewadjunctswhicharealmostalwaysusedwithpresenttenses.IsharedataxiwithJerryLaws,whowasformerlyaboxerandispresentlyasinger....thecampingcrazethatiscurrentlysweepingAmerica.Nowadaysfitnessisbecomingagenerallyacceptedprincipleoflife.Thefollowingisalistofadjunctswhicharenormallyonlyusedwiththepresenttense:atpresentcurrentlyinthisdayandagenowadaysthesedaysNotethatinthislisttheword"presently"means"now".Thepast5.26Whentalkingaboutthepast,anadjunctoftimeorothertimeexpressionisnecessarytospecifytheparticulartimeinthepastyouarereferringto.Thetimereferencecanbe385 establishedinapreviousclause,andtheverbsinthefollowingclausesarethereforeputinthepasttense.Itwasverycoldthatnight.Overmyheadwasagapinthereedmattingoftheroof.Iwastalkingtooneofthemyesterday.ShesaidshegotroastandYorkshirepudding.Statingadefinitetimeinthepast:thesimplepast5.27Ifyouwanttosaythataneventoccurredorthatsomethingwasthecaseataparticulartimeinthepast,youusethesimplepast.TheIsraeliPrimeMinisterflewintoNewYorkyesterdaytostarthisvisittotheUS.OurregularwindowcleanerwentofftoCanadalastyear.On1February1968heintroducedtheIndustrialExpansionBill.IrememberthetimewhenBillTilden,aboutfiftyyearsago,threwhisracquetatWimbledon.5.28Ifyouwanttosaythatasituationexistedoveraperiodoftimeinthepast,youalsousethesimplepast.HelivedinParisduringhislastyears.Throughout1954heassiduouslystudiedpeeragelaw.5.29Ifyouaretalkingaboutsomethingthathappenedinthepast,andyoumentionasituationthatexistedatthattime,youusethesimplepast.Youcandothiswhetherornotthesituationstillexists.AllthestreetsinthispartofWatfordlookedalike.AboutfiftymilesfromtheuniversitytherewasoneofIndia"smostfamousandancientHindutemples.5.30Ifyouwanttotalkaboutanactivitythattookplaceregularlyorrepeatedlyinthepast,butwhichnolongeroccurs,youusethesimplepast.Wewalkedagreatdealinmyboyhood.Eachweekwetrekkedtothebighouse."Would"and"usedto"canalsobeusedtosaythatsomethinghappenedregularlyinthepastbutnolongerdoesso.Seeparagraphs4.115and4.259formoreinformation.Accentonthepast:thepastcontinuous5.31Ifyouwanttotalkaboutcontinuedstatesorrepeatedactionswhichoccurredinthepast,youusethepastcontinuous.Hertoothwasaching,herburntfingerwashurting.Hewaslookingill.Everyonewasbeggingthecaptaintosurrender.Iwasmeetingthousandsofpeopleandgettingtoknownoone.contrastingevents5.32Ifyouwanttocontrastasituationwithaneventwhichhappenedjustafterthatsituationexisted,youusethepastcontinuoustodescribethefirstsituation.Youthenusethesamplepasttodescribeanddrawattentiontotheeventwhichoccurredafterit.Wewereallsittingroundthefirewaitingformysoldierbrothertocomehome.Hearrivedaboutsixintheevening.IwaswaitingangrilyonMondaymorningwhenIsawMrs.Miller.Thepastinrelationtothepresent:thepresentperfect5.33Ifyouwanttomentionsomethingthathappenedinthepastbutyoudonotwanttostateaspecifictime,youusethepresentperfecttense.Theyhaveraised£180foraswimmingpool.Ihavenoticedthistraitinmanyphotographers.WARNING5.34Youcannotuseadjunctswhichplacetheactionatadefinitetimeinthepastwiththepresentperfect.Youcannotsay"Ihavedoneityesterday".Youcan,however,useanadjunctofduration.Thesettlershaveleftthebayforever.Ihaveoftencriticizedthestandardsofcleanlinessandpunctualityonthetrains.Adjunctsofdurationareexplainedandlistedinparagraphs5.123to5.142.Youcanalsouse"since"and"for"withthepresentperfectbecausewhentheyareusedinthiswaytheyrefertoadefinitetime.Theyhavebeenbackeveryyearsincethen.ItwastheonlyrecordtohavestayedintheAmericanchartsforafullsixweeks.Formoreinformationon"since"seeparagraph5.137.Otherusesof"for"areexplainedinparagraphs5.125to5.128.385 situationsthatstillexist5.35Ifyouwanttotalkaboutanactivityorsituationthatstartedatsometimeinthepast,continued,andisstillhappeningnow,youusethepresentperfectorthepresentperfectcontinuous.AllmyadultlifeIhavewaitedfortheemergenceofastrongcentreparty.She"salwaysfeltthatfilmsshouldbeentertaining.Nationalproductivityhasbeendeclining.CarolineJohnstoneis26andhasbeencookingforabankforfiveyears.emphasizingdurationofevent5.36Ifyouwanttoemphasizethedurationofarecentevent,youusethedurationpresentperfectcontinuous.She"sbeencrying.ItwillnodoubtbearguedbysomethatIhavebeendescribingisnotacrisisofindustry.TheDepartmentofAboriginalAffairshasrecentlybeenconductingasurveyofAustralianAborigines.Eventsbeforeaparticulartimeinthepast:thepastperfect5.37Ifyouwanttotalkaboutapasteventorsituationthatoccurredbeforeaparticulartimeinthepastyouusethepastperfect.Onedayhenoticedthatacultureplatehadbecomecontaminatedbyamould.Byduskteargashadspreadthroughthesouthcampus.Shehadlostherjobasarealestateagentandwasworkingasawaitress.Idetestedanyformofgamesandhadalwaysmanagedtoavoidchildren"sparties.5.38Ifyouwanttoemphasizetherecentnessandthedurationofacontinuousactivitywhichtookplacebeforeaparticulartimeinthepast,youusethepastperfectcontinuous.Untilnowtherumoursthathadbeencirculatingwereexaggeratedversionsofthetruth.Thedoctorhadbeenworkingalone.HearrivedbackinMunichfromRomewherehehadbeenmeetingotherOASleaders.Theyhadbeenhittingourtrucksregularly.5.39Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethingwasexpected,wishedfor,orintendedbeforeaparticulartimeinthepast,youusethepastperfectorthepastperfectcontinuoustoshowthatithasnotyethappened.Shehadnaturallyassumedthatoncetherewasatheatreeverybodywouldwanttogo.Itwastheremainsofaten-rupeenotewhichshehadhopedwouldlasttilltheendoftheweek.ItwasnotasniceontheterraceasClarissahadexpected.Ihadbeenexpectingsomemiraculousobviouschange.Emphasizingtimeinthepast:usingadjuncts5.40Whenyouareusingpasttenses,younormallyuseanadjunctoftimeatsomepointtoindicatethatyouaretalkingaboutthepast.Atonetimetheartsofreadingandwritingwereclassedamongthegreatmysteriesoflifeforthemajorityofpeople.I"vemadesomepoordecisionslately,butI"mfeelingmuchbetternow.Itwasverysplendidonce,butit"sonlyaruinnow.It"sMarkwholosthiswife.AyearlastJanuary.Itwasterriblyhotyesterday.5.41Adjunctsoftimecanrefereithertoaspecifictime,ortoamoregeneralindefiniteperiodoftime.Thelistsbelowgivethemostcommonadjunctsofindefinitetimewhichareusedmainlywithpasttenses.Withtheexceptionof"since"and"eversince"whichcomeattheendofaclause,youputthemaftertheauxiliaryormodalinaverbgroupwhichhasmorethanoneword.Ifyouusethemwiththesimplepast,youputtheminfrontoftheverb.Thewordsinthefollowinglistcanbeusedwithallpasttenses:againalreadyearliereversincefinallyfirstinthepastjustlastpreviouslyrecentlysinceThewordsinthefollowinglistcanbeusedwithallpasttensesexceptthepresentperfect:afterwardsatonetimeeventuallyformerlyimmediatelylatelynextonceoriginallysubsequently385 Notethat"once"heremeans"atsometimeinthepast".Foritsusesasanadverboffrequency,seeparagraph5.115.Fortheusesof"since"asaprepositioninadjunctsoftime,seeparagraph5,137.Someadjunctsusedwithpasttensesaremorespecific.Ifyouwanttobemoreexactaboutthetimereference,youuseadjunctswhichincludetheword"yesterday",andthoseinvolvingtimeexpressionssuchas"ago","other",and"last".Notethat"ago"isplacedafterthenoungroup.Isawhimyesterdayevening.Weboughtthehousefromherthedaybeforeyesterday.ThreeweeksagoIwasstayinginSanFrancisco.Isawmygoddaughtertheotherday.Itallhappenedalongtimeago.WARNING5.42Yousay"lastnight",not"yesterdaynight".usedforemphasis5.43Therearesomecaseswhereadjunctshavetobeusedtospecifythetimereference.Inothercases,youmaysimplywanttomaketheactionclear,oremphatic.Theseusesaredescribedbelow.usedwiththesimplepast5.44Whenyouusethesimplepasttodescribehabitualofregularactivities,youcanuseanadjunctoffrequencytoindicatetheregularityorrepetitionoftheactivity.Heoftenagreedtoworkquitecheaply.Sometimeshereadsomuchthathebecameconfused.EttaphonedGuppyeveryday.Theuseofthesimplepasttodescribehabitualactionsisexplainedinparagraph5.30.usedwiththepastcontinuous5.45Ifyouareusingthepastcontinuoustotalkaboutrepeatedactions,youcanaddanadjunctoffrequencysuchas"always"or"forever"aftertheauxiliarytoemphasizethefrequencyoftheactionortoexpressyourannoyanceaboutit.Intheimmenseshedwhereweworked,somethingwasalwaysgoingwrong.Ellenwasalwaysansweringthedoor,talkingtothecoalman.Hereyessqueezedupandranwithtears,sothatshewasforeverwipingthem.Theuseofthepastcontinuoustodescriberepeatedactionsisexplainedinparagraph5.31.5.46Whenyouusethepresentperfecttomentionsomethingthatrelevanttothepresent,youcanaddanadjunctoffrequencytoindicatethattheactionwasrepeated.I"veoftenwonderedwhywedidn"tmoveyearsago.BritainandotherWesternnationshavefrequentlytoldSouthAfricathattheywantMandelareleased.Theuseofthepresentperfecttotalkaboutsituationswhicharestillrelevantisexplainedmparagraph5.33,5.47Notethatifyouaretalkingaboutaquality,attitude,orpossessionthatstillexistsorisstillrelevant,youneedtousethepresentperfectwithanadjunctofduration.We"vehaditforfifteenyears.He"salwayslikedyou,youknow.lhaveknownhimforyears.Mypeoplehavebeenatwarsince1917.5.48Ifyouusethepresentperfectandthepresentperfectcontinuoustomentionacontinuingactivitythatbeganinthepast,youcanaddanadjunctofdurationtoindicatehowlongithasbeengoingon.Formanyyears,theTUChasbeenadvocatingchildcarefacilitiesatwork.Theyhavebeenmeetingtogetherweeklynowfortwoyears.Hehaslookedaftermewellsincehismotherdied.Theuseofthepresentperfectandthepresentperfectcontinuoustotalkaboutactivitiesthatbeganinthepastisexplainedinparagraph5.35.5.49Whenyouusethepastperfecttodescribearepeatedeventthattookplacebeforeaparticulartimeinthepast,youuseanadjunctoffrequencytoindicatehowoftenitwasrepeated.Posyhadalwayssoughtherouteventhen.Thehousekeepermentionedthatthedoghadattackeditsmistressmorethanonce.Theuseofthepastperfecttodescribeeventsthatoccurredbeforeaparticulartimeinthepastareexplainedinparagraph5.37.5.50Ifyouareusingthepastperfecttotalkaboutasituationwhichdidnotchangeinthe385 past,youuseanadjunctofdurationtoemphasizethelengthoftimeduringwhichitexisted.Theyweren"treallyourauntanduncle,butwehadalwaysknownthem.Allthroughthosemanyyearshehadnevereverlosttrackofmyfather.Hisparentshadbeenmarriedfortwelveyearswhenhewasborn.5.51Ifyouareusingthepastperfectcontinuoustomentionarecent,continuousactivity,youcanspecifywhenitbeganbyusinganadjunct.TheHomeOfficehaduntilnowbeeninsistingongivingtheofficersonlytendaystoreachasettlement.Sincethen,themotherhadbeenlivingwithherdaughter.Adjunctsoffrequencyordurationcanalsobeaddedforemphasis.Thedriveincreasedthefatigueshehadbeenfeelingforhours.Therainhadbeenpouringallnight.Theuseofthepastperfectcontinuoustotalkaboutarecent,continuousactivityisexplainedinparagraph5.38.Thefuture5.52Itisnotpossibletotalkwithasmuchcertaintyaboutthefutureasitisaboutthepresentorthepast.Anyreferenceyoumaketofutureeventsisthereforeusuallyanexpressionofwhatyouthinkmighthappenorwhatyouintendtohappen.Indicatingthefutureusing"will"5.53Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethingisplannedtohappen,orthatyouthinkitislikelytohappeninthefuture,youusethemodal"will"infrontofthebaseformoftheverb.Thisiscalledthefuturetense.Nancywillarrangeit.Thesewillbedealtwithinchapter7."Iwillcheck,"saidBrady.WhenwillIseethem?WhatdoyouthinkSallywilldo?Youwillcomeback,won"tyou?Ifthesubjectis"I"or"we"themodal"shall"issometimesusedinsteadof"will"totalkaboutfutureevents.IshalldoeverythingIcantohelpyou.YouwillstayathomeandIshallgotoyouroffice."Weshallgivehimsometea."Naomisaid."Will"and"shall"arealsousedinseveralwaysasmodals.Formoreinformation,seeChapter4.generaltruths5.54Ifyouwanttotalkaboutgeneraltruthsandtosaywhatcanbeexpectedtohappenifaparticularsituationarises,youusethefuturetense.Whenpeaceisavailable,peoplewillgoforit.Anattackofmalariacankeepamanoffworkforthreedays.Hewillearnnothingandhisfamilywillgohungry.indicatingcertainty5.55Ifyouaresurethatsomethingwillhappenbecausearrangementshavebeenmade,youcanusethefuturecontinuoustense.I"llbeseeingthemwhenI"vefinishedwithyou.She"llbeappearingtomorrowandSundayattheRoyalFestivalHall.I"llbewaitingforyououtside.DearProfessorZapp,Igatheryou"llbeusingmyroomwhileyou"rehere.They"llspoilourpicnic.I"llbewonderingallthetimewhat"shappening.Ourpeoplewillbegoingtotheircountrymore.Notethatanadjunctoftimeoranadjunctoffrequencyisnormallyrequiredwiththefuturecontinuoustense.5.56Ifyouarereferringtosomethingthathasnothappenedyetbutwillhappenbeforeaparticulartimeinthefuture,youcanusethefutureperfecttense.Bythetimeheistwentyacountrymanwillhavekilledaconsiderablenumberofanimals.Maybebythetimewegettothedockhe"llalreadyhavestarted.Maybewhenyoucomeup,you"llhaveheardfromyoursister.Notethatyoumustindicatethefuturetimereferredtobyusinganadjunctoranotherclause.5.57Ifyouwanttoindicatethedurationofaneventataspecifictimeinthefuture,youcanusethefutureperfectcontinuous.ByMarch1990,hewillhavebeenworkingforthisorganizationfortwelveyears.385 TheregisterwillhavebeenrunningforayearinMay.Notethatyouneedtouseanadjunctoftimetoindicatethefutureandanadjunctofdurationtostatethedurationoftheevent.Otherwaysofindicatingthefuture5.58Ifyouthinktheeventyouarereferringtowillhappenquitesoonorifyouarestatingyourintentionthatitwillhappen,youcanuse"begoingto"followedbyaninfinitive.I"mgoingtoexploretheneighbourhood.Evansknowslotsofpeople.He"sgoingtohelpme.He"sgoingtotakemethere.IthinktheSocialDemocratsaregoingtohavesomeproblemsaheadofthem.We"regoingtoseeachangeinthelawnextyear.5.59Youcanalsouse"bedueto"and"beaboutto"torefertoplannedfutureeventsthatyouexpecttohappensoon.Theyarefollowedbyinfinitiveclauses.Heisduetostartasacouriershortly.It"sduetobecompletedin1996.Another385peopleareabouttolosetheirjobs.Areweabouttobetakenoverbythemachine?Adjunctswithfuturetenses5.60Whenyouwanttomakeageneralorvaguereferencetofuturetime,youuseanadjunctwhichreferstoindefinitetime.I"lldropbysometime.Soonerorlaterhe"llaskyoutojoinhimthere.Infutureshe"llhavetotakesedentaryworkofsomesort.Hereisalistofadjunctsofindefinitetimewhichareusedmainlywithfuturetenses:infutureinthefutureoneofthesedayssomedaysometimesoonerorlater5.61Adjunctswhichincludetheword"tomorrow"aremainlyusedwithfuturetenses.We"lltrysomewhereelsetomorrow.ShallIcometomorrownight?He"llbeherethedayaftertomorrow.ThistimetomorrowI"llbeinNewYork."next"5.62Someadjunctsmainlyusedwithfuturetensesinvolvetimeexpressionswith"next".Ityouareusingaspecificdayormonthsuchas"Saturday"or"October",youcanput"next"eitherbeforeorafterthedayormonth,"next"isplacedinfrontofthetimereference.NextweekMichaelHallwillbetalkingaboutmusic.Nextsummeryourcropswinbeverymuchbetter.Ithinkwe"lldefinitelybegoingnextyear.WillyouraccommodationbeavailablenextOctober?ThebootswillbereadybyWednesdaynext.ApostmortemexaminationwillbeheldonMondaynext.Shewon"tbeabletodoittheweekafternext.Otherusesoftenses5.63Sofarinthischapter,wehavedealtwiththecommonestandsimplestusesofthevarioustenses.However,therearealsosomelesscommonusesoftenses.Vividnarrativepresenttenses5.64Storiesarenormallytoldusingpasttenses.However,ifyouwanttomakeastoryseemvivid,asifitwerehappeningnow,youcanusepresenttenses,thesimplepresentforactionsandstatesandthepresentcontinuousforsituations.There"saloudexplosionbehindus.ThenIhearChrisgiggling.Sylviaisupset.Hepullsthevanintothedecrepitterrace.Hepacksandhurriesindoors.Chrisiscryinghardandotherslookoverfromtheothertables.Hesitsdownathisdeskchair,reachesforthetelephoneanddialsanumber.Firmplansforthefuturepresenttenses5.65Boththesimplepresentandthepresentcontinuouscanbeusedtostatefirmplansthatyouhaveforthefuture.Anadjunctisnecessaryunlessyouaresurethatthehearerorreaderknowsthatyouaretalkingaboutthefuture.385 MylasttrainleavesEustonat11.30.TheUNGeneralAssemblyopensinNewYorklaterthismonth.Tomorrownightweexchangepackages.I"mleavingattheendofthisweek.AnexpertonmoderndramaisarrivingfromSwitzerland.Forwardplanningfromatimeinthepast5.66Thereareseveralwaysoftalkingaboutaneventwhichwasinthefutureataparticulartimeinthepast,orwhichwasthoughttobegoingtooccur.Thesearedescribedinthefollowingparagraphs.5.67Thepastcontinuouscanbeusedtorefertoeventsplannedinthepast,especiallywithsomecommonverbssuchas"come"and"go".FourofthemwerecomingforSundaylunch.Herdaughterwasgoingtoasummercamptomorrow.AllisterSparks,formerlyoftheDispatch,wasleavingalocalLondonpapertojoinReuters.5.68Thesimplepastof"be"canbeusedinstructuresusedtoexpressfutureevents,suchas"begoingto","beaboutto",and"bedueto".Theimplicationisusuallythattheexpectedeventhasnothappenedorwillnothappen.Formoreinformationon"begoingto",seeparagraph4.237.Ithoughtforamomentthatshewasgoingtocry.Hewasabouttoraisehisvoiceatmebutstoppedhimself.Theshipwasduetosailthefollowingmorning.Timingbyadjuncts5.69Inmanystatements,itistheadjunctratherthanthetenseoftheverbwhichcarriesthetimereference.Forthisreason,manyadjunctscanbeusedwithmorethanonesetoftenses,becausetheyrefertotimeandnottotense.Forexample,acommonuseistoputadjunctswhichnormallyrefertofuturetimewiththepresenttensewhenitisusedtorefertofutureactions,includinghabitualactions.Theycanalsobeusedwithreferencestothefuturethataremadeinthepast.WestGermanycelebratesitsfortiethbirthdaytomorrow.Afterall,you"recomingbacknextweek.Thefarmerjustlaughedandrodeaway.SothenextweekItriedmyluckatanotherfarm.Wearrangedtomeetinthreeweek"stime.Theadjuncts"now","today","tonight"andthoseinvolving"this"refertoaperiodoftimewhichincludesthepresentmoment.Theyareusedfairlycommonlywithalltenses.Thisisbecauseaneventcanbelocatedbefore,during,orafterthetimespecifiedbythetenseoftheverb.IwasnowinaScottishregiment.Yourbosswillnowhavenoalternativebuttogotohissuperiorsandexplainthesituation.Oneofmychildrenwrotetometoday.Iwillskinomoretoday.It"sdarktoday."Iwenttothedoctorthismorning,"shesaid.Hewon"tbeabletofightthisFriday.I"mdoingmyironingthisafternoon.5.70Ifyouwanttorefertoaperiodoftimeinrelationtoanotherperiodoftime,orinrelationtoanevent,youuseanadjunct.Forexample,youcanuseanadverbsuchas"soon"or"later"torefertotimewhichfollowsaparticulareventorperiodoftime,andyoucanuseanadverbsuchas"beforehand"or"earlier"torefertotimewhichprecededaparticularperiodoftimeoranevent.Sitawasdelightedwiththehouseandsoonbegantolookuponitashome.It"llhavetobereplacedsoon.HelatersettledinPeddie,asmalltownnearGrahamstown.I"llexplainlater.Iwasverynervousbeforehand.You"llbehavingabathandgoingtothehairdresser"sbeforehand.Shehadseenhimonlyfivehoursearlier.Thistypeoftimereferenceiscommonwithpastandfuturetenses.Itissometimesusedwithpresenttenseswhentheyareusedtorefertopast,future,orhabitualactions.Wedon"tcleanoutbeforehandbecauseitonlygetsanyagain.385 Irememberthenextdayatschoolgoingroundaskingtheboysifthey"deverseenaghost.Butafterwards,asyoureadon,yourelatebacktoit.Hereisalistofadjunctswhichareusedtorefertotimeinarelativeway:afterwardsatoncebeforelongeventuallyfinallyimmediatelyinamomentinstantlylaterlateronpresentlyshortlysoonsuddenlywithinminuteswithinthehour~thenextdaythenextweekthenextmonththenextyearthefollowingdaythefollowingweekthefollowingmonththefollowingyearthedayaftertheweekafterthemonthaftertheyearafter~beforehandearlyearlierearlieroninadvancelateonedayontimepunctuallyNotethatinthislist"presently"means"soon".Youcanuse"early"toindicatethatsomethinghappensbeforetheexpectedorplannedtime,and"late"toindicatethatithappensafterthattime."Ontime",and"punctually"areusedtosayindicatethatsouthinghappensattheplannedtime.Theseadverbscomeaftertheverbandattheendoftheclause.Tiredout,hehadgonetobedearly.IarrivedatPaddingtonearlyandhadafirst-classcompartmenttomyself.Hehadcometothepoliticalarenalate,attheageof62.Wewentquitelateintheafternoon.IfAtkinsonphonedontime,he"dbeoutofthehouseinwellunderanhour.Hearrivedpunctually.With"early"and"late"youcanalsousethecomparativeforms"earlier"and"later".Iwokeearlierthanusual.Later,thedealersawthatithadbeensold.Notethat"early","late",and"ontime"arealsousedascomplements.Thedoorbellrang.Barbarawasappalled,"Theyareearly."TheParistrainwasslightlylate.Whattimeisitnow?Thisbusisusuallyontime.Formoreinformationoncomplements,seeparagraph3.128.5.71Youcanalsospecifyatimebyrelatingittoanevent,usingaqualifyingexpressionorarelativeclauseafterthetimeexpression.Ididn"tsleepwellthenightbeforetheprosecution.IcalledhimthedayIgotback.5.72Youcanalsousesomeprepositionstorelateeventstoeachother,ortoparticularperiodsoftime.Theseprepositionsarelistedinparagraph5.99,andthereisafullexplanationinparagraphs5.102to5.107.OvertheBankHoliday,MrPalumbospenttimerelaxingathisestate.ABritishparatrooperreturnstoagloomytowerblockintheEastEndafteractiveserviceintheFalklands.5.73Ifyouwanttorefertoa"necessarytime",beyondwhichaneventwillnolongerberelevant,useful,orsuccessful,youcanuse"intime"asanadjunctoracomplement.Iwouldhavetodosomefasthikingoverthehillstoreachtherendezvousintime.Heleaptback,intimetododgethelashinghooves.Ifsomethinghappensbeforethenecessarytime,youcanuse"tooearly",andifithappensafterthenecessarytime,youcanuse"toolate"."Tooearly"and"toolate"maybeusedasadjunctsorascomplements.Todaytheyheartoomuchaboutsextooearly.It"smuchtooearlytoassessthecommunityservicescheme.Theyarrivedtoolatefortheinformationtobeanygood.It"stoolatetochangethatnow.5.74Ifthetimeyouarereferringtointhepastoffuturehasalreadybeenmentioned,youcanusetheadverb"then".Wekeptthreemonkeysthen.385 Wewereallsopatrioticthen.It"llbetoolatethen.Tobemorespecific,youcanuse"that"withthenameofaday,month,season,andsoon,ofwithageneraltimeword.Williamdidn"tcomeinthatTuesday.Somanypeoplewillbepursingotheractivitiesthatnight.Emphasizingtheunexpected:continuing,stopping,ornothappening5.75Ifyouwanttocommentontheexistenceoftherelationshipbetweenpast,present,andfuturesituation,youcanuseoneofthefollowingadjuncts:alreadyanylongeranymoreasyetnolongersofarstilluptillnowuptonowyet5.76Ifyouwanttosaythatasituationexistsuptothepresenttime,youuse"still".Ifyouareusing"be"asamainverboranauxiliaryverb,youput"still"after"be"ortheauxiliary.Ifyouareusinganysimpleverbexcept"be"youput"still"infrontoftheverb."Still"oftensuggeststhatthecontinuationofmesituationissurprisingorundesirable.It"samarvelthatI"mstillalivetotellthetale.Maleprejudicestillexistsincertainquarters.Yearshadpassedandtheywerestillpayingthemoff.Innegativestatementswhichusethe"n"t"contraction,"still"isplacedinfrontof"be"ortheauxiliary.We"vebeenworkingonitforovertwoyearsnow.Anditstillisn"tfinished.Westilldon"tknowwherewe"regoing."still"forexpectedsituations5.77Youcanalsouse"still"infrontofa"to"-infinitivetosaythatsomethinghasnothappenedyet,althoughitisexpectedto,oryoufeelthatitshould.TheGovernmenthadstilltoagreeontheprovisionsofthebill.Theproblemswerestilltocome.Therearemanyotherquestionsstilltobeanswered."Still"isnotusedinnegativestatementsinthisway;seeparagraph5.78forasimilaruseof"yet"."yet"forexpectedsituations5.78Ifyouwanttoindicatethatsomethinghasnothappeneduptothepresenttime,butislikelytohappeninthefuture,youuse"yet"withanegative."Yet"usuallycomesattheendofasentence.Wedon"tknowthetermsyet.Ihaven"tsetanyworkyet.IsupposeIshallsomeday.Theyhaven"theardyet.Ifyouwanttosoundmoreemphatic,youcanput"yet"beforeasimpleverboraftertheauxiliaryandnegativeword.Nooneyetknowsexactlywhatitmeans.Herstylehadnotyetmatured."Yet"canalsobeusedinquestions,whereitisusuallyputattheendoftheclause.WastheColonelwavedhispaperyet?HasMr.Harrisnotcomeyet?5.79Youcanalsouse"yet"inaffirmativestatementstosaythatsomethingthatisexpectedhasnothappeneduptothepresenttime.Inthiscase,"yet"isfollowedbya"to"-infinitiveclause.Thetruehistoryofartinpost-warAmericaisyettobewritten.Hehadyettoattempttoputprinciplesintopractice.5.80"Yet"isalsousedinaffirmativestatementswithsuperlativestoindicatethatthestatementapplesuptothepresent,butmaynotapplyinthefuture."Yet"normallycomesattheendoftheclause.Thisisthebestmuseumwe"vevisitedyet.Mr.FowlersaidthatFebruaryhadproducedthebestresultsyet.Thiswouldbethebiggestandbestversionyet.likelychange5.81Ifyouwanttosaythatasituationwhichhasexisteduptothepresenttimemaychangeinthefuture,youcanuse"asyet","sofar","uptonow",or"uptillnow".Theyarenormallyplacedeitheratthebeginningortheendoftheclause.Theyarealsooccasionallyplacedafteranauxiliaryverb.385 Asyet,thereislittletosuggestthatthePrinceisanexceptioninthis.OnlyMotherknowsasyet.Sofar,thetermsofthetreatyhavebeencarriedoutaccordingtoschedule.You"vedonewellsofar,MrsRutland.Uptillnow,themostextraordinaryremarkIrememberwasmadebyyou.ThistroophaduptonowsucceededinpreventingthemovementofanybutlightforcesacrosstheRiverLippe.Youhaven"tonceuptillnowcomeintorealcontactwithourauthorities.Notethattheseexpressionscanbeusedinaffirmativeandnegativestatements.5.82Ifyouwanttosaythatapastsituationdoesnotexistinthepresent,youcanuse"nolonger",oranegativewith"anylonger"or"anymore".Shewasnolongercontentwithahandfulofcoins.Theydidn"tknowanylongerwhatwasfunnyandwhatwasentertaining.Theydon"tlivetogetheranymore.5.83Ifyouwanttoemphasizethatasituationexists,ratherthannotyethavingoccurred,youuse"already".Itisusuallyputinfrontofanysimpleverbexcept"be",orafter"be"asamainverb,orfollowinganauxiliaryverb.Theenergyalreadyexistsintheground.Senegalalreadyhasawellestablishedfilmindustry.HewasjustayearyoungerthanRudolph,butwasalreadyastallandmuchstockier.Mywatchsaysnineo"clock.Andit"salreadytoohottosleep.Wehavealreadyadvertisedyourpostinthepapers.Britainisalreadyexportingalittlecoal.Youcanput"already"atthebeginningortheendoftheclauseforemphasis.Already,EuropeanconsumerspayovertheoddsforTV,sets,videorecorders,andothergoods.Iwashappyforher;shelookedbetteralready."Already"isnotoftenusedwiththesimplepasttense,exceptwiththeverbs"be","have",and"know".Notethat"already"cannotnormallybeusedinnegativestatements,butcanbeusedinnegative"if"-clauses,negativequestions,andrelativeclauses.Refercertaintypesofdeathtothecoronerifthishasnotalreadybeendone.Whatdoesitshowusthatwehaven"talreadyfelt?...allpeerswhodidnotalreadybelongtothePrivyCouncil.TimeexpressionsandprepositionalphrasesSpecifictimes5.84Specifictimeexpressionsareusedascomplementswhenyouwanttostatethecurrenttime,day,oryear."Wellwhattimeisitnow?"—"It"soneo"clock".ItwasaperfectMaymorning.Sixweeksisn"tallthatlongago,it"sJanuary.Theyarealsooftenusedinprepositionalphrasestosaywhensomethinghappened,orwhenitisexpectedtohappen.Igotthereatabout8o"clock.ThesubmarinecaughtfireonFridaymorning.Thattraingetsinat1800hours.clocktimes5.85Clocktimesareusuallyexpressedintermsofhoursandpartsofanhourorminutes,forexample"oneo"clock","fiveminutespastone","onetwenty","halfpastone".Thedayisusuallydividedintotwosetsoftwelvehours,soitissometimesnecessarytospecifywhichsetyoumeanbyadding"a.m.","p.m.",oraprepositionalphrasesuchas"inthemorning"or"intheevening".Inmanyofficialcontests,atwenty-fourhoursystemisused.Ifthehourisknown,onlytheminutesarespecified:"fivepast,tento,quarterto,halfpast"andsoon."Midday"and"noon"areoccasionallyused.timesoftheday5.86Themostfrequentlyusedwordsforperiodsofthedayare"morning","afternoon","evening",and"night".Therearealsosomewordswhichrefertotherisingandseeingofthesun,suchas"dusk"and"sunset",andotherswhichrefertomealtimes.Onawarm,cloudyevening,Colinwentdowntotheriver.385 Theyseemtobeworkingfromdawntodusk.Mostofthetroublecomesoutsidetheclassroom,atbreak-timeanddinner-time.Hereisalistofwordsthatareusedtotalkaboutperiodsoftheday:morningafternooneveningnight~dawndaybreakfirstlightsunrisedusksunsetnightfall~daytimenight-timebreakfast-timebreak-timelunchtimeteatimedinnertimesuppertimebedtimenamingdays5.87Thesevendaysortheweekarepropernouns:MondayTuesdayWednesdaySundayThursdayFridaySaturdaySaturdayandSundayareoftenreferredtoas"theweekend",andtheotherdaysas"weekdays".Afewdaysintheyearhavespecialnames,forexample:NewYear"sDayStValentine"sDayGoodFridayEasterMondayHalloweenChristmasEveChristmasDayBoxingDayNewYear"sEveYoucanalsonameadaybygivingitsdateusinganordinalnumber/"Whendoesyourtermend?"—"FirstofJuly".TheGrandPrixistobeheldhereonthe18thJuly.HerseasonoffilmscontinuesuntilOctobertheninth.Youcanomitthemonthifitisclearfromthecontextwhichmonthyouarereferringto.SoMondaywillbetheseventeenth.StValentine"sDayisonthefourteenth.ThereismoreinformationaboutordinalsintheReferenceSection.5.88Thetwelvemonthsoftheyeararealsopropernouns:JanuaryFebruaryMarchAprilMayJuneJulyAugustSeptemberOctoberNovemberDecemberTherearefourseasons:"spring","summer","autumn"("fallinAmericanEnglish)and"winter"."Springtime","summertime"and"wintertime"arealsoused.Someperiodsoftheyearhavespecialnames:forexample,"Christmas","Easter",and"theNewYear".5.89YearsarereferredtoinEnglishbynumbers....theeleventhofJanuary,1967.AsecondconferencewasheldinFebruary1988.Mymotherdiedin1945.Torefertoperiodslongerthanayear,decades(tenyears)andcenturies(ahundredyears)areused.Decadesstartwithayearendinginzeroandfinishwithayearendinginnine:"the1960s"(1960to1969),"the1820s"(1820to1829).Ifthecenturyisalreadyknown,itcanbeomitted:"the20s","thetwenties","theTwenties".Tobemorespecific,forexampleinhistoricaldates,"AD"isaddedbeforeorafterthenumbersforyearsorcenturiesafterChristisbelievedtohavebeenborn:"1650AD","AD1650","AD1650-53","1650-53AD"."BC"isaddedafterthenumbersforyearsorcenturiesbeforeChristisbelievedtohavebeenborn:"1500BC","12-1500BC".Centuriesstartwithayearendingintwozeroesandfinishwithayearendingintwonines.Ordinalsareusedtorefertothem.The"firstcentury"wasfrom"0AD"to"99AD",the"secondcentury"was"100-199AD",andsoon,sotheperiod"1800-1899AD"wasthe"nineteenthcentury"andwearecurrentlyinthe"twentiethcentury"(1900-1999AD).Centuriescanalsobewrittenusingnumber:"the20thcentury".5.90Ifyouwanttosaywhensomethinghappens,youuse"at"withclocktimes,periodsoftheyear,andperiodsofthedayexceptfor"morning","evening","afternoon",and"daytime".Ourtrainwentat2.25.It"sonRadioFourattentoeighttomorrowevening.WewereinDunfermlineattwentyfivepast.385 YoushouldgotochurchatEasterandChristmas.Iwentdownandfetchedherbackattheweekend.OnTuesdayevening,justatdusk,Brodyhadreceivedananonymousphonecall.Heregardeditashisdutytocomeandreadtomeatbedtime.Atnightwekeptthemshutupinawireenclosure.Letthefireburnoutnow.Whowouldseesmokeatnight-timeanyway?Youcanalsouse"at"with"time"andsimilarwordssuchas"moment"and"juncture"andwithunitsofclocktimesuchas"hour"and"minute".GeneraldeGaulledulyattendedthemilitaryceremonyattheappointedtime.Itwasatthisjuncturethathislucktemporarydesertedhim.IfIcouldhavedoneitatthatminuteIwouldhavekilledhim.Therewerenolightsatthishour,androads,bungalowsandgardenslayquiet."at"forrelatingevents5.91Youcanalsouse"at"whenyouwanttorelatethetimeofoneeventtoanothereventsuchasaparty,journey,election,andsoon.IhadfirstmetKrugeratapartyattheBritishEmbassy.SherepresentedtheAssociationattheannualmeetingoftheAmericanMedicalAssociationinChicago.Itistobereopenedattheannualconferenceinthreeweeks"time.5.92"At"isalsousedwithages,stagesofdevelopment,andpointswithinalargerperiodoftime:Attheageoftwenty,shemarriedanotherSpanishdancer.Heleftschoolatseventeen.AtanearlystageofthewartheBritishGovernmentbeganrecruitingateamoftopmathematiciansandelectronicsexperts.WewereduetoreturntotheUnitedKingdomatthebeginningofMarch."in"forperiodsoftime5.93Ifyouwanttomentiontheperiodoftimeinwhichsomethinghappens,youuse"in"withcenturies,years,seasons,months,andtheperiodsoftheday"morning","afternoon"and"evening".Youalsouse"in"with"daytime"and"night-time".Inthesixteenthcenturytherewerethreetenniscourts.It"struethatweexpectedagreatdealinthesixties.AmericansvisitingSwedenintheearly1950"swereastoundedbyitscleanliness.Ifyouweretogoonholidayonthecontinentinwintertimewhatsportcouldyoutakepartin?TobeinCornwallatanytimeisapleasure,tobehereinsummerisabonus.Igetstrangefeelingsintheautumn.ShewillpresideovertheannualmeetingoftheCourtinDecember.InSeptemberItravelledtoCaliforniatoseethefinishedfilm.I"llringtheagentinthemorning.Well,shedoescomeintocleantheroomsintheday-time.Notethatif"morning","afternoon",and"evening"areusedwithamodifieroraqualifier,youuse"on".Seeparagraph5.95fordetails."in"forspecifictime5.94"In"isalsousedwhenyouwanttospecifyaperiodoftime,minutes,hours,days,andsoon,usinganordinal.Vehiclesalesinthefirsteightmonthsoftheyearhaveplungedby24.4percent....intheearlyhoursofthemorning."In"isalsousedwithsomeothernounsreferringtoeventsandperiodsoftime.Myfatherwaskilledinthewar.Everyonedoesunusualjobsinwartime.Intheholidaysolderchildrencancooksomethingsimpleforthemselveswhentheydeigntoturnup.Twopeoplecametocheckmycabininmyabsence.Ordinalsareexplainedinparagraphs2.249to2.256.5.95Ifyouwanttomentionthedaywhensomethinghappens,youuse"on".Youcandothiswithnameddays,withdaysreferredtobyordinals,andwithdaysreferredtobyaspecialtermsuchas"holiday"or"anniversary".I"llsendthechequeroundonMonday.EverybodywenttochurchonChristmasDay.IhearyouhavebingoonWednesday.PentonvillePrisonwassetuponBoxingDay,1842.Hewasbornon3April1925at40GrosvenorRoad.385 ...thegreysuitElsahadboughtforhimonhisbirthday.ManyofEisenhower"smostcautiouscommanderswereevenpreparedtoriskattackontheeighthorninth....addressingParliamentonthe36thanniversaryofhiscounty"sindependence.Youcanuse"the"withnameddaysforemphasisorcontrast,and"a"toindicateanydayofthatname.HediedontheFridayandwasburiedontheSunday.ItisunluckytocutyournailsonaFriday.Youalsouse"on"with"morning","afternoon","evening",and"night"whentheyaremodifiedorqualified....at2.30p.m.onacalmafternoon.Therewasanotherimportantopeningonthesameevening.Whenshearrivedatthecourtonthemorningoftheevent,hervoicehadvanished.It"sterriblygoodofyoutoturnoutonanightlikethis.5.96"On"isalsousedwithwordsindicatingtravelsuchas"journey","trip","voyage","flight"and"way"tosaywhensomethinghappened.Butonthatjourney,forthefirsttime,Luce"sfaithintheeventualoutcomewasshaken.Eileenwasaccompanyingherfathertovisitfriendsmadeonacampingtriptheyearbefore.5.97"On"canbeusedinaslightlyformalwaywithnounsand"ing"-formsreferringtoactionsoractivitiestoindicatethatoneeventoccursafteranother.Ishallbringtheremainingsevenhundredpoundsonmyreturninelevendays.Onbeingcalled"younglady",shelaughed.5.98Onthefewoccasionswhenpeoplehavetospecifyatimeanddateexactly,forexampleinlegalEnglishorformaldocuments,theusualorderis:clocktime,followedbyperiodofday,dayoftheweek,anddate....ateighto"clockonthemorningof29October1618....onthenightofThursdayJuly16.Non-specifictimes5.99Ifyouwanttobelesspreciseaboutwhensomethinghappened,youcanuseanapproximatingadverborapproximatingexpression.Itisalsopossibletouseprepositionstorelateeventstolessspecificpointsorperiodsoftime,forexamplewhentheexacttimeofaneventisnotknown,orwheneventshappengradually,continuously,orseveraltimes.Ataboutfouro"clockinthemorning,wewereambushed.ThedevicethatexplodedataroundmidnightonWednesdayseverelydamagedthefourth-floorbar.Thesupplyofservantscontinueduntilabout1950,thenabruptlydriedup.Hedevelopedcentralchestpainduringthenight.For,alsooverthesummer,hisbookhadcomeout.OnemorningbeforedawnArkwasbeginningtowakemeupasusual.Hereisalistofapproximatingadverbsandexpressions:aboutalmostaroundjustafterjustbeforenearlyroundaboutshortlyaftershortlybeforesoonafterthereabouts"About","almost","around","nearly",and"roundabout",areusuallyusedwithclocktimesoryears.With"about","around",and"roundabout",thepreposition"at"canoftenbeomittedininformalEnglish.Thenquitesuddenly,roundaboutmidday,mymoodbegantochange.Aboutnineo"clockhewentouttothekitchen.Hereisalistofprepositionswhichareusedtorelateeventstoanon-specifictime:afterbeforebyduringfollowingoverpriortoWARNING5.100"Almost"or"nearly"canonlybeusedaftertheverb"be".5.101Youcanalsouse"orthereabouts"afterthetimeexpression.Backin1975orthereaboutssomeonelentmeanarticleabouteducation....atfouro"clockorthereabouts."during"forperiodsoftime5.102"During"canbeusedinsteadof"in"withperiodsoftheday,months,seasons,years,decades,andcenturies.WetrytokeeppeopleinformedbypostduringSeptember.385 Sheheatedtheplaceduringthewinterwithahugewoodfurnace.During1973anAnti-ImperialistAlliancewasformed.DuringtheSixtiesvariouslevieswereimposed.Duringtheseventhcenturyincendiaryweaponswereinvented.TheyusedtospentthewholeSundayatchapelbutmostofthembehavedshockinglyduringtheweek.5.103"During"canbeusedwithmosteventnounstoindicatethatoneeventtakesplacewhileanotherisoccurring:Duringhisstayinprison,hehaswrittenmanyessaysandpoems....tryingtoboostpolicemoraleduringaheatedbattlewithrioters.Thewater-holdingfrogappearsabovegroundonlyduringthebriefandinfrequentrainstorms.Somefamiliesliveinthekitchenduringapowercut.DuringthejourneyIcametolikeandrespectthem.WARNING5.104"Duringtheweek"meansonweekdays,incontrasttotheweekend."over"forevents5.105"Over"canbeusedwith"winter","summer",andspecialperiodsoftheyeartoindicatethataneventoccurredthroughouttheperiodoratanunspecifiedtimeduringit....tohelpkeeptheirfamiliesgoingoverthewinter.MyfriendshadamarvelloustimeovertheNewYear."Over"isalsousedwhenreferringtoaperiodoftimeimmediatelybeforeorafterthetimeofspeakingorthetimebeingtalkedabout.Thenumberwillincreaseconsiderablyoverthenextdecade.Theyhavebeendoingalltheycanoverthepasttwenty-fourhours.WepackedupthethingsIhadaccumulatedoverthelastfouryears."Over"canbeusedwithmealsanditemsoffoodordrinktoindicatethatsomethinghappenswhilepeopleareeatingordrinking.Davissaidhewantedtoreaditoverlunch.Canwediscussitoveracupofcoffee?5.106Youcanalsobemoregeneralbystatingtherelationshipbetweenaneventandaperiodoftimeorspecificpointintime."Before","priorto",and"after"canbeusedtorelateeventstoatime.Shegetsupbeforesix.Ifyou"restuckcomebackandseemebeforeThursday....theconstructionofwarshipsbythemajorpowerspriorto1914.CityMusicHallisgoingtoclosedownafterEaster.Cleanupthekitchenaftertheweekend.Theycanalsobeusedtorelateoneeventtoanother.Iwasinabankforawhilebeforethewar.ShegavememuchhelpfuladvicepriortomyvisittoTurkey.Jackleftafterbreakfast.Hewaskilledinacaraccidentfouryearsaftertheirmarriage.Aftermuchdiscussion,theyhaddecidedtotakethecointoajeweller."Following","previousto"and"subsequentto"canalsobeusedwithevents.Thesefeaturesincreasethechancesthatwewillbeabletoseeandthinkclearlyfollowingaphysicalattack.HesuggeststhatRosswaspromptedprevioustotheparade.Thetestimonyanddescriptionofonewitnesswouldbesuppliedpriortotheinterview;thoseoftheothertwosubsequenttoit.5.107"Before"and"after"canalsobeusedtoindicatetheorderofeventswhenthesamepersondoestwoactionsortwopeopledothesameaction.Ishouldhavetalkedaboutthatbeforeanythingelse.HeknewNellwouldprobablybehomebeforehim.Idothefloorafterthewashing-up.Youcanalsosometimesuse"earlierthan"or"laterthan".Smilingdevelopsearlierthanlaughing.5.108Toindicatethattwoormoreeventshappenatthesametime,theadverbs"together"and"simultaneously",ortheadjuncts"atthesametime"and"atonce"canbeused:Everythinghadhappenedtogether.Hisfearandhishategrewsimultaneously.385 Canyoulovetwowomenanthesametime?Ican"tbeeverywhereatonce.5.109Youcanalsoindicatewhatorderthingshappeninusingadverbssuchas"first","next",and"finally"."Simultaneously",and"atthesametime"areusedinasimilarwaytolinkclauses.Thisdealtwithinparagraph10.78."by"forspecifictime5.110"By"isusedtoemphasizethataneventoccursatsometimebeforeaspecifictime,butnotlater."By"isalsousedtoindicatethataprocessiscompletedorreachesaparticularstagenotlaterthanaspecifictime.Byeleveno"clock,Brodywasbackinhisoffice.ThetheorywasthatbyMondaytheirtemperswouldhavecooled.By1985therewillbe5,000robotsonthejob.Doyouthinkwe"llgettothetopofthiscanyonbytomorrow?Bynowthemoonwasup.Butbythenhewasboredwiththeproject.Subordinatetimeclauses5.111Subordinatetimeclausescanoftenbeusedinsteadofprepositionalphrasestoindicatewhenaneventoccurs.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Hewaskilledinacaraccidentfouryearsaftertheirmarriage",youcouldsay"Hewaskilledinacaraccidentfouryearsaftertheyweremarried".Or,insteadofsaying"Duringhisstayinprison,hehaswrittenmanyessaysandpoems",youcouldsay"Whilehehasbeeninprison,hehaswrittenmanyessaysandpoems".Itisoftenpossibleorpreferabletouseasubordinateclauseintroducedby"before"or"after"toindicatetheorderorsimultaneityofanumberofevents.Subordinatetimeclausesareexplainedinparagraphs8.8to8.24.Extendedusesoftimeexpressions5.112Timeexpressesandprepositionalphrasescanbeusedasqualifierstospecifyeventsorperiodsoftime.I"mafraidthemeetingthisafternoontiredmebadly.Thesuddendeathofhisfatheron17November1960didnotfindhimunprepared....untilIstartedtorecalltheyearsaftertheSecondWorldWar.Noadmissionsarepermittedinthehourbeforeclosingtime.Clocktimes,periodsoftheday,daysoftheweek,months,dates,seasons,specialperiodsoftheyear,years,decades,andcenturiescanbeusedasmodifierstospecifythings.Everymorninghewouldsetoffrightaftertheeighto"clocknews.Castlewasusuallyabletocatchthesixthirty-fivetrainfromEuston.Butnowthesunwasalreadyshreddingawaythemorningmists.HelearnedthathehadmissedtheMondayflight.Ihadsummerclothesandwinterclothes.AshhadspenttheChristmasholidaysatPelhamAbbas.Possessiveformscanalsobeused.Tuesday"spaperwillheforcedtocarryanextrapagetoprintallthecorrectionstostatementsinMonday"spaper.ItwasJimGriffiths,whoknewnothingofthemorning"shappenings.Thestorywillappearintomorrow"spaper.Thisweek"sbatchofgovernmentstatisticsaddedtothegeneralconfusionoverthestateoftheeconomy.Formoreinformationonmodifiersandqualifiers,seeChapter2.Frequencyandduration5.113Whenindicatinghowoftensomethinghappens,orhowlongitlastsortakes,unitsoftimeareoftenused:momentsecondminutehourdaynightweekfortnightmonthyeardecadecentury"Fortnight"isusedonlyinthesingular."Moment"isnotusedwithnumbersbecauseitdoesnotrefertoapreciseperiodoftime,soyoucannotsayforexample"Ittookfivemoments".Wordsforperiodsoftheday,daysoftheweek,monthsoftheyear,andseasonsarealsoused,suchas"morning","Friday","July",and"winter".385 Clocktimesmayalsobeused.Adjunctsoffrequency5.114Someadverbsandadverbialexpressionsindicateapproximatelyhowmanytimessomethinghappens:againandagainalotallthetimealwaysconstantlycontinuallycontinuouslyeverfrequentlyfromtimetotimehardlyeverinfrequentlyintermittentlymuchnevernormallyoccasionallyoftenperiodicallyrarelyregularlyrepeatedlyseldomsometimessporadicallyusuallyWeoftenswaminthesurfinfrontofourseasidecottages.SometimesIwishIwasbackinAfrica.Wewerealwaysbeingsenthome.Heblinkedalot."Never"isanegativeadverb.Shenevergoesabroad."Ever"isonlyusedinquestions,negativeclauses,and"if"-clauses.Haveyoueverbeentoaconcert?"Much"isusuallyusedwith"not".Themendidn"ttalkmuchtoeachother.Someadverbsoffrequencysuchas"often"and"frequently"canalsobeusedinthecomparativeandsuperlativeDisasterscanbepreventedmoreoftenthaninthepast.Ipreachedmuchmoreoftenthanthat.Theycriedfortheirmotherslessoftenthanmighthavebeenexpected....themistakeswhichwomenmakemostfrequently.5.115Toindicatehowmanytimessomethinghappens,youcanuseaspecificnumber,"several",or"many"followedby"times".Wehadtoaskthreetimes.It"sanexperienceI"verepeatedmanytimessince.Hecarefullyaimedhisrifleandfiredseveraltimes.Ifthenumberyouareusingis"one"youuse"once"(not"onetime")inthisstructure.Ifitis"two"youcanuse"twice".I"vebeenoutwithhimonce,that"sall.Thecarbrokedowntwice.Ifsomethinghappensregularly,youcansayhowmanytimesithappenswithinaperiodoftimebyadding"a"andawordreferringtoaperiodoftime.Thegroupmetonceaweek.Youonlyhaveamealthreetimesaday.Thecommitteemeetstwiceayear.Youcanalsouseafrequencyexpressionsuchas"once"withaunitoftimeprecededby"every"tosaythatsomethinghappensaspecifiednumberoftimesandonaregularbasiswithinthatunitoftime.TheaverageBritonmoveshouseonceeverysevenandahalfyears.WemeettwiceeverySunday.Threetimeseveryday,hewouldcometothekiosktoseewewereallright.Ifaneventhappensregularlyduringaspecificperiodoftheday,youcanusetheperiodofdayinsteadof"times":Iusedtogointhreemorningsaweek.Hewasgoingoutfourandsometimesfivenightsaweek.Aregularrateorquantitycanalsobeexpressedbyadding"a"andageneraltimeword."Per"canbeusedinsteadof"a",especiallyintechnicalcontexts.Theyagainorderedhimtopaytenshillingsamonth.Iwasonlygettingthreehoursofsleepanight....risingupwardsattherateof300feetpersecond.Hehurtlesthroughtheairat600milesperhour.estimatingfrequency5.116Ifyouwanttobelesspreciseabouthowfrequentlysomething385 happens,youcanuseoneofthefollowingapproximatingadverbsorapproximatingexpressions:"almost","about","nearly","orso","orless",and"ormore".Youcanuse"almost"and"about"infrontof"every".Inthelastmonthofherpregnancy,wetooktogoingoutalmosteveryevening.Youcanalsouse"almost"infrontof"-ly"timeadverbsderivedfromgeneraltimewords:Smallscaleconfrontationsoccuralmostdailyinmanystates."Orso","orless",and"ormore"areusedafterfrequencyexpressions,butnotafteradverbsoffrequency.Everyhourorso,myshoulderswouldtighten.Ifyouarestudyingpart-time(21hoursorlessaweek)youcanclaimsupplementarybenefit.regularintervals5.117Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethinghappenatregularintervals,youcanuse"every"followedbyeitherageneraloraspecificunitoftime."Each"issometimesusedinsteadof"every".We"llgohuntingeveryday.Yougetalumpsumandyougetapensioneachweek.SomepeoplewriteoutanewaddressbookeveryJanuary."Every"canalsobeusedwithanumberandthepluraloftheunitoftime.Everyfiveminutesthephonewouldring.Theregularoroveragerateorquantityofsomethingcanalsobeexpressedusing"every"and"each".Onefighterjetwasshotdowneveryhour.Academyschoolssendabout200tothekilneveryfortnight.6.118Ifsomethinghappensduringoneperiodoftimebutnotduringthenextperiod,thenhappensagainduringthenext,andsoon,youcanuse"everyother"followedbyaunitoftimeofaspecifictimeword."Everysecond"issometimesusedinsteadof"everyother".Wewroteeveryotherday.Theirlocalcommitteesareusuallyheldeveryothermonth.HeusedtocomeandtakethemouteveryotherSunday.Itseemedeasiertoshaveonlyeverysecondday.Prepositionalphraseswith"alternate"andapluraltimewordcanalsobeused.OnalternateSundaynights,Itelltheyoungerchildrenastory.Justdosomeexercisesonalternatedaysatfirst.5.119Theadverbs"first","next",and"last"areusedtoindicatethestageatwhichaneventtakesplace.Theadverb"first",thenoungroup"thefirsttime",andtheprepositionalphrase"forthefirsttime"canindicatethefirstoccurrenceofanevent.Hewas,Ithink,inhisearlysixtieswhenIfirstencounteredhim.Theyhadseeneachotherfirstaweekbefore,outsidethishotel....thetacticalwargameswhichwerefirstfoughtinAncientGreece.ItrainedheavilytwicewhileIwasout.ThefirsttimeIshelteredinacopse,butthesecondtimelgallopedthroughit.ForthefirsttimeAnneMariefeltfrightened.Therepetitionofaneventorsituationthathasnothappenedforalongtimecanbeindicatedbyusing"forthefirsttime"with"in"andthepluralformofageneraltimeword.DieselischeaperthanpetrolinBritainforthefirsttimeinyears.You"realoneforthefirsttimeinmonths.Afutureoccurrenceisindicatedby"nexttime"or"thenexttime".Don"tdoitagain.Imightn"tforgiveyounexttime.ThenexttimeIcomehere,I"mgoingtobebetter.Theuseof"next"withstatementsreferringtothefutureisdescribedinparagraph5.62.Themostrecentoccurrenceofaneventcanbeindicatedbyusing"last"asanadverborthenoungroups"lasttime"or"thelasttime".Heseemedtohavegrownalotsincehelastworeit.Hecouldnotrememberwhenhehadlasteaten.Whendidyoulastseehim?Youdidsowelllasttime.Thefinaloccurrencecanbeindicatedby"forthelasttime".Forthelasttimehewavedtothethreefriendswhowatchedfromabove.Theuseof"last"instatementsaboutthepastisdescribedinparagraph5.41.385 Youcanalsouse"before","again",andnoungroupswithanordinaland"time"tosaywhetheraneventisafirstoccurrence,oronethathashappenedbefore.Youcanuse"before"withaperfecttensetoindicatewhethersomethingishappeningforthefirsttimeorisarepeatedoccurrence.I"veneverbeeninapoliceman"shousebefore.He"sdoneitbefore.Theadverb"again"canbeusedtoindicateasecondorsubsequentoccurrenceofanevent.Ordinalscanbeusedwith"time",innoungroupsorinmoreformalprepositionalphraseswith"for",tospecifyaparticularoccurrenceofarepeatedevent.Someonerangthefrontdoorbell.Hestoodandlistenedandhearditringagainandthenathirdtime."Wehavenoreliableinformationaboutthatyet,"hefoundhimselfsayingforthethirdtime."-ly"timeadverbs5.120Somegeneraltimewordscanbechangedintoadverbsbyadding"-ly"andusedtoindicatethefrequencyofanevent.hourlydailyweeklyfortnightlymonthlyquarterlyyearlyNotethespellingof"daily".Theadverb"annually"andtheadjective"annual"havethesamemeaningas"yearly".Itwassuggestedthatwegiveeachchildanallowanceyearlyormonthlytocoverallheorshespends.ScotlandtoohasanExecutiveCommitteewhichmeetsmonthly.Thesamewordscanbeusedasadjectives.Tothis,weaddayearlyallowanceof£65.00towardsrepairsMutualhelpisbestdoneonanhourlybasis.Theyhadalong-standingcommitmenttomakingaweeklycashpaymenttomothers.prepositionalphrases5.121Prepositionalphraseswithpluralformsofspecifictimewordscanalsobeusedtoindicatefrequency.Forexample,"on"canbeusedwithdaysoftheweek,"during"and"at"with"weekends".We"vehadteachingpracticeonTuesdaysandlecturesonThursdays.Shedoesnotneedhelpwiththechildrenduringweek-ends.Weseeeachotheratweek-ends."In"isusedwithperiodsoftheday,except"night".Ican"tworkfulltime.Ionlyworkintheafternoons,Ihavelecturesinthemornings.HarryTrumanlovedtositinanoldrockingchairintheeveningsandfacethelawnsbehindtheWhiteHouse.developmentandregularoccurrence5.122Toindicatethatsomethingdevelopsgradually,orhappensatregularintervals,youcanuseageneraltimewordwith"by"followedbythesamegeneraltimeword.Shewasgettingolderyearbyyear,andlonelier,andmoreridiculous.Millionsofcitizensfollow,daybyday,theunfoldingofthedrama.Gradualdevelopmentcanalsobeindicatedbytheadverbs"increasingly"and"progressively"....thecomputersandinformationbanksuponwhichourworldwillincreasinglydepend.Hisconductbecameincreasinglyeccentric.Asdisposableincomerises,peoplebecomeprogressivelylessconcernswithprice.Adjunctsofduration5.123Thefollowingsectionexplainswaysofindicatingnowlongsomethinglastsortakes.Someadverbsandadverbialexpressionscanbeusedtoindicatethedurationofaneventorstate.Hereisalistofadverbswhichareusedtoindicateduration:alwaysbrieflyforeverindefinitelylongovernightpermanentlytemporarilySheglancedbrieflyatLucasSimmonds.Youwon"tliveforever.TheflathadbeenlettothembyoneofDaisy"sfriendswhowastemporarilyinAmerica."Briefly"and"permanently"canbeusedinthecomparative.Thisnewrevelationhadmuchthesameoutwardeffect,thoughmorebriefly.Urgingthemreducestheappetitefurtherandmorepermanently.Theform"long"isonlyusedasanadverbinnegativeclauses,andquestions.Ihaven"tbeeninEnglandlong.385 Howlongdoesittakeonthetrain?Inpositiveclauses,itisusedinexpressionssuchas"alongtime"andprepositionalphrasessuchas"foralongtime".However,thecomparativeandsuperlativeforms"longer"and"longest"canbeusedinpositiveandnegativeclauses.Thenofcourseyou"llgowinParry.She"sbeenyourfriendlonger.I"vebeenthinkingaboutitalotlongerthanyou.Sheremainedthelongest.Inaffirmativeandnegative"if"-clauses,youcanuse"forlong".Ifshe"sawayforlongwewon"tbeabletowait.5.124However,prepositionalphrasesaremorecommonlyused.Thefollowingprepositionsareusedinadjunctsofduration:afterbeforeforfrominsincethroughouttountilTheprepositionalobjectcanbeanoungroupreferringtoaspecificperiodoftime.Thiscanbeinthesingularafterthedeterminer"a"(or"one"foremphasis),orinthepluralafteranumberorquantifier.Thenoungroupcanalsorefertoanindefiniteperiod,forexampleexpressionssuchas"alongtime","ashortwhile","awhile",or"ages",orpluraltimewordssuchas"hours"."for"forlengthoftime5.125Thepreposition"for"indicateshowlongsomethingcontinuestohappen.IshestillthinkingofgoingawaytoItalyforamonth?Theinitialbattlecontinuedforanhour.Thisprecioushappytimelastedforamonthortwo.Themachinewascompletelyimmobilizedfortenminutes.Weweremarriedforfifteenyears.Ididn"tspeakforalongtime.Shewouldhavelikedtositforawhileandthink.Youuse"the"insteadof"a"whentheperiodoftimeisalreadyknownwithseasons,periodsoftheday,and"weekend",orwhenyoumodifythetimewordwithwordslike"past","coming","following","next","last",oranordinal.TellAuntElizabethyou"reofffortheday.We"vebeenlivingtogetherforthepastyear.ForthefirstmonthortwoIwasbulliedconstantly.Forthenextfewdaysheremainedproneonhisbedinhisquarters.Putthemincoldstorageforthewinter.IsaidI"mofftoBrightonfortheweekend.Rememberthatyoudonotuseadeterminerwithspecialperiodsoftheyear.AtleastcomeforChristmas.5.126"For"canalsobeusedwithspecifictimeexpressionstoindicatethetimewhensomethingistobeused,nothowlongittakesoflasts.EverythingwasplacedexactlywhereIwanteditforthemorning.5.127"For"canalsobeusedinnegativestatementwhenyouwanttosaythatsomethingneednotorwillnothappenuntilacertainperiodoftimehaspassed."Yet"isoftenadded.Itwon"tbereadytosailforanotherthreeweeks.Idon"thavetodecideforamonthyet."for"foremphasis5.128"For"isusedwithapluralnoungrouptoemphasizehowlongsomethinglasts.Settlershavebeencominghereforcenturies.Idon"tthinkhe"spractisedmuchforyears.I"vebeenaskingyouaboutthesedoorsformonths.USAGENOTE5.129Youcanalsouseageneraltimewordwith"after"followedbythesamegeneraltimewordtoemphasizethatastatecontinuesforalongtimeorthatanactionisrepeatedcontinuouslyforalongtime.Avillageseesthesamehandscenturyaftercentury.Theycangoonmakinglosses,yearafteryear,withoutfearingthattheywillgobust."in"and"within"forendofaperiod5.130"In"isusedtoindicatethatsomethinghappensorwillhappenbeforetheendofacertainperiodoftime.InmoreformalEnglish"within"isused.Canwegettotheairportinanhour?385 ThatcoatmusthavecostyoumorethanImakeinayear.Thefaceofacitycanchangecompletelyinayear.Somemayformthebasisofanewanti-Aidsdrugwithinayearortwo.5.131"In"and"within"arealsousedtoindicatethatsomethingonlytookortakesashorttime.Thecloudsevaporatedinseconds.Whatanexpertcandoinminutesmaytakeyouhourstoaccomplish.Withinafewmonths,thebarnyardhadbeenabandoned.5.132"For"and"in"canbeusedinnegativestatementstosaythatsomethingdoesnothappenduringaperiodoftime.Youcanusetheminthiswaywithspecificunitsoftime,andwithmoregeneraltimereferences.Hehadn"thadapropernight"ssteepforamonth.Ihaven"tseenachartforfortyyears!TheteamhadnotheardfromStablerinamonth.Hehasn"tsleptinamonth.Ihaven"tseenhimforyears.Let"shaveadinnerparty.Wehaven"thadoneinyears.Ihaven"tfiredaguninyears.5.133Notethatwiththeverbs"last","wait",and"stay",whichhavedurationaspartoftheirmeaning,theadjunctofdurationcanbeanoungroupinsteadofaprepositionalphrasewith"for".Thecampaignlastsfourweeksatmost.Hisspeechlastedforexactly14andahalfminutes."Waitaminute,"thevoicesaid.Hestayedamonth,fiveweeks,sixweeks.Theverbs"take"and"spend"canalsoindicatedurationbuttheadjunctofdurationcanonlybeanoungroup.Ittookmeamonthtolosethatfeelingofbeingaspectator.Whatoncetookacenturynowtookonlytenmonths.Hespentfiveminuteswashingandshaving.5.134Ifyouwanttobelesspreciseaboutnowlongsomethinglasts,youcanuseoneofthefollowingapproximatingadverbsorapproximatingexpressions:"about","almost","nearly","around","morethan","lessthan",andsoon.Thefamilyhadcontrolledthetimeformorethanacentury.Theyhavenotbeenallowedtoformunionsforalmostadecade.Thethreeofustravelledaroundtogetherforaboutamonththatsummer.Inlessthanayear,IlearnedenoughLatintopasstheentranceexam.HehadbeenincommandofHMSChurchillfornearlyayear.Whenmakingageneralstatementaboutthedurationofsomething,youcanindicatethemaximumperiodoftimethatitwillfastortakebyusing"upto".Refreshertrainingforuptoonemontheachyearwastheruleforall.Youcanalsouseexpressionssuchas"orso","ormore","orless","orthereabouts"tomakethedurationlessspecific.Hehasbeenwritingabouttennisandgolfforfortyyearsorso.Ourspeciesprobablypractiseditforamillionyearsormore....hopeswhichhaveprevailedsostronglyforacenturyormore."Almost","about","nearly",and"thereabouts"arealsousedwhentalkingaboutwhenaneventtakesplace;seeparagraph5.99fordetailsofthis.Indicatingthewholeofaperiod5.135Ifyouwanttoemphasizethatsomethinglastsforthewholeofaperiodoftime,youcanuse"all"asadeterminerwithmanygeneraltimewords."I"vebeenwarningtodothisallday,"shesaid.I"vebeenhereallnight.Theysaidyouwereoutallafternoon.We"venotseenthemallsummer.Youcanalsouse"whole"asamodifierinfrontofageneraltimeword.Theyforecastafallinprofitsforthewholeof1989....scientistswhoaremonitoringfoodsafelythewholetime....womenwhohavestoppedmenstruatingforawholeyear.385 Youcanalsouse"allthrough","rightthrough",and"throughout"with"the"andmanygeneraltimewords,ofwithaspecificdecade,year,month,orspecialperiod.Discussionsandargumentscontinuedallthroughtheday.Rightthroughthesummermonthstheyarerarefyoutofsight.ThroughouttheSixties,man"sfirstvoyagetootherworldscamecloser.Wordsreferringtoeventscanbeusedinsteadofthetimewords,toemphasizethatsomethinghappenedfortheentiredurationoftheevent.Heworeanexpressionofangrycontemptthroughouttheinterrogation.Apatientreportedadreamthathadrecurredthroughoutherlife.Allthroughthecruellylongjourneyhome,helayutterlymotionless.5.136Ifyouwanttoemphasizethatsomethinghappensallthetime,youcanlistperiodsofthedayorseasonsoftheyear,ormentioncontrastingones....peoplecominginmorning,noon,andnight.I"vewornthesamesuitsummer,winter,autumnandspring,forfiveyears.Thousandsofslavelabourersworkednightanddaytobuildthefortifications.Tengardenersusedtoworkthisland,winterandsummer.Indicatingthestartorendofaperiodstarttime5.137Youcanalsoindicatehowlongasituationlastsbyusingprepositionalphrasestogivethetimewhenitbeginsorthetimewhenitends,orboth.Ifyouwanttotalkaboutasituationthatbeganinthepastandiscontinuingnow,ortoconsideraperiodofitfromatimeinthepasttothepresent,youusethepreposition"since"withatimeexpressionoraneventtoindicatewhenthesituationbegan.Theverbisinthepresentperfecttense.I"vebeenheresincetwelveo"clock.Ihaven"thadanewcustomerinheresinceSunday.Some850firemenhavebeenlaidoffsinceApril.Ihaven"tbeenoutsinceChristmas.Hehasnotwonamajorchampionshipsince1974.Therehasbeennowordofmyfriendsincetherevolution."Since"isalsousedtoindicatethebeginningofsituationsthatendedinthepast.Theverbisinthepastperfecttense.I"dbeenworkinginLondonsinceJanuaryatafirmcalledKendalls.Hehadn"tprayedoncesincethemorning.I"donlyhadtwosandwichessincebreakfast."Since"canalsobeusedwithotherprepositionalphrasesthatindicateapointintime.Ihaven"tseenyousincebeforethesummer.Thenoungroupafter"since"cansometimesrefertoapersonorthingratherthanatimeorevent,especiallywhenusedwithasuperlative,"first"or"only",orwithanegative.ThelastgovernmentwasthegreatesttragedyinourhistorysinceHenrytheEighth.IhaveneverhadanotherdogsinceJonnie.5.138Thetimewhenasituationbegancanalsobeindicatedbyusingthepreposition"from"andaddingtheadverb"on"or"onwards".Thenoungroupcanbeadate,anevent,oraperiod.Theverbcanbeinthesimplepasttenseorinaperfecttense....thehistoryofBritishindustryfromthemidsixtieson.Fromtheeighteenthcenturyon,greatprivatepalaceswentup.Butfromthemid-1960sonwardstherateofpublicwelfarespendinghastendedtoaccelerate.Thefamilysizestartstoinfluencedevelopmentfrombirth.Theyneverperceivedthattheythemselveshadforcedwomenintothisrolefromchildhood....theguidewhohadbeenwithusfromthebeginning.5.139Youcanalsousethepreposition"after"togivethetimewhenasituationbegan.Theydon"tletanybodyinaftersixo"clock.After1929Iconcentratedoncanvaswork.He"dhaveanumberofboystohelphimthroughthesummer-timebutafterOctoberhe"djusthavetheone.5.140Similarly,ifyouwanttosaythatasituationcontinuesforsometimeandthenstop,youcanindicatethetimewhenitstopsbyusingthepreposition"until"withatimeexpressionoranevent.Theschoolwaskeptopenuntilteno"clockfivenightsaweek.385 Theydancedandlaughedandtalkeduntildawn.Shewalkedbackagainandsatinherroomuntildinner.I"vejustdiscoveredshe"sonlyhereuntilSunday.HehadbeenwillingtowaituntilthefollowingSummer.UntilthethirdcenturyA.D.femaleslaveswerebelowthelaw.Untilthatmeeting,mostofusknewverylittleabouthim."Until"canalsobeusedinnegativeclausestosaythatsomethingdidnotorwillnothappenbeforeaparticulartime.Wewon"tgetthemuntilSeptember.Myplanedoesnotleaveuntiltomorrowmorning.NooneIknewhadcarsuntilthetwenties.Itwon"thappenformanygoodmonthstocome-probablynotuntilthespring."Until"canalsobeusedwithotherprepositionalphrasesthatindicateapointintime.TheCourthadresolvedtowaituntilafterChristmastoproposetoGertrude.Somepeopleuse"till"insteadof"until",especiallyininformalEnglish.SometimesIlieinbedtillnineo"clock."Upto"and"uptill"arealsosometimesused,mainlybefore"now"and"then".UptonowtheWarsawpacthadheldthewholeinitiative.Itwassomethinghehadneverevenconsidereduptillnow.Ihadathree-wheelbikeuptoafewyearsagobutitgotharderandhardertopushitalong.5.141Youcanalsousethepreposition"before"toindicatewhenasituationends.Before1716Cheltenhamhadbeenasmallmarkettown.Beforetenandaftersixtheareaisempty.startandendtimes5.142Thedurationofasituationoreventcanbeindicatedbysayingwhenitbeginsandwhenitends.Youcanuse"from"toindicatewhenitbeginsand"to","till",or"until"toindicatewhenitends.TheBlitzonLondonbeganwithnightlybombingsfrom7Septemberto2November.TheyareactiveinthelinefromaboutJanuaryuntilOctober....fromfourinthemorninguntiltenatnight.Theyseemtobeworkingfromdawntilldusk.Youcanalsouse"between"and"and"insteadof"from"and"to".Between1966and1970Mintechinvested8minadvancedmachinery.It"susuallyinthegaragebetweenSundayandThursdayinwinter....illuminatedadvertisingbetweenmidnightanddawn.InAmericanEnglish,"through"isoftenplacedbetweenthetwotimes:Thechatshowsgoesoutmidnightthroughsixa.m.Ifyouareusingfigurestorefertotwotimesofyears,youcanseparatethemwithadash,insteadofusing"from"and"to"....open10-5weekdays,10-6Saturdaysand2-6Sundays.Durationexpressionsasmodifiers5.143Youcanalsousetimeexpressionsinvolvingacardinalnumberandageneraltimewordtomodifynouns.Notethatanapostropheisaddedtothetimeword.Fourofthoseweresentencedto15days"detention.Theywanttotakeonstaffwithtwoyears"experience.Thisuseofcardinalnumbersisdescribeinparagraph2.248.5.144Timeexpressionsarealsousedascompoundadjectivestomodifycountnouns.TheyallhavetostartoffwithasixmonthcourseinGerman.IarrivedattheUniversityforathreemonthstintasavisitinglecturer.Compoundadjectivesareexplainedinparagraphs2.98to2.107.ContentsofChapter6page6.1-15Introductiontoadjuncts2136.7-15Positionofadjuncts2146.16-52Givinginformationaboutmanner:adverbs2166.17-29Adverbformsandmeaningsrelatedtoadjectives2166.30-35Comparativeandsuperlativeadverbs2186.36-44Adverbsofmanner220385 6.45-52Adverbsofdegree2216.53-127Givinginformationaboutplace:prepositions2236.58-63Positionofprepositionalphrases2246.64-72Indicatingposition2256.73-79Indicatingdirection2276.80-81Prepositionalphrasesasqualifiers2276.82-93Otherwaysofgivinginformationaboutplace2286.94-100Destinationsanddirections2306.101-107Noungroupsreferringtoplace:placenames2316.108-116Otherusesofprepositionalphrases2326.117-122Prepositionsusedwithverbs2336.123-126Prepositionalphrasesafternounsandadjectives2346.127Extendedmeaningsofprepositions2346ExpressingmannerandplaceIntroductiontoadjuncts6.1Whenyouaretalkingaboutaneventorsituation,yousometimeswanttosaysomethingaboutitwhichhasnotbeenindicatedbythesubject,verb,object,orcomplement.Youcandothisbyusinganadjunct.Anadjunctisawordorgroupofwordswhichyouaddtoaclausewhenyouwanttosaysomethingaboutthecircumstancesofaneventorsituation,forexamplewhenitoccurs,howitoccurs,howmuchitoccurs,orwhereitoccurs.Iwassoonlost.Shelaughedquietly.Shewastremendouslyimpressed.Hefumbledinhispocket.Inothergrammars,adjunctsaresometimescalledadverbials,adverbphrases,oradverbialphrases.adverbialgroups6.2Thetwomaintypesofadjunctsareadverbialgroupsandprepositionalphrases.Adverbialgroupsusuallyconsistofadverbs.Heactedveryclumsily.Icannotspeaktoohighlyoftheircourageandskill.Hetakeshisjobveryseriouslyindeed.Hedidnotplaywellenoughthroughouttheweektodeservetowin.However,adverbsveryoftenoccurontheirown.Ishookhergently.HegreatlyadmiredCezanne.Theproductionwasscarcelynoticedbythepress.Thenumberwillprobablybehigherthanweexpected.Formoreinformationaboutadverbs,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph6.16.prepositionalphrases6.3Adjunctsconsistingofaprepositionandanoungroup,suchas"inabox"and"tothestation",arecalledprepositionalphrases.Themostbasicuseofprepositionalphrasesistoindicatepositionanddirection,sotheyaredealtwithindetailatthesectiononplacebeginningatparagraph6.53.Largecushionslayonthefloor.Thevoicewascomingfrommyapartment.noungroups6.4Occasionally,noungroupscanalsobeusedasadjuncts.Hewaslookingreallyillthistimeyesterday."There"samassivemarketthatsideofthewater,"hesays,gesturingoutofhiswindow.I"mgoingtohandlethismyway.Whennoongroupsareusedasadjuncts,theyaremostoftenadjunctsoftime,whicharedealtwithinChapter5.Noungroupsasadjunctsofplacearedealtwithatparagraph6.101,asadjunctsofmanneratparagraph6.44,andasadjunctsofdegreeatparagraph6.52.Formoreinformationonnoungroupsingeneral,seeChapters1and2.6.5Themostcommonwayinwhichadverbialgroupsgiveadditionalinformationisbyaddingsomethingtothemeaningofaverbgroupwithinaclause.Henoddedandsmiledwarmly.Thereportsaysthathospitalsandrescueservicescopedextremelywell.Nevertheless,hedoesdramatizeprettyfaithfullythisJoanofArcperiod.385 Prepositionalphraseshaveawiderrangeofmeanings.Itwasestimatedthatatleast2,000peoplewereonthetwotrains.KennyStuartcamesecond,knockingtwominutesoffhispreviousbesttime.Unemploymenthasfallenbelowtwomillionforthefirsttimesince1980.Manyintransitiveverbsnormallyrequireanadjunct.Seeparagraph3.11formoreinformationaboutthese.Ashtonhadbehavedabominably.Sheturnedandrushedoutoftheroom.Sometransitiveverbsnormallyrequireanadjunctaftertheobjectoftheverb.Formoreinformationaboutthese,seeparagraph3.20.Iputmyhandonthedoor.6.6Adjunctscanalsoaddmeaningtoawholeclause,forexamplebygivingthewriter"sorspeaker"scommentonit.Formoreinformation,seethesectiononsentenceadjunctsbeginningatparagraph10.56.Obviouslycrimeisgoingtobesqueezedinavarietyofways.Fortunately,thedamagehadbeenslight.Ideallythedairyshouldhaveaconcreteortiledfloor.NodoubtshelovesGertrudetoo.Theycanalsoindicatethewayinwhichoneclauseislinkedtoanotherclause.Formoreinformation,seethesectiononlinkingadjunctsbeginningatparagraph10.73.Manufacturersaredevelopingengineswhichuselessfuelandthereforepumpoutlesstoxicgas.Positionofadjuncts6.7Thepositionofadjunctswithinclausesisflexible,allowingmanychangesofemphasisandfocus.Adjunctsarenormallyplacedattheendoftheclauseaftertheverbgroup,orafteranobjectorcomplementifthereisone.Shepackedcarefully.Theywouldgoontalkingforhours.Ienjoyedthecourseimmensely.Theseemployerswerefamousfortheirmeanness.6.8Youcanemphasizetheadjunctbyplacingitatthebeginningoftheclause,infrontofthesubject.GentlyFannyleanedforwardandwipedtheoldlady"stearsaway.InhisexcitementBillyhadforgottentheletter.Theadjunctisoftenseparatedbyacommafromtherestoftheclause.Aftermuchdiscussion,theyhaddecidedtotakethecointothejeweller.Thispositionisoftenusedinwrittenstoriestodrawattentiontotheadjunct.Formoreinformation,seeparagraph10.93.Notethatadverbsofdegreearerarelyusedatthebeginningofaclause:seeparagraph6.45.betweensubjectandverb6.9Adjunctscanalsobeplacedbetweenthesubjectandthemainverb.Thisfocusesontheadjunctmorethanwhenitisattheendoftheclause,butnotasmuchasputtingitatthebeginningoftheclause.However,thispositionismuchmorecommonwithadverbsthanwithprepositionalphrases.Iquicklybecameawarethatshewaslookingatme.Weoftenswaminthesurf.Hecarefullywrappedeachcomponentinseverallayersoffoamrubber.Theyhappilytoleratedtheexistenceofopinionscontrarytotheirown.Notethatinverbgroupscontainingauxiliaries,theadjunctisstillplacedinfrontofthemainverb.Ihadalmostforgottenaboutthetrip.Wewillneverhaveenoughmoneytoprovidealltheservicesthatpeoplewant.Itwouldnotinanycasebeforhim.Longadjunctsinthispositionareusuallyseparatedbycommasfromtherestoftheclause.Fred,inhisownway,wasagreatactor.Adjunctsofplacerarelyoccurinthisposition.Formoreinformationaboutadjunctsofplace,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph6.53.6.10Someadjunctsareoftenplacedinfrontofthemainverb:385 mostadverbsofindefinitefrequency(seeparagraph5.114)alwaysconstantlycontinuallycontinuouslyeverfrequentlyhardlynevernormallyoccasionallyeverrarelyregularlyrepeatedlyoftensometimesusuallysomeadverbsofindefinitetime(seeparagraph5.41)againalreadyearlierfinallyfirstjustlastpreviouslyrecentlysincesomeadverbsofdegree(seeparagraph6.45),especiallyemphasizingadverbs(seeparagraph6.49)absolutelyalmostaltogetherbadlycompletelydeeplyentirelyfairlygreatlylargelynearlyperfectlyquiteratherreallysomewhatutterlyvirtuallywellfocusingadverbs,whenmodifyingaverb:seeparagraph10.90.evenjustmerelyonlyreallysimplyNotethatsomeadjunctshaveadifferentreferencewhenplacedinfrontofthemainverbratherthanattheendoftheclause:TheTradeUnionshaveactedfoolishly.Baldwinhadfoolishlyopenedthedoor.ThefirstexamplemeansthattheUnionsactedinafoolishway.Thesecondexamplemeansthatopeningthedoorwasafoolishaction,andnotthatthedoorwasopenedinafoolishway.Insomeareas,likeIslingtoninLondon,thedriversarepaidgenerously.Cramgenerouslyadmittedafterwardsthat"he"sstillfasterthanme".Thefirstexampletellsushowwellthedriversarepaid,thesecondexampleindicatesthatCram"sadmissionwasagenerousaction.6.11Iftheverbisa"to"-infinitive,youusuallyputadjunctsafterit,oraftertheobjectorcomplementifthereisone.Hetriedtoleavequietly.Thomasmadeanappointmenttoseehimimmediately.Somepeopledoputadverbsbetweenthe"to"andtheinfinitive,butthisuseisnotconsideredcorrectbysomespeakersofEnglish."Mywifetoldmetoprobablyexpectyou,"hesaid.Vauxhallareattemptingtoreallybreakintothemarket.6.12Ifaclausehastwoadjuncts,andoneisanadverbandtheotherisaprepositionalphrase,youcanusuallyplaceeitherofthemfirst.MissBurnslookedcalmlyatMarianne.Theyweresittinghappilyinthecar.Thewomenshoutedatmesavagely.Hegotintothecarquicklyanddroveoff.However,iftheprepositionalphraseisratherlong,itismorecommontoplacetheadverbfirst,immediatelyaftertheverb.Helistenedcalmlytothereportofhisaides.Shewouldsitcrossleggedinherredrobes.Similarly,iftheverbgroupisfollowedbyalongobject,theadverbcomesaftertheverbandbeforetheobject.Hecouldpictureeasilytheconsequencesofbeingfoundbytheowners.Shesangbeautifullyaschoolsongthechildrenhadtaughtherwhentheywerelittle.6.13Inclauseswithmorethanoneadjunct,themeaningoftheadjunctscanalsoaffecttheirorder.Theusualorderisadjunctofmanner,thenadjunctofplace,thenadjunctoftime.Theykneltquietlyintheshadowoftherock.Itriedtoreachyouathomeseveraltimes.HewasimprisonedinCairoinJanuary1945.Parentsmaycomplainthattheirchildeatsbadlyatmeals.Theyoungstersrepeatthisinunisonatthebeginningofeachsession.However,ifaclausecontainsanadverbofmannerandanadverbofdirectionsuchas"down","out",or"home",theadverbofdirectionisusuallyputinfrontoftheadverbofmanner.385 Lomaxdrovehomefast.Ireacheddownslowly.6.14Adjunctsofdifferenttypescanbeplacedtogether,sometimesseparatedbyacomma,butadjunctsofthesametype,forexampletwoadjunctsofmanner,areusuallylinkedbyconjunctionssuchas"and"and"but",orstructuressuchas"ratherthan".Formoreinformationaboutlinkingadjunctswithconjunctions,seeparagraphs8.176and8.180.Shesangclearlyandbeautifully.Theyhelptocombattheproblematsource,ratherthansuperficially.inversionafteradjuncts6.15Whenclausesbeginwithanadjunct,thenormalorderofsubjectandverbgroupcansometimesbeinverted.Forexample,afteradjunctsofplacetheverbgroupusuallycomesbeforethesubject.Formoreinformationaboutadjunctsofplace,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph6.53.Nexttoitstoodapileofpapercups.Beyondthemlaythefields.Thisalsohappenswhenbroadnegativeadverbsandsomeothernegativewordsareplacedatthebeginningoftheclause.Formoreinformationaboutthese,seeparagraphs4.43to4.94.Neverinhistoryhadtechnologymadesuchspectacularadvances.Seldomcantherehavebeensuchahappymeeting.Boththesecasesofinversionareparticularlycommoninwrittenstories.Inversioncanoccurafterotheradjuncts,butonlyinpoetryorold-fashionedEnglish.ThefollowingexampleisfromaChristmascarolwrittenin1853:Brightlyshonethemoonthatnight,thoughthefrostwascruel.Givinginformationaboutmanner:adverbstypesofadverbs6.16Thereareseveraltypesofadverbs:•adverbsoftime,frequency,andduration,forexample"soon","often",and"always".Becausetheseareallrelatedtotime,theyaredealtwithfullyinChapter5.•adverbsofplace,forexample"around","downstairs",and"underneath".Thesearedealtwithinthesectiononplacebeginningatparagraph6.82.•adverbsofmanner,forexample"beautifully","carefully",and"silently".Seethesectionbeginningatparagraph6.36formoreinformationaboutthese.•adverbsofdegree,forexample"almost",thesectionbeginningatparagraph6.415formoreinformationaboutthese.•linkingadverbs,forexample"consequently","furthermore",and"however".Thesearedealtwithinparagraphs10.73to10.81.•sentenceadverbs,forexample"alas","apparently","chiefly",and"interestingly".Seethesectionbeginningatparagraph10.56formoreinformationonthese.•broadnegativeadverbs,forexample"barely","hardly","rarely","scarcely",and"seldom".Thesearedealtwithatparagraphs4.83to4.90.•focusingadverbs,forexample"especially"and"only".Thesearedealtwithinthesectionbeginningatparagraph10.87.Adverbformsandmeaningsrelatedtoadjectives6.17Manyadverbsarerelatedtoadjectives.Themainrelationshipsandrulesofformationareexplainedbelow.Manyadverbsareformedbyadding"-ly"toanadjective.Forexample,theadverbs"quietly"and"badly"areformedbyadding"-ly"totheadjectives"quiet"and"bad".Mostoftheadverbsformedinthiswayareadverbsofmanner,sosomepeoplerefertoadverbsofmanneras"-ly"adverbs.Sittherequietly,andlistentothismusic.Ididn"tplaybadly.Hereportedaccuratelywhattheysaid.Henoddedandsmiledwarmly.Formoreinformationaboutadjectives,seeChapter2.6.18Some"-ly"adverbshaveslightlydifferentspellingsfromtheadjectivestheyarerelatedto,forexample"nastily","gently","terribly,"academically","truly",and"fully".Forinformationabouttheseadverbs,seetheReferenceSection.6.19Notalladverbsendingin"-ly"areadverbsofmanner.Someareadverbsofdegree,suchas"extremely"and"slightly":seethelistatparagraph6.45.Ienjoyedthecourseimmensely.385 Mansellnarrowedthegapslightly,butsoonProstwasedgingawayagain.Afewareadverbsoftime,duration,orfrequency,suchas"presently","briefly",and"weekly":seethelistsoftheseinChapter5.At10.15a.m.soldiersbrieflyopenedfireagain.MrKinnockcanpresentlybeseenexperiencingthesamesortoftrouble.Othersareadverbsofplace,suchas"locally"and"internationally",linkingadverbssuchas"consequently",orsentenceadverbssuchas"actually".Forlistsofadverbsofplace,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph6.82.Forlistsofsentenceadverbs,seeChapter10.Theladyreplied:"Well,youlivelocallyandhavenevercausedanybother."Theseeffortshavereceivedlittlecreditinternationally.Theydidnotpreach.Consequently,theyreachedavastlywideraudience.Theresuitremainssomethingtosay.Severalthings,actually.6.20Mostadverbsformedbyadding"-ly"toanadjectivehaveasimilarmeaningtotheadjective,forexample"quietly"and"beautifully"havesimilarmeaningsto"quiet"and"beautiful".Sheisthoughtful,quietandcontrolled."I"mgoingtodoit",Isaidquietly.Hiscostumesarebeautiful,abigimprovementonthepreviousones.Thegirlshaddressedmorebeautifullythanever,forhim.6.21Some"-ly"adverbshaveadifferentmeaningfromthemeaningsoftheirrelatedadjectives.Forexample,"hardly"means"notverymuch"or"almostnotatall"andisnotusedwithanyofthemeaningsoftheadjective"hard".Thishasbeenalonghardday.Herbedroomwassosmallshecouldhardlymoveinit.barelyhardlylatelypresentlyscarcelyshortly6.22Some"-ly"adverbsarenotrelatedtoadjectives,forexample"accordingly".Somearerelatedtonouns,forexample"bodily","purposely","daily"and"weekly".Forlistsofthese,seetheReferenceSection.6.23Adverbsendingin"-ly"areveryrarelyformedfromsometypesofadjectives.•mostclassifyingadjectives,forexample"racist","eastern","female","urban","foreign",and"available".SeeChapter2forlistsofclassifyingadjectives.•mostcolouradjectives,although"-ly"adverbsfromtheseareoccasionallyfoundinworksofliterature.Hisfaceappeared,litredly.Helaystill,staringblacklyupattheceiling.•someverycommonqualitativeadjectiveswhichrefertobasicqualities:bigfatoldsmalltalltinywetyoungadjectiveswhichalreadyendin"-ly",forexample"friendly","lively","cowardly","ugly",and"silly".•mostadjectivesthatendin"-ed",suchas"frightened"and"surprised".SeetheReferenceSectionforalistofthecommononeswhichdoform"-ly"adverbs,suchas"excitedly"and"hurriedly".sameformasadjective6.24Insomecases,anadverbhasthesameformasanadjectiveandissimilarinmeaning.Forexample,"fast"isanadverbinthesentence"Newstravelsfast"andanadjectiveinthesentence"Shelikesfastcars"....afastraillinkfromLondontotheChannelTunnel.Thedriverwasdrivingtoofastfortheconditions.Inthesecases,theadverbisusuallyplacedimmediatelyaftertheverborobject,andrarelyinfrontoftheverb.alikedowntownextrafarfastinsidelongnextoutsideoverseaspaststraightthroughTherearealsoanumberofwordsendingin"-ly"whicharebothadverbsandadjectives,forexample"daily","monthly",and"yearly".Theserelatetofrequencyandareexplainedinparagraph5.120.6.25Severalpostdeterminers,including"further","next","only","opposite",and"same",havethesameformasadverbsbutnodirectrelationinmeaning.Notethat"well"isanadverbandadjective,butusuallymeans"notill"asanadjective,and"withskillorsuccess"asanadverb.Hehasdonewell.385 twoforms6.26Sometimes,twoadverbsarerelatedtothesameadjective.Oneadverbhasthesameformastheadjective,andtheotherisformedbyadding"-ly".Heclosedhiseyestight.Heclosedhiseyestightly.Theyalsoinstitutedalegacywhichwillcostthiscountrydear.Holesintheroadareamenacewhichcoststhiscountrydearlyinlostmanhourseveryyear.TheGermanmanufacturerwasurgingmetocutoutthemiddlemananddealwithhimdirect.Thetrendinrecentyearshasbeentodealdirectlywiththesupplier.Hereisalistofcommonadverbsthathaveboththeseforms:clearclearlyclosecloselydeardearlydeepdeeplydirectdirectlyeasyeasilyfinefinelyfirstfirstlyhardhardlyhighhighlylastlastlylatelatelythickthicklythinthinlytighttightlyNotethatthe"-ly"adverboftenhasadifferentmeaningfromtheadverbwiththesameformastheadjective.Theriverwasrunninghighandswiftly.Ithoughthighlyoftheidea.Hehasworkedhard.Bordercouldhardlymakehimselfheardabovethedin.Whenthesnakestrikes,itsmouthopenswide.Closingdatesforapplicationsvarywidely.Notethat,withsomewordsthatareadverbsandadjectives,theadditionof"-ly"formsanewadverbandanewadjective,forexample"dead"and"deadly","low"and"lowly".6.27Someadjectivesdonotformadverbsatall.Theseincludethecommonqualitativeadjectiveslistedinparagraph6.23,suchas"big"and"old".Hereisalistofsomemoreadjectivesthatdonotformadverbs:afraidalivealoneasleepawakecontentdifficultdrunkforeigngoodhurtilllittlelongsorrystandardNotethattheadverbsrelatingto"content"and"drunk"areformedbyadding"-ly"totheforms"contented"and"drunken",thusgiving"contentedly"and"drunkenly".6.28Ifthereisnoadverbrelatedtoanadjective,andyouwanttogiveinadditionalinformationaboutaneventorsituation,youcanoftenuseaprepositionalphrase.Insomecases,theprepositionalphraseinvolvesanounthatisrelatedtotheadjective.Forexample,thereisnoadverbrelatedtotheadjective"difficult",butyoucanusetherelatednoun"difficulty"intheprepositionalphrase"withdifficulty"instead.Hestoodupslowlyandwithdifficulty.Inothercases,forexamplewithadjectivesthatendin"-ly",ageneralnounsuchas"way","manner",or"fashion"isused."Fishing?"shesaidinasillyway.Hegreetedusinhisusualfriendlyfashion.Prepositionalphrasesmaybeusedevenifanadverbdoesexist,forexamplewhenyouwanttoaddmoredetailedinformationortoaddemphasis.Shecomfortedthebereavedrelativesinadignified,compassionateandpersonalizedmanner.Attheseextremevelocities,materialsbehaveinatotallydifferentmannerfromnormal.adverbsnotrelatedtoadjectives6.29Someadverbsarenotrelatedtoadjectivesatall.Thisisespeciallytrueofadverbsoftimeandplace.SeeChapter5foradverbsoftime,andthesectionbeginningatparagraph6.82foradverbsofplace.ItwillsoonbeChristmas.Therearealsosomeotheradverbsthatarenotrelatedtoadjectives.Foralistofthecommonadverbsthatarenotrelatedtoadjectives,seetheReferenceSection.Comparativeandsuperlativeadverbs6.30Youmaywanttosayhowsomethinghappensorisdoneinrelationtohowithappensonadifferentoccasion,orhowitwasdonebysomeoneorsomethingelse.Youcandothisbyusingadverbsinthecomparativeorsuperlative.385 Hebegantospeakmorequickly.Red-leggedpartridgesaremostcommonlyseenintheeasterncountiesofEngland.Mostadverbsofmanner(seeparagraph6.36)havecomparativesandsuperlatives.Afewotheradverbsalsohavecomparativesandsuperlatives:someadverbsoftime("early"and"late",seeparagraph5.70),frequency("often"and"frequently",seeparagraph5.114),duration("briefly","permanently",and"long",seeparagraph5.123),andplace("near","close","deep","high","far",and"low",seeparagraphs6.68and6.89).6.31Theformsandusesofcomparativeandsuperlativeadverbsaregenerallysimilartothoseofadjectives.Formoreinformationaboutcomparativesandsuperlativesofadjectives,seeparagraphs2.108to2.117.However,unlikeadjectives,thecomparativeofanadverbisusuallyformedwith"more"andthesuperlativewith"most",andnotbyadding"-er"and"-est".Thepeopleneededbusinessskillssothattheycouldmanagethemselvesmoreeffectively.Firstshemighthavesomeusefulinformation.Moreimportantly,adamagingprecedentcouldbeset....thetextwhichProfessorWilliams"svolumemostcloselyresembles.Forme,Haitinkistheconductorwhore-writesthosemaps,mostoftenandmostconvincingly.irregularforms6.32Someverycommonadverbshavecomparativesandsuperlativesthataresinglewordsandnotformedusing"more"and"most".Notethatadverbsthathaveirregularcomparativesalsohaveirregularsuperlatives."Well"hasthecomparative"better"andthesuperlative"best".Shewouldaskhimlater,whensheknewhimbetter.IhavetofindoutwhatIcandobest."Badly"hasthecomparative"worse"andthesuperlative"worst"."Idon"tthinkthecrowdhelpedher,"Gordonadmitted."Sheplayedworse."TheexpeditionfromMozambiquefaredworst.Notethat"worse"and"worst"arealsothecomparativeandsuperlativeof"ill"whenitisanadverboradjective.6.33Adverbswhichhavethesameformasadjectivesalsohavethesamecomparativesandsuperlativesastheadjectives.Forexample,"fast"has"faster"and"fastest",and"hard"has"harder"and"hardest".Foralistofcommonadverbswhichhavethesameformasadjectives,seeparagraph6.24.Thiswouldenableclaimstobedealtwithfaster.Theyworkedharder,theyweremorehonest.Thewinningblowistheonethatstrikeshardest.Thesugarshouldbepreservingsugarasthisdissolvesfastest.Thetaxburdenincreasedfastestforthepoorandforthosewithchildren.6.34Someadverbshavecomparativesandsuperlativeswith"more"and"most",butalsohavesinglewordcomparativesandsuperlatives.Theycanbebuiltmorequickly.Youprobablylearnquickerbyhavinglessons.Achildcoolsoffquickestiftheparentsfadeawayandgoabouttheirbusiness.TheAmericancomputerfirmwillberelyingmoreheavilyonitsnewScottishplant.SouthAfrica"sdiamonds,gold,anduraniumweighheavierinthebalancethanGuinea"sbananas.TheburdenfellmostheavilyonKanhai.Illiteracy,likeotherformsofeducationaldisadvantage,weighsheaviestonthegroupswhoarealreadydisadvantagedinotherways.35Thestructuresinvolvingcomparativesandsuperlativesaregenerallythesameforadverbsasforadjectives:•theuseof"no"and"any"withcomparatives:seeparagraph2.168Hefarednobetterontheotherroad.Omorodidn"twanttoexpressitanymorestrongly.•theoptionaluseof"the"withsuperlatives:seeparagraph2.122Hisshouldershurttheworst.Oldpeopleworkhardest.•theuseofsubmodifierswithcomparativesandsuperlatives:seethesectionbeginningatparagraph2.162ThesituationresolveditselfmuchmoreeasilythanIhadexpect.385 Theretheprocessprogressesevenmorerapidly.•theuseof"than"aftercomparatives:seeparagraph2.111Thisclasscontinuestogrowmorerapidlythananyothergroup.Priceshavebeenrisingfasterthanincomes.Youmightknowthisbetterthanme.Theymanagedtokeephiscirculationgoingmoresuccessfullythanwedid.•repeatingcomparativestoindicatechangesinextent:seeparagraph2.166.Itcontinuestofunctionmoreandmoreeffectively.Adverbsofmanneradverbsofmanner6.36Youoftenwanttosaysomethingaboutthemannerorcircumstancesofaneventorsituation.Themostcommonwayofdoingthisisbyusingadverbsofmanner.Adverbsofmannergivemoreinformationaboutthewayinwhichaneventoractiontakesplace.Henoddedandsmiledwarmly.Theyoungmanstruckhisfatherandaccidentallykilledhim.manner6.37Manyadverbsofmannerareusedtodescribethewayinwhichsomethingisdone.Forexample,inthesentence"Hediditcarefully","carefully"means"inacarefulway".Theythink,dressandlivedifferently.Heactedveryclumsily.Youmustbeabletospeakfluentlyandcorrectly.6.38Hereisalistofcommon"-ly"adverbswhichdescribethewayinwhichsomethingisdone:abruptlyaccuratelyawkwardlybadlybeautifullybrightlybrilliantlybrisklycarefullycarelesslycasuallycheaplyclearlycloselyclumsilycomfortablyconsistentlyconvenientlycorrectlydangerouslydelicatelydifferentlydiscreetlydistinctlydramaticallyeasilyeconomicallyeffectivelyefficientlyevenlyexplicitlyfaintlyfaithfullyfiercelyfinelyfirmlyfluentlyformallyfranklyfreelygentlygracefullyhastilyheavilyhonestlyhurriedlyintentlymeticulouslyneatlynicelyoddlypatientlypeacefullypeculiarlyperfectlyplainlypleasantlypolitelypoorlyprofessionallyproperlyquietlyrapidlyreadilyrichlyrigidlyroughlyruthlesslysecurelysensiblysharplysilentlysimplysmoothlysoftlysolidlyspecificallysplendidlysteadilysteeplystifflystrangelysubtlysuperblyswiftlysystematicallytenderlythicklythinlythoroughlythoughtfullytightlytruthfullyuncomfortablyurgentlyvaguelyvigorouslyviolentlyvividlyvoluntarilywarmlywidelywillinglywonderfullyfeelingsandmanner6.39Adverbsformedfromadjectiveswhichdescribepeople"sfeelings,forexample"happily"or"nervously",indicateboththewayinwhichsomethingisdoneandthefeelingsofthepersonwhodoesit.Forexample,thesentence"Shelaughedhappily"meansboththatshelaughedinahappywayandthatshewasfeelinghappy.Welaughedandchattedhappilytogether.Gaskellgotupwearilyandheadedforthestairs.Theylookedanxiouslyateachother.RudfolphcoughedmiserablyintherainasheturnedintoVanferhoffStreet.6.40Hereisalistofadverbswhichdescribethefeelingsofthepersonwhodoessomethingaswellasthewayinwhichitisdone:385 angrilyanxiouslybitterlyboldlycalmlycheerfullyconfidentlydesperatelyeagerlyexcitedlyfuriouslygladlygloomilygratefullyhappilyhelplesslyhopefullyhopelesslyimpatientlymiserablynervouslypassionatelyproudlyreluctantlysadlyshylysincerelyuncomfortablyuneasilyunhappilywearily6.41Adverbsofmannercanalsoindicatethecircumstancesinwhichsomethingisdone,ratherthanhowitisdone.Forexample,inthesentence"Hespoketomeprivately""privately"means"whennooneelsewaspresent"ratherthan"inaprivateway".AfterdinnershegotholdofthePresidentandspoketohimprivately.Hehadpubliclycalledforaninvestigationoftheentireschoolsystem.BritainandFrancejointlysuggestedaplanin1954.SincethenIhaveundertakenalltheenquiriespersonally.6.42Hereisalistofadverbswhichareusedtoindicatethecircumstancesinwhichanactiontakesplace:accidentallyaloneartificiallyautomaticallybodilycollectivelycommerciallydeliberatelydirectlydulyfirst-classfull-timeillegallyindependentlyindirectlyindividuallyinnocentlyinstinctivelyinvoluntarilyjointlylegallylogicallymechanicallynaturallyofficiallyopenlyovertlypart-timepersonallypoliticallyprivatelypubliclyregardlessretailscientificallysecretlysolospeciallysymbolicallywholesale6.43Mostadverbsofmannerareformedfromqualitativeadjectives,forexample"stupidly"from"stupid",and"angrily"from"angry".Formoreinformationabouttheformsofadverbs,seeparagraph6.17.6.44Insteadofusinganadverbofmanner,youcansometimesuseprepositionalphrasesornoungroupstogivemoreinformationaboutthemannerorcircumstancesofanaction."Comehere,"hesaidinalowvoice.IknowIhavetodoitthisway.Insomecasesyoumayhavetodothis,becausethereisnoadverb.Seeparagraph6.23.Adverbsofdegree6.45Whenyouwanttogivemoreinformationabouttheextentofanactionorthedegreetowhichanactionisperformed,youoftenuseanadverbofdegree.Ienjoyedthecourseimmensely.Ihadalmostforgottenaboutthetrip.Overall,theoperationhadgoneverywell.6.46Hereisalistofadverbsofdegree:absolutelyadequatelyalmostaltogetheramazinglyawfullybadlycompletelyconsiderablydearlydeeplydrasticallydreadfullyenormouslyentiretyexceedinglyextraordinarilyextremelyfairlyfantasticallyfullygreatlyhalfhardhugelyimmenselyincrediblyintenselyjustlargelymoderatelynearlypartlyperfectlypoorlypositivelypowerfullypracticallyprettyprofoundlypurelyquiteradicallyratherreallyreasonablyremarkablysignificantlysomewhatsoundlystronglysufficientlysupremelysurprisinglysuspiciouslyterriblytotallytremendouslytrulyunbelievablyutterlyveryvirtuallywell385 excessivelyextensivelynoticeablyoutrightsimplyslightlywonderfullyfromadjectives6.47Adverbsofdegreeareoftenformedfromadjectivesbyadding"-ly".Someareformedfromqualitativeadjectives,forexample"deeply","hugely",and"strongly",andsomefromclassifyingadjectives,forexample"absolutely","perfectly",and"utterly".Afewadverbsofdegreeareformedfrompostdeterminers,suchas"entirely".SeeChapter2formoreinformationabouttypesofadjectives.positioninclause6.48Youcanuseadverbsofdegreeintheusualpositionforadjuncts.Iadmiredhimgreatly.Igreatlyenjoyedworkingwiththem.Protesterssaythattunnelscouldgreatlyreducetheenvironmentaldisturbance.However,yourarelyuseanadverbofdegreeatthebeginningofaclause.Forexample,youdonotusuallysay"GreatlyIadmiredhim".Formoreinformationaboutplacingadverbsatthebeginningofaclause,seeparagraph10.93.Afewadverbsofdegreearenearlyalwaysusedinfrontofthemainverb:almostlargelynearlyreallyvirtuallyForexample,youusuallysay"Healmostgotthere",not"Hegottherealmost".ThepresidentoftheEuropeanCommissionlargelyignoredtheBritishconditions.Hereallyenjoyedtalkingaboutflying.TheresultvirtuallyensuresScotland"splaceinthefinals.Someadverbsofdegreearealmostalwaysusedafterthemainverb:altogetherenormouslyhardoutrightsomewhattremendouslywellThiswasadifferentlevelofcommunicationaltogether.MrBothaexaggeratedsomewhatincomparingtheincursionwithHitler"sinvasionofPoland.SpearsayssheadmiresLloyd"stremendously.6.49Agroupofadverbsofdegreearecalledemphasizingadverbs.Theseareformedfromemphasizingadjectives(seeparagraph2.40).absolutelycompletelyentirelyjustoutrightperfectlypositivelypurelyquitereallysimplytotallytrulyuttertyNotethattheemphasizingadverb"outright"hasthesameformasanadjective,anadverbofmanner,andanadverbofdegree.6.50Youuseanemphasizingadverbsuchas"absolutely","just","quite",or"simply"toaddemphasistotheactiondescribedbyaverb.Emphasizingadverbsusuallycomeinfrontofverbs.Iquiteagree.Iabsolutelyagree.IjustknowI"mgoingtobelate.Isimplyadorethisflat.Inaverbgroup,theemphasizingadverbcomesaftertheauxiliaryormodalandinfrontoftheverb.Someonehadsimplyappeared.Iwasabsolutelyamazed.However,"absolutely"canoccasionallybeusedafterverbsaswell.IagreeabsolutelywithwhatGeoffreyhassaid.Forotherusesofemphasizingadverbs,seeparagraphs10.85to10.86.6.51Youcanusesomeadverbsofdegreeinfrontofotheradverbs.Whenadverbsofdegreeareusedlikethistheyarecalledsubmodifiers.Theycanalsobeusedassubmodifiersinfrontofadjectives;thisuseisexplainedinparagraphs2.145to2.173,wherelistsofsubmodifiersandtheirmeaningsarealsogiven.Hepreparedhisspeechverycarefully.Hewashavingtoworkawfullyhard.Thingschangedreallydramatically.Wegetonextremelywellwithourneighbours.Wewereabletoheareverythingprettyclearly.Thepaperdisintegratedfairlyeasily.Hedressedratherformally.Everychildreactssomewhatdifferently.385 Notethat"moderately"and"reasonably"aremainlyusedinfrontofadverbswhichdonotendin"-ly".Heworksreasonablyhard.Afewadverbsofdegreecanbeusedassubmodifierswithcomparatives:seethesectionbeginningatparagraph2.162.Thiscouldallbedoneverymuchmorequickly.Ithankedhimagain,evenmoreprofuselythanbefore.Ihopeyoucanseeslightlymoreclearlywhatisgoingon.Notethat"still"canalsobeplacedafterthecomparative.They"redoingbetterinsomerespectsnow.Ofcoursethey"vegottodobetterstill.otheradverbsofdegree6.52Therearesomespecialadverbsofdegree.Theseinclude"much",whichcanbeusedasanadverbofdegreeinnegativeclauses,andinreportedquestionsafter"how".Programsandprogramefficiencyhavenotdevelopedmuch.Thesedefinitionsdonothelpmuch.Theytoldthefarmerhowmuchtheywantedtogettheharvestin.Shehadobservedhowmuchtheydislikedher."Verymuch"isalsousedinasimilarway.Sheischarming.Welikeherverymuch.Thecomparativeadverbs"better"and"worse"andthesuperlativeadverbs"best"and"worst"canalsobeadverbsofdegree.Youknowhimbetterthananyoneelse.Itisthelanditselfwhichsuffersworst."More"and"less"canbeusedascomparativeadverbsofdegree.Hertearsfrightenedhimmorethananythingthathadeverhappenedtohimbefore.Thegroundheatsuplessthere."Most"and"least"canbeusedassuperlativeadverbsofdegree.ShegavemetheopportunitytodowhatIwantedtodomost.Theystagedsomeofhisleastknownoperas.Comparativeadverbsandsuperlativeadverbsareexplainedinthesectionbeginningatparagraph6.30.Thenoungroups"abit","agreatdeal","alittle",and"alot"arealsousedasadverbsofdegree.Idon"tlikethisabit.Thesituation"schangedagreatdealsincethen.Givinginformationaboutplace:prepositions6.53Thissectionexplainshowtoindicatetheplacewhereanactionoccurs,theplacewheresomeoneorsomethingis,theplacetheyaregoingtoorcomingfrom,orthedirectiontheyaremovingin.Thisusuallyinvolvesusingaprepositionalphraseasanadjunct.Forgeneralinformationonadjuncts,seeparagraphs6.1to6.15.Aprepositionalphraseconsistsofaprepositionanditsobject,whichisnearlyalwaysanoungroup.Themostbasicuseofmostprepositionsistoindicatepositionanddirection.Hefumbledinhispocket.Onyourleftistheriver.WhydidhenotdrivetoValence?Thevoicewascomingfrommyapartment.Iraninsideandboundedupthestairs.6.54Aprepositionisawordwhichopensupthepossibilitiesofsayingmoreaboutathingoranaction,becauseyoucanchooseanyappropriatenoungroupafteritasitsobject.Mostprepositionsaresinglewords,althoughtherearesomethatconsistofmorethanoneword,suchas"outof"and"inbetween".Hereisalistofcommonone-wordprepositionswhichareusedtotalkaboutplaceordestination:aboutaboveacrossalongbeforebehindbelowbeneathdownfromininsideoppositeoutsideunderpasttowardsoverunderneathup385 alongsideamongaroundatbesidebetweenbeyondbyintonearoffonroundthroughthroughouttowithinHereisalistofprepositionswhichconsistofmorethanonewordandwhichareusedtotalkaboutplaceordestination:aheadofalloverawayfromclosebyclosetoinbetweeninfrontofneartonexttoontopofoutof6.55Manyprepositionscanalsobeadverbs,thatis,theycanbeusedwithoutanobject.Seeparagraph6.83foralistofthese.6.56BecauseEnglishhasalargenumberofprepositions,someofthem,suchas"beside","by","near"and"nextto",areverycloseinmeaning.Otherprepositions,forexample"at"and"in",canbeusedforseveraldifferentmeanings.Themeaningandusageofprepositionsshouldbecheckedwherepossibleinadictionary.6.57Prepositionshaveanobject,whichcomesafterthepreposition.Theswitchisbythedoor.Lookbehindyou,Willie!Notethatifapersonalpronounisusedastheobjectofapreposition,itmustbetheobjectpronoun:"me","you","him","her","it","us","them".Prepositionscanalsocombinewithcomplexnoungroupstodescribeplaceinsomedetail.Seeparagraph2.297forinformationontheuseof"of"innoungroup.Istoodatoneinthemiddleoftheyard.Hewassittingtowardstherearendoftheroom.Hewenttothebackofthestore.Positionofprepositionalphrasesafterverbsindicatingposition6.58Prepositionalphrasesaremostcommonlyusedafterverbs.Theyareusedafterverbswhichindicatepositioninordertospecifywheresomethingis.ShelivesinNewcastle.Anoldpianostoodinthecorneroftheroom.Yououghttostayoutofthesun.Thefollowingverbsareoftenusedtoindicateposition:bebelonghanglieliveremainsitbesituatedstandstayafterverbs6.59Prepositionalphrasesareusedafterverbsindicatingmovementtospecifythedirectionofmovement.Iwentintothekitchenandbegantomakethedinner.MrsKaulwasleadinghimtohisseat.Theothersburstfromtheirtents.Thewirewastoostrongandpulledahookoutorthefloor.HetookhertoEdinburgh.afterverbsindicatingactivities6.60Prepositionalphrasesareusedafterverbsindicatingactivitiestospecifywhereanactivitytakesplace....childrenplayinginthestreet.ThemeetingwasbeingheldinacommunitycentreinLoganHeights.Hewaspractisinghighjumpsinthegarden.6.61Prepositionalphrasesusuallycomeattheendoftheclause,aftertheverboraftertheobjectoftheverbifthereisone.Welandedatasmallairport.Weputthechildren"stoysinabigbox.atbeginningofclause:foremphasisorcontrast6.62Ifyouwanttofocusontheprepositionalphraseforemphasisorcontrast,itcanbeplacedatthebeginningoftheclause.Thisorderingismainlyusedindescriptivewritingorreports.Inthegardeneverythingwaspeaceful.Throughtheglassofthefrontageshecouldseeawaiterbendingattentivelyoverawomanofaboutherownage.atbeginningofclause:inversionofsubjectandverb6.63Ifyouputaprepositionalphrase385 whichreferstothepositionofsomethingatthebeginningoftheclausewhenyouareusingaverbintransitively,thenormalwordorderafteritisoftenchanged,andtheverbisplacedbeforethesubject.Ontheceilinghungdustpansandbrushes.Insidetheboxliethegroup"sUSminingassets.Beyondthemlaythefields.Ifyouareusing"be"asamainverb,theverbalwayscomesbeforethesubject;so,forexample,youcannotsay"Underherchinacolossalbroochwas".Underherchinwasacolossalbrooch.Nexttoitisadifferentsignwhichsayssimply"Beware".AlongsidehimontherostrumwillbeMrMitchellFromstein.Indicatingposition6.64Theprepositionalphrasesinthefollowingexamplesindicatetheplacewhereanactionoccurs,ortheplacewheresomeoneorsomethingis.Thechildrenshouted,wavingleafybranchesabovetheirheads.Thewholeplaytakesplaceatabeachclub.Twominuteslaterweweresafelyinsidethetaxi.Hestoodnearthedoor.Shekepthispictureonherbedsidetable.6.65Thefollowingprepositionsareusedtospecifyposition:aboardaboutaboveacrossagainstaheadofalloveralongalongsideamidstamongaroundastrideatawayfrombeforebehindbelowbeneathbesidebetweenbeyondbyclosebyclosetodownininbetweeninfrontofinsidenearneartonexttooffonontopofoppositeoutofoutsidepastthroughunderunderneathupuponwithwithin6.66Someprepositionscanonlybeusedwitharestrictedgroupofnouns.Forexample,"aboard"isusedwithanounreferringtoaformoftransport,suchas"ship","plane","train",or"bus",orwiththenameofaparticularship,theflightnumberforaparticularplanejourney,andsoon.There"ssomethingterriblywrongaboardthisship,DrMarlowe.He"snotaboardtheMorningRose....gettingaboardthatflighttoRome.Heclimbedaboardatruck.Hereisalistofnounswhichyoucanusewith"aboard"toindicateposition:aircraftcarrierbikeboatbuscoachferryjetplanerocketshipsledgespaceshuttletraintrawlertruckyacht"Astride"ismainlyusedtoindicatethatapersonhasonelegoneachsideofsomething,usuallysittingonitorridingit.Hewhippedoutachairandsatastrideit.Imadeitthereastrideoneofthesecourageouslittledonkeys.When"before"isusedtoindicateposition,theobjectisusuallyapersonorgroupofpeople.Leadingrepresentativeswereputfirmlyintheirplacebeforealivetelevisionaudience.Heappearedbeforeadisciplinarycommittee."Allover"usuallyhasalargeorindefiniteareaasitsobject.HundredsofJewsallovertheworldarefindingtheirwaybacktotheirancestraltraditions.Therewerepiecesofshipallovertheplace.USAGENOTE6.67Someprepositionshaveseveralmeanings.Forexample,"on"canbeusedtoindicatethatsomeoneorsomethingisrestingonahorizontalsurfaceorisattachedtosomething,orthatsomeone"splaceofworkisanareasuchasafarmorabuildingsite.Thephonewasonthefloorinthehallway.Iloweredmyselfintotheravineonaropetiedtothetrunkofatree.385 Myfatherworkedonafarm.prepositionswithcomparativeforms6.68"Near","nearto",and"closeto"havecomparativeformsthatcanalsobeusedasprepositions.Newlockershadbeeninstallednearertheirworkplace.VenusismuchnearertotheSunthantheEarth.Thejudge"sbenchwasclosertomethanRuchell"schair.morespecificposition6.69Ifyouwanttosaymoreexactlywhichpartoftheotherthinganobjectisnearestto,orexactlywhichpartofanareaorroomitisin,youcanuseoneofthefollowingprepositions:"at","by","in","near","on","round"."To"and"towards",usuallyusedtoindicatedirection,areusedtoexpresspositioninamoreapproximateway.Theobjectsoftheprepositionsarenounsreferringtopartsofanobjectofplace,suchas"top","bottom",and"edge".Hereisalistofwordswhichareusedtorefertopartsofanobjectorplace:backbottomedgeendfrontleftmiddlerightsidetop~easteast-westnorthnorth-eastnorth-westsouthsouth-eastsouth-westwest~banksidebedsidedocksidegravesidehillsidekerbsidelakesidemountainsidepoolsidequaysideringsideroadsideseasidewatersideWhentheplacethatyouarereferringtoisobviousorhasbeenstatedearlier,youusethenounsinthesingularwiththedeterminer"the".Iraninsideandboundedupthestairs.Wendywasstandingatthetop.Hewassittingtowardstherear.Tothenortharethemaingardens.Wefoundhimsittingbythefireside.Otherdeterminers,forexample"this"and"each",canbeusedwithnounssuchas"side","end",and"edge",becauseanobjectorplacemayhaveseveralsides,ends,oredges.Loosenthetwoscrewsateachendofthefuse.Standingoneithersideofhimweretwoyoungermen.Ifthepersonorthinghasbeenmentionedorisobvious,apossessivedeterminercanbeused.Itwasaverytallelmandtherewerethornbushesrounditsbase.Therewasagateonourleft.6.70Notethattwoorthreewordprepositionswhichincludetheword"of"aremorespecificbecause"of"canbefollowedbyanynominalgroup.Sheturnedandrushedoutoftheroom.Therewasamanstandinginfrontofme.Mysisterstartedpilingthebooksontopofeachother.6.71Theplacewhereanactionoccurs,orwheresomeoneorsomethingis,canalsobeindicatedbystatingitsdistancefromanotherobjectorplace.Youcanmentiontheactualdistancebeforeaprepositionalphrasewith"from"or"awayfrom".Herehesatontheterraceafewfeetfromtheroaringtraffic.Theballswervedtwofeetawayfromhertolodgeinthenet.Distancecanalsobeexpressedintermsofthetimetakentotravelit.ItishalfanhourfromthePinewoodStudiosandforty-fiveminutesfromLondon.TheylivedonlytwoorthreedaysawayfromJuffure.Themethodoftravellingcanbestatedtobeevenmoreprecise.Itislessthananhour"sdrivefromhere.It"saboutfiveminutes"walkfromthebusstop.6.72Toindicatebothwheresomethingisandhowfarfromanotherobjectorplaceitis,thedistancecanbestatedbeforethefollowingprepositions:abovealongbehindbelowbeneathbeyonddowninsideoutsidepastunderupThefishwasmeanderingafewfeetabovethesandybottom.Thedistancecanalsobestatedbeforeprepositionalphrasesincluding"left"and"right"orpointsofthecompasssuchas"north"and"south-east".WelivedfortymilestotheeastofOttawa.385 Indicatingdirection6.73Theprepositionalphrasesinthefollowingexamplesindicatetheplacethatsomeoneorsomethingisgoingto,ortheplacethattheyaremovingtowards.I"mgoingwithhertoAustralia.Theydivedintothewater.Hesawhismotherrunningtowardshim.Hescrewedthelidtightlyontothetopofthejar.Shestuckherknittingneedlesintoaballofwool.6.74Thefollowingprepositionsareusedtoindicatedestinationsandtargets:aboardalloveralongalongsidearoundatawayfrombesidedownfrominsideintonearoffontooutofroundtotowardtowardsupNotethat"onto"issometimeswrittenastwowords:Thebirdhoppedupontoahigherbranch.InAmericanEnglishandsomevarietiesofBritishEnglish,"out"isusedasaprepositionwithout"of"toindicatedirection.Sewingbaskets,pots,calabashes,stools,andclotheswouldbehurledoutthedoor.Theprepositionalphrases"totheleft"and"totheright"arealsousedtoindicatedirection,fromyourownviewpointorthatofsomeoneelse.Seeparagraph6.76.USAGENOTE6.75Therearesomerestrictionsinthechoiceofpreposition."At"isnotusuallyusedtoindicatetheplacethatthesubjectoftheverbismovingtoortowards.Itisusedtoindicatewhatsomeoneislookingat,orwhattheycauseanobjecttomovetowards.Theywerestaringatagarageroof.Supportersthrewpetalsathiscar."After"isusedtoindicatethatsomeoneorsomethingisfollowinganothermovingpersonorthing,orismovinginthesamedirectionbutbehindthem.Hehurriedafterhismen....draggingthesacksafterusalongtheground.directionrelativetothefront6.76Youcanusetheprepositionalphrases"totheleft"and"totheright"tosaywhichdirectionsomeoneorsomethingismovinginrelationtothedirectiontheyarefacing.Whenthelightchangedtheyturnedtotheleftanddroveaway.severaldirections6.77Theprepositions"about","round","around",and"allover"areusedtoindicatemovementinseveraldirectionswithinaplace.Iwanderedroundtheorchard.Theoldwomanjumpedaroundtheclearinginfrontofthechildrenassheactedoutherstory.TheRangersbeganclimbingallovertheship.startingpoint6.78Prepositionalphrasescanindicatetheplaceorobjectthatisthestartingpointofamovement.Thefollowingprepositionsareused:"awayfrom","from","off",and"outof".Thecoffeewassentupbythecatererfromthekitchenbelow.Sheturnedandrushedoutoftheroom.Hetookhishandoffherarm."from"beforeprepositionsandadverbs6.79"From"canalsobeusedbeforeanotherprepositionorbeforesomeadverbstoindicatethestartingpointofamovement.Ihadtakenhisdrinkingbowlfrombeneaththekitchentable....goodsimportedfromabroad.Thomashadstoppedbringinghislunchfromhome."From"canbeusedbeforethefollowingadverbs:aboveabroadanywherebehindbelowbeneathdownstairselsewhereeverywhereherehomeinsidenextdoornowhereoutsideoverseassomewherethereunderneathupstairsPrepositionalphrasesasqualifiers6.80Aswellasbeingusedasadjunctsafterverbs,prepositionalphrasescanbeusedafter385 nounsasqualifierstogiveinformationaboutplace.ThemusclesbelowPeter"skneeswerebeginningtoachealittle.Thechestnuttreesinthebackgardenwereablazingorange.Theystoodandwatchedtheboatsontheriver....theclockinherbedroom....thelittlewhitefenceroundtherockery....theblackshapelessmassestotheleftandrightoftheroad.6.81Prepositionalphrasescanbeaddedafterroads,routes,andsoon,tospecifythembyindicatingtheirdestinationordirection....themainroadfromParistoMarseilles....theroadbetweenthecampandthehospital....theroadthroughthecanyon.Similarly,doors,entrances,andsooncanbespecifiedbyaddingprepositionalphrasesindicatingwhereyoucangettothroughthem.Heopenedthedoortohisroom....attheentrancetothelibrary.Prepositionalphrasescanalsobeusedafternounstoindicatewheresomeoneorsomethingcomesfrom....aveterinaryofficerfromSingapore....anengineerfromHertfordshire.Otherwaysofgivinginformationaboutplace6.82Aswellasaprepositionalphrase,anadverbcanbeusedasanadjuncttogiveinformationaboutplace.Formoregeneralinformationaboutadverbsseethesectionbeginningatparagraph6.16.Nobirdsoranimalscamenear.Seagullswerecirclingoverhead.Inmanycasesthesamewordcanusedasaprepositionandasanadverb.Thelimbwasseveredbelowtheelbow.Thisinformationissummarizedbelow.6.83Hereisalistofwordswhichareusedasadverbstoindicateposition.Notethatsomeadverbsconsistofmorethanoneword,forexample,"outofdoors".abroadaheadaloftashoreawayclosetodownstairsdownstreamdowntowndownwindeastwardhalfwayhereindoorsinlandmidwaynearbynextdoornorthwardoffshoreoutdoorsoutofdoorsoverheadoverseassouthwardthereunderfootundergroundunderwaterupstairsupstreamuptownupwindwestwardThecommonadverbsofplace,suchas"in"and"up",whichareusedasadverbsandasprepositionsaresometimescalledadverbparticlesoradverbialparticles.Thefollowingwordsareusedasadverbstoindicateposition,andcanalsobeusedasprepositions:aboardaboutabovealongsidebehindbelowbeneathbesidebeyondclosebydownininbetweeninsidenearoffoppositeoutsideoverroundthroughoutunderneathup6.84Anadverbcanbeusedasanadjunctiftheadverbitselfmakesitclearwhatplaceordirectionyoumean.Theyoungmenhatedworkingunderground.Theenginedronedonasweflewnorthward.Youcanalsouseanadverbsasanadjunctwhenitisclearfromthecontextwhatplaceordirectionyouarereferringto.Forexample,youmayhavementionedtheplaceearlier,ortheadverbmayrefertoyourownlocation,ortothelocationofthepersonorthingbeingtalkedabout.Wewenttothebottomofthefieldwhereawagonstoodhalf-loaded.Wecrawledunderneath,betweenthewheels.Shewalkedawayandmymotherstoodinthemiddleoftheroad,watching.Theyhadspenttheautumnof1855intheSeeonihills.AnditwasherethatHilaryhadwritten385 areportontheeventsthatfollowedtheannexation.USAGENOTE6.85Asmallgroupofadverbsofpositionareusedtoindicatetheareainwhichasituationexists:globallyinternationallylocallynationallyuniversallywidelyworldwidelyEverythingweusedwasboughtlocally.Unlikemostotheradverbsofposition,theycannotbeusedafter"be"tostatethepositionofsomething.USAGENOTE6.86Anothersmallgroupofadverbsareusedtoindicatewheretwoormorepeopleorthingsareinrelationtoeachother:"together","apart","sidebyside"and"abreast".Allthevillagerandvisitorswouldsittogetherroundthefire....alittlekneelingfigurerevealedbytwoangelsholdingthecurtainsapart.adverbsofpositionwithafollowingadjunct6.87Someadverbsofpositionarenormallyfollowedbyanotheradjunctofposition.Thisisparticularlycommonwhentheverb"be"usedasamainverb.Barbara"sdownatthecottage.Adamwashalfwayupthestairs.Outonthequietsurfaceoftheriver,somethingmoved.Sheisupinherownbedroom.adverbsofpositionwithadjunct,modifier,orqualifier6.88Theadverbs"deep","far","high",and"low",whichindicatedistanceaswellasposition,arealsousuallyfollowedbyanotheradjunctofpositionoraremodifiedorqualifiedinsomeotherway.Manyoftheeggsremainburieddeepamongthesandgrains.Oneplane,flyingverylow,sweptbackandforth."Deepdown","faraway","highup",and"lowdown"areoftenusedinsteadtheadverbsontheirown.Thewindowwashighup,milesabovetherocks.Sitascrapedashallowcavitylowdowninthewall."Far"and"faraway"areoftenqualifiedbyaprepositionalphrasebeginningwith"from".Iwasstandingfarawayfromtheball.Welivedfarfromthenearestvillage.6.89Someadverbshavecomparativeandsuperlativeforms.Thesuperlativeformisnotusedtoindicateposition,buttospecifywhichofseveralthingsyouaretalkingabout."Deeper","further"(or"farther"),"higher",and"lower"areusuallyfollowedbyanotheradjunctofposition.Furtheralongthebeach,athintrickleofsmokewasclimbingintothesky.Thebeansareabithigheronthestalkthisyear."Nearer"canbeusedasanadverbaswellasapreposition(seeparagraph6.68above)."Closer"canonlybeusedasanadverb.Thehillswerenearernow.Thousandsoftouristsstoodwatchingormilledaroundtryingtogetcloser.6.90Therearefourindefiniteadverbsofposition:"anywhere","everywhere","nowhere",and"somewhere".Theyareusedtoindicateapositionwhichisnotdefiniteorisverygeneral.Idroppedmycigarsomewhereroundhere.IthoughtI"dseenyousomewhere.Therewerebicycleseverywhere.No-onecanfindHowardorBarbaraanywhere."Nowhere"makesaclausenegative.Therewasnowheretohide.If"nowhere"isatthebeginningofaclause,thesubjectoftheverbmustbeplacedafteranauxiliaryoraformof"be"or"have".NowherehaveIseenanyseriousmentionofthis.Nowherearetheyoverwhelminglynumerous.6.91Thereareseveralstructuresyoucanusewithindefiniteplaceadverbsinordertogivemoreinformation.Youcanuse:•anadverbofplace:Iwouldliketoworksomewhereabroad.We"recertainlynowherenear.•anadjective:385 WecouldgotoMajorcaifyouwantsomewherelively.Areyougoingsomewherespecial?•aprepositionalphrase:Therewerenoelmsanywhereinsight.In1917,Kollontaiwastheonlywomaninanygovernmentanywhereintheworld.•ora"to"-infinitiveclause:Wementionedthatwewerelookingforsomewheretolive.Iwantedtohavesomewheretoputit.Youcanalsousearelativeclause.Notethattherelativepronounisusuallyomitted.Unreasonisaliveandwellandlivinganywhereyoucaretoname.EverywhereIwent,peoplewereangryorsuspicious.6.92"Else"isusedaftertheindefiniteplaceadverbtoindicateadifferentoradditionalplace.Wecouldholdthemeetingsomewhereelse.Morepeopledieinbedthananywhereelse."Elsewhere"canbeusedinsteadof"somewhereelse".Gwenpulleddownafoldingseatandstrappedherselfin.Theothergirlshadfoundseatselsewhere.Elsewhereinthetropics,rainfallisnotoriouslyvariableandunreliable.6.93"Everywhere"and"anywhere"canalsobeusedasthesubjectsofverbs,especially"be".SometimesIfeelthatanywhere,justanywhere,wouldbebetterthanthis.IlookedaroundforashopwhereIcouldbuychocolate,buteverywherewasclosed.Destinationsanddirectionsadverbsindicatingdestinationsandtargets6.94Adverbscanbeusedtoindicatedestinationsandtargets."Ihaveexpectedyou,"shesaid,invitinghiminside.Nobirdsoranimalscamenear.Thefollowingadverbsareusedtoindicatedestinationsortargets:aboardabroadashoreclosedownstairsdowntownheavenwardhomehomewardinindoorsinlandinsideinwardinwardsnearnextdooroutdoorsoutofdoorsoutsideoverseasskywardthereundergroundupstairsuptownThecomparativeforms"nearer"and"closer"aremorecommonlyusedthan"near"or"close".Comenearer."Deep","far","high",and"low"arealsousedasadverbsindicatingadestinationortargetbutonlywhenfollowedbyanotheradjunctormodifiedinsomeotherway.Thedancersspranghighintotheairbrandishingtheirspears.Thecomparativeforms"deeper","further"(or"farther"),"higher",and"lower"arealsoused,andsoisthesuperlativeform"furthest"(or"farthest).Thesedonothavetobefollowedbyanotheradjunctormodifiedinanotherway.Weleftthewaterfallandclimbedhigher.Peoplehavetotrekfurtherandfurtherfromthevillages.relativedirection6.95Adverbscanbeusedtoindicatedirectioninrelationtotheparticularpositionofthepersonorthingyouaretalkingabout.GonorthfromLeicesterSquareupWardourStreet.Don"ttookdown....thepartoftheenginethatwasspinningaround.MrsJamesgavealittlecryandhurriedon.Thewaveofhotairknockedherbackwards.Heturnedleftandbeganstrollingslowlydownthestreet.Theycanalsoindicatethedirectioninwhichsomeoneorsomethingisfacinginrelationtothefrontoftheplacetheyarein.Theseatsfaceforward.Thefollowingadverbsareusedtoindicatedirectionofthissort:aheadalongbackrightsideways~eastwardeastwardsnorthsouth-eastsouth-westround385 backwardbackwardsforwardforwardsleftononwardanti-clockwisearoundclockwisedowndownwarddownwardseastnorthwardnorthwardsnorth-eastnorth-westsouthsouthwardsouthwardsupupwardupwardswestwestwardwestwards6.96Theadverbs"round","about",and"around"canindicatemovementinseveraldirectionswithinaplace....monkeysnoisilyrushingabout.Theywon"twantanyoneelsetramplingaround.Thefollowingadverbialexpressionsindicaterepeatedmovementindifferentdirections:backandforthbackwardsandforwardsfromsidetosidehitherandthitherinandoutroundandroundtoandfroupanddownAtothertimesshewouldpaceupanddownoutsidethetrailer.Burkewaswalkingbackandforthashespoke.ThePrincessranhitherandthitherintheorchard.6.97Thefollowingadverbscanbeusedtoindicatemovementawayfromsomeoneorsomething:asideawayoffoutoutwardThefarmerjustlaughedandrodeaway.Ittookjustonetugtopullthemout.Theadverb"apart"indicatesthattwoormorethingsmoveawayfromeachother.Irushedinandtriedtopullthedogsapart.6.98Thefollowingadverbscanbeusedtoindicatemovementalongaroad,path,orline:alongsidebesidedownhilldownstreamuphillupstreamThewaterwasnowracingdownhillbetweenitsnarrowedstonywalls.Itwasn"tthemovingthatkeptmewarm;itwastheeffortofpushingDaisyuphill.6.99Thefollowingadverbscanbeusedtoindicatemovementacrossorpastsomething:acrossbyoveroverheadpastroundthroughThere"sanaircraftcomingover."Whereareyougoing?"demandedMissCraigasFlorrierushedby.indefinitedirection6.100Theindefiniteplaceadverbsareusedtoindicateadestinationordirectionwhenyouwanttobemoregeneralorvague.Hewentoffsomewhereforashootingweekend.Dustbleweverywhere,swirlingoverdrycakedmountains.Therewashardlyanywheretogo.Soblencouldhavegoneelsewhere."Nowhere"ismainlyusedmetaphorically,toindicatelackofprogress.Theyweregettingnowhereandhadotherthingstodo.Seeparagraph6.90formoreinformationontheseindefiniteadverbs.adverbsasqualifiers6.101Likeprepositionalphrases,adverbscanalsobeusedasqualifiersafternounsratherthanasadjunctsafterverbs....themanwhowatchedhimfromtheterraceabove.Themanoppositerises,andliftsdownhercase.Peopleeverywherearebecomingmoreconsciousofinequality....theroadsouth.Noungroupsreferringtoplace:placenames6.102Thereareanumberofverbsofpositionandmovementwhicharefollowedbynoungroupsreferringtoplacesinsteadofbyadjuncts.Thesearedescribedinparagraph3.22.Peelapproachedthebuilding.6.103Insteadofusinganoungrouptorefertoaplace,youcanusethenameoftheplace.ThisgreatblockoflandbecameAntarctica....aBalticislandroughlythesizeoftheIsleofMan.OutstandingexamplesofherworkareincludedinanexhibitionattheNationalMuseumofFilm385 andPhotographinBradford.verbsafterplacenames6.104Mostplacenamesaresingularnouns,althoughsomelooklikepluralnouns,forexample"TheNetherlands".Someplacenames,forexamplethosereferringtogroupsofislandsormountains,arepluralnouns.Verbsusedwithplacenamesfollowthenormalrules,soasingularverbformisusedwithasingularnounandapluralverbformwithapluralnoun.Milanisthemostinterestingcityintheworld.TheAndessplitthecountrydownthemiddle.placenamesreferringtopeople6.105Thenameofaplacecanbeusedtorefertothepeoplewholivethere.Iftheplacenameisasingularnoun,asingularverbformisstillused,eventhoughthenounisbeingusedtorefertoapluralconcept.Europewassickofwar.Thenameofacountryoritscapitalcityisoftenusedtorefertothegovernmentofthatcountry.BritainandFrancejointlysuggestedaplan.WashingtonhadputagreatdeafofpressureonTokyo.6.106Placenamescanalsobeusedtorefertoawell-knownhistoricalorrecenteventthatoccurredthere,suchasabattle,adisaster,aninternationalsportscompetition,oranimportantpoliticalmeeting.AfterWaterloo,tradeandindustrysurgedagain....theeffectofChernobylonBritishagriculture.6.107Manyplacenamescanbeusedasmodifiers,toindicatewherethingscomefromorarecharacteristicofaswellaswherethingsare.Ifaplacenamebeginswith"the",youomititwhenyouusethenameasamodifier....aLondonhotel....Arcticexplorers.ShehasaMidlandsaccent....theNewZealandrugbyteam.Notethatthenamesofcontinentsandofmanycountriescannotbeusedasmodifiers,instead,youuseclassifyingadjectivessuchas"African"and"Italian".Otherusesofprepositionalphrases6.108Prepositionsarecommonlyusedtoindicatethingsotherthanplaceaswell,forexampletoindicateatime,ameans,oranattribute.Thefollowingparagraphsfrom6.109to6.116describetheseusesbriefly,andgivecrossreferencestofullerexplanationselsewhere.Thefollowingprepositionsareonlyormainlyusedtoindicatethingsotherthanplace:afterasdespiteduringexceptforlikeofsinceuntil6.109Althoughthemainuseofprepositionalphrasesistotalkaboutpositionordirection,theyarealsousedtorefertotime.Thewomen"slacrossetournamentisatMotspurParkonSaturday.Theyareexpectingtoannouncethesalewithinthenextfewdays.Theuseofprepositionstotalkabouttimeisexplainedinparagraphs5.99and5.102to5.107.6.110Prepositionalphrasesarealsousedtosaysomethingmoreaboutthemannerinwhichanactionwasperformed,orthewayinwhichitshouldbedone."Ohyes,"Ettasneeredinanoffensiveway.Abirdcanchangedirectionbydippingonewingandliftingtheother.Hebrushedbackhishairwithhishand.Prepositionalphrasessuchas"onfoot"or"bybus"canbeusedtoindicateamethodoftravelling.MyhusbandgotfinedinGermanyforcrossingaroadonfoot.Itravelledhomebybus.Theuseofadverbstotalkaboutmannerisexplainedinthesectionbeginningatparagraph6.36.6.111Youcanalsouseprepositionalphrasestogivemoreinformationaboutthefeelingsofthepersonperformingtheaction.Fannysawwithamazementthattheletterwasaddressedtoherself."like"and"as"incomparison6.112Youcanusethepreposition"like"toindicatethatsomeone385 orsomethingbehavesinasimilarwaytosomeoneorsomethingelse.Hewaspantinglikeabloodhound.Sheshuffledlikeanoldlady.Thereismoreinformationaboutcomparisoningeneralinthesectionbeginningatparagraph2.108.6.113Youcanalsouse"like"and"as"tosaythatsomeoneorsomethingistreatedinasimilarwaytosomeoneorsomethingelse.Thenoungroupafter"like"or"as"describesthepersonorthingaffectedbytheactionthepersonorthingdoingtheaction.Myparentsdressedmelikealittledoll.Theirparentscontinuetotreatthemaschildren.Shetreatedhermorelikeadaughterthanacompanion.Youcanalsouseexpressionssuchas"likethis"or"likethat"torefertoaparticularmannerofdoingsomething.Ifyou"regoingtobehavelikethis,thebestthingyoucandoistogobacktobed.Howdareyouspeaktomelikethat?Theuseof"like"and"as"insubordinateclausesisexplainedinparagraphs8.78to8.80.6.114Youcansaythatonewayofdoingsomethinghasasmuchofaqualityasanotherwayofdoingsomething,byusing"as"followedbyanadverbfollowedbyanother"as".Thesecond"as"isfollowedbyanoungroup,apronoun,anadjunct,oraclause.Thecompanyhasnotgrownasquicklyasmanyofitsrivals.ShewantedsomeonetotalktoasbadlyasIdid.circumstancesofanaction6.115Youcanuseprepositionalphrasestoindicatesomethingaboutthecircumstancesaccompanyinganaction."No,"shesaidwithadefiantlook....strugglingtoestablishdemocracyunderadverseconditions.reason,causeorpurpose6.116Prepositionalphrasescanalsobeusedtosaysomethingaboutthereasonforanaction,orthecauseorpurposeofit.In1923,thePrimeMinisterresignedbecauseofillhealth.Hewasdyingofpneumonia."As"isusedtoindicatethefunctionorpurposeofsomething.Heworkedasatruckdriver.Duringthewartheyusedthetheatreasawarehouse.Prepositionsusedwithverbsinphrasalverbs6.117Someverbsalwayshaveaprepositionalphraseaftertheminparticularmeanings.Theyarecalledphrasalverbs,andinformationaboutthemcanbefoundinparagraphs3.84to3.117.Shesailedthroughherexams.Whatareyougettingat?6.118Someverbscanhaveaprepositionalphraseinsteadofadirectobject.Formoreinformationontheseverbs,seeparagraph3.11.ThePolishArmyfoughttheGermansfornearlyfiveweeks.Shewasfightingagainsthistory.Weclimbedthemountain.Iclimbedupthetree.6.119Aprepositionalphraseisusedastheindirectobjectofaditransitiveverbwhentheindirectobjectcomesafterthedirectobject.Forinformationonditransitiveverbsseeparagraphs3.74to3.83.Iftheactiondescribedbytheverbinvolvesthetransferofsomethingfromonepersonorthingtoanother,thepreposition"to"isused.Woodwardfinishedthesecondpageandpassedittotheeditor.Therecoveredanimalswillbegiventozoos.Iftheactioninvolvesapersondoingsomethingforthebenefitofanotherperson,thepreposition"for"isused.Sheleftanoteforheronthetable.6.120Somereciprocalverbsrequireaprepositionalphrasewhenasecondnoungroupismentioned.Forinformationonreciprocalverbs,seeparagraphs3.69to3.73.Ourreturncoincidedwiththearrivalofbadweather.385 CatholicyouthsclashedwithpoliceinBelfast.6.121Prepositionalphrasesareusedafterverbsinthepassive.90menfoundthemselvescutoffbystorms.Moisturemustbedrawnoutfirstwithsalt.Theuseofprepositionalphrasesafterpassiveverbsisexplainedinparagraphs10.14to10.16.6.122Whenverbsarefollowedbyprepositionalphrasesandadverbs,alongprepositionalphraseisusuallyplacedaftertheadverb.Helistenedcalmlytothereportofhisaides.Ashortprepositionalphrasecancomebeforeoraftertheadverb.Thewomenshoutedatmesavagely.MissBurnslookedcalmlyatMarianne.Prepositionalphrasesafternounsandadjectives6.123Prepositionalphrasesaresometimesusedasqualifierstodescribethesubjectorobjectofaclauseratherthanthemannerofanactionorsituation.Seethesectionbeginningatparagraph2.292formoreinformation....agirtinadarkgreydress....amanwithaquicktemper.particularprepositionsafternounsandadjectives6.124Particularprepositionsareusedaftersomenounsandadjectiveswhenaddinginformation.Seeparagraphs2.49to2.54and2.304to2.307.Myrespectforherisabsolutelyenormous.WewelcometheGovernmentsemphasisonvoluntarycodesofpractice....thesolicitorresponsibleforpursuingtheclaim.comparisonswith"than"and"like"6.125Aprepositionalphrasewith"than"oftenindicatesthepersonorthingthatisthebasisofacomparison.Hewassmarterthanyou.Shewasmorerefinedthanherhusband.Formoreinformationoncomparisons,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph2.108.Thepreposition"like"isusedtoindicatethatsomeoneorsomethingissimilartosomeoneorsomethingelse,withoutcomparinganyspecificquality.TheBritishforcesarelikepermanenttourists.Weneedmanymorepeoplelikethese."of"6.126"Of"canbeusedinprepositionalphrasesafteranynountoindicatevariousrelationshipsbetweenonenoungroupandanother,especiallybelonging,possession,andconnection.Itcanbeusedtostatewhatsomethingis,whatitcontains,whatitismadefrom,ofhowmuchofitthereis.Hewasamemberofthegolfclub.She"safriendofStephen"s....theMayorofMoscow.Extendedmeaningsofprepositions6.127Theusesofprepositionalphrasesasadjunctsoftimeandmannerarereallyextendedormetaphoricalusesthatcoverawiderangeofprepositionsandarepartofametaphorthataffectsmanyotheraspectsoflanguageaswell.Forexample,whenwetalkabout"approachingapointintime","ashortstretchoftime",andsoon,weareusingwordsthatrefertospacetotalkabouttime.However,therearealsoextendedmeaningsthatapplyonlytosmallgroupsofprepositions,orsometimesonlytoindividualprepositions.Forexample,"in"basicallyindicatespositioninsideacontainer.Thebabywasfoundinacarrierbag.Itwillendupinthedustbin.However,itisoftenusedwithreferencetoareasratherthancontainers.Emmasatinanarmchairwithherlegscrossed.ThenweweretoldwhathadhappenedinSheffield."In"isalsousedtoindicaterelativeposition.Wehadtodosomethinginthecentreofthetowntoattractvisitors.However,"in"isalsousedinwaysthatextenditsmeaningfurtherawayfromphysicalposition.Forexample,itcanbeusedtosaythatsomeoneisainvolvedinaparticularsituation,group,oractivity.385 Theywereinnodanger.Thechildwasintroublewiththepolice.IrememberwhentheColonelswereinpowerinGreece.MrEmileGumbshasremainedinofficebuttheislandhasnoParliament.Itcanindicateinclusioninamoreabstractway.SomeofherearlyHollywoodexperienceswereusedinher1923film,MaryoftheMovies.Inanybook,youhaveamoralpurpose.Itcanalsoindicatethatsomethinghasreachedaparticularstage,orappearsinaparticularway.Thefirstprimrosesareinflowery.Herhairwasinpigtailsovereithershoulder.Afewotherprepositionswithabasicmeaningrelatingtocontainerscanbeusedinsimilarways:forexample"within","into","outof".TheUSoughttodoeverythingwithinreasontoencourageGeneralNoriegatoleave.Thosemen,whenwegetthemintothepoliceforce,aregoingtoberealheroes.Heroinesconsideredattractivebyearliergenerationsnowseemhopelesslyoutoftouch.ContentsofChapter7page7.5-13Indicatingthatyouarereporting:reportingverbs2367.14-23Reportingsomeone"sactualwords:quotestructures2377.24-94Reportinginyourownwords:reportstructures2397.26-28Reportingstatementsandthoughts2407.29-35Reportingquestions2417.36-45Reportingorders,requests,advice,andintentions2427.46-56Timereferenceinreportstructures2447.57-60Makingyourreferenceappropriate2467.61-63Usingreportingverbsforpoliteness2477.64-67Avoidingmentionofthepersonspeakingorthinking2477.68-77Referringtothespeakerandhearer2487.78-81Otherwaysofindicatingwhatissaid2507.82-94Otherwaysofusingreportedclauses2517Reportingwhatpeoplesayorthink7.1Thischapterofthegrammarexplainsthedifferentwaysofreportingwhatpeoplesayorthink.7.2Onewayofreportingwhatsomeonehassaidistorepeattheiractualwords."Idon"tknowmuchaboutmusic,"Judysaid.Asentencelikethisiscalledaquotestructure.InsteadofrepeatingJudy"swords,thewritercouldhavesaid,"Judysaidthatshedidn"tknowmuchaboutmusic".Thisiscalledareportstructure.Quotestructuresandreportstructuresbothconsistoftwoclauses.Themainclauseiscalledareportingclause.Theotherclauseindicateswhatsomeonesaidorthought.Inaquotestructure,thisotherclauseiscalledthequote."Haveyoumethim?"Iasked."Ofcoursewecangetmarried,"saidGertrude.Inareportstructure,theotherclauseiscalledthereportedclause.Hementionedthathecouldn"tstandshouting.Heaskedifyouwouldbeabletocanandseehim.Hepromisedtogivemethemoney.Notethatthereportedclausecanbeanon-finiteclausebeginningwitha"to"-infinitive.7.3Inordinaryconversation,weusereportstructuresmuchmoreoftenthanquotestructures.Thisisbecauseweusuallydonotknow,orcannotremember,theexactwordsthatsomeonehassaid.Quotestructuresaremainlyusedinwrittenstories.Whenwereportpeople"sthoughts,wealmostalwaysusereportstructures,becausethoughtsdonotusuallyexistintheformofwords,sowecannotquotethemexactly.Reportstructurescanbeusedtoreportalmostanykindofthought.7.4Paragraphs7.5to7.13explainverbsusedinreportingclauses.Paragraphs7.14to7.23explainquotestructures.Paragraphs7.24to7.67explainreportstructures.Paragraphs7.68385 to7.77explainhowtorefertothespeakerandhearerinaquotestructureorreportstructure.Paragraphs7.78to7.81explainotherwaysofindicatingwhatsomeonesaysortalksabout.Paragraphs7.82to7.94explainotherwaysofusingreportedclauses.Indicatingthatyouarereporting:reportingverbs7.5Youindicatethatyouarequotingorreportingwhatsomeonehassaidorthoughtbyusingareportingverb.Everyreportingclausecontainsareportingverb."Idon"tseewhatyouaregettingat,"Jeremysaid.Helookedold,Haroldthoughtandsick.TheywerecomplainingthatCantonwashotandnoisy.basicreportingverbs7.6Youuse"say"whenyouaresimplyreportingwhatsomeonesaidanddonotwanttoaddanymoreinformationaboutwhatyouarereporting.Shesaidthatshedidn"twanttoknow.Youuse"ask"whenyouarereportingaquestion."How"sitallgoing?"Derekasked.showingthepurposeofspeaking7.7Somereportingverbssuchas"answer","complain",and"explain"tellyouwhatpurposeanutterancewasintendedtoserve.Forexample,"answer"tellsyouwhatastatementwasintendedasananswer,and"complain"tellsyouthatastatementwasintendedasacomplaint.Heansweredthatthepricewouldbethreepounds."Henevertoldme,sir,"Watsoncomplained."Ihavenotforgotten,monsieur,"repliedtheBelgianquietly.Isuggestedthatitwastimetoleave.Somereportingverbsusedinquotestructuresshowthemannerofspeaking.Seeparagraph7.17.Hereisalistofreportingverbswhichcanbeusedtoreportwhatpeoplesay:acknowledgeaddadmitadviseagreeallegeannounceanswerargueaskassertassurebegbeginboastcallchorusclaimcommandcommentcomplainconcedeconfessconfirmcontendcontinueconvincecrydeclaredecreedemanddenydescribedirectdiscussdisputeenquireexplainforbidgrumbleguaranteehintimplyinforminquireinsistinstructinvitemaintainmentionmumblemurmurmusemutternotenotifyobjectobserveorderpersuadepleadpledgepraypredictproclaimpromiseprophesyproposereassurerecallreciterecommendrecordrefuseremarkremindrepeatreplyreportrequestrespondrevealruleberumouredsayscreamshoutshriekstatestipulatestormsuggestswearteachtellthreatenthunderurgevowwailwarnwhisperwriteyellWARNING7.8Notethattheverbs"address","converse","lecture","speak",and"talk",althoughtheymean"tosaysomething",cannotbeusedasreportingverbs.verbsofthinkingandknowing7.9Manyreportingverbsareusedtorefertopeople"sthoughts,ratherthantowhattheysay.Reportingverbscanbeusedtorefertomanydifferentkindsofthought,includingbeliefs,wishes,hopes,intentions,anddecisions.Theycanalsobeusedtorefertoactsofrememberingorforgetting.Webothknewthatthetownwascutoff."I"llgotohiminaminute,"shethought.IhadalwaysbelievedthatonedayIwouldseehimagain.Hereisalistofreportingverbswhichcanbeusedtoreportpeople"sthoughts:acceptagreeexpectfearintendjudgepreferproposethinkunderstand385 assumebelieveconsiderdecidedeterminedoubtdreamestimatefeelfigureforeseeforgetguessholdhopeimagineknowlongmeanmusenoteplanponderprayreasonrecallreckonreflectregretrememberresolvesupposevowwantwishwonderworry7.10Athirdgroupofreportingverbsrefertolearningandperceivingfacts.Ihavesincelearnedthatthewriteroftheletterisnowdead.Thenshesawthathewassleeping.Hereisalistofreportingverbswhichrefertolearningandperceivingfacts:concludediscoverelicitfindgatherhearinferlearnnotenoticeobserveperceivereadrealizeseesense7.11Someoftheverbsintheabovelists,suchas"tell"and"promise",mustbeorcanbefollowedbyanobjectindicatingwhotheheareris.Seeparagraphs7.71to7.72.Notethatsomeverbsappearinmorethanonelist,becausetheyhavemorethanonemeaning.7.12Whenyouuseaquotestructureorareportstructure,youcangivemoreinformationaboutthewaythatsomethingissaidbyputtinganadverboraprepositionalphraseafterthereportingverb."I"vegotthekey!"heannouncedtriumphantly.Hissecretaryexplainedpatientlythatthiswastheonlytimehecouldsparefromhisbusyschedule.Herepliedwithdisgust,"Mostofthemweretooyoung."Youcanindicatehowthethingthatissaidfitsintotheconversationbyusingaprepositionalphrase."TheymovedhertoRoseCottage,"Emilyshoutedinexplanation.7.13Withasmallnumberofreportingverbs,thenegativeisoftenexpressedinthereportingclauseratherthaninthereportedclause."Idon"tthinkMaryisathome"meansthesameas"IthinkMaryisnotathome",and"Shedoesn"twanttoseehim"means"Shewantsnottoseehim".Idonotthinkshesuspectsme.Shedidn"tbelieveshewouldeverseehimagain.Hedidn"twanttogo.Wedon"tintendtoputhimontrial.Hereisalistofreportingverbswhichareoftenusedwithanegativeinthisway:believeexpectfeelimagineintendplanproposereckonsupposethinkwantwishReportingsomeone"sactualwords:quotestructures7.14Whenyouwanttosaythatapersonusedparticularwords,youuseaquotestructure.Youcandothisevenifyoudonotknow,ordonotremember,theexactwordsthatwerespoken.Whenyouuseaquotestructure,youreportwhatsomeonesaidasifyouwereusingtheirownwords.Quotestructuresaresometimescalleddirectspeech.Aquotestructureconsistsoftwoclauses.Oneclauseisthereportingclause,whichcontainsthereportingverb."IknewI"dseenyou,"Isaid."Onlyone,"repliedtheEnglishman.Theotherpartisthequote,whichrepresentswhatsomeonesaysorhassaid."Let"sgoandhavealookattheswimming-pool,"shesuggested."Leavemealone,"Isnarled.Youcanquoteanythingthatsomeonesays—statements,questions,orders,suggestions,andexclamations.Inwriting,youuseinvertedcommas("")or("")atthebeginningandendofaquote."Thankyou,"Isaid.385 Afteralongsilenceheasked:"Whatisyouname?"Notethat,inwrittenstories,quotescanbeusedwithoutreportingclausesifthespeakershavebeenestablished,andifyoudonotwishtoindicatewhatkindofutterancesthequotesare."Whendoyouleave?"—"Ishouldbegonenow."—"Well,good-bye,Hamo."7.15Thinkingissometimesrepresentedasspeakingtooneself.Youcanthereforeusesomeverbswhichrefertothinkingasreportingverbsinquotestructures.ImustgoandseeLynn,Marshathought.Whenyouareusingaquotestructuretosaywhatsomeonethought,youusuallyomittheinvertedcommasatthebeginningandendofthequote.Howmuchshouldhetellher?Notmuch,hedecided.Perhapsthat"snoaccident,hereasoned.WasCynthia,hewondered,beginningtoyieldatlast?7.16Hereisalistofreportingverbswhichareoftenusedwithquotestructures:addadmitadviseagreeannounceanswerargueaskassertassurebegbeginboastclaimcommandcommentcomplainconcludeconfesscontinuedecidedeclaredemandexplaingrumbleinquireinsistmuseobserveorderpleadponderprayproclaimpromisereadreasonrecitereflectremarkreplyreportrespondsaystatesuggesttellthinkurgevowwarnwonderwriteAfewoftheseverbscanormustbeusedwithanobjectreferringtothehearer.Seeparagraphs7.71to7.72.7.17Ifyouwanttoindicatethewayinwhichsomethingwassaid,youcanuseareportingverbsuchas"shout","wail",or"scream".Verbsliketheseusuallyoccuronlyinwrittenstories."Jump!"shoutedtheoldestwomen."Oh,poorlittlething,"shewailed."Getoutofthere,"Iscreamed.Hereisalistofverbsindicatingthewayinwhichsomethingissaid:callchoruscrymumblemurmurmutterscreamshoutshriekstormthunderwailwhisperyell7.18Anotherwayofindicatingthemannerofspeakingistouseaverbwhichisusuallyusedtodescribethesoundmadebyaparticularkindofanimal."Sorrytobelate,"hebarked.Youcanuseaverbsuchas"smile","grin",or"frown"toindicatetheexpressiononsomeone"sfacewhiletheyarespeaking."I"mawfullysorry."—"Notatall,"Ismiled."Hardlyworthturningupfor,"hegrinned.Youuseverbslike"bark"and"smile"inquotestructureswhenyouwanttocreateaparticulareffect,especiallyinwriting.ThisisaproductivefeatureofEnglish.FormoreinformationaboutproductivefeaturesseetheIntroduction.7.19Thereareseveralpositionsinwhichyoucanputthereportingclauseinrelationtoaquote.Theusualpositionisafterthequote,butitcanalsogoinfrontofthequoteorinthemiddleofthequote."Youhavetokeeptrying,Mabel,"hesaid.Hesteppedbackandsaid,"Nowlookatthat.""Yousee,"hesaid,"myfatherwasaclergyman."7.20Ifyouputthereportingclauseinthemiddleofaquote,itmustgoinoneofthefollowingpositions:•afteranoungroup"Thatman,"Isaid,"neveropenedawindowinhislife."•afteravocative"Darling,"Maxsaidtoher,"don"tsayit"snotpossible."•afterasentenceadverb"Maybe,"hesaidhesitantly,"maybethereisabeast."385 •afteraclause,ifthequotecontainsmorethanoneclause."Irangthebell,"Rudolphsaid,"andyourfriendletmein."7.21Youcanusemostreportingverbsinfrontofaquote.Shereplied,"Myfirstthoughtwastoprotecthim."Onestudentcommented:"Heseemstoknowhismaterialverywell."However,thereportingverbs"agree","command","promise",and"wonder"arehardlyeverusedinfrontofaquote.inversionofsubjectandreportingverb7.22Whenareportingverbcomesafteraquote,thesubjectisoftenputaftertheverb."Perhapsheisn"tabadsortofchapafterall,"remarkedDave."Isee,"saidJohn."Iamawareofthat,"repliedtheEnglishman.Notethatthisisnotdonewhenthesubjectisapronoun.punctuationofquotes7.23Thefollowingexamplesshowhowyoupunctuatequotes.Youcanuseeithersingleinvertedcommas("")ordoubleinvertedcommas("").Theonesusedtobeginaquotearecalledopeninginvertedcommas,andtheonesusedtoendaquotearecalledclosinginvertedcommas."Let"sgo,"Iwhispered."Wehavetogohome,"shetoldhim.Mona"smotheranswered:"Ohyes,she"sin."Hesmiledandasked,"Areyouhergrandson?""Margaret,"Isaidtoher,"I"msogladyoucame.""Whatareyoudoing?"Sarahasked."Ofcourseit"sawful!"shoutedClarissa."Whatdotheymean,"shedemanded,"bya"populationproblem"?"Ifyouarequotingmorethanoneparagraph,youputopeninginvertedcommasatthebeginningofeachparagraph,butyouputclosinginvertedcommasonlyattheendofthelastparagraph.Reportinginyourownwords:reportstructures7.24Whenyoureportwhatpeoplehavesaidusingyourownwordsratherthanthewordstheyactuallyused,youuseareportstructure.Thewomansaidshehadseennothing.IrepliedthatIhadnotreadityet.Youusuallyuseareportstructurewhenyoureportwhatsomeonethinks.Hethoughtshewasworried.Reportstructuresaresometimescalledindirectspeech.Areportstructureconsistsoftwoparts.Onepartisthereportingclause,whichcontainsthereportingverb.Itoldhimthatnothingwasgoingtohappentome.Ihaveagreedthatheshoulddoit.Iwantedtobealone.Theotherpartisthereportedclause.Icouldhaveansweredthatmymindwasopen.Hefeltthathehadtodosomething.Hewonderedwheretheycouldhavecomefrom.Youusuallyputthereportingclausefirst,inordertomakeitclearthatyouarereportingratherthanspeakingdirectlyyourself.Henrysaidthathewantedtogohome.TheexactwordsthatHenryusedareunlikelytohavebeen"Iwanttogohome",althoughtheymighthavebeen.Itismorelikelythathesaidsomethinglike"IthinkIshouldbegoingnow".Youaremorelikelytoreportwhathemeantratherthanwhatheactuallysaid.Therearemanyreasonswhyyoudonotquoteaperson"sexactwords.Oftenyoucannotrememberexactlywhatwassaid.Atothertimes,theexactwordsarenotimportantornotappropriateinthesituationinwhichyouarereporting.7.25Thereareseveraltypesofreportedclause.Thetypeyouusedependsonwhetheryouarereportingastatement,aquestion,anorder,orasuggestion.Mostreportedclauseseitherare"that"-clausesorbeginwitha"to"-infinitive.Whenaquestionisbeingreported,thereportedclausebeginswith"if","whether",ora"wh"-word.Theuseof"that"-clausesasreportedclausesisdiscussedinparagraphs7.26to7.28.Reportedquestionsare385 discussedinparagraphs7.29to7.35.Theuseof"to"-infinitiveclausesinreportstructuresisdiscussedinparagraphs7.36to7.45.Reportingstatementsandthoughts7.26Ifyouwarntoreportastatementorsomeone"sthoughts,youuseareportedclausebeginningwiththeconjunction"that".Hesaidthatthepolicehaddirectedhimtothewrongroom.HewrotemealettersayingthatheunderstoodwhatIwasdoing.MrsKaulannouncedthatthelecturewouldnowbegin.Ininformalspeechandwriting,theconjunction"that"iscommonlyomitted.TheysaidIhadtoseeadoctorfirst.Shesaysshewantstoseeyouthisafternoon.Heknewtheattemptwashopeless.Ithinkthere"ssomethingwrong.Ineachofthesesentences,"that"couldhavebeenused.Forexample,youcansayeither"TheysaidIhadtoseeadoctorfirst"or"TheysaidthatIhadtoseeadoctorfirst"."That"isoftenomittedwhenthereportingverbreferssimplytotheactofsayingorthinking.Youusuallyinclude"that"afteraverbwhichgivesmoreinformation,suchas"complain"or"explain".Hisbrothercomplainedthattheofficewasnotbusinesslike.Iexplainedthatshewouldhavetostayinbed.Thiskindofreportedclauseisoftencalleda"that"-clause,eventhoughmanyoccurwithout"that".Notethatsomerelativeclausesalsobeginwith"that".Intheseclauses"that"isarelativepronoun,notaconjunction.Relativeclausesareexplainedinparagraphs8.83to8.116.verbsusedwith"that"-clauses7.27Hereisalistofverbswhichareoftenusedasreportingverbswith"that"-clauses:acceptacknowledgeaddadmitagreeallegeannounceanswerargueassertassumeassurebelieveboastclaimcommentcomplainconcedeconcludeconfirmconsidercontendconvincedecidedenydeterminediscoverdisputedoubtdreamelicitestimateexpectexplainfearfeelfigurefindforeseeforgetgatherguaranteeguesshearholdhopeimagineimplyinforminsistjudgeknowlearnmaintainmeanmentionnotenoticenotifyobjectobserveperceivepersuadepledgepraypredictpromiseprophesyreadrealizereasonreassurerecallreckonrecordreflectremarkrememberrepeatreplyreportresolverevealberumouredsayseesensestatesuggestsupposeswearteachtellthinkthreatenunderstandvowwarnwishworrywriteNotethatsomeoftheseverbsareonlyusedinreportstructuresinsomeoftheirsenses.Forexample,ifyousay"Heacceptedapresent"youareusing"accept"asanordinarytransitiveverb.Afewoftheseverbscanormustbeusedwithanobjectreferringtothehearer.Seeparagraphs7.71to7.72.Someoftheseverbs,suchas"decide"and"promise",canalsobeusedwitha"to"-infinitiveclause.Seeparagraphs7.36and7.42.Someotherverbs,suchas"advise"and"order",canbeusedasreportingverbswith"that"-clausesonlyifthe"that"-clausecontainsamodalorasubjunctive."That"-clausesofthiskindarediscussedinparagraph7.40.positionofreportedclauses7.28Youusuallyputthereportingclausebeforethe"that"-clause,385 inordertomakeitclearthatyouarereportingratherthanspeakingdirectlyyourself.IsaidthatIwouldratherworkintheforest.Georginasaidshewasgoingtobed.However,ifyouwanttoemphasizethestatementcontainedinthereportedclause,youcanaltertheorderandputthereportedclausefirst,withacommaafterit.Youdonotuse"that"tointroducetheclause.Allthesethingsweretrivial,hesaid.Shewasworried,hethought.Ifthereportedclauseislong,youcanputthereportingclauseinthemiddle.Tenyearsago,Moumoniexplained,somegovernmentpeoplehadcometoinspectthevillage.Reportingquestions7.29Aswellasreportingwhatsomeonesaysorthinks,youcanalsoreportaquestionthattheyaskorwonderabout.Questionsinreportstructuresaresometimescalledreportedquestionsorindirectquestions.7.30Thereportingverbmostoftenusedforreportingquestionsis"ask"Questionscanbereportedinamoreformalwayusing"enquire"or"inquire".IaskedifIcouldstaywiththem.HeaskedmewhereIwasgoing.SheinquiredhowIbrahimwasgettingon.7.31Whenyoureportaquestion:•youdonottreatitasaquestionbyusinginterrogativewordorder•youdonotuseaquestionmark.Sothequestion"Didyouenjoyit?"couldbereported:"Iaskedherifshehadenjoyedit".Questionsareexplainedinparagraphs4.10to4.30.7.32Therearetwomaintypesofquestion,andsotwomaintypesofreportstructureforquestions.Onetypeofquestioniscalleda"yes/no"question.Thesearequestionswhichcanbeansweredsimplywith"yes"or"no".Whenyoureporta"yes/no"question,youusean"if"-clausebeginningwiththeconjunction"if",ora"whether"-clausebeginningwiththeconjunction"whether".Youuse"if"whenthespeakerhassuggestedonepossibilitythatmaybetrue."Doyouknowmyname?"couldbereportedas"AwomanaskedifIknewhername".SheaskedhimifhisparentsspokeFrench.Someoneaskedmeiftheworkwasgoingwell.Heinquiredifherhairhadalwaysbeenthatcolour.Youuse"whether"whenthespeakerhassuggestedonepossibilitybuthasleftopenthequestionoftheirpossibilities.After"whether",youcansuggestanotherpossibility,oryoucanleaveitunstated.IwasaskedwhetherIwantedtostayathotelorathishome.Sheaskedwhethertheservantswerestillthere.IaskedProfessorFredBaileywhetherheagreed.Apolicemanaskedmewhetherhecouldbeofhelp.Sometimesthealternativepossibilityisrepresentedby"ornot".Thebarmandidn"taskwhetherornottheywereovereighteen.TheyaskedwhetherBritainwasorwasnotaChristiancountry.Formoreinformationabout"yes/no"questions,seeparagraphs4.12to4.16.7.33Thereareafewotherverbswhichcanbeusedbefore"if"-clausesor"whether"-clauses,becausetheyrefertobeingunsureoffactsortodiscoveringfacts.Ididn"tknowwhethertobelievehimornot.Simonwonderedifheshouldmakeconversation.Shedidn"tsaywhetherhewasstillalive.Hereisalistofotherverbswhichcanbeusedbefore"if"-clausesand"whether"-clauses:discoverknowremembersayseewonderNotethat"know","remember","say",and"see"areusuallyusedinanegativeorinterrogativeclause,oraclausewithamodal.Alltheverbsinthelist,except"wonder",canalsobeusedwith"that"-clauses:seeparagraph7.27.Theycanallalsobeusedwithclausesbeginningwith"wh"-words:seeparagraph7.35.385 "wh"-questions7.34Theothertypeofquestioniscalleda"wh"-question.Thesearequestionsinwhichsomeoneasksforinformationaboutaneventorsituation."Wh"-questionscannotbeansweredwith"yes"or"no".Whenyoureporta"wh"-question,youusea"wh"-wordatthebeginningofthereportedclause.HeaskedwhereIwasgoing.Sheenquiredwhylwassolate.Sheleanedoverthestairsandcalleddowntoaskwhathadhappened.Iaskedhowtheylikedthefilm.Itneveroccurredtometoaskwhoputitthere.Whenthedetailsofthequestionareclearfromthecontext,youcansometimesleaveouteverythingexceptthe"wh"-word.ThishappensmostlyinspokenEnglish,especiallywith"why".Iaskedwhy.Theyenquiredhow.Formoreinformationabout"wh"-questionsseeparagraphs4.17to4.30.7.35Otherverbscanbeusedbeforeclausesbeginningwith"wh"-words,becausetheyrefertoknowing,learning,ormentioningoneofthecircumstancesofaneventorsituation.Shedoesn"tknowwhatweweretalkingabout.Theycouldn"tseehowtheywouldmanagewithouther.Iwonderwhat"shappened.Hereisalistofotherverbswhichcanbeusedbeforeclausesbeginningwith"wh"-words:decidedescribediscoverdiscussexplainforgetguessimagineknowlearnrealizerememberrevealsayseesuggestteachtellthinkunderstandwonderNotethat"imagine","say","see","suggest",and"think"areusuallyusedinanegativeorinterrogativeclause,oraclausewithamodal.Alltheverbsinthelist,except"describe","discuss",and"wonder",canalsobeusedwith"that"-clauses:seeparagraph7.27.Reportingorders,requests,advice,andintentions7.36Ifsomeoneorders,requests,oradvisessomeoneelsetodosomething,thiscanbereportedbyusinga"to"-infinitiveclauseafterareportingverbsuchas"tell".Thepersonbeingaddressed,whoistoperformtheaction,ismentionedastheobjectofthereportingverb.Johnsontoldhertowakehimup.Hecommandedmetostaythere.Heorderedmetofetchthebooks.Mydoctoradvisedmetoseeaneurologist.Thisisatypeofphasestructure(seeparagraphs3.203and3.207).Hereisalistofreportingverbswhichcanbeusedwithapersonasobjectfollowedbya"to"-infinitiveclause:adviseaskbegcommandforbidinstructinviteorderpersuaderemindteachtellurgewarn7.37Afewverbscanbeusedwitha"to"-infinitiveclausetoreportrequestswhenthenearerismentionedinaprepositionalphrase.Anofficershoutedtoustostopallthenoise.lpleadedwithhimtotellme.Hereisalistoftheseverbsandtheprepositionsusedwiththem:appealtopleadwithshoutatshouttowhispertoyellat7.38Inordinaryconversation,requestsareoftenputintheformofaquestion.Forexample,youmightsay"Willyouhelpme?"insteadof"Helpme".Similarly,reportedrequestsoftenlooklikereportedquestions.Peopleaskmeifcanlendthemfiftydollars.Whenyoureportarequestlikethis,youcanmentionboththepersonreceivingitandthepersonmakingit.HeaskedmewhetherIwouldhelphim.Alternatively,youcanjustmentionthepersonmakingit.385 HeaskedifIwouldanswersomequestions.7.39Youcanreportarequestinwhichsomeoneasksiftheycandosomethingbyusinga"to"-infinitiveclauseafter"ask"or"demand".Iaskedtoseethemanager.7.40Whensomeonemakesasuggestionaboutwhatsomeoneelse,nottheirhearer,shoulddo,youreportitbyusinga"that"-clause.Thisclauseoftencontainsamodal,usually"should".HeproposesthattheGovernmentshouldholdaninquiry.Itwasdefiniteenoughforadoctortoadvisethatsheshouldhavetreatment.Notethatthisstructurecanalsobeusedtoreportasuggestionaboutwhatthehearershoulddo.Considertheexample:"Herfatherhadsuggestedthatsheoughttoseeadoctor";herfathermighthavesuggesteditdirectlytoher.Ifyoudonotuseamodal,theresultismoreformal.Someonesuggestedthattheybreakintosmallgroups.Notethatwhenyouleaveoutthemodal,theverbinthereportedclausestillhastheformitwouldhaveifthemodalwerepresent.Thisuseofthebaseformissometimescalledthesubjunctive.Itwashisdoctorwhoadvisedthathechangehisjob.Isuggestedthathebringthemalluptothehouse.Heurgesthattherestrictionsbelifted.Hereisalistofreportingverbswhichcanbefollowedbya"that"-clausecontainingamodalorasubjunctive:adviseagreeaskbegcommanddecreedemanddirectinsistintendorderpleadpraypreferproposerecommendrequestrulestipulatesuggesturgeNotethat"advise","ask","beg","command","order",and"urge"canalsobeusedwithanobjectanda"to"-infinitive,and"agree","pray",and"suggest"canalsobeusedwith"that"-clauseswithoutamodal.7.41Whensomeonemakesasuggestionaboutwhatsomeoneelseshoulddo,oraboutwhattheythemselvesandsomeoneelseshoulddo,youcanreportthisusingoneofthereportingverbs"suggest","advise","propose",or"recommend"withanon-finiteclausebeginningwithapresentparticiple.Barbarasuggestedgoingtoanothercoffee-house.DeirdreproposedmovingtoNewYork.reportingintentionsandhopes7.42Whenyouarereportinganactionthatthespeaker(thesubjectofthereportingverb)intendstoperform,youcanreportitintwoways.Youcaneitherreportitsimplyasanaction,usinga"to"-infinitiveclause,oryoucanreportitasastatementorfact,usinga"that"-clause.Forexample,promisesrelatetoactions(eg"Hepromisedtophoneher")buttheycanalsobeseenasrelatingtofacts(eg"Hepromisedthathewouldphoneher").Theverbgroupinthe"that"-clausealwayscontainsamodal.Ipromisedtocomeback.Shepromisedthatshewouldnotleavehospitaluntilshewasbetter.Idecidedtowithholdtheinformationtilllater.Shedeciderthatshewouldleavehermoneytohim.Ihadvowedtofightfortheirfreedom.HevowedthathewouldrideatmysideintoMexico.Hereisalistofverbswhichcanbeusedeitherwitha"to"-infinitiveclauseorwitha"that"-clausecontainingamodal:decideexpectguaranteehopepledgepromiseproposeresolveswearthreatenvow7.43"Claim"and"pretend"canalsobeusedwiththesetwostructureswhenyouaresayingthatsomeoneisclaimingorpretendingsomethingabouthimselforherself.Forexample,"Heclaimedtobeagenius"hasthesamemeaningas"Heclaimedthathewasagenius".Heclaimedtohavewitnessedtheaccident.Heclaimedthathehadfoundthemoneyintheforest.Notethattheinfinitiveinthe"to"-infinitiveclausecanbeaperfectinfinitive,referringtoapast385 eventorsituation.7.44Notethatafewverbswhichindicatepersonalintentionscanonlybeusedwitha"to"-infinitiveclause.Iintendtosaynothingforthepresent.Theyareplanningtomovetothecountry.Idon"twanttodieyet.Hereisalistoftheseverbs:intendlongmeanplanrefusewant7.45Whenyouarereportinganactionthatsomeoneiswonderingaboutdoingthemselves,youcanusea"to"-infinitiveclausebeginningwith"whether".I"vebeenwonderingwhethertoretire.Hedidn"tknowwhethertofeelgladorsorryathisdismissal.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedwith"to"-infinitiveclausesofthiskind:choosedebatedecideknowwonderNotethat"choose","decide"and"know"areusuallyusedinanegativeorinterrogativeclause,oraclausewithamodal.Whenyouarementioninginformationaboutsomethinginvolvedinanaction,youcanusea"to"-infinitiveclauseaftera"wh"-wordasthereportedclause.Iaskedhimwhattodo.Ishallteachyouhowtocook.Hereisalistofverbswhichcanbeusedwith"to"-infinitiveclausesofthiskind:describediscoverdiscussexplainforgetguessimagineknowlearnrealizerememberrevealsayseesuggestteachtellthinkunderstandwonderAsanalternativetobothkindsof"to"-infinitiveclause,youcanuseaclausecontaining"should".IwonderedwhetherIshouldcallforhelp.Hebegantowonderwhatheshoulddonow.Alltheverbsintheabovelists,except"choose"and"debate",canalsobeusedwithordinaryclausesbeginningwith"whether"or"wh"-words.Seeparagraphs7.32to7.35.Timereferenceinreportstructures7.46Thissectionexplainshowtoshowtimereferenceinreportstructures.pasttenseforbothverbs7.47Whenyouuseareportstructure,youareusuallyreportingsomethingthatwassaidorbelievedinthepast.Boththereportingverbandtheverbinthereportedclausearethereforeusuallyinapasttense.Shesaidyouthrewawayhersweets.Brodyaskedwhathappened.IntheMiddleAges,peoplethoughttheworldwasflat.reportingverbinothertenses7.48Ifyouarereportingsomethingthatsomeonesaysorbelievesatthetimethatyouarespeaking,youuseapresenttenseofthereportingverb.Expertssaythatyoushouldbepreciseinyouraccounting.Ithinkit"sgoingtorain.However,youcanalsouseapresenttenseofthereportingverbwhenyouarereportingsomethingsaidinthepast,especiallyifyouarereportingsomethingthatsomeoneoftensaysorthatisstilltrue.Shesaysshewantstoseeyouthisafternoon.Mydoctorsaysit"snothingtoworryabout.Ifyouarepredictingwhatpeoplewillsayorthink,youuseafuturetenseofthereportingverb.Nodoubthewillclaimthathiscarbrokedown.Theywillthinkwearemakingafuss.tenseofverbinreportedclause7.49Whateverthetenseofyourreportingverb,youputtheverbinthereportedclauseintoatensethatisappropriateatthetimethatyouarespeaking.Iftheeventorsituationdescribedinthereportedclauseisinthepastatthetimethatyouarespeaking,youusethesimplepasttense,thepastcontinuous,orthepresentperfect:"Shesaidsheenjoyedthecourse","Shesaidshewasenjoyingthecourse"or"Shesaidshehasenjoyed385 thecourse".SeeChapter5forinformationonwhentousethesetenses.Dadexplainedthathehadnomoney.Sheaddedthatshewassmokingtoomuch.Hesayshehasneverseenalivesharkinhislife.However,whenthereportingverbisinapasttense,apasttenseisalsousuallyusedfortheverbinthereportedclauseevenifthereportedsituationstillexists.Forexample,youcouldsay"ItoldhimIwaseighteen"evenifyouarestilleighteen.Youareconcentratingonthesituationatthepasttimethatyouaretalkingabout.HesaidhewasEnglish.Apresenttenseissometimesusedinstead,toemphasizethatthesituationstillexists.ItoldhimthatIdon"tdrinkmorethananyoneelse.Iftheeventorsituationwasfnthepastatthetimethatthereportedstatementwasmade,orhadexisteduptothattime,youusethepastperfecttense:"Shesaidshehadenjoyedthecourse."Heknewhehadbehavedbadly.MrBennsaidthathehadbeeninhospitalatthetime.Iftheeventorsituationisstillgoingon,youuseapresenttenseifyouareusingapresenttenseofthereportingverb:"Shesaysshe"senjoyingthecourse."Don"tassumeI"macompletefool.Heknowshe"sbeingwatched.Iftheeventorsituationwasinthefutureatthetimeofthestatementorisstillinthefuture,youuseamodal.Seeparagraphs7.50to7.53,below.7.50Thebasicrulesforusingmodalsinreportedclausesareasfollows.Iftheverbinthereportingclauseisinapasttenseorhas"could"or"would"asanauxiliary,youusuallyuse"could","might",or"would"inthereportedclause.If,asislesscommon,theverbinthereportingclauseisinapresenttenseorhas"can"or"will"asanauxiliary,youusuallyuse"can","may",or"would"inthereportedclause.7.51Whenyouwanttoreportastatementorquestionaboutsomeone"sabilitytodosomething,younormallyuse"could".Theybelievedthatwarcouldbeavoided.Nellwouldnotadmitthatshecouldnotcope.Ifyouwanttoreportastatementaboutpossibility,younormallyuse"might".Theytoldmeitmightfloodhere.Hesaidyoumightneedmoney.Ifthepossibilityisastrongone,youuse"must".Itoldhershemustbeoutofhermind.Whenyouwanttoreportastatementgivingpermissionorarequestforpermission,younormallyuse"could"."Might"isusedinmoreformalEnglish.Itoldhimhecouldn"thaveit.Madeleineaskedifshemightborrowapenandsomepaper.Whenyouwanttoreportaprediction,promise,orexpectation,oraquestionaboutthefuture,younormallyuse"would".Shesaidtheywouldallmissus.Heinsistedthatreformswouldsavethesystem,notdestroyit.7.52Ifthereportedeventorsituationstillexistsorisstillinthefuture,andyouareusingapresenttenseofthereportingverb,youuse"can"insteadof"could","may"insteadof"might",and"will"or"shall"insteadof"would".HelensaidIcanshareherflat.Ithinksomeofthesheepmaydiethisyear.Idon"tbelievehewillcome.Notethatyoucannotuse"canhave"insteadof"couldhave",or"willhave"insteadof"wouldhave".Youcannotuse"mayhave"insteadof"mighthave"ifyouareusingitlike"couldhave"totalkaboutsomethingthatdidnothappen.Youcanalsouse"can","may","will",and"shall"whenyouareusingapasttenseofthereportingverb,ifyouwanttoemphasizethatthesituationstillexistsorisstillinthefuture.Heclaimedthatachild"searlyexperiencesofbeingseparatedfromhismothermaycausepsychologicaldistressinlaterlife.Ifyouareusingapresentreportingverbandwanttoindicatethatthereportedeventorsituationishypotheticalorveryunlikely,youcanusethemodals"could","might",or"would".385 IbelievethatIcouldliveverycomfortablyhere.7.53Whenyouwanttoreportastatementaboutobligation,itispossibletouse"must",buttheexpression"hadto"(seeparagraph4.248)ismorecommon.Hesaidhereallyhadtogobackinside.Sitatoldhimthathemustbeespeciallykindtothelittlegirl.Youuse"haveto","hasto",or"must"ifthereportedsituationstillexistsorisinthefuture.Whenyouwanttoreportastatementprohibitingsomething,younormallyuse"mustn"t".Hesaidtheymustn"tgetusintotrouble.Whenyouwanttoreportastrongrecommendation,youcanuse"oughtto".Youcanalsouse"should".HeknewheoughttobehelpingHarold.IfeltIshouldconsultmyfamily.7.54Whenyouwanttoreportahabitualpastactionorapastsituation,youcanusethesemi-modal"usedto".IwishIknewwhathisfavouritedishesusedtobe.7.55Theuseofmodalsinreportedclausescanbecomparedwiththeordinaryuseofmodals(seeparagraphs4.95to4.262).Manyofthefunctionsaresimilar,butsomearerarelyorneverfoundinreporterclauses.reportingconditionalstatements7.56Whenyouarereportingaconditionalstatement,thetensesoftheverbsare,inmostcases,thesameastheywouldbenormally.However,theyaredifferentifyouareusingthesimplepasttenseofareportingverb,andreportingaconditionalstatementsuchas"Ifthereisnowaterintheradiator,theenginewilloverheat".Inthiscase,youcanusethesimplepastinsteadofthesimplepresentand"would"insteadof"will"inthereportedconditionalstatement:"Shesaidthatiftherewasnowaterintheradiator,theenginewouldoverheat".Forinformationaboutconditionalstatements,seeparagraphs8.25to8.42.Makingyourreferenceappropriate7.57People,things,times,andplacescanbereferredtoindifferentways,dependingonwhoisspeakingoronwhenorwheretheyarespeaking.Forexample,thesamepersoncanbereferredtoas"I","you",or"she",andthesameplacecanbereferredtoas"overthere"or"justhere".Ifyouuseareportstructuretoreportwhatsomeonehassaid,thewordsyouusetorefertothingsmustbeappropriateinrelationtoyourself,thetimewhenyouarespeaking,andtheplaceinwhichyouarespeaking.Thewordsyouusemaywellbedifferentfromthewordsoriginallyspoken,whichwereappropriatefromthepointofviewofthespeakeratthetime.7.58Forexample,ifamanistalkingtosomeoneaboutawomancalledJenny,andhesays,"IsawherintheHighStreet",thereareaanumberofwaysinwhichthisstatementcanbereported.Iftheoriginalspeakerrepeatswhathesaid,hecouldsay,"IsaidIsawherintheHighStreet.""I"and"her"donotchange,becausetheystillrefertothesamepeople.Iftheoriginallistenerreportswhatwassaid,heorshecouldsay,"HesaidhesawherintheHighStreet.""I"becomes"he",becausethestatementsreportedfromthepointofviewofathirdperson,notfromthepointofviewoftheoriginalspeaker.IftheoriginallistenerreportsthestatementtoJenny,"her"becomes"you":"HesaidhesawyouintheHighStreet".Theoriginallistenermightreportthestatementtotheoriginalspeaker.Thistime,"I"hastochangeto"you":"YousaidyousawherintheHighStreet".You"recrazy.Itoldhimhewascrazy.Possessivedeterminersandpronounschangeinthesamewayaspersonalpronounsinordertokeepthesamereference.Sothefollowingsentencescouldallreportthesamequestion:"Sheaskedifhewasmybrother","Sheaskedifyouweremybrother","Iaskedifhewasherbrother."Theoriginalquestionmighthavebeenexpressedas"Isheyourbrother?"7.59Whenreporting,youmayneedtochangeadjunctsoftimesuchas"today","yesterday"or"nextweek".Forexample,ifsomeonecalledJillsays"Iwillcometomorrow",youcouldreportthisstatementthefollowingdayas"Jillsaidshewouldcometoday".Atalatertime,youcouldreportthesamestatementas"Jillsaidshewouldcomethenextday"or"Jillsaidshewouldcomethefollowingday".385 Wedecidedtoleavethecitythenextday.IwasafraidpeoplemightthinkI"dbeenasleepduringtheprevioustwenty-fourhours.7.60Youmayneedtochangewordswhichrelatetopositionofplace.Forexample,ifyouaretalkingtoamanaboutarestaurant,hemightsay"Igothereeveryday".Ifyoureporthisstatementwhileyouareactuallytherestaurant,youcouldsay"Hesaidhecomeshereeveryday".Usingreportingverbsforpoliteness7.61Reportingverbsareoftenusedtosaysomethinginapoliteway.7.62Ifyouwanttocontradictsomeoneortosaysomethingwhichmightbeunwelcometothem,youcanavoidsoundingrudebyusingareportingverbsuchas"think"or"believe".Ithinkit"stimewestopped.Idon"tthinkthatwillbenecessary.Ibelieveyououghttoleavenow.Alternatively,youcanmakethereportingclauseintoanegativequestion.Don"tyouthinkwe"dbetterwaitandsee?Don"tyouthinkyou"dbetterslowdown?Formoreinformationontheuseofreportingverbstodecreasethestrengthofastatement,seethesectiononperformativeverbsinChapter10(10.102to10.105)."suppose"and"wonder"7.63Youcanuse"suppose"and"wonder"tointroducepoliterequests.Whenyouuse"suppose"likethis,youcanmakeeitherthereportingclauseorthereportedclausenegative.Iwonderifyou"vegotanybooksonlinguistics?Isupposeyoucouldn"tjuststayanhourortwolonger?Idon"tsupposeyou"dbepreparedtostayinEdinburgh?Avoidingmentionofthepersonspeakingorthinking7.64Thereareanumberofreportstructureswhichyoucanuseifyouwanttoavoidsayingwhoseopinionorstatementyouaregiving.useofpassivestoexpressgeneralbeliefs7.65Ifyouwanttoindicateorimplythatsomethingisanopinionwhichisheldbyanunspecifiedgroupofpeople,youcanuseapassiveformofareportingverbwith"it"astheimpersonalsubject.Itisassumedthatthegovernmentwillremaininpower.Informertimesitwasbelievedthatanenlargedtonsilsshouldberemoved.Itisnowbelievedthatforeignlanguagesaremosteasilytaughttoyoungchildren.Itwassaidthathecouldspeaktheirlanguage.Hereisalistofreportingverbswhichareusedinthepassivewith"it"astheirsubject:acceptacknowledgeadmitagreeallegeannounceargueassertassumebelieveclaimcommentconcedeconcludeconfirmconsiderdecidedecreediscoverestimateexpectexplainfearfeelfindforeseeforgetguaranteeholdhopeimplyknowmentionnotenoticeobjectobservepredictproposerealizerecallreckonrecommendrecordrememberreportrequestrevealrulerumoursaystatestipulatesuggestsupposethinkunderstandThisstructurehasmuchincommonwithaphasestructureusingapassivereportingverbanda"to"-infinitiveclause.Inthephasestructure,themainpersonorthinginvolvedinthereportedopinionisputasthesubjectofthereportingverb.Intelligenceisassumedtobeimportant.Heissaidtohavediedanaturaldeath.HeisbelievedtohavefledtoFrance.Notethatthe"to"-infinitiveismostcommonly"be"or"have",oraperfectinfinitive.Hereisalistofreportingverbs,fromthelistabove,whicharealsousedinthephasestructure:agreeconsiderfindpredictthink385 allegeassumebelieveclaimdiscoverestimateexpectfeelguaranteeholdknowobservereckonreportrumoursayunderstand7.66Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethingappearstobethecase,youcanuseeitheroftheverbs"seem"and"appear".Theseverbscanbeusedasreportingverbsfollowedbya"that"-clauseortheycanbeusedwitha"to"-infinitiveclause.Youcanbegivingyourownopinionorthatofsomeoneelse.Ifyouwanttomentionanapparentfactyoucanuse"seem"or"appear",followedbya"that"-clause.Thesubjectof"seem"or"appear"is"it",usedimpersonally.Itseemedthatshehadnotbeencarefulenough.Itseemedthathehadlosthischancetowin.Itappearsthathefollowedmyadvice.Alternatively,youcanuseaphasestructureinvolving"seem"or"appear"anda"to"-infinitiveclause.Themainpersonorthinginvolvedinthefactthatappearstobetrueisputasthesubjectofthereportingverb.Sheseemedtolikeme.Heappearstohavebeenaninterestingman.Thesystemappearstoworkimpartially.Ifyouwanttomentionthepersonwhoseviewpointyouaregiving,youcanaddaprepositionalphrasebeginningwith"to"after"seem"or"appear".ItseemedtohimthatIwasnotyetsuitable.Itseemstometobearemarkablepronouncement.7.67Thereareafewexpressionscontainingimpersonal"if"whichareusedasreportingclausesbefore"that"-clausestoindicatethatsomeonesuddenlythoughtofsomething:"Itoccurredtome","Itstruckme",and"Itcrossedmymind".Itoccurredtohimthathehadn"teatenanythingsincethenightbeforehiscapture.Itcrossedmymindthatsomebodymusthavebeenkeepingthingssecret.Referringtothespeakerandhearer7.68Youusuallyuseareportingverbtoreportwhatonepersonhassaidorthought,sothesubjectofareportingverbisusuallyasingularnoun.Henrysaidthathewantedtogohome.Heclaimedhishealthhadbeencheckedseveraltimesataclinic.Whenyoureportthestatements,opinions,orders,ofquestionsofagroupofpeople,youcanuseapluralnounoracollectivenounasthesubjectofthereportingverb.Thejudgesdemandedthattheraceberunagain.Thecommitteealsonotedthatthiswasnotthefirstcaseofitskind.Whenyoureportwhatwassaidontelevisionorradio,orwhatisprintedorwritteninanewspaperorotherdocument,youcanmentionthesourceormeansofcommunicationasthesubjectofareportingverb.ThenewspapersaidScotlandYardwasinvestigatingthecrime.Theletterarguedthatcivildefencewasanindispensableelementofdeterrence.Notethatyoucanalsouse"say"withnounssuchas"sign","notice","clock",and"map"asthesubject....anoticesayingthatonnoaccountshouldtheattendantsbetipped.Asignoverthedoorsaid"DreamlandCafe".Theroadmapsaiditwas210kilometrestotheFrenchfrontier.useofthepassive7.69Asexplainedinparagraph7.65,whenyouwanttoavoidmentioningthepersonwhosaidsomething,youcanuseareportingverbinthepassive.Itwassaidthatsomeofthemhadbecomeinsane.Hewassaidtobetheoldestmaninthefirm.Ifyouwanttoavoidmentioningthepersongivinganorderorgivingadvice,youuseapassivereportingverbwiththepersonwhoreceivestheorderoradviceasthesubjectoftheclause.Harrietwasorderedtokeepawayfrommyroom.USAGENOTE7.70Ifyouwanttodistanceyourselffromastatementyouaremaking,youcanindicatethatyouarereportingwhatsomeoneelsehassaidbyusingaphrasebeginningwith"accordingto",fatherthanusingareportstructure.AccordingtoDime,hehadstrangledJedinthecourseofastruggle.385 referringtothehearer7.71Aftersomereportingverbsthatrefertospeech,youhavetomentionthehearerasadirectobject."Tell"isthemostcommonoftheseverbs.Itoldthemyouwereatthedentist.IinformedherthatIwasunwellandcouldnotcome.Smithpersuadedthemthattheymustsupportthestrike.Youcanusetheseverbsinthepassive,withthehearerasthesubject.Shehadbeentoldshecouldleavehospital.Membershadbeeninformedthatthepurposeofthemeetingwastoelectanewchairman.Shewaspersuadedtolookagain.Hereisalistofreportingverbswhichmusthavethehearerasthedirectobjectwhentheyareusedwitha"that"-clause:assureconvinceinformnotifypersuadereassureremindtellHereisalistofreportingverbswhichmusthavethehearerasthedirectobjectwhentheyareusedwitha"to"-infinitiveclause:advisebegcommandforbidinstructinviteorderpersuaderemindteachtellurgewarn7.72Afterafewreportingverbsthatrefertospeech,youcanchoosewhetherornottomentionthehearer.IpromisedthatIwouldtrytophoneher.IpromisedMyraI"dbehomeatseven.Thephysicianswarnedthat,withouttheoperation,thechildwoulddie.Thomaswarnedherthathismotherwasslightlydeaf.Hereisalistofreportingverbswhichcanbeusedwithorwithoutthehearerasobjectwhenusedwitha"that"-clause:askpromiseleechwarn"Promise"canalsobeusedwithorwithoutanobjectwhenitisusedwitha"to"-infinitiveclause."Ask"hastobeusedwithanobjectwhenitisusedwitha"to"-infinitiveclausetoreportarequestforthehearertodosomething,butitisusedwithoutanobjectwhentherequestisforpermissiontodosomething(seeparagraphs7.36and7.39).7.73Withmanyotherreportingverbs,ifyouwanttomentionthehearer,youdosoinaprepositionalphrasebeginningwith"to".IexplainedtoherthatIhadtogohome."Margaret,"Isaidtoher,"I"msogladyoucame."Hereisalistofreportingverbswhichareusedwith"that"-clausesorquotesandwhichneedthepreposition"to"ifyoumentionthehearer:admitannounceboastcomplainconfessdeclareexplainhintinsistmentionmurmurproposereportrevealsayshoutsuggestswearwhisper"Propose"and"swear"canalsobeusedwitha"to"-infinitiveclause,butnotifyoumentionthehearer.IsworetoupholdtheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates.7.74Whenyouaredescribingasituationinwhichaspeakerisspeakingforcefullytoahearer,youcanmentionthehearerinaprepositionalphrasebeginningwith"at".Thetallboyshoutedatthem,"Choir!Standstill!""Wherethedevilhaveyoucomefrom?"hegrowledather.Hereisalistofreportingverbswhichareusedtodescribeforcefulspeech.Ifyouwanttomentionthehearer,youuseaprepositionalphrasebeginningwith"at":barkbellowgrowlgrumblehowlroarscreamshoutshrieksnapstormthunderwailyell7.75Withverbswhichdescribesituationswhereboththespeakerandthehearerareinvolvedinthespeechactivity,youcanmentionthehearerinaprepositionalphrasebeginningwith"with".Heagreedwithusthatitwouldbebettertohavenobreak.IarguedwithRickthathewasinvolvedinaformofblackmail.Hereisalistofreportingverbswhichtakethepreposition"with"ifyoumentionthehearer:385 agreeargueconfirmpleadreason7.76Withverbswhichdescribesituationswheresomeoneisgettinginformationfromsomeoneorsomething,youuseaprepositionalphrasebeginningwith"from"tomentionthesourceoftheinformation.Idiscoveredfromherthatawomanprisonerhadkilledherself.Hereisalistofreportingverbswherethesourceoftheinformationismentionedusing"from":discoverelicitgatherhearinferlearnseereflexivepronouns7.77Areflexivepronouncanbeusedastheobjectofareportingverborprepositioninordertosaywhatsomeoneisthinking.Forexample,"tosaysomethingtoyourself"meanstothinkitratherthantosayitaloud.Itoldmyselfthathewascrazy.I"llneverpossessanything,Isaidtomyself.Otherwaysofindicatingwhatissaidobjectswithreportingverbs7.78Sometimesyouuseanounsuchas"question","story",or"apology"torefertowhatsomeonehassaidorwritten.Youcanuseareportingverbwithoneofthesenounsasitsobjectinsteadofareportedclause.Heaskedanumberofquestions.Simonwhisperedhisanswer.Hetoldfunnystoriesandmadeeveryonelaugh.Philiprepeatedhisinvitation.Hereisalistofreportingverbswhichareoftenusedwithnounsthatrefertosomethingspokenorwritten:acceptacknowledgeaskbeginbelievecontinuedemanddenyexpectexplainforgetguesshearimagineknowlearnmentionmutternotenoticepromiserefuserememberrepeatreportshoutstatesuggesttellunderstandwhisperwrite7.79Somereportingverbscanhaveastheirobjectsnounsthatrefertoeventsorfacts.Thesenounsareoftencloselyrelatedtoverbs.Forexample,"loss"iscloselyrelatedto"lose",andinsteadofsaying"Headmittedthathehadlosthispassport",youcansay"Headmittedthelossofhispassport".BritishAirwaysannouncethearrivalofflightBA5531fromGlasgow.Thecompanyreporteda45percentdropinprofits.Hereisalistofreportingverbswhichareoftenusedwithnounsthatrefertoeventsorfacts:acceptacknowledgeadmitannouncedemanddescribediscoverdiscussdoubtexpectexplainfearforeseeforgetimaginemeanmentionnotenoticeobservepredictpreferpromiserecommendrecordrememberreportseesensesuggesturge7.80Notethat"say"isusuallyonlyusedwithanobjectiftheobjectisaverygeneralwordsuchas"something","anything",or"nothing".Imusthavesaidsomethingwrong.Themannoddedbutsaidnothing.7.81Afewverbsreferringtospeechandthoughtcanbeusedwithaprepositionalphraseratherthanareportedclause,toindicatethegeneralsubjectmatterofastatementorthought.ThomasexplainedabouttherequestfromParis.Herearethreelistsofverbswhichcanbeusedwithaprepositionalphrasereferringtoafactorsubject.Thefirstgroupofverbsineachlistareusedwithoutanobject,andthesecondgroupareusedwithanobjectreferringtothehearer.Notethat"ask"and"warn"canbeusedwithorwithoutanobject.Thefollowingverbsareusedwith"about":agreedreaminquirewonderteach385 askboastcomplaindecideexplainforgetgrumblehearknowlearnmutterreadworrywrite~asktellwarnNooneknewaboutmyinterestinmathematics.Iaskedhimaboutthehorses.Thefollowingverbsareusedwith"of":complaindreamhearknowlearnreadthinkwarnwrite~assureconvinceinformnotifypersuadereassureremindwarnTheynevercomplainedoftheincessantrain.MrBeltramihadinformedMrMMurrayofthesedevelopments.Thefollowingverbsareusedwith"on".Noneofthemtakeanobjectreferringtothehearer.agreecommentdecidedetermineinsistremarkreportwriteHehadalreadydecidedonhisstory.SheremarkedontheexcellenceofhisEnglish.Notethat"speak"and"talk"areusedwith"about"and"of"butnotwithreportedclause.Otherwaysofusingreportedclausesotherverbsusedwithreportedclauses7.82Thereareafewverbswhichdonotrefertosaying,thinking,orlearningbutwhicharefollowedby"that"-clausesbecausetheyrefertoactionswhichrelatetofacts:forexample,checkingfactsorprovingfacts.Hecheckedthatbothreardoorsweresafelyshut.Researchwithanimalsshowsthatmaleswillmotheraninfantaswellasanyfemale.Hereisalistofverbswhicharenotverbsofspeechorthoughtbutcanbefollowedbya"that"-clause:arrangecheckdemonstratedetermineensureindicatepretendproverequirewealshowNotethat"determine"canalsobeaverbofthoughtand"reveal"canalsobeaverbofspeech.Seeparagraphs7.27,7.35,and7.45."Arrange"and"require"areusedwitha"that"-clausecontainingamodalorasubjunctive."Arrange"canalsobeusedwitha"to"-infinitiveclause.TheKingarrangedthatIshouldhavetheOrderofMerit.They"darrangedtoleaveatfouro"clock."Demonstrate","prove","reveal",and"show"canalsobefollowedbyaclausebeginningwitha"wh"-wordwhichreferstoacircumstanceinvolvedinafact.Thewomantookthegunandshowedhowthecylinderslottedintothebarrel."Prove","require",and"show"canalsobeusedinthepassivefollowedbya"to"-infinitiveclause.Noplaceonearthcanbeshowntobesafe.Ifyouwanttomentionanotherpersoninvolvedintheseactions,youcanputanobjectafter"show",use"to"after"demonstrate","indicate","prove",and"reveal",anduse"with"after"arrange"and"check".Thisattitudeofthechildrenshowedmethatwatchingviolencecanlowerachild"sstandardsofbehaviour.ThewaymyeyelidshadclosedprovedtomethatIwasalmostassuggestibleasPatricia.Shearrangedwiththeprincipalofherschooltotakethenecessarytimeoff.7.83Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethinghappens,thatsomethingisthecase,orthatsomethingbecomesknown,youcanusea"that"-clauseafter"happen","transpire",or"emerge".Thesubjectofthereportingclauseisimpersonal"it".Itoftenhappensthatamotherasksforadviceanddoesnotgetit.Itjusthappenedthathehadaclientwhoratherlikedthatsortofthing.Ittranspiredthattherewasnotawordoftruthintheletter.Itemergedthat,duringtheafternoon,shehadgonehomeunwell.Notethatthe"that"-clausemustbeintroducedby"that".7.84Therearemanynouns,suchas"statement","advice",and"opinion",whichrefertowhatsomeonesaysorthinks.Manyofthenounsusedinthiswayarerelatedtoreportingverbs.For385 example,"information"isrelatedto"inform",and"decision"isrelatedto"decide".Thesenounscanbeusedinreportstructuresinasimilarwaytoreportingverbs.Theyareusuallyfollowedbyareportedclausebeginningwith"that".HereferredtoCopernicus"statementthattheearthmovesaroundthesun.HeexpressedtheopinionthatKitchenershouldbemadeWarMinister.Therewaslittlehopethathewouldsurvive.Hereisalistofnounswhichhaverelatedreportingverbsandwhichcanbeusedwith"that"-clauses:admissionadviceagreementannouncementanswerargumentassertionassumptionbeliefclaimconclusiondecisiondreamexpectationexplanationfeelingguesshopeinformationknowledgepromisereplyreportresponserulerumoursayingsensestatementthoughtthreatunderstandingwarningwishSomeofthesenounscanalsobefollowedbya"to"-infinitiveclause:agreementclaimdecisionhopepromisethreatwarningwishThedecisiontogohadnotbeenaneasyonetomake.Barnaby"sfatherhadfulfilledhispromisetobuyhissonahorse.Notethatsomenounsthatarenotrelatedtoreportingverbscanbefollowedby"that"-clauses,becausetheyreferorrelatetofactsorbeliefs.Hereisalistofsomeofthesenouns:advantagebenefitconfidencedangerdisadvantageeffectevidenceexperiencefactfaithideaimpressionnewsopinionpossibilityprinciplerisksignstorytraditionviewvisionwordHedidn"twanthertogettheideathathewasrich.IhadnoevidencethatJedwasthekiller.Eventually,adistraughtMcCooturnedupwiththenewsthathishousehadjustburneddown.7.85Therearemanyadjectivesthatcanbefollowedbyreportedclauseswhentheyarethecomplementofalinkverb,usually"be".7.86Ifyouwanttosaywhatcausessomeonetohaveaparticularfeeling,youcanmentionthecauseofthefeelingina"that"-clauseafteranadjectivedescribingthefeeling.EverybodywassadthatshehadtoreturntoAmerica.IamconfidentthatIshallbeabletopersuadethemtogo.Iwasworriedthatshe"dsayno.Hereisalistofadjectivesdescribingfeelings:afraidangryanxiousconfidentfrightenedgladhappypleasedproudsadsorrysurprisedupsetworriedsayingwhatsomeoneknows7,87Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeoneknowssomething,youcansaywhattheyknowina"that"-clauseafteranadjectivesuchas"aware"or"conscious".Hewasawarethathehaddrunktoomuchwhisky.IamconsciousthatIhaveprovidednoanswerinthisbook.Hereisalistofadjectivesindicatingknowledge:awarecertainconsciousconvincedpositivesureunaware"Aware"isoccasionallyusedwithareportedclausebeginningwitha"wh"-word.Iamwellawarehowbusyyouareatthisseasonoftheyear.commentingonafact7.88Ifyouwanttocommentonafact,youcanuseanadjectivedescribingthefactfollowedbya"that"-clause.Thelinkverbhasimpersonal"it"asitssubject.Itwassadthatpeoplehadreactedinthewaytheydid.Itistruethattheauthorityofparliamenthasdeclined.Itisextraordinarythatweshouldeverhavemet!Itseemsprobablethattheworldcangoonproducingenoughfoodforeveryone.Hereisalistofadjectivesusedtocommentonfacts:385 apparentappropriateawfulbadclearessentialevidentextraordinaryfairfunnygoodimportantinevitableinterestinglikelyluckynaturalobviousplainpossibleprobablesadtrueunlikelyAfterafewadjectives,aclausebeginningwitha"wh"-wordcanbeused.It"sfunnyhowtheydon"tgeton.Itwasneverclearwhysheworkedallherlifeasadomesticservant.Formoreinformationseeparagraph10.43.nominaluseof"that"-clauses7.89"That"-clausescanbeusedascomplementsafter"be"torefertoafactoridea.Thesubjectisusuallyoneofthenounslistedinparagraph7.84.Thefactisthatahappypersonmakesabetterworker.Theanswerissimplythattheyareinterestedindoingit.Themostfavouredexplanationwasthathewasfinallygettingtired.Ourhopeisthatthistimeallpartieswillcooperate.7.90InformalEnglish,"that"-clausesaresometimesusedasthesubjectofaverb,whenpeoplewanttocommentonafact.ThatIwritewithabiasisnatural.Thatmancanaspiretoandachievegoodnessisevidentthroughallofhistory.InlessformalEnglish,"thefact"plusa"that"-clauseisoftenusedasasubjectinsteadofasimple"that"-clause.Thefactthatwhattheyaredoingisillegalisatrivialirrelevance.Thefactthatyourbossisactuallyofferingtodoyourjobforyoushouldcertaintypromptyoutoquestionhismotives.Thenormalwayofcommentingonafactistouseanimpersonal"it"structure.Seeparagraph7.88.7.91Peoplealsouse"thefact"plusa"that"-clauseastheobjectofprepositionsandofverbswhichcannotbefollowedbyasimple"that"-clause....acknowledgementofthefactthatwehavenointrinsicrighttoreceiveanswerstoallourquestions.Weoverlookedthefactthatthechildren"semotionaldevelopmenthadbeenretarded.7.92Whenyouwanttorefertomatterswhicharenotcertainordefiniteoraboutwhichachoicehastobemade,youcanuseclausesbeginningwitha"wh"-wordor"whether",liketheclausesusedforreportedquestions.Theycanbeusedafterprepositions,andasthesubjectofverbssuchas"be","depend",and"matter"....thequestionofwhoshouldbePresidentoftheBoardofTrade.TheStateisdesperatelyuncertainaboutwhatitwantsartiststodo.Whatyougetdependsonhowbadlyyouwereinjured.WhetherIwenttwiceornotdoesn"tmatter.Whetheryouthinktheyareanygoodornotisirrelevant.7.93Structuresconsistingofa"wh"-wordplusa"to"-infinitiveclause,whichrefertoapossiblecourseofaction,areusedafterprepositionsbutnotusuallyassubjects....theproblemofwhattotelltheadoptedchild....abookonhowtoavoidhavingaheartattack.Peopleareveryworriedabouthowtofilltheirincreasedleisuretime.7.94Notethat"if"-clauses,whichareusedforreportedquestions,cannotbeusedafterprepositionsorasthesubjectofaverb.ContentsofChapter8page8.6-82Adverbialclauses2558.8-24Timeclauses2558.25-42Conditionalclauses2588.43-48Purposeclauses2628.49-53Reasonclauses2638.54-64Resultclauses2638.65-72Concessiveclauses2658.73-77Placeclauses2668.78-82Clausesofmanner266385 8.83-116Relativeclauses2678.89-91Usingrelativepronounsindefiningclauses2688.92-94Usingrelativepronounsinnon-definingclauses2698.95-100Usingrelativepronounswithprepositions2698.101-102Using"whose"2708.103-108Usingotherrelativepronouns2708.109-111Additionalpointsaboutnon-definingrelativeclauses2718.112-116Nominalrelativeclauses2728.117-136Non-finiteclauses2728.120-131Usingnon-definingclauses2738.132-133Usingdefiningclauses2748.134-136Otherstructuresusedlikenon-finiteclauses2748.137-189Coordination2748.139-151Linkingclauses2758.152-158Linkingverbs2778.159-167Linkingnoungroups2788.168-177Linkingadjectivesandadverbs2798.178-181Linkingotherwordgroups2808.182-187Emphasizingcoordinatingconjunctions2808.188-189Linkingmorethantwoclausesorwordgroups2818Combiningmessages8.1Sometimeswewanttomakeastatementwhichistoocomplexordetailedtobeexpressedinasingleclause.Wematestatementsofthiskindbyputtingtwoormoreclausestogetherinonesentence.Therearetwowaysinwhichwedothis.Onewayistouseoneclauseasamainclauseandtoaddotherclauseswhichexpresssubordinatemeanings.IcamebecauseIwantyoutohelpme.Ididn"tlikethemanwhodidthegardeningforthem.Youhavenorighttokeeppeopleoffyourlandunlesstheyaredoingdamage.Whenhehadgone,Valentinasighed.Theotherwayissimplytolinkclausestogether.I"manoldmanandI"msick.Mysonhasacarbuthedoesn"ttaketheforadrive.Questionsandorderscanalsoconsistofmorethanoneclause.WhatwillIdoifhedoesn"tcome?Ifsheisambitious,don"ttrytoholdherback.ClausesareexplainedinChaptersaand4.8.2Whenyouputtwoclausesintoonesentence,youuseaconjunctiontolinkthemandtoindicatetherelationshipbetweenthem.Whenhestopped,noonesaidanything.Theyweregoingbycarbecauseitwasmorecomfortable.ThetelephonerangandJudypickeditup.Manfredbehavedperfectly,butGertrudehadlittleideaofwhathewasthinking.8.3Therearetwokindsofconjunction.Theyindicatethedifferentkindsofrelationshipbetweenclausesinasentence.8.4Whenyouareaddingaclauseinordertodevelopsomeaspectofwhatyouaresaying,youuseasubordinatingconjunction.Thecatjumpedontomyfather"slapwhilehewasreadinghisletters.Thewoundwashealingalthoughhewouldneverbeabletospeakagain.Whenthejarwasfull,heturnedthewateroff.Aclausewhichbeginswithasubordinatingconjunctioniscalledasubordinateclause.Whenanatomissplit,itreleasesneutrons.Ifhehadagun,hewouldhavekilledtheman.ThehousewascalledElmView,althoughtherewerenoelmsanywhereinsight.Subordinateclausescanalsobeaddedtoquestionsandimperativeclauses.Howlongisitsinceyou"veactuallytaught?Knowwhatfibreyouaredyeingbeforeyoustart.Sentencescontainingamainclauseandoneormoresubordinateclausesareoftencalled385 complexsentences.Therearethreemainkindsofsubordinateclause:Adverbialclausesaredealtwithinparagraphs8.6to8.82.Relativeclausesaredealtwithinparagraphs8.83to8.116.ReportedclausesaredealtwithinChapter7.coordinatingconjunctions8.5lfyouaresimplylinkingclauses,youuseacoordinatingconjunction.Hersonlivesathomeandhasasteadyjob.He"sashyman,buthe"snotscaredofanythingoranyone.Coordinatingconjunctionscanalsobeputbetweenquestionsandbetweenimperativeclauses.Dopeopledrivetheirowncarsoraretheyallcalledforbythebus?Visityourlocaldealerorphoneforabrochure.Clausesjoinedbyacoordinatingconjunctionarecalledcoordinateclauses.Sheturnedandlefttheroom.Sentenceswhichcontaincoordinateclausesaresometimescalledcompoundsentences.Afullexplanationofcoordinateclausesisgiveninparagraphs8.137to8.151.Otherusesofcoordinatingconjunctionsareexplainedinparagraphs8.152to8.189.Adverbialclauses8.6Thereareeighttypesofadverbialclause:kindofclauseusualconjunctionparagraphstimeclauseswhen,before,after,since,while,as,untilparagraphs8.8to8.24conditionalclausesif,unlessparagraphs8.25to8.42purposeclausesinorderto,sothatparagraphs8.43to8.48reasonclausesbecause,since,asparagraphs8.49to8.53resultclausessothatparagraphs8.54to8.64concessiveclausesalthough,though,whileparagraphs8.65to8.72placeclauseswhere,whereverparagraphs8.73to8.77clausesofmanneras,like,thewayparagraphs8.78to8.82Non-finiteclauses,whentheybeginwithasubordinatingconjunction,aredealtwithinthesectionsdealingwithadverbialclauses.Non-finiteclauseswhichdonotbeginwithasubordinatingconjunctionaredealtwithseparatelyinparagraphs8.117to8.133.Otherstructureswhichfunctionlikenon-finiteclausesaredescribedinparagraphs8.134to8.136.8.7Theusualpositionforanadverbialclauseisjustafterthemainclause.Icouldn"tthinkofasinglethingtosayafterhe"drepliedlikethat.Theperformanceswerecancelledbecausetheleadingmanwasill.Howevermosttypesofadverbialclausecanbeputinfrontofamainclause.Whenthecityisdark,wecanmovearoundeasily.Althoughcrocodilesareinactiveforlongperiods,onoccasiontheycanrunveryfastindeed.Occasionally,youcanputanadverbialclauseinthemiddleofanotherclause,althoughthisisunusual.Theymakeallegationswhich,whenyouanalysethem,donothavetoomanyfactsbehindthem.Thereareafewtypesofadverbialclausewhichalwaysgoafteramainclause:othertypesalwaysgoinfrontofone.Thisisexplainedinthesectionsdealingwiththedifferenttypesofclause.Timeclauses8.8Timeclausesareusedtosaywhensomethinghappensbyreferringtoaperiodoftimeortoanotherevent.Herfatherdiedwhenshewasyoung.Stocksoffoodcannotbebroughtinbeforetherainsstart.HewasdetainedlastMondayafterhereturnedfromabusinesstripoverseas.WhenIfirstsawthewreckageIjustdidn"texpecttheretobesomanysurvivors.Timeclausescanbeusedafteradjunctsoftime.Hementionedhisplanstoherearlyonemorning,beforeheleftforthepaddyfields.Iwanttoseeyouforafewminutesattwelveo"clock,whenyougotolunch.385 AdjunctsoftimeareexplainedinChapter5.8.9Whenyouaretalkingaboutthepastorthepresent,theverbinatimeclausehasthesametensethatitwouldhaveinamainclauseorinasimplesentence.IwasstandingbythewindowwhenIheardherspeak.Ihaven"tgivenhimathingtoeatsincehearrived.IlookafterthechildrenwhileshegoestoLondon.However,ifthetimeclausereferstosomethingthatwillhappenorexistinthefuture,youusethesimplepresenttense,notafuturetense.Forexample,yousay"Whenhecomes,Iwillshowhimthebook",not"Whenhewillcome,Iwillshowhimthebook".Assoonaswegetthetickets,we"llsendthemtoyou.Hewantstoseeyoubeforehedies.LetthestayheretillJeanniecomestobed.Ifyoumentionaneventinatimeclausewhichwillhappenbeforeaneventreferredtointhemainclause,youusethepresentperfecttenseinthetimeclause,notthefutureperfecttense.Forexample,yousay"Whenyouhavehadyoursupper,comeandseeme",not"Whenyouwillhavehadyoursupper,comeandseeme".Wewon"tbegettingmarrieduntilwe"vesavedenoughmoney.TelltheDHSSassoonasyouhaveretired.8.10Themostcommonconjunctionintimeclausesis"when"."When"isusedtosaythatsomethinghappened,happens,orwillhappenonaparticularoccasion.WhenthetelegramcameandIreadofhisdeath,Icouldn"tbelieveit.Hedidn"tknowhowtobehavewhentheynextmet.8.11Youcanmentionthecircumstancesinwhichsomethinghappensorhappenedbyusing"when","while",or"as".Thetrainhasautomaticdoorsthatonlyopenwhenthetrainisstationary.Whilehewasstillinthestable,therewasaloudknockatthefrontdoor.HewouldswimbesidetheasIrowedinthelittledinghy."Whilst"isamoreformalformof"while".Twoweremerelodgerswhomwelookedafterwhilsttheirmistresswasaway.USAGENOTE8.12Ifyouwanttoemphasizethatsomethinghappenedataparticulartime,youcanuse"Itwas"followedbyanexpressionsuchas"sixo"clock"or"threehourslater",followedbya"when"-clause.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Ileftatsixo"clock",yousay"Itwassixo"clockwhenIleft".ItwasabouthalfpasteightwhenhearrivedatSutwick.Itwaslatewhenhereturned.Thisisanexampleofacleftstructure.Cleftstructuresareexplainedinparagraphs10.25to10.30.repeatedevents8.13Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethingalwayshappenedorhappensinparticularcircumstances,youuse"when","whenever","everytime",or"eachtime".WhenhetalksabouttheChurch,hedoessoundlikeanoutsider.Whenevershehadacold,sheateonlyfruit.EverytimeIgotothatclassIpanic.Heflinchedeachtimeshespoketohim.8.14Youuseanexpressionsuchas"thefirsttime","thenexttime",or"thethirdtime"tosaythatsomethinghappenedduringoneoccurrenceofanevent.Thelasttimewetalkedhesaidheneededanothertwodays.ThenexttimeIcomehere,I"mgoingtobebetter.eventsinsequence8.15Youcanalsouse"when","after",or"once"totalkaboutoneeventhappeningimmediatelyafteranother.WhenoldThrusseldied,hiswidowcametotheandsaidthathewishedtobeburiedinthechurchyard.Stopthewhenyou"vehadenough.Theturtlereturnstotheseeafterithaslaiditseggs.Onceenvironmentaldamageisdone,ittakesmanyyearsforthesystemtorecover.Ifyouwanttosayhowlongoneeventhappenedafteranother,youputanoungroupsuchas"twodays"or"threeyears"infrontof"after".Exactlysixweeksaftershehadarrived,shesentacabletoherhusbandandcaughttheplanebacktoNewYork.385 "Assoonas","directly","immediately","themoment","theminute",and"theinstant"areallusedtotalkaboutoneeventhappeningaveryshorttimeafteranother.Theyheartvoicesassoonastheypushedopenthedoor.ThemomentStagghadfinished,heandtheothertwoscientistsweresubjectedtoabarrageofquestions.Immediatelythemealwasover,itwastimeforprayer.8.16Whenyouwanttosaythatsomethinghappened,happens,orwillhappenatanearliertimethansomethingelse,youuse"before".Itwasnecessaryforthemtofindarooftoliveunderbeforethecoldweathersetin.Theyhadnotevenbotheredtoburytheircomradesbeforetheyfled.Beforemanexterminatedtherabbitstheywerethestaplefoodbothofthefoxesandthewildcats.Ifyouwanttosayhowlongoneeventhappenedbeforeanother,youputanoungroupsuchas"threeweeks"or"ashorttime"infrontof"before".Hehadareviewwiththesecondorganiser,aboutamonthbeforethereportwaswritten.Longbeforeyoureturnshewillhaveforgottenyou.8.17Whenyouaretellingastory,yousometimeswanttosaywhatwashappeningwhenaparticulareventoccurred.Youfirstsaywhatwashappening,thenaddaclausebeginningwith"when"inwhichyoumentiontheevent.IhadjuststartedbackforthehousetochangemyclotheswhenIheardvoices.HewashavinghisChristmasdinnerwhenthetelephonerang.Ifyouwanttosaythatoneeventhappenedaveryshorttimeafteranother,youuseaclauseinthepastperfecttense,followedbyatimeclauseinthesimplepasttense.After"had"inthefirstclause,youput"nosooner"of"hardly".Whenyouuse"nosooner",thetimeclausebeginswith"than".Ihadnosoonercheckedintothehotelthanhearrivedwiththeappropriatedocuments.Whenyouuse"hardly",thetimeclausebeginswith"when"or"before".Hehadhardlygothiseyesopenbeforeshetoldhimthattheywereleaving."Nosooner"or"hardly"isoftenputatthebeginningofthefirstclause,followedby"had"andthesubject.Nosoonerhadheaskedthequestionthantheanswercametohim.Hardlyhadthedinfadedbehindthemwhentheycameuponanothershoutingcrowd.HardlyhadLaminwolfeddownhismealbeforehefloppedbackontothesoftmoss.8.18Whensomethingisthecasebecauseofanewsituation,youcansaywhatisthecaseandthenaddasubordinateclausesayingwhatthenewsituationis.Thesubordinateclausebeginswith"now"or"nowthat".IfeelbetternowI"vetalkedtoyou.Hesoondiscoveredhowmuchfasterhecouldtravelnowthathewasalone.sayingwhenasituationbegan8.19Ifyouwanttosaythatasituationstartedtoexistataparticulartimeandstillexists,youuse"since"or"eversince".Inthetimeclause,youusethesimplepasttense.I"vebeeninpoliticssinceIwasatuniversity.It"sbeenmakingmoneyeversinceitopened.Youalsouse"since"or"eversince"tosaythatasituationstartedtoexistataparticulartime,andstillexistedatalatertime.Inthetimeclause,youusethesimplepasttenseorthepastperfecttense.Hesleptalone,ashehaddoneeversinceheleftDidcot.BackinCaen,Janinehadbeenbusyeversinceshehadheardthenews.Ifyouarementioningsomeone"sageatthetimewhenasituationstarted,youalwaysusethesimplepasttense.IwassevenyearsolderthanWendyandhadknownhersinceshewastwelve."Since"isalsousedinreasonclauses.Thisisexplainedinparagraph8.50.sayingwhenasituationends8.20Ifyouwanttosaythatasituationstoppedwhensomethinghappened,youuse"until"or"till".IstayedtheretalkingtothemuntilIsawSamWardleavethebuilding.Hegrabbedtheandshookthetillmyteethrattled.Youalsouse"until"or"till"tosaythatasituationwillstopwhensomethinghappensinthefuture.Inthetimeclauseyouusethesimplepresenttenseorthepresentperfecttense.StaywiththeuntilIgo.385 We"llsupportthemtilltheyfindwork.TellhimIwon"tdiscussanythinguntilI"vespokentomywife.8.21"Bywhichtime","atwhichpoint","afterwhich","whereupon",and"uponwhich"arealsousedatthebeginningoftimeclauses.Youuse"bywhichtime"tosaythatsomethinghadalreadyhappenedorwillalreadyhavehappenedbeforetheeventyouhavejustmentioned.Hecamebackeightmonthslater,bywhichtimetheJapanesehaddecidedtosayyes.Youuse"atwhichpoint"tosaythatsomethinghappenedimmediatelyaftertheeventyouhavejustmentioned.Later,servicetradessuchastoolmakingandblacksmithingappeared,atwhichpointthesimpleswappingofproducewasnolongerfeasible.Youuse"afterwhich"tosaythatasituationstartedtoexistorwillstarttoexistaftertheeventyouhavejustmentioned.Theclothesweresentawayforchemicalanalysis,afterwhichtheywereneverseenagain.Youuse"thereupon"or"uponwhich"tosaythatsomethinghappenedimmediatelyaftertheeventyouhavejustmentionedandwasaresultofit.Hisdepartmentwasshutdown,whereuponhereturnedtoCalcutta.Sallymoreorlessimpliedthatwedid,uponwhichHowardflewintoagreatrage.8.22Youcanuseaclausebeginningwith"when"afteraquestionbeginningwith"why".Forexample,youcansay"WhyshouldIhelpherwhensheneverhelpsme?"Howeverthisclauseisnotatimeclause,inyourquestion,youareexpressingsurpriseordisagreementatsomethingthathasbeensaid,andthe"when"-clauseindicatesthereasonforyoursurpriseordisagreement.Whyshouldhedotheaninjurywhenhehasalreadysavedmylife?Whyworryherwhenit"sallover?8.23Insteadofusingafinitetimeclause,youcanoftenuseanon-finiteclause.Forexample,youcansay"Ioftenreadabookwhentravellingbytrain",meaning"IoftenreadabookwhenIamtravellingbytrain",andyoucansay"Whenfinished,thebuildingwillbeopenedbythePrinceofWales",meaning"Whenitisfinished,thebuildingwillbeopenedbythePrinceofWales".Adultssometimesdonotrealizetheirownstrengthwhendealingwithchildren.Markwatcheduswhilepretendingnotto.Ideliberatelydidn"treadthebookbeforegoingtoseethefilm.Afterevictingtheinhabitants,hedeclaredthehousesderelict.Theyhadnotspokenawordsinceleavingtheparty.Michaelusedtolookhurtandsurprisedwhenscolded.Onceconvincedofthenecessityofamoveheworkedwithpersistenceanddiplomacyuntilthecollegefoundanewhome.Notethatyoucanonlyuseanon-finiteclausewhenitdoesnotneedtohaveanewsubject,thatis,whenitisaboutthesamethingastheclause.8.24Forsomestatementsabouttime,youcanuseaphraseconsistingof"when","while","once","until",or"till",followedbyaprepositionalphraseoranadjective.Forexample,youcansay,"WheninParis,youshouldvisittheLouvre",meaning"WhenyouareinParis,youshouldvisittheLouvre".HehadreadofherelopementwhileatOxford.Manacquiresgreattechnologicalmasteryofthisworldbut,whenunderthreat,revertswithterrifyingeasetohisprimitivepast.Steamorboilthemuntiljusttender.Youcanuseaphraseconsistingof"when","whenever","where",or"wherever"andanadjectivesuchas"necessary"or"possible".Forexample,youcansay"Youshouldtakeexercisewheneverpossible",meaning"Youshouldtakeexercisewheneveritispossible".Shehadpreviouslyspokenseldomandthenonlywhennecessary.Itpaidtospeakthetruthwheneverpossible.Helpmustbegivenwherenecessary.Allexpertsagreethat,whereverpossible,childrenshouldlearntoreadintheirownway.Conditionalclauses8.25Whenyouwanttotalkaboutapossiblesituationanditsconsequences,youusea385 conditionalclause.Conditionalclausesareused:•totalkaboutasituationwhichsometimesexistsorexistedIftheyloseweightduringanillness,theysoonregainitafterwards.Governmentcannotoperateeffectivelyunlessitisfreefromsuchinterference.IfIsawhiminthestreet,he"djustsay"Goodmorning".•totalkaboutasituationwhichyouknowdoesnotexistIfEnglandhadahotclimate,theattitudewouldbedifferent.IfIcouldafforditIwouldbuyaboat.•totalkaboutasituationwhenyoudonotknowwhetheritexistsornotIfheisrightitwouldbepossibleoncemoretomanagetheeconomyintheoldway.There"snoreasonwhysheshouldhavecomehereunlessitwastocadgefreedrinks.•totalkaboutasituationwhichmayexistinthefuture.IfImarryCeliaweshallneedthemoneytoliveon.IfIwentpackonthetrainit"dbecheaper.Don"tbringherunlessshe"ssober.Sentencescontainingconditionalclausesaresometimescalledconditionalsentences.8.26Conditionalclausesusuallybeginwith"if"or"unless".Youuse"if"tosaythataconsequenceofsomethinghappeningorbeingthecasewouldbethatsomethingelsewouldhappenorbethecase.IfyoudothatIshallbeverypleased.IfIaskedforsomethingIgotit.Theywillevencleanyourcarifthey"reinthemood.Whenan"if"-clauseisputfirst,"then"issometimesputatthebeginningofthemainclause.IfthisiswhatwashappeningintheSixties,thenI"mgladIwasn"taroundthen."Unless"means"if...not".Forexample,"Youwillfailyourexamsunlessyouworkharder"means"Ifyoudonotworkharder,youwillfailyourexams".Therecanbenonewgrowthunlessthegroundiscleared.Nobodygetsanythingunlesstheyaskforit.Clausesbeginningwith"unless"usuallygoafteramainclause.modalsandimperatives8.27Whenyouareusingaconditionalclause,youoftenuseamodalinthemainclause.Youalwaysuseamodalinthemainclausewhenyouaretalkingaboutasituationwhichdoesnotexist.Ifyouweren"there,shewouldgetridoftheinnotime.Ifanybodyhadaskedme,Icouldhavetoldthemwhathappened.Modalsareexplainedinparagraphs4.95to4.262.Conditionalclausesareoftenusedwithimperativestructures.Ifyoudryyourwashingoutdoors,wipethelinefirst.Ifit"sfouro"clockinthemorning,don"texpecttothemtobepleasedtoseeyou.Imperativestructuresareexplainedinparagraphs4.4and4.31to4.35.8.28Therearespecialrulesaboutwhichtensetouseinconditionalsentences.Foreignlearnersareoftentaughtthattherearethreekindsofconditionalsentence:•thefirstconditional,inwhichtheverbinthemainclauseis"will"or"shall"andtheverbintheconditionalclauseisinthesimplepresenttense•thesecondconditional,inwhichtheverbinthemainclauseis"would"or"should"andtheverbintheconditionalclauseisinthesimplepasttense•thethirdconditionalinwhichtheverbinthemainclauseis"wouldhave"or"shouldhave"andtheverbintheconditionalclauseisinthepastperfecttense.Thisislargelycorrect,butdoesnotfullydescribethenormalpatternsoftenseinconditionalclauseswhicharesetoutinthefollowingparagraphs.8.29Whenyouaretalkingaboutacommonoccurrence,youusethesimplepresenttenseorthepresentcontinuoustenseintheconditionalclauseandinthemainclause.Ifamanlooksatme,Iamflattered.Heneversaysawordunlesshefeelshe"sbeingthreatenedinsomeway.Ifatapisdripping,itneedsanewwasher.Ifanadvertisementconveysinformationwhichisfalseofmisleading,theadvertiseriscommittinganoffence.8.30Whenyouaretalkingaboutacommonoccurrenceinthepast,youusethesimplepast385 tenseorthepastcontinuoustenseintheconditionalclause.Inthemainclause,youusethesimplepasttenseoramodal.Theysatonthegrassifitwasfine.Ifitwasraining,weusuallystayedindoors.Ifanyonecame,they"dsay"Howareyou?"Iftheywantedtogoout,theycouldalwayscountonthetostaywiththebaby.OftenIcouldnotfallasleepunlessIexercisedtothepointofexhaustion.8.31Whenyouaretalkingaboutapossiblesituationinthepresent,youusuallyusethesimplepresenttenseorthepresentperfecttenseintheconditionalclause.Inthemainclauseyouusuallyuseamodal.Ifanyonedoubtsthetruthofthis,theyshouldlookatthetwomostsuccessfulpost-wareconomies,GermanyandJapan.Unlessyou"vetriedit,youcan"timaginehowpleasantitis."If"-clausesofthiskindcanbeusedwhenyouareofferingtodosomething,orgivingpermissionforsomethingtobedone.Youuseamodalinthemainclause,andthesubordinateclauseconsistsof"if",apronoun,and"want","like",or"wish".I"llteachyou,ifyouwant.Youcanleaveifyoulike.8.32Whenyouaretalkingaboutapossiblefutureoccurrence,youusethesimplepresenttenseintheconditionalclause,andthesimplefuturetenseinthemainclause.IfIevergetoutofthisalive,I"llneverleaveyouagain.Ifnuclearweaponsareemployedinaworldwar,theworldwillbedestroyed.Williewillbeafailureinlifeunlessheispushed.USAGENOTE8.33Amoreformalwayoftakingaboutapossiblefuturesituationistouse"should"intheconditionalclause.Forexample,insteadofsaying"ifanythinghappens,Iwillreturnimmediately",youcansay"Ifanythingshouldhappen,Iwillreturnimmediately".Inthemainclauseyouuseamodal,usually"will"or"would".Ifanyoneshouldcomethisway,wewouldbecaughtlikeratsinatrap.Anotherwayoftalkingaboutapossiblefuturesituationistouse"were"anda"to"-infinitiveinaconditionalclause.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Ifhegoes,Iwillgotoo",youcansay"Ifheweretogo,Iwouldgotoo".Inthemainclauseyouuse"would","should",or"might".Ifweweretomovenorth,wewouldbeabletobuyabiggerhouse.unlikelysituations8.34Whenyouaretalkingaboutanunlikelysituation,youusethesimplepasttenseintheconditionalclause,and"would","should",or"might"inthemainclause.Theoldermenwouldfinditdifficulttogetajobiftheyleftthefarm.Ishouldbesurprisedifitwaslessthanfivepounds.IfIfrightenedthem,theymighttakeoffandIwouldneverseethemagain.Intheconditionalclause,"were"issometimesusedinsteadof"was",especialafter"I".IfIwereasbigasyou,Iwouldkillyou.IfIwereaskedtodefinemycondition,I"dsay"bored".whatmighthavebeen8.35Whenyouaretalkingaboutsomethingthatmighthavehappenedinthepastbutdidnothappen,youusethepastperfecttenseintheconditionalclause.Inthemainclause,youuse"wouldhave","couldhave","shouldhave",or"mighthave".Perhapsifhehadrealizedthat,hewouldhaverunawaywhiletherewasstilltime.Ifshehadnotmarried,shewouldprobablyhavebecomesomethingspecialinherfield.puttingtheverbfirst8.36Informalorliterary,English,ifthefirstverbinan"if"-clauseis"should","were",or"had",thisverbissometimesputatthebeginningoftheclauseand"if"isomitted.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Itanyvisitorsshouldcome,Iwillsayyouarenothere",someonemightsay"Shouldanyvisitorscome.Iwillsayyouarenothere".Shouldministersdecidetoinstigateaninquiry,wewouldwelcomeit.Wereitalltrue,itwouldstillnotexcusetheiractions.Weretheytoceaseadvertising,priceswouldbesignificantlyreduced.HadIknownthattherewasnevertobeanotheropportunity,Iwouldhavefilmedtheoccasion.USACENOTE8.37Insteadofusingaconditionalclausecontainingtheword"be",youcansometimesuseaphraseconsistingof"if"followedbyanadjectiveoraprepositionalphrase.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Wewillsellthecar,ifitisnecessary",youcansay"Wewillsellthecar,ifnecessary".Thisunfortunatesituationistobeavoidedifpossible.IfIwereinnocent,I"dratherbetriedhere;ifguilty,inAmerica.385 Ifindoubt,askatyourlocallibrary.8.38Ifyouwanttosaythatonesituationisnecessaryforanother,youuse"provided","providing","aslongas","solongas",or"onlyif"."Provided"and"providing"areoftenfollowedby"that".Achildwilllearnwhatisrightandwhatiswrongingoodtime-providedheisnotpressured.LadySackvillewaspreparedtocome,providedthatshemightbringherdaughter.Theovenbakesmagnificentbreadprovidingthereisahotenoughfireinthefurnace.Theyarecontentfortheworldtostayasitis,poverty,painandeverything,aslongastheyarecomfortable.Theseactivitiescanflourishonlyifagricultureandruralindustryareflourishing.Whenyouareusing"onlyif",youcanputthe"only"inthemainclause,separatedfromthe"if".Forexample,insteadofsaying"Iwillcomeonlyifhewantsme",youcansay"Iwillonlycomeifhewantsme".HetoldthemthatdisarmamentwasonlypossibleifBritainchangedherforeignpolicy.Anotherwayofsayingthatonesituationisnecessaryforanotheristouseaconditionalclauseconsistingof"if"followedbythesubject,aformof"be",anda"to"-infinitiveclause.Inthemainclause,yousaywhatisnecessaryusing"must".It"slate,andifIamtogetanysleepImustgo.Ifyouaretoescape,youmustleavetheandgoonalone.8.39Ifyouwanttosaythatonesituationwouldnotaffectanother,youcanuse"evenif".Iwouldhavemarriedherevenifshehadbeenpenniless.Evenifyou"veneverbeentaughttomendafuse,youdon"thavetositinthedark.Evenifwedonotresorttosuchdramaticmeasures,itseemslikelythattherewillbemanyexcitingopportunitiesinthefuture."Evenif"isalsousedinconcessiveclauses.Thisisexplainedinparagraph8.67.5.40Ifyouwanttosaythatasituationwouldnotbeaffectedbyanyoftwoormorethings,youuse"whether".Youput"or"betweenthedifferentpossibilities.Ifthelawyermadealong,oratoricalspeech,theclientwashappywhetherhewonorlost.Catchingafrogcanbeadifficultbusiness,whetheryou"reahumanorabirdorareptile.Whetheryougotoalaunderetteordoyourwashingathome,theroutineisthesame.Ifyouwanttosaythatwhathappenswouldnotbeaffectedbyeitheroftwooppositesituations,youuseaclausebeginningwith"whetherornot".Whetherornotpeoplehavereligiousfaith,theycanbelieveinthepoweroflove.Igetanelectriciantocheckallmyelectricalapplianceseveryautumn,whetherornottheyaregivingtrouble."Ornot"canbeputattheendoftheclause.WhetherIagreeornot,thesearchwouldtakeplace.USAGENOTE8.41Whentheverbina"whether"-clauseis"be",thesubjunctivemoodissometimesused.Whenyouusethesubjunctivemood,youusethebaseformofaverbratherthanthethirdpersonsingular.Thisisratherformal.Alwaysimmediatelyreportsuchbehaviourtothenearestpersoninauthority,whetheritbeaschoolteacherorapolicemanoranyoneelse.Whentheverbina"whether"-clauseis"be"andthesubjectisapersonalpronounsuchas"they"or"it",youcanomit"be"andthepronoun.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Allthevillagers,whethertheyareyoungorold,helpwiththeharvest",youcansay"Allthevillagers,whetheryoungorold,helpwiththeharvest".Afreshpepper,whetherredorgreen,lastsaboutthreeweeks.Theyhelppeople,whetherchancevisitorsorstudentsofmedievalhistory,tolearnmoreorourpast.8.42Whenyouwanttosaythatsomethingisthecaseandthatitdoesnotmatterwhichperson,place,cause,method,orthingisinvolved,youuse"whoever","wherever","however","whatever",or"whichever".Whoeverwinsthiscivilwartherewillbelittlerejoicingatthevictory.Whereveritis,youaren"tgoing.Howeveritbegan,thebattlewasboundtodevelopintoalarge-scaleconflict."Whatever"and"whichever"areusedeitherasdeterminersorpronouns.Whateverbrandyouuse,youwillneedfourtimesasmanyteaspoonfulsasbefore.Thatiswhythedeficitremainsofkeyimportancethisyear,whatevertheChancellormightsay.385 Whicheverwayyoulookatit,neutralityisfolly.Youcaneithersowwheatinrowsorbroadcastit.Whicheveryoudo,itisagoodthingtobreakupthesoilafterseeding.Anotherwayofsayingthatitdoesnotmatterwhoorwhatisinvolvedistouse"nomatter"followedby"who","where","how","what",or"which".Mostpeople,nomatterwhotheyare,seemtohaveatleastone.Ouraimistorecruitthebestpersonforthejob,nomatterwheretheyarefrom.NomatterhowI"mplaying,Ialwaysgetthatspecialfeeling.Purposeclauses8.43Whenyouwanttoindicatethepurposeofanaction,youuseapurposeclause.Hereisalistofthemostcommonconjunctionusedinpurposeclauses:inorderthatinordertososoastosothattotypesofpurposeclause8.44Therearetwokindsofpurposeclause.Non-finitepurposeclausesarethemostcommonkind.Theycontaina"to"-infinitive.Theyhadtotakesomeofhislandinordertoextendthechurchyard.Farmershaveputupbarricadestopreventhippiesmovingontotheirland.Thesubjectofanon-finitepurposeclauseisalwaysthesameasthesubjectofthemainclause.Non-finitepurposeclausesareexplainedinparagraphs8.45to8.46.Finitepurposeclausesusuallycontaina"that"-clause.Beasclearandfactualaspossibleinorderthattheremaybenomisunderstanding.Finitepurposeclausesareexplainedinparagraphs8.47to8.48.8.45Non-finitepurposeclausesusuallybeginwith"inorderto"or"soto".Theywereshovingeachotheroutofthewayinordertogettothefront.Theyhavetriedtolimitsuchimportsinordertoprotecttheirmembersjobs.Thebestthingtodoistofixupascreensoastoletinthefreshairandkeepouttheflies.Ifyouwanttomakeoneoftheseclausesnegative,youput"not"infrontofthe"to".Rosetrodwithcareinordernottospreadthedirt.Whenremovingastain,workfromtheedgeinwardssoasnottoenlargetheareaaffected.6.46Non-finitepurposeclausescansimplybe"to"-infinitiveclauses.Peoplewouldstrolldownthepathtoadmirethegarden.Thechildrensleeptogethertokeepwarm.Tounderstandwhatishappeningnow,weneedtoreflectonwhathasbeenachievedinthelastdecade.However,youcannotuseanegativewithoneofthesestructures.Youcannotsay,forexample,"Wekeepthewindowshutnottoletthefilesin".Youwouldhavetosay,"Wekeepthewindowshutinordernottoletthefliesin".8.47Finitepurposeclausesusuallybeginwith"inorderthat","sothat",or"so".Theyusuallycontainamodal.Iftheverbinthemainclauseisinapresenttenseorinthepresentperfecttense,youusuallyuseoneofthemodals"can","may","will",or"shall"inthepurposeclause.It"sbesttobeasshort,clearandfactualaspossible,inorderthattheremaybenomisunderstanding....peoplewhoareteamingEnglishinorderthattheycanstudyaparticularsubject.Iftheverbinthemainclauseisinapasttense,youusuallyuse"could","might","should",or"would"inthepurposeclause.AstrangerinthecrowdhadhoistedPhilipuponhisshouldersothathemightseetheprocessiondepart.Iboughtsixcowssothatweshouldhavesomemilktosell.Shesaidshewantedteareadyatsixsoshecouldbeoutbyeight.Ordinaryverbsareoccasionallyusedinsteadofmodals,especiallyinnegativepurposeclauses.BrianwouldliketoincreasehissonDavid"swage,sothatDaviddoesn"tgetdisillusionedbecausehiscontemporariesinlessskilledjobsareearningmore."Sothat"isalsousedinresultclauses.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraphs8.55and8.56.8.48Informalorold-fashionedEnglish,"lest"issometimesusedatthebeginningofafinitepurposeclausetosaywhatanactionisintendedtoprevent.Forexample,"Theybuiltastatueofhimlestpeopleshouldforgetwhathehaddone"means385 thesameas"Theybuiltastatueofhimsothatpeopleshouldforgetwhathehaddone".Hewasputinacellwithnoclothesandshoeslestheinjurehimself.Hespokeinwhisperslesttheservantsshouldhearhim.Inclausesbeginningwith"lest",youuseeitherthesubjunctivemoodoramodal.Reasonclauses8.49Whenyouwanttoindicatethereasonforsomething,youuseareasonclause.Hereisalistofthemainconjunctionsusedinreasonclauses:asbecauseincasejustincasesince8.50Ifyouaresimplyindicatingthereasonforsomething,youuse"because","since",or"as".Icouldn"tfeelangeragainsthimbecauseIlikedhimtoomuch.Ididn"tknowthatshehadbeenmarried,sincesheseldomtalkedaboutherself.AsCeliahadgonetoschool,itseemedagoodtimeforLadyRavenscrofttoinvitehersistertostay.8.51Youuse"incase"of"justincase"whenyouarementioningapossiblefuturesituationwhichissomeone"sreasonfordoingsomething.Inthereasonclauseyouusethesimplepresenttense.MrWoods,Iamherejustincaseanythingoutoftheordinaryhappens.Whenyouaretalkingaboutsomeone"sreasonfordoingsomethinginthepast,youusethesimplepasttenseinthereasonclause.Samhadconsentedtotakeanovercoatincasethewindrose.8.52"Inthat","inasmuchas","insofaras","and"totheextentthat"areusedtosaywhyastatementyouhavejustmadeistrue.Theseareformalexpressions.I"minadifficultsituationinthatIhavebeenofferedtwojobsandtheybothsoundinteresting.Censorshipisfeebleinasmuchasitdoesnotprotectanyone.Wearetraditionalinsofaraswedotraditionalsketches,butwetryanddothemaboutoriginalideas.Hefeelshimselftobedependenttotheextentthatheisnotfreetoquestiondecisionsaffectinghisdailylife.8.53Peoplesometimesusereasonclausesbeginningwith"for"or"seeingthat"."For"meansthesameas"because".Itsuseinreasonclausesisnowconsideredtobeold-fashioned.WeneverseeHenrythesedays,forHenryhasgrownfatandlazy."Seeingthat"meansthesameas"since".Itisusedonlyininformalspeech.Seeingthatyou"retheguestonthislittletrip,Iwon"ttellyouwhatIthinkofyourbehaviourlastnight."Now"and"nowthat"areusedtosaythatanewsituationisthereasonforsomething.Clausesbeginningwith"now"or"nowthat"aredealtwithastimeclauses.Theyareexplainedinparagraph8.18.Resultclauses8.54Whenyouwanttoindicatetheresultofsomething,youusearesultclause.Resultclausesalwayscomeafterthemainclause.8.55Resultclausesusuallybeginwith"sothat".Youcanuse"sothat"simplytosaywhattheresultofaneventorsituationwas.Mysuitcasehadbecomedamagedonthejourneyhome,sothatthelidwouldnotstayclosed.Agreatstormhadbroughtthesearightintothehouse,sothattheyhadbeenforcedtomaketheirescapebyawindowattheback.Manywivesshouldertheprimeresponsibilityforrunningthehome,sothatinmostfamiliesthelossofthewifeismoredevastatingthanthelossofthehusband."So","andso",and"and"canalsobeused.Theyoungdonothavethemoneytosaveandtheoldareconsumingtheirsavings,soitismainlythemiddle-agedwhoaresaving.Shewashavingagreatdifficultygettinghercarout,andsoIhadtomovemycartoletherout.Herboyfriendwasshotinthechestanddied.Withtheseresultclauses,youusuallyputacommaafterthemainclause.8.56Youcanalsouse"sothat"tosaythatsomethingisorwasdoneinaparticularwaytoachieveadesiredresult.Forexample,"Hefixedthebellsothatitwouldringwhenanyonecamein"means"Hefixedthe385 bellinsuchawaythatitwouldringwhenanyonecamein".Explainitsothata10-year-oldcouldunderstandit.Theyarrangedthingssothattheynevermet.Withtheseresultclauses,youdonotputacommaafterthemainclause.8.57"Sothat"isalsousedinfinitepurposeclauses.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph8.47.8.58"So"and"that"arealsousedinaspecialkindofstructuretosaythataresulthappensbecausesomethinghasaqualitytoaparticularextent,orbecausesomethingisdoneinanextremeway.Inthesestructures,"so"isusedasamodifierinfrontofanadjectiveoradverb.A"that"-clauseisthenaddedasaqualifier.ModifiersandqualifiersareexplainedinChapter2.Seeparagraph2.309forsimilarstructurestotheonedescribedinthisparagraph.Thecrowdwassolargethatitoverflowedtheauditorium.Theyweresosurprisedtheydidn"ttrytostophim.Hedressedsoquicklythatheputhisbootsonthewrongfeet.Shehadfallendownsooftenthatshewascoveredinmud.Sometimes"as"isusedinsteadof"that"."As"isfollowedbya"to"-infinitiveclause....smallbeachesofsandsowhiteastodazzletheeye.Ihopethatnobodywassostupidastogoaroundsayingthosethings.8.59"So"and"that"canalsobeusedinthiswaywith"many","few","much",and"little".Wefoundsomuchtotalkaboutthatitwaslateatnightwhenwerememberedthetime.Thereweresomanychildrenyoucouldhardlysqueezeintheroom.USAGENOTE8.60Whentheverbinthemainclauseis"be"orwhenanauxiliaryisused,thenormalorderofwordsisoftenchangedforgreateremphasis."So"isputatthebeginningofthesentence,followedbytheadjective,adverb,ornoungroup."Be"ortheauxiliaryisplacedinfrontofthesubject.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Theroomwassotinythatyoucouldnotgetabedintoit",youcansay"Sotinywastheroomthatyoucouldnotgetabedintoit".SosuccessfulhavetheybeenthattheyaremovingtoBondStreet.Sorapidistherateofprogressthatadvanceseemstobefollowingadvanceonalmostamonthlybasis.8.61"Such"and"that"arealsousedtosaythataresulthappensbecausesomethinghasaqualitytoaparticularextent.Youput"such"infrontofanoungroup,andthenadda"that"-clause.Ifthenouninthenoungroupisasingularcountnoun,youput"a"or"an"infrontofit.Islappedherhandandshegotsuchashockthatshedroppedthebag.IfyoutellthemI"mpreparedtogiveevidencethey"llgetsuchascarethey"lldropthewholething.Theyobeyedhimwithsuchwillingnessthatthestrikewentonforoverayear.Thesebirdshavesuchsmallwingsthattheycannotgetintotheaireveniftheytry.8.62"Such"canbeusedinasimilarstructureasanadjectivewiththemeaning"sogreat".The"that"-clausegoesimmediatelyafterit.Theextentofthedisasterwassuchthatthelocalauthoritieswerequiteunabletocope.Sometimes"such"isputatthebeginningofasentence,followedby"be",anoungroup,andthe"that"-clause.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Herbeautywassuchthattheycouldonlystare",youcansay"Suchwasherbeautythattheycouldonlystare".Suchisthepowerofsuggestionthatwithinaveryfewminutesshefellasleep.8.63Youcanalsouse"such"asanadjectivetosaythataresultisobtainedbysomethingbeingofaparticularkind."Such"isfollowedbya"that"-clauseorby"as"anda"to"-infinitiveclause.Themachine"sdesignshouldbesuchthatitsinternalpartscouldbeemployedinavarietyofways.Theimprovementstoourdefencehadbeensuchastoputinvasionrightoutofthequestion.Youcanusetheexpression"insuchaway"tosaythataresultisobtainedbysomethingbeingdoneinaparticularlyway.Itisfollowedbya"that"-clauseorby"as"anda"to"-infinitiveclause.Shehadbeentaughttobehaveinsuchawaythatherparentswouldhaveasquietalifeaspossible.Isitrightthatthishightaxshouldbespentinsuchawayastogivebenefitmainlytothemotorist?8.64Youuse"otherwise","else",or"orelse"tosaythataresultofsomethingnothappeningor385 notbeingthecasewouldbethatsomethingelsewouldhappenorbethecase.Forexample,"Givemebackmymoney,otherwiseI"llringthepolice"means"Ifyoudon"tgivemebackmymoney,I"llringthepolice".I"mnotusedtolivingonmyownsoIwantahouseIlike,otherwiseI"llgetdepressed.Imusthavedonesomethingwrong,orelsetheywouldn"thavekeptmehere.Concessiveclauses8.65Sometimesyouwanttomaketwostatements,oneofwhichcontrastswiththeotherormakesitseemsurprising.Youcanputbothstatementsintoonesentencebyusingaconcessiveclause.Hereisalistofconjunctionsusedinconcessiveclauses:althoughdespiteevenifeventhoughexceptthatinspiteofmuchasnotthatthoughwhereaswhilewhilst8.66Ifyousimplywanttocontrasttwostatements,youuse"although","though","eventhough",or"while".IusedtoreadalotalthoughIdon"tgetmuchtimeforbooksnow.ThoughhehaslivedforyearsinLondon,hewritesinGerman.Iusedtolovelisteningtoher,eventhoughIcouldunderstandabouthalfofthatshesaid.WhileIdidwellinclass,Iwasapoorperformeratgames."Whilst"and"whereas"canalsobeused.Theyarefairlyformalwords.Raspberrieshaveamatt,spongysurfacewhilstblackberrieshaveataut,shinyskin.Toeverychildadultapprovalmeanslove,whereasdisapprovalmeanshate.8.67ifyouwanttosaythatsomethingwhichisprobablytruedoesnotaffectthetruthofsomethingelse,youuse"evenif".Allthisispartofmoderncommerciallife(evenifitisnotasessentialanactivityasmostparticipantscaretobelieve).Fromtheminutehedoesthesethingshebeginstobeadifferentperson,evenifhedoesn"trealizeit."Evenif"isalsousedinconditionalclauses.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph8.39.8.68Youcanuse"notthat"insteadofusing"although"andanegative.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Ihavedecidedtoleave,althoughnoonewillmissme",youcansay"Ihavedecidedtoleave—notthatanyonewillmissme".Clausesbeginningwith"notthat"alwaysgoafteramainclause.Iwouldn"twanttogiveawayanysecretsatthisstage—notthatwe"vegotanyanswersyet.KuntacontinuedsleepinginQmoro"shutforthenextsevennights—notthatanyoneseemedtonoticeorcare.exceptions8.69Ifyouwanttomentionanexceptiontoastatementthatyouhavejustmade,youuse"exceptthat".Shetreatsherdaughterthesameasheryoungerboyexceptthatshetakesherseveraltimesaweektoaspecialclinic.NobodysaidathingexceptthatoneortwoaskedtheifIwasbetter.Thiskindofclauseissometimescalledanexceptionclause.USAGENOTE8.70Whenaclausebeginningwith"though"endswithacomplement,thecomplementcanbebroughtforwardtothebeginningoftheclause.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Thoughhewastired,heinsistedoncomingtothemeeting",youcansay"Tiredthoughhewas,heinsistedoncomingtothemeeting".Temptingthoughitmaybetofollowthispointthrough,itisnotreallyrelevantandwehadbettermoveon.Ihadtoacceptthefact,improbablethoughitwas.Astutebusinessmanthoughhewas,Philipwascapableattimesofextremerecklessness.Whenthecomplementisanadjective,youcanuse"as"insteadof"though".Stupidasitsounds,IwassoinlovewithherthatIbelievedher.Whenaclausebeginningwith"though"endswithanadverb,youcanoftenputtheadverbatthebeginningoftheclause.Somemembersofthestaffcouldn"thandleMurray"scondition,hardthoughtheytried.Whenyouaretalkingaboutastrongfeelingordesire,youcanuse"muchas"insteadof"although"andanadjunct.Forexample,insteadofsaying"AlthoughIlikeVeniceverymuch,Icouldn"tlivethere"youcansay"MuchasIlikeVenice,Icouldn"tlivethere".385 Muchastheyadmiredherlooksandhermanners,theyhadnowishtomarryher.non-finiteclauses8.71"Although","though","while",and"whilst"aresometimesusedinnon-finiteconcessiveclauses.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Whilsthelikedcats,heneverletthemcomeintohishouse",youcansay"Whilstlikingcats,heneverletthemcomeintohishouse".Whileconcedingtheimportanceoffreedomofspeech,Ibelieveitmustbeexercisedwithsensitivityandresponsibility."Despite"and"inspiteof"canalsobeusedatthebeginningofnon-finiteconcessiveclauses."Despiteworkinghard,Ifailedmyexams"means"AlthoughIworkedhard,Ifailedmyexams".Sensible,interestedmothersstillpayabigpartintheirchildren"slives,despiteworkingandhavingafull-timenanny.Wehadtwomoreyearsofprofitinspiteofpayinghigherwagesthanpreviousowner.8.72"Although","though","while",and"whilst"arealsousedinfrontofnoungroups,adjectivegroups,andadjuncts.Forexample,insteadofsaying"AlthoughshewasfondofGregory,shedidnotlovehim",youcansay"AlthoughfondofGregory,shedidnotlovehim".Similarly,insteadofsaying"Theyagreedtohisproposal,thoughtheyhadmanyreservations",youcansay"Theyagreedtohisproposal,thoughwithmanyreservations".Itwasanunequalmarriage,althoughastableandlong-testingone.Thoughnotveryattractivephysically,shepossessedasenseofhumour.Theyhadfollowedhersuggestion,thoughwithoutmuchenthusiasm."Evenif","if",and"albeit"canalsobeusedinthisway."Albeit"isaformalword.By1977thingswerebeginningtoimprove,evenif,intheviewoftheRoyalAirFarce,notquicklyenough....somepleasant,ifunexciting,tunes.Likemercury,leadaffectsthebrain,albeitindifferentways.Placeclauses8.73Sometimes,whenyouwanttotalkaboutthelocationorpositionofsomething,youneedtouseaclauseratherthanasimpleadjunct.Thekindofclauseyouuseiscalledaplaceclause.8.74Placeclausesusuallybeginwith"where".Hesaidhewashappywherehewas.Heleftitwhereitlay....anofficialpolicywhichencouragedpeopletostaywheretheywere."Where"isalsousedinrelativeclauses.Thisuseisexplainedinparagraphs8.104to8.106.8.75InformalorliteraryEnglish,"where"-clausesaresometimesputinfrontofamainclause.WhereKatehadstoodlastnight,Maureennowstood.Wherethepinkcliffsroseoutofthegroundtherewereoftennarrowtrackswindingupwards.8.76Whenyouwanttosaythatsomethinghappensorwillhappenineveryplacewheresomethingelsehappens,youuse"wherever".Soft-stemmedherbsandfernsspreadacrossthegroundwherevertherewasenoughlight.InBali,whereveryougo,comeacrossceremonies.WhereverIlooked,Ifoundpatterns."Everywhere"canbeusedinsteadof"wherever".EverywhereIwent,peoplewereangryorsuspicious.8.77"Where"and"wherever"aresometimesusedinfrontofadjectivessuchas"possible"and"necessary".Whentheyareusedlikethis,theymean"when"or"whenever",ratherthan"where".Forafullexplanationofthisuse,seeparagraph8.24.Clausesofmanner8.78Whenyouwanttotalkaboutsomeone"sbehaviourorthewavsomethingisdone,youuseaclauseofmanner.Hereisalistofconjunctionsusedinclausesofmanner:asasifasthoughjustaslikemuchas"Theway","inaway",and"intheway"arealsousedinclausesofmannerinasimilarwaytoconjunctions.Theseexpressionsareoftenfollowedby"that".sayinghowsomethingisdone8.79Ifyousimplywanttotalkaboutsomeone"sbehaviourorthewaysomethingisdone,youuse"like","as","theway","inaway",or"intheway".385 Issheoftenrudeandcrosslikeshe"sbeenthislastmonth?Idon"tunderstandwhyhebehavesashedoes.IwasneverallowedtodothingsthewayIwantedtodothem.Hewaslookingatherinawayshedidnotrecognise.Wehavetomakeitworkinthewaythatwewantitto.makingcomparisons8.80Youcanalsousetheseexpressionstocomparethewaysomethingisdonewiththewaysomeoneorsomethingelsedoesit.Surelyyoudon"tintendtolivebyyourselflikeshedoes?Joycelootedatherthewayalotofgirlsdid.Ifyouwanttomakeastrongcomparison,youuse"justas".Itswimsabovetheseafloorjustasitsancestorsdid.Ifyouwanttomakeafairlyweakcomparison,youuse"muchas".TheyareendeavouringtodisguisethisfactmuchasJasperJohnsdidinthelate1950s.8.81Yousometimeswanttosaythatsomethingisdoneinthewaythatitwouldbedoneifsomethingwerethecase.Youdothisbyusing"asif"or"asthough".Youuseapasttenseintheclauseofmanner.Heholdshisheadforwardasifhehashitittoooftenonlowdoorways.Presidentcan"tdisposeofcompaniesasifpeopledidn"texist.Shetreatshimasthoughhewasherownson.Hebehavedasthoughitwasnothingtobeashamedof.Youalsouse"asifor"asthough"afterlinkverbssuchas"feel"or"look".Youdothiswhenyouarecomparingsomeone"sfeelingsorappearancetothefeelingsorappearancetheywouldhaveifsomethingwerethecase.Shefeltasifshehadafever.Hishairlookedasifithadbeencombedwithhisfingers.Herpinkdressandherfrillyumbrellamadeherlookasthoughshehadcometoagardenparty.InformalEnglish,"were"canbeusedinsteadof"was"inclausesbeginningwith"asif"or"asthough".Sheshookasifshewerecrying,butshemadenosound.IfeltasifIwerethecentreoftheuniverse.Youtalkasthoughhewerealreadycondemned.Youcanuse"just"infrontof"asif"or"asthough"foremphasis.Hehadnorighttorunoffandleaveheralone,justasifshewassomeoneofnoimportanceatall.8.82Youcanalsouse"asif"and"asthough"innon-finiteclauses.Theclausebeginswitha"to"-infinitiveoraparticiple.Asiftoremindhim,thechurchclockstruckeleven.Heranofftothehouseasifescaping.Heshookhisheadasthoughdazzledbyhisownvision.Youcanalsouse"asif"and"asthough"infrontofadjectivesandprepositionalphrases.Onemustrowsteadilyonwardsasifintentonone"sownbusiness.Heshiveredasthoughwithcold.Relativeclauses8.83Whenyoumentionsomeoneorsomethinginasentence,youoftenwanttogivefurtherinformationaboutthem.Onewaytodothisistousearelativeclause.Youputrelativeclauseimmediatelyafterthenounwhichreferstotheperson,thing,orgroupyouaretalkingabout.Themanwhocameintotheroomwassmallandslender.OppositeisSt.Paul"sChurch,whereyoucanhearsomelovelymusic.Relativeclauseshaveasimilarfunctiontoadjectives,andtheyaresometimescalledadjectivalclauses.Nominalrelativeclauses,whichhaveasimilarfunctiontonoungroups,areexplainedinparagraphs8.112to8.116.8.84Manyrelativeclausesbeginwitharelativepronoun.Therelativepronounusuallyactsthesubjectorobjectoftheverbintherelativeclause.Heistheonlypersonwhomightbeabletohelp.Mostofthemothershaveajob,whichtheytakebothforthemoneyandthecompany.385 Hereisalistofthemostcommonrelativepronouns:thatwhichwhowhomwhoseRelativepronounsdonothavemasculine,feminine,orpluralforms.Thesamepronouncanbeusedtorefertoaman,awoman,oragroupofpeople.Shedidn"trecognizethemanwhohadspoken.ImetagirlwhoknewMrsTownsend.Therearemanypeoplewhofindthisintolerable.Somerelativeclausesdonothavearelativepronoun.NearlyallthepeopleIusedtoknowhavegone.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs8.90,8.91,and8.96.kindsofrelativeclause8.85Therearetwokindsofrelativeclause.Definingrelativeclausesexplainwhichpersonorthingyouaretalkingabout.Forexample,ifyousay"Imetthewoman",itmightnotbeclearwhoyoumean,soyoumightsay,"Imetthewomanwholivesnextdoor".Inthissentence,"wholivesnextdoor"isadefiningrelativeclause.Shortlyaftertheshooting,themanwhohaddoneitwasarrested.MooresvilleisthetownthatJohnDillingercamefrom.Definingrelativeclausesareakindofqualifier.Qualifiersareexplainedinparagraphs2.289to2.320.Non-definingrelativeclausesgivefurtherinformationwhichisnotneededtoidentifytheperson,thing,orgroupyouaretalkingabout.Forexample,ifyousay"IsawKylieMinogue",itisclearwhoyoumean.ButyoumightwanttoaddmoreinformationaboutKylieMinogue,soyoumightsay,forexample,"IsawKylieMinogue,whowasstayingatthehotelopposite".Inthissentence,"whowasstayingatthehotelopposite"isanon-definingrelativeclause.Hewaswavingtothegirl,whowasrunningalongtheplatform.HewalkeddowntoBroadway,themainstreetofthetown,whichranparalleltotheriver.Non-definingrelativeclausesareusedmainlyinwritingratherthanspeech.punctuation8.86Anon-definingrelativeclauseusuallyhasacommainfrontofitandacommaafterit,unlessitisattheendofasentence,inwhichcaseyoujustputafullstop.Dashesaresometimesusedinsteadofcommas.SirDenis,whois78,hasletitbeknownthatmuchofhiscollectionistobelefttothenation.Youneverputacommaoradashinfrontofadefiningrelativeclause.Thewomanwhoownsthiscabinwillcomebackintheautumn.useafterpronouns8.87Definingrelativeclausescanbeusedaftersomepronouns.Theyareusedafterindefinitepronounssuchas"someone","anyone",and"everything".ThisissomethingI"mveryproudof.Intheoryanyonewholivesorworksintheareamaybeatrisk.KarenBlixenwasbeingfetedbyeveryonewhoknewherwork.Theyaresometimesusedafter"some","many","much","several","all",or"those".LikemanywhomethiminthosedaysIwassooncharmed....thefeelingsofthosewhohavesufferedfromtheeffectsofcrime.Theycanalsobeusedafterpersonalpronouns,butonlyinformalorold-fashionedEnglish.Hewhoisnotforreformisagainstit....wewhoaresupposedtobesogoodattalkingandwriting.Non-definingrelativeclausesareneverusedafterpronouns.8.88Relativeclausescansometimesbereducedtonon-finiteclauses.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Giveittothemanwhoiswearingthebowlerhat",youcansay"Giveittothemanwearingthebowlerhat".Similarly,insteadofsaying"Thebride,whowassmilinghappily,chattedtotheguests",youcansay"Thebride,smilinghappily,chattedtotheguests".Theseusesareexplainedinparagraphs8.117to8.133.Seealsoparagraphs2.317and2.318inthesectiononqualifiers.Usingrelativepronounsindefiningclauses8.89Thefollowingparagraphsexplainwhichpronounsyouuseindefiningrelativeclause.8.90Whenyouarereferringtoapersonorgroupofpeople,youuse"who"or"that"asthesubjectofadefiningclause."Who"ismorecommonthan"that".Themanwhoemployedmewouldtransportanythinganywhere....thepeoplewholiveinthecottage.385 ...somebodywhoisreallyill....themanthatmadeit.Youuse"who","that",or"whom"astheobjectofadefiningclause,oryoudonotuseapronounatall....someonewhoIhaven"tseenforalongtime....awomanthatIdislike....distantrelativeswhomhehadneverseen....amanIknow.Youuse"that"asthecomplementofadefiningclause,oryoudonotuseapronoun....thedistinguishedactressthatshelaterbecame.Thatwasthekindofpersonshewas.Afterasuperlative,youdonotusuallyuseapronoun.HewasthecleverestmanIeverknew....thebestboyweeverhad.Formoreinformationaboutsuperlativesseeparagraphs2.117to2.127.8.91Whenyouarereferringtoathingorgroupofthings,youuse"which"or"that"asthesubjectofadefiningclause....pastawhichcamefromMilan.Infacttherearestrategieswhicharemuchmorereliable.Therearealotofthingsthatarewrong.Youuse"which"or"that"astheobjectofadefiningclause,oryoudonotuseapronoun....shellswhichmysisterhadcollected....theoxygenthatitneeds....oneofthethingsI"llneverforget.After"much"or"all",youuse"that".Youdonotuse"which".Therewasnotmuchthatthemilitarymencoulddo.Happinessisallthatmatters.Usingrelativepronounsinnon-definingclauses8.92Thefollowingparagraphsexplainwhichpronounsyouuseinnon-definingrelativeclauses.Unlikedefiningclauses,theseclausescannotbeusedwithoutarelativepronoun.referringtopeople8.93Whenyouarereferringtoapersonorgroupofpeople,youuse"who"asthesubjectofanon-definingclause.HeathRobinson,whodiedin1944,wasagraphicartistandcartoonist.Thehorse"srider,whohasnotbeennamed,wastoodistressedtotalktopolice.Youuse"who"or"whom"astheobjectofanon-definingclause.That"soneofthethingswhichHeath,whoIdonotlike,hadaclearideaabout.Hethenbecameinvolvedinarowwiththepartychairman,whomheaccusedoflying.referringtothings8.94Whenyouarereferringtoathingorgroupofthings,youuse"which"or"that"asthesubjectorobjectofanon-definingclause.Thetreatment,whichisbeingtriedbyresearchersatfourhospitals,hashelpedpatientswhohavebeenfailedtorespondtootherremedies.BritishRail,whichhaslaunchedanenquiry,saidonecoachwasbadlydamaged.Hewasamanofconsiderableinheritedwealth,whichheultimatelyspentonhisexperiments....thisoffer,whichfewcanresist.Usingrelativepronounswithprepositions8.95Arelativepronouncanbetheobjectofapreposition.Usuallytheprepositiongoestowardstheendoftheclause,andnotinfrontofthepronoun....thejobwhichI"dbeentrainingfor....theuniversethatwelivein....thewomanwhoMullerlefthismoneyto.nopronoun8.96Often,inordinaryspeech,nopronounisused.AngelawastheonlypersonIcouldtalkto....thatplaceIusedtogotolastterm.That"sallwehavetimeforthisweek.indirectobjects8.97Whenarelativepronounistheindirectobjectofaverb,youuse"to"or"for".Forexample,yousay"themanthatshewrotetheletterto",not"themanthatshewrotetheletter".385 ...piecesofworkthatwegiveamarkto.Youalsouse"to"or"for"whenthereisnorelativepronoun....thegirlIsangthesongfor.8.98InformalEnglish,theprepositioncangoatthebeginningofaclauseinfrontof"whom"or"which".ThesearethepeopletowhomCatherinewasreferring....awomanfriendwithwhomRoseusedtogoforwalks....questionstowhichtherewerenoanswers.Notehoweverthatyoucannotputtheprepositionatthebeginningofaclauseinfrontof"who"or"that".8.99Iftheverbinarelativeclauseisaphrasalverbendingwithapreposition,youcannotmovetheprepositiontothebeginningoftheclause....allthethingsI"vehadtoputupwith....thekindoflifehewaslookingforwardto.Thereareotherproblems,whichIdon"tproposetogointoatthemoment.8.100Wordssuchas"some","many",and"most"canbeputinfrontof"ofwhom"or"ofwhich"atthebeginningofanon-definingrelativeclause.Attheschoolweweregreetedbytheteachers,mostofwhomweremiddle-aged.Itisalanguagesharedbyseveralquitediversecultures,eachofwhichusesitdifferently.Numberscanbeputbeforeorafter"ofwhom".Theyactmostlyonsuggestionsfrompresentmembers(fourofwhomarewomen).Altogether1,888peoplewereprosecuted,ofwhom1,628wereconvicted.Using"whose"8.101Ifyouwanttotalkaboutsomethingrelatingtotheperson,thing,orgroupyouaretalkingabout,youusearelativeclausebeginningwith"whose"andanoungroup.Forexample,insteadofsaying"IamwritingalettertoNigel.Hisfatherisill",youcansay"IamwritingalettertoNigel,whosefatherisill"."Whose"canbeusedindefiningornon-definingclauses....workerswhosebargainingpowerisweak....anyonewhosecreditcardisstolen.Sheaskedfriendswhoseopinionsherespected....acountrywhosepopulationwasgrowing.AccordingtoCook,whosebookispublishedonThursday,mostdisastersareavoidable.Thenounafter"whose"canbethesubjectorobjectoftheverbintheclause,oritcanbetheobjectofapreposition.Ifitistheobjectofapreposition,theprepositioncancomeatthebeginningorendoftheclause....thegovernmentsinwhoseterritoriestheyoperate....somestrangefragmentofthoughtwhoseoriginIhavenoideaof.8.102InwrittenEnglish,"ofwhich"and"ofwhom"aresometimesusedinsteadof"whose".Youputtheseexpressionsafteranoungroupbeginningwith"the".Forexample,insteadofwriting"atownwhoseinhabitantsspeakFrench",youcanwrite"atowntheinhabitantsofwhichspeakFrench"....circumstancesthecontinuanceofwhichwasprejudicialtothesafetyofthepublic.Itravelledinalorrythebackofwhichtheownerhadloadedwithyams.Usingotherrelativepronouns8.103Someotherwordsandexpressionscanbeusedasrelativepronouns.non-definingclauses8.104"When"and"where"areusedinnon-definingclauses.Iwanttoseeyouat12o"clock,whenyougotoyourlunch.Dan"sfondestmemoryisoflastyear,whentheclubgaveateapartyfortheQueenMother.HecamefromHerneBay,whereLallyhadoncespentaholiday.Shecarriedthemupthestairstotheartroom,wherethebrushesandpaintshadbeensetout.definingclauses8.105"When"and"where"canalsobeusedindefiningclauses,butonlywhentheclauseisprecededbyaparticularkindofnoun."When"-clausesmustbeprecededbytheword"time"orbythenameofaperiodoftimesuchas"day"or"year".Therehadbeenatimewhenshethoughttheywerewonderful.Thisistheyearwhentheprofitsshouldstart.385 "Where"-clausesmustbeprecededbytheword"place"orbythenameofakindofplacesuchas"room"or"street"....theplacewheretheywork....theroomwhereIdidmyhomework....thestreetwheremygrandmotherhadlived.Notethatplacenamessuchas"London"arepropernounsandsodonothavedefiningrelativeclausesafterthem.8.106"Where"canalsobeusedindefiningclausesafterwordssuchas"situation"and"stage".Increasingpovertyhasledtoasituationwherethepoorestopenlyadmitthattheycannotaffordtohavechildren.Intimewereachedastagewherewehadmoreblackreadersthanwhiteones.8.107"Why"isusedindefiningclausesaftertheword"reason".Thatisamajorreasonwhyweresuchpoorcountries."Whereby"isusedindefiningclausesafterwordssuchas"arrangement"and"system".Ihadworkedoutarotatingarrangementwherebyeverypersonwouldhaveadifferentroommateineachcity.TheymadeadealwherebyhewouldsailforAmericaandbecommissionedintherevolutionaryarmy.8.108Otherexpressionscanbeusedindefiningclausesinplaceof"when","where","why",and"whereby".After"time"youcanuse"atwhich"insteadof"when"....thetimeatwhichtheoriginalmineralwasformed.After"place"andwordssuchas"room","street","year",and"month",youcanuse"inwhich"insteadof"where"or"when"....theplaceinwhichtheyfoundthemselves....theroominwhichthemeetingwouldbeheld....theyearinwhichLloydGeorgelostpower.After"day"youcanuse"onwhich"insteadof"when".Sundaywasthedayonwhichwewereexpectedtospendsometimewithmyfather.After"reason"youcanuse"that"ornopronouninsteadof"why"....thereasonthatnon-violenceisconsideredtobeavirtue.That"sthereasonI"mcheckingitnow.Afterwordssuchas"situation","stage","arrangement"or"system"youcanuse"inwhich"insteadof"where"or"whereby"....astageofaffairsinwhichthebondsbetweenparentsandchildrenhavebeenloosed.Additionalpointsaboutnon-definingrelativeclauses8.109InwrittenEnglish,youcanuseanon-definingclausetosaythatoneeventhappenedafteranother.Forexample,insteadofsaying"IgavethebooktoGeorge.GeorgethengaveittoMary",youcansay"lgavethebooktoGeorge,whogaveittoMary".LordThomsonhadboughtthepaperintheFiftiesfromLordKemsley,whohadthereuponretiredintoobscurity.Themoltenmetalranoutontotheflagstones,whichpromptlyexploded.LaterhewenttoNewZealand,wherehedidallsortsofjobs.8.110Youcanuseanon-definingclausebeginningwith"which"tosaysomethingaboutthewholesituationdescribedinamainclause,ratherthanaboutsomeoneorsomethingmentionedinit.Minutecomputersneedonlyminuteamountsofpower,whichmeansthattheywillrunonsmallbatteries.InevermetBrandoagain,whichwasapity.Priortospeakingshewasalittletense,whichwasunderstandable.8.111Whenyouwanttoaddsomethingtowhatyouhavesaid,yousometimesuseanon-definingclausebeginningwithapreposition,"which",andanoun.Thenounisoftenawordlike"time"or"point",oraverygeneralwordforasituationlike"case"or"event".Theyremaininthepouchforsomesevenweeks,bywhichtimetheyareabout10cmlong.Iwastoldmyworkwasunsatisfactory,atwhichpointIsubmittedmyresignation.Sometimesyoumayfeeltoofrailtoocopewiththings,inwhichcasedothemassoonasitisconvenient.385 Nominalrelativeclauses8.112Whenitisdifficulttorefertosomethingbyusinganoungroup,youcansometimesuseaspecialkindofrelativeclausecalledanominalrelativeclause.Whathereallyneedsisanicecupoftea.Whatevershedoeswilldeterminethefutureofheradministration.8.113Nominalrelativeclausesbeginningwith"what"canbeusedassubjects,objects,orcomplements."What"canmeaneither"thethingwhich"or"thethingswhich".Whathesaidwasperfectlytrue.Theydidnotlikewhathewrote.Ibelievethatisaverygoodaccountofwhathappened.I"mwhat"sgenerallycalledatraitor.Peopleoftenusea"what"-clauseinfrontof"is"or"was"tosaywhatkindofthingtheyareabouttomention.WhatIneedisalawyer.Whatyouhavetodoistochoosefivecompaniestoinvestin.Thesestructuresareexplainedinparagraphs10.28to10.30.Foranotheruseof"what"innominalrelativeclausesseeparagraph8.116.8.114Nominalrelativeclausesbeginningwith"where"areusuallyusedafteraprepositionoraftertheverb"be"."Where"means"theplacewhere".Ithrewdownmybookandcrossedtheroomtowhereshewassitting.ThegodwouldreturnfromwherethesunrisesandlaywastetotheAzteccivilisation.Stroud,Ithink,iswhereIwanttodie.8.115Nominalrelativeclausesbeginningwith"whatever","whoever",or"whichever"areusedtorefertosomethingorsomeonethatisunknownorindefinite."Whatever"isusedonlytorefertothings."Whoever"isusedtorefertopeople."Whichever"isusedtorefertoeitherthingsorpeople."Whatever","whoever",and"whichever"canbeusedaspronouns."Whichever"isoftenfollowedby"of".I"lldowhateveryouwant.ThesewildflowersaresorareIwanttodowhateverIcantosavethem....apersonwithwrittenauthorityfromwhoeverisdealingwiththewill.Peoplewinchoosewhicheveroftheseregimestheyfindsuitsthembest."Whatever"and"whichever"canalsobeusedasdeterminers.Shehadhadtorelyonwhateverbookswerelyingaroundthese.Choosewhicheveroneofthethreemethodsyoufancy.Formoreinformationabout"whatever","whoever",and"whichever"seeparagraph8.42.8.116"What"canbeusedwiththesamemeaningas"whatever",bothasapronounandadeterminer.Dowhatyoulike.Peoplesurvivedbysharingoutwhatmoneytheycouldgetfromcattle-work.Themainuseof"what"innominalrelativeclausesisexplainedparagraph8.113.Non-finiteclauses8.117Anon-finiteclauseisasubordinateclausewhichcontainsaparticipleoraninfinitive,butwhichdoesnotcontainafiniteverb.Therearetwokindsofnon-finiteclause.Onekindbeginswithasubordinatingconjunction.Quiteoftenwhiletalkingtoyouthey"dstandononefoot.You"vegottodosomethingindepthinordertounderstandit.Thishindofclauseisdealtwithfnthesectionsonadverbialclauses(paragraphs8.8to8.82).Theotherkindofnon-finiteclausedoesnotbeginwithasubordinatingconjunction.Heprancedabout,feelingveryimportantindeed.Iwantedtotalktoher.Thiskindofclausesometimesconsistsofaparticipleandnothingelse.Ellenshookherhead,smiling.Bet,grumbling,haddepartedtoherharplesson.Clauseswhichcontainaparticipleanddonotbeginwithasubordinateconjunctionareexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs.8.118Thenon-finiteclausesdiscussedinthissectionfunctionthesimilarwaytorelativeclauses,and,likerelativeclauses,theycanhaveadefiningornon-definingfunction.385 Non-definingclausesaredealtwithinparagraphs8.120to8.131.Theseclausesareoftenusedinwriting,butarenotusuallyusedinspokenEnglish.Definingclausesaredealtwithinparagraphs8.132and8.133.TheseclausesareoccasionallyusedinbothwrittenandspokenEnglish.8.119Non-definingclausescangoinfrontofamainclause,afteramainclause,orinthemiddleofone.Anon-definingclauseisusuallyseparatedbyacommafromthewordsinfrontofitandafterit.Definingclausesalwaysgoafteranoungroup.Youneverputacommainfrontofadefiningclause.Usingnon-definingclauses8.120Non-definingclausesgivefurtherinformationwhichisnotneededtoidentifytheperson,thing,orgroupyouaretalkingabout.Thefollowingparagraphs8.121to8.126explainhowtheseclausesareusedwhentheyrelatetothesubjectoftheverbinamainclause.Thesubjectisnotmentionedinthenon-definingclause.presentparticiple:simultaneousevents8.121Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeoneisdoingorexperiencingtwothingsatthesametime,youmentiononeoftheminthemainclauseandtheotherinaclausecontainingapresentparticiple.Laughingandshrieking,thecrowdrushedunderthenearesttrees.Janewatched,weeping,fromthedoorway.Feelingalittlefoolish,Pluskathungup.Walkingabout,younoticesomethingisdifferent.Peoplestaredather.Seeingherselfinashopwindow,shecouldunderstandwhy.presentparticiple:oneactionafteranother8.122Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeonedidonethingimmediatelyafteranother,youmentionthefirstactioninaclausecontainingapresentparticipleandthesecondoneinthemainclause.Leapingoutofbed,hedressedsoquicklythatheputhisbootsonthewrongfeet.presentparticiple:reasons8.123Ifyouwanttoexplainwhysomeonedoessomethingorwhysomethinghappens,yousaywhathappensinthemainclauseandgivethereasoninaclausecontainingapresentparticiple.AtonepointImadeupmymindtogoandtalktoUncleSam.ThenIchangedmymind,realisingthathecoulddonothingtohelp.Thebabywouldprobablynotlivetogrowup,beingascrawnylittlething,unlikelytosurvivethenormalailmentsofchildhood.8.124Youcanalsouseapresentparticipledirectlyafteraverbinasentencesuchas"Istoodshiveringattheroadside".Thisuseisexplainedinparagraphs3.190to3.203."having"andpastparticiple:results8.125Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeonedidorexperiencedonethingbeforeanother,youmentionthefirstthinginaclausecontaining"having"andapastparticiple.Oftenthiskindofconstructionindicatesthatthesecondeventwasaresultofthefirstone.Ididnotfeelterriblyshocked,havingexpectedhimtotaketheeasiestwayout.Havingmarriedverylate,hewasonlyayearshortafiftywhenIwasborn.pastparticiple:earlierevents8.126Ifyouwanttosaywhathappenedtosomeoneorsomethingbeforeasituationoreventdescribedinthemainclause,yousaywhathappenedinaclausecontainingapastparticipleonitsown.ThenovelsofMaryWebb,praisedbyStanleyBaldwinandsopopularinthe30s,weregreatfavouritesofmine.Angeredbythepoliciesoftheunion,shewrotealettertotheGeneralSecretary.mentioningthesubject8.127Sometimesyouwanttouseanon-definingclausewhichhasadifferentsubjectfromthesubjectofthemainclause.Theseclausesareexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs8.128to8.131.8.128Inthiskindofnon-definingclause,youusuallyhavetomentionthesubject.Ashtonbeingdead,thewholeaffairmustnowbelaidbeforeColonelBrowne.However,ifthenon-definingclausecomesafterthemainclause,anditisclearfromthecontextthatitrelatestotheobjectofthemainclause,youdonotneedtomentiontheobjectagain.Theypickedtheup,kickingandbawling,andcarriedmeuptheroad.8.129Youuseanon-definingclausecontainingasubjectandapresentparticiple:385 •whenyouwanttomentionsomethingthatishappeningatthesametimeastheeventorsituationdescribedinthemainclauseHereyesglisteningwithtears,shestoodupandaskedtheCouncil:"WhatamItodo?"•whenyouwanttomentionafactthatisrelevanttothefactstatedinthemainclause.Batsaresurprisinglylong-livedcreatures,somehavingalife-expectancyofaroundtwentyyears."With"issometimesaddedatthebeginningofthenon-finiteclause.Theoldmanstoodupwithtearsrunningdownhisface.8.130Youuse"having"andapastparticipletomentionsomethingwhichhappenedbeforethethingdescribedinthemainclause.Abouttwiceamonth,enoughevidencehavingaccumulated,thepolicewouldfeelobligedtostagearaid.TheBorderhavingbecomemoresettled,theyhadselectedasiteneartheKalpaniRiver.Georgehavingbeencarriedtohiscabin,Ashhadgoneuptothedeserteddeck.Thesubjecthavingbeenopened,hehadtogoonwithit.Youuseapastparticipleonitsowntosaythatsomethingwasdoneorcompletedbeforetheeventorsituationdescribedinthemainclause.Heproceededtolighthispipe.Thatdone,heputonhiswoollenscarfartwentout.8.131Inanegativenon-definingclause,youput"not"infrontoftheparticiple,orinfrontof"having".Hepaused,notwishingtoboast.Hefailedtorecognizeheratfirst,nothavingseenherforfifteenyearsorso.Hebeganhittingthemwithhisstick,theirreplynothavingcomeasquicklyashewanted.Usingdefiningclauses8.132Definingnon-finiteclausesexplainwhichpersonorthingyouaretalkingabout.Theyarealwaysplacedafterthenouninanoungroup.Theoldladydrivingthehorsewasallinblack.Thebuscarryingthefreedomridersarrivedjustbeforenoon.8.133Definingclausescanbeusedafterindefinitepronounssuchas"anyone".Anyonefollowingthisadvicecouldfindhimselfintrouble.Askanybodynearingtheageofretirementwhattheythink.Otherstructuresusedlikenon-finiteclauses8.134Phraseswhichdonotcontainaverbaresometimesusedinwritinginasimilarwaytonon-finiteclauses.8.135Inwriting,youcanaddaphrasecontainingoneormoreadjectivestoasentence.Thisisanotherwayofmakingtwostatementsinonesentence.Forexample,insteadofwriting"Weweretiredandhungry.Wereachedthefarm",youcouldwrite"Tiredandhungry,wereachedthefarm".Surprisedatmyreaction,shetriedtoconsoleme.Muchdiscouraged,ImovedontoPhiladelphia.Theboynodded,paleandscared.Heknockedatthedoor,sickwithfearandembarrassment."Ofcourse,"saidAsh,astonished.8.136Inasimilarway,youcanuseaphrasetodescribesomethingwhichisconnectedwiththesubjectofasentence.Thephraseconsistsofanoungroup,followedbyanadjective,anadjust,oranothernoungroup.Forexample,insteadofwriting"Hecameintotheroom.Hishatwasinhishand",youcouldwrite"Hecameintotheroom,hishatinhishand"."Whatdoyoumeanbythat?"saidHugh,hisfacepale.Shestoodveryerect,herbodyabsolutelystiffwithfury.Hewaswaiting,drummingwithhisfingers,hiseyesonhisnapkin."With"issometimesaddedatthebeginningofaphrase.Shewalkedon,withhereyesstraightahead.Itwasahot,calmday,witheveryobjectatthesea"ssurfacevisibleformiles.Coordination8.137Whenyousayorwritesomething,youoftenwanttoputtogethertwoormoreclausesofequalimportance.Youdothisbyusingacoordinatingconjunction.385 AnnahadtogointotownandshewantedtogotoBrideStreet.IaskedifIcouldborrowherbicyclebutsherefused.Hehadbeenonlyababythen,yethehadnotbeenafraid.Hereisalistofthemostcommoncoordinatingconjunctions:andbutnororthenyetCoordinatingconjunctionsarealsousedtolinkwordsandwordgroups.Theboysshoutedandrushedforward....domesticanimalssuchasdogsandcats.Hermannerwashurriedyetpainstakinglycourteous.Hetoppledslowlybutinexorablyoffthefence.Sometimescoordinatingconjunctionscanbeusedtogether.Itisasimplegameandyetinterestingenoughtobeplayedwithskill.Ericmoanedsomethingandthenlaystill.Thelinkingofclauses,words,orwordgroupsusingcoordinatingconjunctionsiscalledcoordination.Coordinatingconjunctionsaresometimescalledcoordinators.8.138Thedifferentusesofcoordinatingconjunctionsareexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs:clausesparagraphs8.139to8.151verbsparagraphs8.152to8.158noungroupsparagraphs8.159to8.167adjectivesandadverbsparagraphs8.168to8.177otherwordgroupsparagraphs8.178to8.181Waysofemphasizingcoordinatingconjunctionsaredescribedinparagraphs8.182to8.187.Thelinkingofmorethantwoclauses,words,orwordgroupsisexplainedinparagraphs8.188to8.189.Linkingclauses8.139Youcanuseacoordinatingconjunctiontolinkclauseswhichhavethesamesubject,orclauseswhichhavedifferentsubjects.8.140Whenyoulinkclauseswhichhavethesamesubject,youdonotalwaysneedtorepeatthesubjectinthesecondclause.Iftheconjunctionis"and","or",or"then",youdonotusuallyrepeatthesubject.Hetookherhandsfromhereyesandledhertowardsthehouse.It"salongtimesinceyou"veboughtthemadrinkortalkedtothem.WhensherecognizedMorrisshewentpale,thenblushed.Iftheconjunctionis"but","so",or"yet",itisusualtorepeatthesubject.Itryandseeittheirway,butIcan"t.Ihadnocar,soIhiredoneforthejourney.Helostthefight,yetsomehowheemergedwithhisdignityenhanced.Whenyoulinkclauseswhichhavedifferentsubjectsbutwhichhavesomecommonelements,youdonotneedtorepeatalltheelementsinthesecondclause.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Someofthemwenttoonepubandsomeofthemwenttotheotherpub",youcansay"Someofthemwenttoonepubandsometotheother".Onesoldierwaskilledandanotherwounded.Oneofitssideswaspaintedblackandtheotherwhite.8.141Acoordinatingconjunctioncanbeusedsimplytolinkclauses,oritcanbeusedinadditiontoindicatearelationshipbetweenthem.Theseusesareexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs.8.142Ifyousimplywanttomentiontworelatedfacts,youuse"and".HehasbeensuccessfulinHollywoodandhasworkedwithsuchdirectorsasNormanJewisonandRichardAttenborough.ThecompanywillnotbesplitupandwillcontinuetooperatefromBelfast.HegainedaBinEnglishandnowplanstostudySpanish.Youalsouse"and"toindicatethattwothingshappenedorarehappeningatthesametime.Isatandwatchedhim.Otherusesof"and"areexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs.sequence8.143Ifyouuse"and"betweentwoclauseswhichdescribeevents,youareindicatingthattheeventdescribedinthefirstclausehappensorhappenedbeforetheeventdescribedin385 thesecondone.ShewasborninBudapestandraisedinManhattan.Heopenedthecardoorandgotout."Then"canbeusedinthesameway,butitislesscommon.Heheldhishandtodirectthewaterinasprayacrosshisface,thendippedhisheadanddrank.twonegativefacts8.144Whenyouwanttolinktwonegativeclauses,youusuallyuse"and".Whenhisappointmentceasedhedidnotreturntohishomecountryandhehasnotbeentheresince1979.However,youcanuse"or"whentheclauseshavethesamesubjectandthesameauxiliaries.Inthesecondclauses,youomitthesubject,theauxiliaries,and"not".Forexample,insteadofsaying"Shedoesn"tdrinkandshedoesn"tsmoke",youcansay"Shedoesn"tdrinkorsmoke".Wewillnotpayransomordodealsforhostages.Hedidn"tyellorscream.Youcanalsolinknegativeclausesbyusing"andneither","andnor",or"nor".Youput"be"ortheauxiliaryatthebeginningofthesecondclause,infrontofthesubject.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Mysisterdoesn"tlikehimandIdon"likehim",youcansay"Mysisterdoesn"tlikehim,andneitherdoI".Iwasnothappyandneitherwerethey.IcouldnotaffordtoeatinrestaurantsandnorcouldanyoneelseIknew.Clearlythesepeoplearenotinsane,noraretheyfools."Butneither"and"butnor"canalsobeused.Thisisn"tadazzlingrecord,butneitherisitrubbish.Institutionsoflearningarenottaxedbutnoraretheymuchrespected.Whenyouuse"and"tolinktwonegativestatements,youcanput"either"afterthesecondstatement.Ihadn"tbeentoapopfestivalandMikehadn"teither.Electricitydidn"tcomeintoBlackhailFarmuntilrecentlyandtheyhadn"tanywatereither.Foremphasis,youcanjointwonegativeclausesbyusing"neither"and"nor".Thisuseisexplainedinparagraph8.186.contrast8.145Whenyouareaddingacontrastingfact,youusuallyuse"but".I"monly63,butIfeelahundred.Itcostsquitealotbutit"sworthit.I"vehadaverypleasanttwoyears,butIcan"twaittogetbacktotheCity.Yes,wewillbeusingmotorracingtopromoteourproducts,butwewillalsobeusingittopromotegood,safeandsoberdriving.Ifyouwanttoaddafactwhichcontrastsstronglywithwhatyouhavejustsaid,youuse"yet"or"andyet".Everythingaroundhimwasblowntopieces,yettheministerescapedwithoutascratch.Iwanttoleave,andyetIfeelobligedtostay.Youusuallyputacommainfrontor"but","yet",or"andyet".8.146Whenyouwanttomentiontwoalternatives,youuse"or".Icouldkillarabbitwithmybarehandsorshootabullockwithouttheleastbother.Wecantrytoincreasetheintelligenceofourdomesticanimalsorevolvewhollynewoneswithmuchhigherintelligence.WastheminelaidintheharbourordiditdriftinfromtheGulfofMexico?8.147Whenyouaregivingadvice,yousometimeswanttotellsomeonewhatwillhappeniftheydoaparticularthing.Youdothisbyusinganimperativeclause,followedby"and"andaclausecontainingaverbinafuturetense.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Ifyougobytrain,you"llgettherequicker",youcansay"Gobytrainandyou"llgettherequicker".Doasyouaretoldandyou"llbealright.Youputtheouthereandyou"llloseyourjobtomorrow.Whenyouaregivingadvice,awarning,oranorder,yousometimeswanttotellsomeonewhatwillhappeniftheydonotdowhatyousay.Youdothisbyusinganimperativeclause,followedby"or"andaclausecontainingaverbinafuturetense.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Goaway!Ifyoudon"tgoaway,Iscream",youcansay"Goaway,orI"llscream".385 Hurryup,oryou"llbelateforschool.Sodon"tgopryingintomyaffairsoryou"llgethurt.8.148Inwriting,youcansometimesbeginasentencewithcoordinatingconjunction.Youdothistomakethesentenceseemmoredramaticorforceful.Somepeoplethinkthisuseisincorrect.Thevillagershadbecomeaccustomedtominorearthtremors.ButeveryoneknewthatsomethingunusualhadwokenthemonMonday.Doyouthinkthereissomethingwrongwithher?Ordoyoujustnotlikeher?SendhimaheadtowarnEric.Andclosethatdoor.8.149Sometimes,inwriting,twoclausescanbemadeintoonesentencewithoutacoordinatingconjunctionbeingused.Instead,asemicolonoradashisputbetweentheclauses.Thisisawayofexpressingtwostatementsinonesentencewhennoparticularcoordinatingconjunctionseemsappropriate.Theneighboursdroveby;theycouldn"tbeartolook.WhenweembracedIcouldn"tsaythankyou-thosewordswerefartoosmallforsomeonewhohadriskedherlifetosavemine.8.150Coordinatingconjunctionscanbeusedtolinknon-finiteclauses."To"-infinitiveclausescanbelinkedby"and"or"or".Weneedtopersuademoredriverstoleavetheircarsathomeandtousethetraininstead.Shemaydecidetoremarryortolivewithoneofhersisters.Sometimesthesecond"to"isomitted.Soldierstriedtoclearroadobstructionsandremoveflagsandgraffiti.Whenthesecondclauseisnegative,youcanuse"not"insteadof"andnot".Iampaidtotreatpeople,nottointerrogatethem.Clausesbeginningwithaparticiplecanbelinkedby"and"or"or".Themotherlayonthebedgazingatthechildandsmilingathim.Youmaybemorecomfortablewearingacottondressorshirtorsleepingunderacottonblanket.However,ifthefirstclausebeginswith"standing","sitting",or"lying",youdonotusuallyput"and"betweentheclauses.Insideweretwolinesofoldpeoplesittingfacingeachother.8.151Forinformationonhowtocoordinatemorethantwoclauses,seeparagraph8.188.Linkingverbs8.152Whenyouaretalkingabouttwoactionsperformedbythesameperson,thing,orgroup,youcanuseacoordinatingconjunctiontolinktwoverbs.intransitiveverbs8.153Coordinatingconjunctionscanbeusedtolinkintransitiveverbs.Mostly,theyjustsatandchatted.Webothshruggedandlaughed.transitiveverbs8.154Whenyouaredescribingactionsinvolvingthesamesubjectandobject,youcanlinktwotransitiveverbs.Youputtheobjectafterthesecondverbonly.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Hesweptthefloorandpolishedthefloor",yousay"Hesweptandpolishedthefloor".Washandtrimtheleeks.Similarly,insteadofsaying"Theywalktoworkorcycletowork",youcansay"Theywalkorcycletowork".Ishoutedandhootedatthem.omittingtheauxiliary8.155Whenyouarelinkingverbgroupswhichcontainthesameauxiliary,youdonotneedtorepeattheauxiliaryinthesecondclause.Someonemaybekilledorseriouslyinjured....asolidformofthedrugthatissmoked,notinhaled.Weareblessedbyhavingknownandlovedamanofsuchgoodnessandwisdom.emphasizingrepetitionorduration8.156Ifyouwanttosaythatsomeonedoessomethingrepeatedlyorforalongtime,youcanuse"and"tolinktwoidenticalverbs.Theylaughedandlaughed.Isaacsdidn"tgiveup.Hetriedandtried,buthekeptgettingunhelpfulreplies.8.157Ininformalspeech,"and"isoftenusedbetween"try"andanotherverb.Forexample,someonemightsay"I"lltryandgetanewspaper".However,thismeansthesameas"I"lltrytogetanewspaper",anditreferstooneaction,nottwo.385 Formoreinformationaboutthisuseseeparagraph3.201.8.158Forinformationonhowtocoordinatemorethantwoverbs,seeparagraph8.188.Linkingnoungroups8.159Whenyouaretalkingabouttwopeopleorthings,youcanuseacoordinatingconjunctiontofinktwonoungroups.8.160Insimplestatementsabouttwopeopleorthings,youuse"and".Thereweremenandwomenworkinginthefields.I"llgiveyouanicecupofteaandagingerbiscuit....afriendshipbetweenaboyandagirl.Insteadof"andnot",youuse"not"withacommainfrontofit.Eachfingerendswithasharpclaw,notaflatbluntnail.Ifbothpeopleorthingsaretheobjectoftheverbinanegativesentence,youuse"or".Wedidn"tplaycricketorfootball.8.161Whenyouaregivingalternatives,youuse"or".Servefruitorcheeseafterwards....alettersayingthatabrotherorsisterhasanewbike.8.162Whenyourefertotwopeopleofthingsusing"and"or"or",youusuallyrepeatthedeterminer.Hewasholdingasuitcaseandabirdcage.However,ifthepeopleorthingsarecloselyassociatedinsomeway,youdonotneedtorepeatthedeterminer.Mymotherandfatherworkedhard.Thejacketandskirtwereskilfullydesigned....aboyinajacketandtie.Sometimesbothdeterminersareomitted.Motheranddaughterstaredateachother.Allthishadofcoursebeendiscussedbetweenhusbandandwife.Thelegalpositionforbothworkerandemployerisnowasfairasthelawcanmakeit.8.163Youcansometimesusenoungroupslinkedby"and"torefertojustonepersonorthing.He"saracistandasexist....thenovelistandplaywright,SomersetMaugham.8.164Whenyouarelinkingtwonouns,anadjectiveinfrontofthefirstnounisnormallyinterpretedasapplyingtobothnouns....theyoungmenandwomenofEngland....ahousecrammedwithbeautifulfurnitureandchina.verbagreement8.165Whenthesubjectofaclauseconsistsoftwoormorenounslinkedby"and",youuseapluralverb.Mymotherandfatherareill.Time,moneyantieffortwereneeded.However,youdonotuseapluralverbifthenounsrefertothesamepersonorthing.ThewriterandfilmmakerMasanoriHatadisagrees.Youalsodonotuseapluralverbwithuncountnounsprecededby"all",orwithsingularcountnounsprecededby"each"or"every".Allthiseffortandsacrificehasnothelpedtoalleviatepoverty.Itbecamenecessarytoinvolveeveryman,womanandchildwhowaswillingtohelp.Whenyoulinktwoormorenounswith"or",youuseapluralverbafterpluralnouns,andasingularverbaftersingularnounsoruncountnouns.Onegeneration"sproblemsofsuccessesarepassedtothenext.Canyousay"No"toafriendorrelativewhowantstoinsist?linkingpronouns8.166Youcanput"and","or",or"not"betweenapronounandanoungroup,orbetweentwopronouns.HowardandIareplanningaparty.SheandIhaveaverygoodrelationship.Ifyouoryourhusbandhavepaidenoughcontributions,youareentitledtoagrant.Ifeltthatthenewplantshouldbearhisname,forhe,notI,haddonethework.Whenyousaysomethingaboutyourselfandsomeoneelse,youusuallyputthepronounornoungroupreferringtotheotherpersonfirst,andthepronounreferringtoyourselfsecond.MysisterandIlivedtotallydifferentkindsoflives.385 YouandImusthaveatalktogether....adifferenceofopinionbetweenJohnandme.ThefirstpeopletohearweretheForeignSecretaryandmyself.8.167Forinformationonhowtocoordinatemorethantwonoungroups,seeparagraph8.188.Linkingadjectivesandadverbs8.168Whenyouusetwoadjectivestodescribesomeoneorsomething,yousometimesputaconjunctionbetweenthem.Thisisexplainedinthefollowingparagraphs8.169to8.175.Conjunctionsarealsosometimesplacedbetweenadverbs.Thisisexplainedinparagraph8.176.qualitativeadjectives8.169Whenyouputtwoqualitativeadjectivesinfrontofanoun,youput"and"oracommabetweentheadjectives....anintelligentandambitiouswoman....anintelligent,generousman.colouradjectives8.170Whenyouputtwocolouradjectivesinfrontofanoun,youput"and"betweenthem....ablackandwhiteswimmingsuit.8.171Whenyouputtwoclassifyingadjectivesinfrontofanoun,youhavetodecidewhethertheadjectivesrelatetothesamesystemofclassificationortodifferentsystems.Forexample,"geographical"and"geological"relatetothesamesystem;"British"and"industrial"relatetodifferentsystems.Whenyouputtwoclassifyingadjectivesinfrontofanoun,andtheadjectivesrelatetothesameclassifyingsystem,youput"and"betweenthem....asocialandeducationaldilemma.Whentheadjectivesrelatetodifferentclassifyingsystems,youdonotput"and"betweenthem,oruseacomma....theFrenchclassicalpianistsKatiaandMariettaLabeque....medievalMuslimphilosophers....asquarewoodentable....Americanagriculturalexports.8.172Whenyouputtwoadjectivesofdifferentkindsinfrontofanoun,forexampleaqualitativeadjectiveandaclassifyingadjective,youdonotput"and"betweenthemoruseacomma....alargecircularpoolofwater....abeautifulpinksuit....rapidtechnologicaladvance.8.173Whenyouputtwoadjectivesinfrontofapluralnouninordertotalkabouttwogroupsofthingswhichhavedifferentoroppositequalities,youput"and"betweentheadjectives.Bothlargeandsmallfirmsdealwitheachotherregularly....EuropeanandAmericantraditions.8.174Whenyouusetwoadjectivesafteralinkverb,youput"and"betweenthem.MrsScott"shousewaslargeandimposing.Theroomwaslargeandsquare.Onthispointwecanbeclearandcategorical.8.175Youcanalsoput"but","yet",or"or"betweenadjectives.Whenyoulinkcontrastingadjectives,youput"but"or"yet"betweenthem....asmallbutcomfortablehotel.Wearepoorbuthappy....afirmyetgentlehand.Whenyouwanttosaythateitheroftwoadjectivescouldapply,ortoaskwhichadjectiveapplies,youuse"or".Youcanuseredorblackpaint.Callmeifyoufeellonelyordepressed.Isitgoodorbad?Ifyouwanttosaythatneitheroftwoadjectivesapplies,youuse"or"inanegativesentence.Hewasnotexcitingorgood-looking.Anotherwayofsayingthatneitheroftwoadjectivesappliesistoput"neither"infrontofthefirstoneand"nor"infrontofthesecondone.TheEnglishmanwasneithergratifiednordispleased.385 Theoldermenwerecarefultobeneithertoosoftnortooloudintheirreciting.linkingadverbs8.176Youcanput"and"betweenadverbs.Marywasbreathingquietlyandevenly.Wehavetokeepairportsrunningsmoothlyandefficiently.Theywalkupanddown,smiling.Whenyoulinkcontrastingadverbs,youput"but"or"yet"betweenthem.Quicklybutsilentlyshedartedoutofthecell.Ifyouwanttosaythatneitheroftwoadverbsapplies,youuseanegativesentencewith"or"betweentheadverbs,oryouput"neither"infrontofthefirstadverband"nor"infrontofthesecondone.Theywillnotcomedownveryquicklyorveryfar.Thestoryendsneitherhappilynorunhappily.8.177Forinformationonhowtocoordinatemorethantwoadjectives,seeparagraph8.189.Linkingotherwordgroups8.178Coordinatingconjunctionscanalsobeusedtolinkprepositions,prepositionalphrases,modifiers,anddeterminers.linkingprepositions8.179Youcanuse"and"tolinkprepositionswhichapplytothesamenoungroup.Weseethemontheirwaytoandfromschool.ThegrouphascalledontheGovernmenttoinvestigatewhetherhumanrightswereviolatedduringandaftertheriots.linkingprepositionalphrases8.180Youcanuse"and"tolinkprepositionalphraseswhenyouaredescribingsimilaractions,situations,orthings.Theywalkedacrossthegravelanddownthedrive.Theyhadcrumbsaroundtheirmouthsandundertheirchins.However,ifthephasesdescribethesameaction,situation,orthing,youdonotput"and"betweenthem.Herhusbandwashitovertheheadwithamallet.Theywalkeddownthedrivebetweenthechestnuttrees....amanofaboutfortywithglaringdefianteyes.linkingmodifiersanddeterminers8.181Youcanuse"and"or"or"tolinkmodifiers....thelargestelectricalequipmentandelectronicsmanufacturerinGermany.Thiswouldnotapplytoacoaloroilsupplier.Youcanuse"or"tolinkthedeterminers"his"and"her".Yourchild"sschoolwillplayimportantpartinshapingtherestofhisorherlife.Emphasizingcoordinatingconjunctions8.182Whenyouareusingcoordinatingconjunctions,yousometimeswanttoemphasizethatwhatyouaresayingappliestoboththewordgroupslinkedbytheconjunction.Youusuallydothisbyputtingawordsuchas"both"or"neither"infrontofthefirstwordgroup.8.183Whenyouareusing"and",themostcommonwayofemphasizingthatwhatyouaresayingappliestotwowordgroupsistoput"both"infrontofthefirstwordgroup.BythattimebothRobinandDrewwereoverseas.Theyfeelbothanxietyandjoy.Theseheadlinesbothmystifiedandinfuriatedhim.Investmentcontinuesbothathomeandabroad.Becausethemedicineisbothexpensiveandingreatdemand,hugeprofitscanbemade.Anotherwayistouse"andalso"insteadof"and".Wilkinsdroveracingcarshimselfandalsoracedpowerboats.Thejobofthelibraryistogetbookstopeopleandalsotogetinformationtothem.8.184Forstrongeremphasis,youcanput"notonly"or"notjust"infrontofthefirstwordgroup,and"but"or"butalso"betweenthetwogroups.Theeffortlessfreshnessandspontaneityofhissingingputhimintothefrontrankofpopularsingers,notonlyofthepresenttimebutofanytime.Employershavegottothinkmoreseriouslynotonlyofattractingstaff,butofkeepingthem.ProfessorKlebersuggeststhatlawenforcementactivitiesshouldbedirectednotjustatdrugimportersandmainsuppliers,butalsoatlocaldealers.8.185Whenyouareusing"or",themostcommonwayofemphasizingthatwhatyouaresayingappliestotwowordgroupsistoput"either"infrontofthefirstwordgroup.385 Sentencescanbeeithertrueorfalse.Youcaneitherbuyaspecialinsecticideorgethelpfromanexpert.EitherMargaretorJohnshouldcertaintyhavecometoseemebynow.Eitherweraisemoneyfromoutsideorwefaceunpalatableoptionssuchasclosingpartofthemuseum.Whenyouarelinkingclausesinthisway,youcanuse"orelse",insteadof"for".Ifyoucan"tironthematonce,eitherrollupthesheetswhiletheyaredamporelsedampthembeforeyouironthem.8.186Ifyouwanttoemphasizethatanegativestatementappliestotwowordgroups,youput"nether"infrontofthefirstgroupand"nor"infrontofthesecondgroup.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Thegirldidnotspeakorlookup",yousay"Thegirlneitherspokenorlookedup".Thethoughtneitherdistressednordelightedher.Shehadneitherreceivednorreadtheletter.NeitherMargaretnorJohnwasthere.Notethatyouuseasingularverbaftersingularnoungroupsandapluralverbafterpluralnoungroups.NeitherBintanoranyoneelsewasgoingtospeak.Neithercitycouncilsnorwealthymanufacturershavemuchneedofpaintersorsculptors.8.187Sometimesyouwanttodrawattentiontoaclauseorwordgroupbycontrastingitwithsomethingdifferent.Onewaytodothisistolinkthetwoelementsbyputting"but"betweenthem.Youput"not"infrontofthefirstelement.Wewept,notbecausewewerefrightenedbutbecauseweweresodirty.Ifeltnotjubilationbutsadness.Theuprightchairswerenotpolishedbutpainted.Linkingmorethantwoclausesorwordgroups8.188Youcanlinkmorethantwoclauses,words,orwordgroupsusing"and"or"or".Usuallyyouusetheconjunctiononlyonce,puttingitbetweenthelasttwoclauses,words,orwordgroups.Aftereachoftheothersyouputacomma.Haggartymarchedhimtothedoor,literallythrewhimoutandreturned....coursesinaccountancy,science,mathsorengineering.Somepeoplealsoputacommainfrontoftheconjunction.Wedothisinthisgrammar,forthesakeofclarity.MrsRobertscooked,cleaned,mended,andwenttomeetingsofthesewingclub.Ininformalspeech,peoplesometimesput"and"or"or"betweeneachpairofclauses,words,orwordgroups.Occasionally,youdothisinwritingwhenyouwanttoemphasizethatallthestatementsyouaremakingaretrue.MrsBarnetthasagateandit"snotlockedandthat"showtheygetout.linkingadjectives8.189Therearespecialrulesforlinkingmorethantwoadjectives.Whenyouputmorethantwoqualitativeadjectivesinfrontofanoun,youhavetodecidewhethertheadjectivesrelatetothesamesystemofclassificationortodifferentsystems.(Thisisexplainedinparagraph8.171.)Iftheclassifyingadjectivesrelatetothesamesystem,youput"and"betweenthelasttwoadjectivesandacommaaftereachoftheothers....thecountry"ssocial,economicandpoliticalcrisis.Iftheclassifyingadjectivesrelatetodifferentsystemsofclassification,youdonotputanythingbetweenthem....alittlewhitewoodenhouse.Whenyouputmorethantwoadjectivesafteralinkverb,youput"and"betweenthelasttwoadjectivesandacommaaftereachoftheothers.Hewasbig,darkandmorose.Wefelthot,tiredandthirsty.ContentsofChapter9page9.2-40Referringback2829.7-17Referringbackinaspecificway2839.18-23Referringbackinageneralway284385 9.24-27Substitutingforsomethingalreadymentioned:using"so"and"not"2869.28-40Comparingwithsomethingalreadymentioned2879.41-48Referringforward2899.49-69Leavingoutwords:ellipsis2909.63-69Ellipsisinconversation2919Makingtexts9.1Whenyouspeakorwrite,youveryoftenwanttomakesomeconnectionwithotherthingsthatyouaresayingorwriting.Thereareseveralwaysofdoingthisandtheyprovidecohesioninyouruseoflanguage.Themostcommonwayofprovidingcohesionisbyreferringbacktosomethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned.Thedifferentwaysofreferringbackareexplainedinparagraphs9.2to9.40.Therearealsoafewwaysofreferringforwardtowhatyouareabouttosay.Theseareexplainedinparagraphs9.41to9.48.Peopleoftenavoidrepeatingwordswhentheyarereferringback.Thisiscalledellipsis.Ellipsisisexplainedinparagraphs9.49to9.69.Anotherwayofprovidingcohesionisbyusingvariouscohesivewordsandphrasessuchas"firstly"and"inconclusion"thatshowtheconnectionbetweenthings.TheseareexplainedinChapterto(10.73to10.81),withothersentenceadjuncts.Referringback9.2Whenyouspeakorwrite,youveryoftenreferbacktosomethingthathasalreadybeenmentionedormakeaconnectionwithit.pronouns9.3Onecommonwayofreferringbacktosomethingistouseapersonalpronounsuchas"she","it",or"them",orapossessivepronounsuchas"mine"or"hers".Davisopenedadoor."Here"syourroom,I"mafraidit"sabituntidy."Hepickedadirtyhandkerchiefoffthefloorandstuffeditinadrawer.Thekeepercamelopingsoftlyupthelanewiththedogpaddingathisheels,andwewatchedthemthroughthehedgeastheywentby.Iheldherveryclose.Mycheekwasagainsthers.Personalpronounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.96to1.109.Possessivepronounsareexplainedinparagraphs1.110to1.114.Therearealsootherpronounswhichcanbeusedtoreferback.Theseincludepronounssuchas"another"and"many"whichhavethesameformasgeneraldeterminers.Theseareexplainedinparagraph1.153....programmeswhichtellthecomputertodoonethingratherthananother.Youcanalsousedaquantifieroracardinalnumber.Thewomenwereaskedtoleave.Someofthemrefused.Thesesoldiershadnodoubtthattheinvasionwasuponthem.Manyofthemhadalreadybeeninvolvedinfighting....theGuatemalanearthquakewhichkilled24,000peopleandinjured77,000.Quantifiersareexplainedinparagraphs2.193to2.210.Numbersareexplainedinparagraphs2.230to2.248.9.4Anothercommonwayofreferringbacktosomethingistouseaspecificdeterminersuchas"the"or"its"infrontofanoun.Amanandawomanwerestrugglingupthedune.Themanworeshorts,aT-shirt,andbasketballsneakers.Thewomanworeaprintdress."Thanks,"saidBrody.Hehungup,turnedoutthelightinhisofficeandwalkedouttohiscar.Specificdeterminersareexplainedinparagraphs1.162to1.207.Somegeneraldeterminerscanalsobeusedtoreferbacktosomething.Adogwasrunningaroundintheyard.Soonanotherdogappeared.Hereisalistofgeneraldeterminersusedtoreferbacktosomething:anotherbotheacheithereveryneitherotherTheseareexplainedfullyinparagraphs1.221to1.235.9.5Asindicatedabove,pronounsanddeterminersusedtoreferbackareexplainedinChapter1,whereotherpronounsanddeterminersareexplained.Thedemonstratives"this"andthat"areusedtoreferbacktowholesentencesandsectionsoftextaswellastothings,soalltheir385 cohesiveusesaresetoutinthefollowingsection(paragraphs9.7to9.17),whichalsoexplainsotherwordswhichareusedtoreferbackinaspecificway.9.6Therearealsoseveralotherwaysofreferringbacktosomethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned.Theseinvolve•theuseofvariousnounstoreferbacktosectionsoftextTheseareexplainedinparagraphs9.18to9.23.•theuseof"so"and"not"assubstitutesforseveraltypesofwordorstructurewhichyouwanttoavoidrepeatingThisuseof"so"and"not"isexplainedinparagraphs9.24to9.27.•theuseof"such",adjectives,andadjunctstomakecomparisonswiththingsthathavealreadybeenmentionedThisisexplainedinparagraphs9.28to9.40.Referringbackinaspecificway9.7"This"and"that",andthepluralforms"these"and"those",areusedtoreferbackclearlytoathingorfactthathasjustbeenmentioned.Theycanbeusedbothaspronounsandasdeterminers.Moreandmoremoneyisbeingpumpedintotheeducationalsystem,anditisreasonabletoassumethiswillcontinue.In1973hewentonacaravanholiday.Atthebeginningofthisholidayhebegantoexperiencepaininhischest.Notethat"this"and"that"arenotveryoftenusedaspronounstorefertopeople.Whentheyareusedlikethis,theyareonlyusedinfrontoftheverb"be"."Itwasherethatoneyoungprisonerwassoldforabagofcorn,"saidtheoldwoman."Thatwasme".9.8Whenyouuse"this"or"these",youarelinkingyourselfwiththethingyouarereferringto.TheconcertbeganwithhisSecondPianoSonata.Thisisaworkthathasusuallybeenconsideredasfundamentallynegative.Afteryou"vesetyourgoals,rememberthembyusingalist.Anythingthatisworthdoingshouldgoonthislist.Onlysmallpinesareleft.Manyofthesehavetwistedandstuntedshapes.ThereweregreatquantitiesofcattleatCamusfearnathatyear.Themajorityofthesebeastswereblack.Incontrast,whenyouuse"that"or"those",youaredistancingyourselfslightlyfromthethingyouarereferringto.There"salotofmaterialthere.Youcanusesomeofthat.There"sonebossandthatbossisinFrance.Therewereonlystrangersaroundtoobservehim,andnotmanyofthose.Theroomsareinhabitedbyboysfromtwelvetosixteenyearsofage.Themajorityofthoseboyshavereachedthestageofcaringforcomfortanddecorations.9.9Although"this"and"that"aresingularpronouns,youcanusethemtoreferbacktoanumberofthingsorfactsthathavejustbeenmentioned,insteadofusingapluralpronoun.Later,computersystemswerebroughtintoplaytodrawupattackstrategies:lateryet,theyfoundthemselvesridingalonginaircraft,submarines,andtanks.Atthishaditsbeneficialaspects.Hehadplayedrugbyatschool,hadbeeninthearmyandhadbrieflybeenaprofessionalfootballer.Thatwasthoughttobetohisfavourwhenthejobcameuplater.demonstrativesreferringtosentences9.10Demonstrativescanalsobepronounsofdeterminerswhichreferbacktoanentiresentenceoranumberofsentences."You"rethenewdoctor,aren"tyou?"—"That"sright.""Wereyouworriedaboutthedisrespectforthelawexhibitedbyyourtwoheroes?"—"That"sahardquestiontoanswer.""I"llthinkaboutit,Mother."Thatstatementwastheendofmostoftheirdiscussions.Iacceptneitherofthesearguments.Notethatwhen"these"and"those"arepronounsreferringbacktoanentirestatementtheyareonlyusedinfrontoftheverb"be".Itwashardforthetobelievethesewerehisrealreasonsforwantingtogetridofme.Iputmyarmsaroundher."Thanks,Ollie."Thosewereherelastwords."previous"9.11Youcanalsousetheadjective"previous"attributivelytoreferbacktoasection385 oftext.Asexplainedinthepreviouschapter,thebottleneedsonlytobewashedinacoldwater.Ithinkwecannowanswerthequestionposedattheendofthepreviouschapter."above"9.12InwrittenEnglishyoucanalsorefertowhatyouhavejustmentionedbyusing"above"asamodifier.Ihavenotbeenabletovalidatetheabovestatement.Youcanalsouse"theabove"withoutanoungroupafterit.Keepsuppliesofriceandspaghetti.Also,togowiththeabove,Parmesancheeseandtinsoftomatoes.9.13Whenyouhavejustreferredseparatelytotwothingsorgroupsofthings,youcanrefertothefirstoneas"theformer"andthesecondoneas"thelatter".TheseexpressionsareusedmainlyinformalEnglish.Itusedtobesaidthattheoilexportingcountriesdependedontheoilimportingcountiesjustasmuchasthelatterdependedontheformer.Icoulddooneoftwothings—obeyhimorgetmyownprotection.Ichosethelatter."Former"and"latter"canalsobeattributiveadjectives.TheGallerymustbegivenafullchapterorjustabriefparagraph,andspaceforbidstheformeralternative.GuyhadstudiedclassicsandphilosophyatOxfordandalwaysfeltasortoflingeringinterestinthelattersubject.9.14Whenyouwanttorefergenerallytoawholeclassofthingsliketheonethathasbeenmentioned,youcansay"thingsofthiskind"or"thingsofthatkind".Alternativelyyoucansay"thiskindofthing"or"thatkindofthing".We"llneedaspecialnewterminaltoincorporatecustomsfacilities,immigrationfacilities,andthingsofthatkind.Mostofuswouldattachagreatdealofimportancetoconsiderationsofthiskind.Idon"tseemanyadvantagesinthatkindofeducation.Anartstheatreshavethattypeofproblem.Ifyouarereferringtothingsoftwoormorekinds,youuse"these"and"those"infrontof"kinds","sorts",or"types",followedby"of"andanoun.Boththesecountrieswanttoreducetheproductionofthesekindsofweapons.Therearespecificregulationsgoverningthesetypesofmachines.Outsidersaren"tsupposedtomakethosekindsofjokes.Youcanalsouse"such"toreferbacktothingsofatypethathasjustbeenmentioned.Thisisexplainedinparagraphs9.28to9.32.9.15Theadverb"then"isusedtoreferbacktothetimethathasjustbeenmentionedordiscussed.Inancienttimespoetrywasarealforceintheworld.Ofcoursetheworldwasdifferentthen.9.16Theadverb"there"isusedtoreferbacktotheplacethathasjustbeenmentioned.IdecidedtotryNewmarket.Isoonfoundajobthere.Ihurriedbackintothekitchen.Therewasnothingthere.9.17Afterdescribingawayofdoingsomethingwayinwhichsomethinghappens,youcanreferbacktoitusingtheadverb"thus"."Thus"isaformalword.Eventuallywithagroanofgoodnaturehegavein.Therewas,asamatteroffact,evensomethingpleasingtohiminthusgivingin.Itnotonlypleasedhimtoworkwiththem,butthefewpencethusearnedgavehimanenormoussenseofimportance.Notethat"inthisway"or"inthatway"arecommonlyusedinstead.Moreandmorepeoplewillturntochequesandcreditcardsforthemajorityoftheirpurchases.ManypeopleintheWesternworldalreadydothebulkoftheirpurchasinginthisway.Referringbackinageneralway9.18Therearevariousgroupsofnounswhichareusedtoreferbackinageneralwaytowhathasalreadybeensaid.Theyrefertowholesectionsofspokenorwrittentext.referringtospokenorwrittentexts9.19Youcanoftenreferbacktowhathasalreadybeensaidinatextbyusinganounwhichclassesitasatypeofverbalaction,forexampleanadmission,suggestion,orquestion."Martin,whatareyougoingtodo?"—"That"sagoodquestion,Larry.""Youclaimtoknowthisman"sidentity?"—"Ido."—"Youcansubstantiatethisclaim?"385 Thenounthatyouusetoreferbacklikethisnotonlyreferstothetestbutalsoshowsyourfeelingsaboutit.Forexample,ifyoureferbacktosomeone"sreplytosomethingusingthenoun"response",thisshowsthatyourfeelingsaboutitarequiteneutral,whereasifyouusethenoun"retort",thisshowsthatyourfeelingsaboutthereplyaremuchstronger.Hereisalistofnounswhichreferbacktotexts,classingthemastypesofverbalaction:accountaccusationacknowledgementadmissionadviceallegationannouncementanswerapologyappealargumentassertionassuranceboastchargeclaimcommentcomplaintcomplimentconcessioncondemnationconfessioncontentioncorrectioncriticismdeclarationdefencedefinitiondemanddenialdenunciationdescriptiondigressiondisclosurediscussionendorsementexcuseexplanationexpositiongossipinformationjudgementliemessagenarrativeobjectionobservationpleapointpredictionpromisepronouncementprophecyproposalpropositionprotestquestionreferencerefusalremarkreminderreplyreportrequestresponseretortrevelationrumourstatementstipulationstorysuggestionsummarytalethreatverdictwarningNotethatmanyofthesenounsarerelatedtoreportingverbs.ReportingverbsareexplainedinChapter7.Peoplewillfeeltheneedtobeinformedandtheywillgowherevertheycantogetthisinformation."Idon"tknowwhatweshoulddoaboutthat."Thisremarkhadtheeffectoftotallydumbfoundingtheaudience.TheChancellorremarkedthathehadnoinferioritycomplexabouttheSovietUnion.9.20Inthesameway,youcanalsoreferbacktoideasthatyouknoworthinksomeonehasbyusinganounwhichalsoindicatesyourfeelingsabouttheideas.Forexample,ifyourefertosomeone"sideausingthenoun"view",thisshowsthatyourfeelingsaboutitarequiteneutral,whereasifyouusethenoun"delusion",thisshowsthatyourfeelingsarestronger.Theunemploymentintheruralareasisoftenthoughttobedueentirelytopopulationgrowth,andnodoubtthisisanimportantfactor.Butthosewhoholdthisviewstillhavetoexplainwhyadditionalpeoplecannotdoadditionalwork."Thereisnothingtocryfor.Theycannotkeepmethereagainstmywill."Secureinthisbelief,hehuggedherreassuringlyandfollowedtheservantsout.Hereisalistofnounswhichrefertoideasandshowyourfeelingsabouttheideas:analysisassessmentassumptionattitudebeliefconclusionconjectureconceptdeductiondelusiondiagnosisdoctrinedoubtestimateevaluationfearfindingguesshopeideaillusioninferenceinsightinterpretationmisinterpretationnotionopinionpictureplanpositionreasoningsuppositiontheorythinkingviewviewpointvisionwish9.21Youcanalsoreferbacktoactionsandeventsusingnounswhichshowyourfeelingsabout385 theactionorevent.Forexample,ifyouusethenoun"incident"torefertoanaccidentatanuclearpowerstation,thisappearstosimplydescribetheevent,whereasifyouusethenoun"disaster",thisshowsyourreactiontotheevent.TheremightbeanuncomfortablemomentortwowhenGwenlearnedofhisintention,butshewasnotthekindtomakeafuss.Inanyevent,hecouldhandlethesituation,whichwouldnotbeanewone.Ibelievedthepresswouldcooperateonthisissue.Parentsmaycomplainthattheirchildeatsbadlyatmealsbutisalwaysbeggingforfoodbetweenmeals.Thisproblemdoesn"tarisebecausetheparentshavebeenlenientaboutfoodbetweenmeals.HeenteredhisnamefortheBoxingDayrace,whichtoBelinda"sdelighthesubsequentlywon.Sheseemedforsomereasontoregardtheexploitasreflectingcreditonherself.Hereisalistofnounswhichrefertoeventsandareneutral:actactionaffairaspectcasecircumstancescontextdevelopmenteffectepisodeeventexperiencefactfactorfeatureincidentissuemattermethodmovephenomenonpositionpossibilitypracticeprocessreasonrespectresultsituationstatestateofaffairssubjectsystemthingtopicwayHereisalistofnounswhichrefertoeventsandshowyourfeelingsaboutthem:achievementadvantageanswercrisisdifficultydisadvantagedisasterexploitfeatnightmareplightpredicamentproblemsolutiontragedyPRODUCTIVEFEATURE9.22Whenyouarereferringbacktosomethingthathasbeensaidormentioned,youcanusealmostanynounwhichreferstotexts,ideas,events,andsometimeseventopeople.Thenounyouuseallowsyoutoexpressyourexactreactiontothethingwhichisbeingreferredto.Forexample,youcanrefertoafootballdefeatusingnounssuchas"tragedy"or"farce",andyoucanrefertoanargumentusingnounssuchas"wrangle"and"battle".ThisisaproductivefeatureofEnglish.ProductivefeaturesareexplainedintheIntroduction.referringtopiecesofwriting9.23Youcanreferinaneutralwaytoapreviouspieceofwriting.Asexplainedinthepreviousparagraph,thebottleneedsonlytobewashedclean.Wehaveseeninthischapterhowthetaxburdenhasincreasedfastestforhouseholdswithchildren.Hereisalistofnounsusedtorefertoapieceofwriting:chapterexampleexcerptextractinstalmentitemletterparagraphpassagephrasequotationsectionsentencestatementsummarytabletextwordsSubstitutingforsomethingalreadymentioned:using"so"and"not""so"assubstitutecomplement9.24"So"issometimesusedinformalEnglishasasubstituteforacomplementthathasalreadybeenmentionedofimplied.Theyarewildlyinefficientandwillremainsoforsometimetocome.Undauntedbyhisfirstsetbacks,perhapsstubbornlyso,helashedhismechanicstogreaterefforts.ItsimpactwasenormouseverywherebutnowheremoresothanintheSovietUnion."so"and"not"after"if"9.25"So"isusedtosubstituteforaclauseafter"if",whentheactionorsituationyouaretalkingabouthasalreadybeenmentioned.Willthatbeenough?Ifso,donotaskformore."Not"isusedtosubstituteforanegativeclause,toimplytheoppositesituationtotheonealreadymentioned.Youwillprobablyhaveoneofthetwodocumentsmentionedbelow.Ifnot,youwillhavetobuyone."so"and"not"withreportingverbs9.26"So"and"not"arealsousedtosubstituteforclausesaftersomecommonreportingverbs.Theyarealsousedaftertheexpression"I"mafraid",which385 isusedtoreportanunwelcomefact."Areyouallright?"—"Ithinkso."You"reasensiblewoman—I"vealwayssaidso."Youthinkhe"sdead,don"tyou?"—"I"mafraidso,Sally.""Itdoesn"toftenhappen."—"No,Isupposenot.""Youhaven"tlosttheticket,haveyou?"—"Ihopenot."Hereisalistofreportingverbswhichcanbefollowedby"so"and"not":believeexpecthopesaysupposetellthinkNotethattheuseof"not"asasubstitutewith"think","expect",and"believe"israreorformal.Also,"not"isnotusedwith"tell",andwhenitisoccasionallyusedwith"say",thereisamodalinfrontof"say".Occasionally"so"isputatthebeginningoftheclause.Thisoftenhastheeffectofcastingdoubtonthetruthofthefactinvolved.Everybodyintheworld,sotheysay,hasadouble."So"canalsobeusedatthebeginningofaclauseforemphasis.Thisisexplainedinparagraph10.85.9.27"Doso"isusedtomean"performtheactionjustmentioned".Thevariousformsoftheverb"do"canbeused.Thisstructureisratherformal.Asignalwhichshouldhaveturnedtoredfailedtodoso.Mostofthosewhosignedtheletterdidsobecauseofherinvolvement.Sheaskedhimtowaitwhilesheconsidered.Hedidso.Britishgovernmentsareperfectlycapableofimprovingdrinkingwaterquality,andperhapstheyshouldvoluntaryhavedonesobeforenow.Comparingwithsomethingalreadymentioned9.28Theword"such"canbeusedinseveralwaystoprovidecohesion.Youuseitwhenyouwanttoindicatewaystoprovidethatsomethingisofthesamesortassomethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned.Theregrammaticalpatternsof"such"areunique.Itcanbehaveasadeterminer,a,andanadjective.9.29"Such"canbeadeterminerreferringbacktosomethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned.Some60%ofthestate"selectricitycomesfromburningimportedoil,thehighestuseofsuchfuelinthecountry.Newbusinessonasmallscalehasbeenfoundtoprovidethegreatmajorityofnewjobs.Bytheirnaturesuchbusinesstakerisks.9.30"Such"canbeapredeterminer(seeparagraph1.236)referringtosomethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned.Itcomesinfrontofthedeterminer"a"or"an".Theylastedforhundredsofyears.Onahumantimescale,suchaperiodseemsaneternity.Ononeoccasiontheschoolparliamentdiscussedthedismissalofateacher.Butsuchaneventisrare.9.31"Such"canbeanadjectivereferringbacktosomethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned.Tomeetthedemandtherearenowmanynewagenciesprovidingmainlyfemalecookstocaterfortheboardrooms.Onesuchagency,MandN,hasaboutahundredupperclassgirlsonitsbooks.Notonlydidhefailtoadmittheimproprietyofhisbehaviour,heactuallypretendedthathehadhadn"tdoneanysuchthing.MrBell"sclubswereprivatelyowned.Likemostsuchclubseverywhere,theywereorganizationsofcongenialpeoplewhosharedacertaininterest.IhatedthebigformaldancesandfeltveryawkwardandoutofplaceattheoneortwosucheventsIattended.9.32"Such"isalsosometimesusedasaheadwordafter"one"and"many"informalusage.Somanyadvocatesoffreedomhavenotgottheirfeetontheground.OnesuchprotestedtotherecentlybecauseIshoutedsternlyataproblemboyofseven.Itisnotsurprisingthatpeoplearepreparedtoenvisageradicalalternatives.Manysuchhavebeenproposedinthelastfewyears.adjectives9.33Thereareanumberofadjectiveswhichareusedtoindicateacomparison,contrast,orconnectionwithsomethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned."same"9.34Theadjective"same"isusedattributivelytoindicateemphaticallythatyouarereferringbacktosomethingthathasjustbeenmentioned.385 Weacceptthatthoughtisacommonpropertyofthehumanrace.Butwecannotmakethesameassumptionaboutmachines.Thedooropenedandamanpoppedhisheadintotheroomandsaid"Nextplease".Abouttenminuteslater,thesamemanreturned.Hewatchedherclimbintoacompartmentofthetrainandhechosethesameonesoastowatchhermoreclosely.Notethatwhen"same"isusedattributively,itnearlyalwaysfollows"the",butitcanoccasionallyfollowotherspecificdeterminers.Thesesamesmellsmayproducedepressioninothers.9.35"Same"canalsobethecomplementofalinkverbwhenyouwanttoindicatethatsomethingissimilarineverywaytosomethingthathasjustbeenmentioned.When"same"isusedafteralinkverbitalwaysfollows"the".TheQueentreatedusverywell.ThePrincessRoyalwasjustthesame.Mybrothersandmyselfwereverypoor,butsohappy.Ithinkotherfamilieswerethesame.9.36Youcanalsouse"thesame"withoutafollowingnounasthesubjectorobjectofaclause,toreferbacktosomethingthathasjustbeenmentioned.Theconversionprocessisinefficientandabouttwo-thirdsoftheenergyiswasted.Thesameistrueofnuclearpowerstation."I"veneverheardofhim."—"IwishIcouldsaythesame.""Thesamething"canbeusedexactlylike"thesame",asasubjectorobject.Hewasstoppedandsendbacktogetaticket.Onthereturnjourneythesamethinghappened.Ilearnthowtokillpeoplewithmybarehands.AndI"mnotproudofthefactthatItaughtanumberofotherpeopletodothesamething.9.37Theadjectives"opposite"and"reverse"areusedtoindicatethatsomethingisasdifferentaspossiblefromthethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned.Theyusuallyfollow"the".Itwasdesignedtoimpress,butprobablyhadtheopposeeffect.Idon"tdoalotofreadingbutmybrotherisjusttheopposite.InthepasttenyearsIthinkwe"veseenthereverseprocess.Thistimethepositionisthereverse.When"opposite"isusedattributively,itoccasionallyfollows"an".Othersofthesameperiodtookanoppositeview.Youcansometimesuse"theopposite"and"thereverse"withoutafollowingnountoreferbacktosomething.Ionceheardapolicecommissionersaythatwewouldhavetolearntolivewithcrime.Theoppositeistrue;wehavetolearnnottolivewithcrime.Hehasanexcellentrecordofsayingonethinganddoingtheopposite.Wehavegainedbetterhealthbyexchangingfatformoreefficientmuscles.Thereverseisalsotrue.Ithasn"thappened.Thereversehashappened.9.38Youcanalsouseavarietyofotheradjectivestoindicatethatsomethingissimilarto,differentfrom,orconnectedwithsomethingthathasalreadybeenmentioned.Someoftheseadjectivesareonlyusedattributivelyandotherscanalsobecomplementsofalinkverb.It"sreallyfabulous.Doyouthinkthatthereareanyothercomparabletombsleftatall?Sheworeareddresswitharedmatchingstrawhat.WestGermany,DenmarkandItalyfacedeclinesinyoungpeople.Irelandisconfrontedwithacontrastingproblem.That"swhatIwouldsay.Buthisattitudewasdifferentaltogether.Hereisalistofadjectiveswhichcanonlybeusedattributivelytoreferback:adjacentconflictingcontradictorycontrarycontrastingcorrespondingequalequivalentmatchingopposingparallelHereisalistofadjectiveswhichcanbeusedbothattributivelyandascomplementstoreferback:analogouscomparablecompatibledifferentidenticalrelatedseparatesimilarunrelated9.39Toindicatethatanactionorawayofdoingsomethingissimilartotheonejustmentioned,youcanusetheadjuncts"inthesameway","inasimilarway","similarly",or385 "likewise".ShespokeofJimandKarltolerantlybutwithfrownsandsighs.Andpresumablyshespoketothemofmeinthesameway.Asthechildrensurgedsilentlyaroundthem,thesoldiersglancedalongthelinetoseetheircolleaguessimilarlysurrounded.9.40Toindicatethatanactionorawayofdoingsomethingisdifferentfromtheonejustdescribed,youcanusetheadjuncts"otherwise"and"differently".Ithoughtlifewassimplysplendid,Ihadnoreasontothinkotherwise.Shehadbeenashamedofheractionsbutshehadbeentotallyincapableofdoingotherwise.TheBritishhavebeenslowoffthemark.TheydothingsdifferentlyinAmerica.Referringforward9.41Therearevariouswaysofreferringforwardtothingsthatareabouttobementioned.Thesewaysofteninvolvethenounslistedinparagraphs9.18to9.23whicharemorecommonlyusedwhenyouarereferringbacktosomething."this"and"these"9.42Theuseof"this"toreferbacktosomethingwasexplainedinparagraphs9.7to9.10.Youcanalsouse"this"or"these"toreferforwardtowhatyouareabouttosay.Theycanbebothpronounsanddeterminers.Notethat"these"canonlybeapronounwhenitisthesubject.Well,youmightnotbelievethisbutIdon"tdrinkverymuch.PerhapsIshouldn"tconfessthis,butIdidononeoccasionbreakthelaw.Thischapterwillfollowthesamepatternasthepreviousone.Thesewerethefacts:onawarmFebruaryafternoon,GregoryClarkandafriendwerecruisingdownWashingtonBoulevardinaMustang.Ontheblackboardthesewordswerewritten:Reading.Writing.Arithmetic.9.43When"this"andthese"areusedasdeterminerstoreferforwardtosomething,theyaremostcommonlyusedwithnounswhichrefertoapieceofwriting(seeparagraph9.23).Sometimestheyareusedwithnounswhichrefertowhatissaid(seeparagraph9.19)andwithnounswhichrefertoideas(seeparagraph9.20).Theyoccasionallyoccurwithnounswhichrefertoactionsorevents(seeparagraph9.21)."following"9.44Youcanalsorefertowhatyouareabouttomentionusingtheadjective"following"attributively.When"following"isusedlikethis,itisusedwithnounswhichrefertotexts,ideas,andpiecesofwriting(seeparagraphs9.19,9.20,and9.23.).Veryoccasionally,itisusedwithnounswhichrefertoactionsandevents(seeparagraph9.21).Afterawhilehereceivedthefollowingletter:"DearSir,TheUndersecretaryofStateregretsthatheisunabletoreconsideryourcase."Thefollowingaccountisbasedonnotesandjottingsfromthatperiod.Idrawthefollowingconclusions:thatnaturalchildbirthandrooming-inshouldbeavailableforallwhowantthem.Youcanalsousedthe"following"withoutanoongroupafterit....aboxcontainingthefollowing:apacketoftissues,twosmallsponger,twooldhandkerchiefs,andaclothesbrush."next"9.45Theadjective"next"canbeusedtoreferforwardwithnounswhichrefertopiecesofwriting.Inthenextchapter,wewillexaminethistheoryindetail."below"9.46Youcanalsouse"below"toreferforwardtosomethingyouareabouttomention.Youuse"below"likethisafternounswhichrefertotextsandpiecesofwriting(seeparagraphs9.19and9.23)....thecomingtogetheroftheJapaneseandChineseeconomicmiracles(seetheEx-secretary"sReportbelow).Theoverlapcanbeseeninthetablebelow."Below"canoccasionallybeusedtoreferforwardwithnounswhichrefertoactionsandthings.Whenitisusedwiththem,itisusedinpastparticipleclauses.ThereportgivenbelowappearedintheDailyMailon8August1985.9.47"Such"canbeasapredeterminertorefertoakindofthingthatisspecifiedimmediatelyafterwardsinaphraseorclausebeginningwith"as".Ithoughthehadinvitedyouforjustsuchapurposeasthis."Such"isalsosometimesusedtoqualifyanoun,followedbyaspecifyingphraseorclausebeginningwith"as".385 ...ageneralprolongedriseinpricessuchasoccurredinthelate1960s.ThentryredistributingtheitemsunderheadingssuchasI"vesuggested.9.48Therearealsootherwaysofreferringforwardtothingswhichalsoinvolvefocusingonthethingreferredto.Theseinvolvecleftclauses,whichareexplainedinparagraphs10.28to10.30andsentencesbeginningwith"there",whichareexplainedinparagraphs10.46to10.55.Leavingoutwords:ellipsis9.49InEnglishpeopleoftenomitwordsratherthenrepeatingthem.Thisiscalledellipsis.Somekindsofellipsisonlyoccurincoordinateclausesandcoordinatedgroupsofwords.Theseareexplainedinparagraphs8.140.to8.164.Thissectiondealswithellipsisthatoccursinsubordinateclausesandseparatesentencesaswellasincoordinateclauses.Thesecondclauseorsentencecouldbesaidorwrittenbythesameperson,oritcouldbepartofareplyorcommentbysomeoneelse.Theuseofellipsisinconversationisexplainedinparagraphs9.63to9.69.9.50Ifyouhavejustdescribedanactionorstateandyouwanttointroduceanewsubjectonly,youdonotneedtorepeattherestofthesentence.Instead,youcanusejustanauxiliary.Therewerenineteen-andtwenty-year-oldsonthepaperwhowereearningthanIwas.Theycandistinguishfinerdetailthanwecan.9.51Ifyouonlywanttochangetheverbtenseormodality,youuseanewauxiliary,withasubjectreferringtothesamepersonorthing.Theywouldstopitiftheycould.HowdoestheDepartmentoftheEnvironmentensure,asitsaysitmust,thatthequalityoftheoperationremainshigh?Veryfewofushavethattremendousenthusiasm,althoughweknowweoughtto.IneverdidgotoStratford,althoughIprobablyshouldhave....atopicwhichshouldhaveattractedfarmoreattentionfromphilosophersthanithas.9.52Ifyouchoosenootherauxiliaryverb,youmustusuallyuse"do","does",or"did".Dofarmersstillwarrantaministryalltothemselves?Ithinktheydo.Ithinkwewantitmorethantheydo."be"asamainverb9.53However,thelinkverb"be"isrepeated,inanappropriateform.Forexample,"Iwasscaredandthechildrenweretoo".Ithinkyou"reright."—"I"msureIam."Ifthesecondverbgroupcontainsamodal,youusuallyput"be"afterthemodal."Bitofanunfairquestiontoaskme,becauseI"mbiased."—"Thoughtyoumightbe.""Hethoughtthatitwashereditaryinhiscase."—"Well,itmightbe."However,thisisnotnecessaryifthefirstverbgroupalsocontainsamodal.I"llbebackassoonasIcan."Be"issometimesusedafteramodalinthesecondclausetocontrastwithanotherlinkverbsuchas"seem","look",or"sound"."Itlooksliketeatome."—"Yes,itcouldbe.""have"asamainverb9.54Ifthefirstverbisthemainverb"have",aformof"have"issometimesusedinsteadofaformof"do".Sheprobablyhasatemperature—shecertainlylooksasifshehas.ellipsiswith"not"9.55Youcanmakethesecondverbgroupnegativebyadding"not"totheauxiliary.Thesecombinationsarecontractedininformalspeechandwritingto"don"t","hasn"t","isn"t","mustn"t",andsoon(seeparagraph4.55foralistofthesecontractions).Youusethesameformsforanegativeresponsetoaquestion.Somemanagedtovotebutmostofthemdidn"t."You"restayinghere!"—"ButGertrude,Ican"t,Imustn"t!""Anddiditwork?"—"No,I"mafraiditdidn"t."Widowsreceivestatebenefit:widowersdonot.Hecouldhavelistenedtotheradio.Hedidnot.USAGENOTE9.56Withpassives,"be"isoften,butnotalways,keptafteramodal.Hearguedthatiftissuescouldbemarketed,thenanythingcouldbe.However,withperfectpassives,youcanjustusetheauxiliary"have"or"has".Forexample,youcouldsay,"Haveyoubeeninterviewedyet?Ihave".Notethatwhenamodalwith"have"isusedforapassiveorcontinuousverbgroup,"been"cannotbeomitted.385 I"msureitwasrepeatedinthemedia.Itmusthavebeen.Prillernoticedthattheywerenotflyingintightformationastheyshouldhavebeen.9.57Ifthesecondverbgroupcontainstheauxiliary"have"inanyform,youcanadd"done"tothegroup.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Hesayshedidn"tseeitbuthemusthave",youcansay"Hesayshedidn"tseeitbuthemusthavedone".WhenthesequestionsaresatisfactorilyansweredImightperhapsviewtheirinfantilebehaviourmorecharitablythanIhavedonetodate.Itwouldhavebeennicetohavewon,andImighthavedoneifmyconcentrationhadn"tlapsed.Similarly,youcanuse"do"aftermodals.Itmakesaclicklikethelidofatinmaydo.Notethatwhentheverbusedinthefirstmentionofanactionorstateisthemainverb"have",insteadofusing"do"afteramodalinthesecondmention,youoftenuse"have"instead."DoyouthinkthatacademicshaveanappreciationoftheadministrativedifficultiesofrunningaUniversity?"—"No,andIdon"tthinktheyshouldhave."9.58Usuallyellipsisoccursinaclausewhichcomesafteraclauseinwhichtheactionorstatehasbeenmentionedwithamainverb.Occasionally,however,foradeliberateeffect,theclausecontainingtheellipsiscomesbeforetheclauseexplicitlymentioningtheactionorstate.If,astheyshouldbe,directorsarethemselvesscholars,theywiltappreciatethelanguagethatscholarsuse.9.59Ifyouwanttobeemphatic,yourepeatthemainverb,insteadofusingellipsis.Itwasthelargestswarmoflocuststhathadeverbeenseenorthateverwouldbeseen.9.60Notethatifyouwanttocontrasttwodifferentthingsaffectedbyanaction,ortwodifferentfactorsorcircumstances,youcanputanewobjectoradjunctinthesecondclause,withanauxiliaryorformof"be".Cooknettlesexactlyasyouwouldspinach.Youdon"tgetasmuchbickeringonafarmasyoudoinmostjobs.PeoplearenotnearlysokeenontheexhibitingsideofthingsinSuffolkastheyareinYorkshire.Noonelikedbeingyoungthenastheydonow.However,themainverbissometimesrepeated.Can"tyouatleasttreatmethewayyoutreatregularclients?9.61Youcanomitaverbafterthesemi-modals"dare"and"need",butonlywhentheyareusedinthenegative."Idon"tmindtellingyouwhatIknow."—"Youneedn"t.I"mnotaskingyouforit.""Youmusttellherthetruth."—"But,Neill,Idaren"t."Similarly,theverbisonlyomittedafterthemodalexpressions"hadrather"and"wouldrather"whentheyareusedinthenegative.However,theverbissometimesomittedafter"hadbetter"evenwhenitisusedaffirmatively."Willshebehappythere?"—"She"dbetter."It"sjustthatI"drathernot.9.62Ellipsisalsooccurswith"to"-infinitiveclauses.Insteadofusingafull"to"-infinitiveclauseafteraverb,youcanjustuse"to",iftheactionorstatehasalreadybeenmentioned.Don"ttellsheifyoudon"twantto.AtlastheagreedtodowhatIaskedhimto.Youcanalsodothisinconversation."Doyouevervisitadoctor?"Iaskedher.—"No.Wecan"taffordto."Notethattherearesomeverbs,suchas"try"and"ask",whicharealsooftenusedontheirown,without"to".Theycouldn"thelpeachother,anditwasridiculoustotry.Somewaterboardswillreplacewashersfreeofcharge,ifyouask.Ellipsisinconversation9.63Ellipsisoftenoccursinconversationinrepliesandquestions.Whenellipsisoccurslikethis,itcaninvolveellipsisofthemainverbinthewaysthathavebeenexplainedabove(seeparagraphs9.49to9.62).Thisiscommonwithquestionswhichshowthatyoufindwhatsomeonehassaidinterestingorsurprising,orthatyoudonotagreewiththem.Thesequestionsalwayshaveapronounastheirsubject."Hegetsfreemeals."—"Doeshe?"385 "They"restartingupanewartscentrethere."—"Arethey?""I"vecheckedeveryone."—"Haveyounow?"ellipsisinquestions9.64Youcanoftenuseellipsisinquestionswhenthecontextmakesitclearwhatismeant.Thequestioncanconsistofjusta"wh"-word."There"ssomeonecoming."—"Who?"—"Idon"tknow.It"stoodarkandthere"ssnowfalling.""ButI"mafraidthere"smore."—"What?""CanIspeaktoyou?"Iasked,undaunted.—"Why?"—"It"simportant.""It"sopeningonthe31stofthismonth."—"Where?"—"AttheRailwayHotel."Notethatyoucanalsouse"whynot"."Maria!Wewon"tdiscussthathere."—"Whynot?"Notealsothatyoucanusea"wh"-wordafterareportingverb,especially"why".Iaskedwhy.Theyenquiredhow.9.65Otherquestionscanalsoconsistofonlyaveryfewwordswhenthecontextmakesitclearwhatismeant.Shortquestionsofthiskindareoftenusedtoexpresssurpriseortooffersomethingtosomeone."CouldyoupleasecometoIra"srightawayandhelpmeout?"—"Now?Tonight?"—"It"sincrediblyimportant.""Doesshedrink?Heavily,Imean."—"Drink?No,shenevertouchesthestuff.""He"sgoingtodie,yousee."—"Die?""Cupofcoffee?"Lionelasked,kindly.Hedrankthewaterandhandedmetheglass."More?""No,that"sjustfine,thankyou."ellipsisinreplies9.66Whenyoureplyto"wh"-questions,youcanoftenuseonewordoragroupofwordsratherthanafullsentence.Youdothistoavoidrepeatingwordsusedinthequestion.Forexample,ifsomeoneasks"Whatisyourfavouritecolour?",thenormalreplyisasingleword,forexample"Blue",ratherthanasentencesuchas"Myfavouritecolourisblue"."What"syourname?"—"Pete.""Howdoyoufeel?"—"Strange.""Wheredoyoucomefrom?"—"Cardiff.""Wherearewegoing?"—"Upthecoast.""Howlonghaveyoubeenoutofthiscountry?"—"Aboutthreemonths.""Howmuchmoneyisthereinthatcase?"—"Sixhundredpounds.""Whyshouldtheywantmetoknow?"—"Toscareyou,perhaps.Whocantell?""Wh"-questionsareexplainedinparagraphs4.17to4.30.9.67Youcanoftenuseasentenceadjunctoranadverbofdegreeratherthanasentenceinanswertoa"yes/no"-question."DoyouthinkyoucouldkeepyourmouthshutifIwastotellyousomething?"—"Definitely.""Doyouthinkthey"reveryimportant?"—"Maybe.""Doyouenjoylifeattheuniversity?"—"Ohyes,verymuch.""Areyouinterested?"—"Very.""Areyouready,Matthew?"—"Notquite.""Isshesick?"—"Notexactly.""Yes/no"-questionsareexplainedinparagraphs4.12to4.16.SentenceadjunctsarelistedinChapter10(10.57to10.72).AdverbsofdegreearelistedinChapter2(2.145to2.173)andChapter6(6.45to6.52).9.68Youoftenuseellipsiswhenyouwanttoshowthatyouagreewithsomethingthathasjustbeensaid,ortosaythatftalsoappliestosomeoneorsomethingelse.Onewayofdoingthisisbyusing"too"afteranauxiliaryorformof"be"."Ilikebakedbeans."—"Yes,Idotoo.""I"vealreadytalkedtoSantos."—"Ididtoo."Theotherwayofdoingthisistouse"so"followedbytheauxiliaryorformof"be",followedbythesubject."Ifindthatamazing."—"SodoI."Notethatyoucanalsouseellipsislikethiswithinasentencetoindicatethatsomeoneorsomethingisthesame.HedoeshalfthecookingandsodoI.9.69Youcanalsouseellipsiswhenyouwanttoshowthatyouagreewithsomethingnegativethathasjustbeensaid,ortosaythatitalsoappliestosomeoneorsomethingelse.Onewayofdoingthisisbyusinganauxiliaryorformof"be"followedby"not"and"either".385 "Idon"tknow."—"Idon"teither.""Ican"tseehowshethinksit"stobedone."—"Ican"teither."Theotherwayistouse"nor"or"neither"followedbyanauxiliaryorformof"be",followedbythesubject."Idon"tlikehim."—"NordoI.""Thedemandswillnotdisappear."—"Norshouldthey.""I"mnotjoking,Philip."—"NeitheramI."Notethatyoucanalsouseellipsisinthesewayswithinasentence.Idon"tknowwhatyou"retalkingabout,MissHaynes,andI"mprettysureyoudon"teither.Iwillneverknowallthatwasinhisheadatthetime,norwillanyoneelse.Ican"tdoanythingaboutthisendneithercanyou.ContentsofChapter10page10.1-7Introduction29310.8-24Focusingonthethingaffected:thepassivevoice29410.25-30Selectingfocus:cleftsentences29810.31-45Takingthefocusoffthesubject:usingimpersonal"it"29910.34-35Describingaplaceorsituation30010.36-38Talkingabouttheweatherandthetime30010.39-41Commentingonanaction,activity,orexperience30110.42-45Commentingonafactthatyouareabouttomention30210.46-55Introducingsomethingnew:"there"assubject30310.56-91Focusingonclausesorclauseelementsusingadjuncts30410.56Commentingonyourstatement:sentenceadjuncts30410.57-67Indicatingyourattitudetowhatyouaresaying30410.68-72Statingyourfieldofreference30610.73-81Showingconnections:linkingadjuncts30710.82-84Indicatingachangeinaconversation30910.85-86Emphasizing31010.87-91Indicatingthemostrelevantthing:focusingadverbs31010.92-119Otherinformationstructures31210.92-95Puttingsomethingfirst:fronting31210.96-101Introducingyourstatement:prefacingstructures31210.102-105Doingbysaying:performativeverbs31310.106-109Exclamations31410.110-114Makingastatementintoaquestion:questiontags31510.115-119Addressingpeople:vocatives31610ThestructureofinformationIntroduction10.1Thepositionoftheelementsofclausestructureinastatementusuallyfollowsthesequence"subject,verb,object,complement,adjunct".Thesubjectwhichiswhatyouaregoingtotalkabout,comesfirst.Ifyouwanttoexpressyourselfnormallyandnotdrawspecialattentiontoanypartoftheclause,thenyoufollowthissequence.Donaldwaslyingonthebed.Shehasbroughtthetapewithher.Hewipedtheglassdrywithatea-towel.Theexamplesaboveareinthedeclarativemood.Chapter4explainsthemoodsysteminEnglishandshowshowothermeaningscanbeexpressedusingtheinterrogativeandimperativemoods.Theseothermoodsinvolveregularchangesinthesequenceofelementsintheclause.Isheill?Putitonthetable.10.2However,thereareotherwaysofputtingtheelementsofclausestructureinadifferentsequence,inordertogivespecialemphasisormeaningtotheclauseorapartofit.Inhisenthusiasm,CaptainCheshirehadhopedtoraisethemoneythisyear.Thethirdsheethefoldedandplacedinhispocket.Thisappliesmainlytomainclauses.ThisChaptershowshowyoucanvarytheclauseelements385 inamainclausewhenyouwanttogivespecialforcetothewholeclauseortooneofitselements.Inmostsubordinateclauses,youhavenochoiceabouttheorderoftheclauseelements(seeChapter8).10.3Onewayofvaryingthesequenceofelementsintheclauseistousethepassivevoice.Thepassivevoiceallowsyoutotalkaboutaneventfromthepointofviewofthethingorpersonaffected,andeventoavoidmentioningwhoorwhatwasresponsiblefortheaction.BettyWilliamsandMaireadCorriganwereawardedtheNobelPeacePrize.Thepassiveisexplainedinparagraphs10.8to10.24.cleftstructures10.4Anotherwayofvaryingthesequenceofelementsintheclauseistouseacleftstructures.Therearethreedifferenttypes.Onetypeallowsyoutofocusonthepersonorthingyouaretalkingabout,asin"ItwasJasonwhotoldthem".Thesecondtypeallowsyoutofocusonanaction,asin"Whattheydidwasbreakawindowandgetinthatway"or"AllIcoulddowascry".Thethirdtypeallowsyoutofocusonthecircumstancesofanaction,forexamplethetimeortheplace,asin"Itwasoneo"clockwhentheyleft",or"ItwasinParisthattheymetforthefirsttime".impersonal"it"10.5Whenyouwanttosaysomethingaboutafact,anaction,oraparticularstate,youcanuseastructurebeginningwith"it",forexample"It"sstrangethathedidn"tcall","It"seasytolaugh",and"It"snofunbeingstupid".Youalsousean"it"structuretotalkabouttheweatherorthetime,forexample"It"sraining","It"saniceday",and"It"stwoo"clock"."It"structuresaredealtwithinthesectionbeginningatparagraph10.31."there"with"be"10.6"There"isusedfollowedby"be"andanoungrouptointroducetheideaoftheexistenceofpresenceofsomething.Thismakesthenoungroup,whichisnewinformation,thefocusoftheclause.Formoreinformation,seeparagraphs10.46to10.55.Thereissomeoneinthebushes.adjuncts10.7Therearealsoseveraltypesofadjunctwhichyoucanusetofocusonaclauseasawhole,orondifferentelementsoftheclause.Theseincludesentenceadjuncts(seethesectionbeginningatparagraph10.56),linkingadjuncts(seeparagraphs10.73to10.81),andfocusingadverbs(seeparagraphs10.87to10.91).Heneverwrites,ofcourse.Thiscanbedonereasonablyeasily.Still,it"snotaniceidea.Asachildshewasparticularlyclosetohereldersister.Focusingonthethingaffected:thepassivevoice10.8Manyactionsinvolvetwopeopleorthings-onethatperformstheactionandonethatisaffectedbytheaction.Theseactionsaretypicallyreferredtousingtransitiveverbs.TransitiveverbsareexplainedfullyinChapter3.InEnglishthepersonorthingyouwanttotalkaboutisusuallyputfirstassubjectoftheclause.So,whenyouwanttotalkaboutsomeoneorsomethingthatistheperformerofanaction(theagent),youmakethemthesubjectoftheverbandyouuseanactiveformoftheverb.Theotherpersonorthingismadetheobjectoftheverb.However,youmaywanttofocusonthepersonorthingaffectedbyanaction,whichwouldbetheobjectofanactiveformoftheverb.Inthatcase,youmakethatpersonorthingthesubjectofapassiveformoftheverb.Forexample,youcouldreportthesameeventbyusinganactiveformofaverb,asin"Thedog"seatenourdinner"orbyusingapassiveformofaverb,asin"Ourdinner"sbeeneatenbythedog",dependingonwhetheryouwantedtotalkaboutthedogoryourdinner.Clauseswhichcontainanactiveformofaverbareintheactivevoiceandclauseswithapassiveformofaverbareinthepassivevoice.10.9Passiveformsconsistofanappropriatetenseof"be"followedbythepastparticipleoftheverb.Forexample,thepassiveformofthesimplepresentof"eat"isthesimplepresentof"be"followedby"eaten":"Itiseaten".Sheescapeduninjuredbutherboyfriendwasshotinthechestanddied.Hewasbeingtreatedforastomachulcer.Hethinkssucheventscouldhavebeenavoided.Fordetailsofpassiveformsofverbs,seetheReferenceSection.385 10.10Usingapassiveformofaverbgivesyoutheoptionofnotmentioningthepersonorthingresponsiblefortheaction,oftencalledtheagentoftheaction.Youmaywanttodothisforoneofthesereasons:•becauseyoudonotknowwhoorwhattheagentisHe"salmostcertainlybeenmurdered.Thefencebetweenthetwopropertieshadbeenremoved.•becauseitisnotimportantwhoorwhattheagentisIhadbeentoldthatitwouldbeperfectlyquiet.Suchitemsshouldbecarefullypackedinteachests.•becauseitisobviouswhoorwhattheagentisShefoundthatshewasn"tbeingpaidthesamewageashim.MorepeoplehavebeentreatedinhospitalthisyearthanatanytimesincethestartoftheHealthService.•becausetheagentwasalreadybeenmentionedHispicturesofdogswereexecutedwithtremendoushumour.Thegovernmentrespondedquickly,andnewmeasureswerepassedwhichstrengthenedtheirpowers.•becausepeopleingeneralaretheagentsBothofthesebookscanbeobtainedfromthepubliclibrary.Itisverystrangeandhasneverbeenadequatelyexplained.•becauseyouwishtoconcealtheagent"sidentityortodistanceyourselffromyourownactionTheoriginalhasbeendestroyed.Shehadbeengiveninstructionstomoderatehertone.Thegovernmentwasforcedtosaythatthereportwouldbeimplemented.10.11Inaccountsofprocessesandscientificexperiments,thepassiveisusedandnoagentismentionedbecausethefocusisonwhathappensandnotonwhoorwhatmakesithappen.Theprincipleofbottlingisverysimple.Foodisputinjars,thejarsandtheircontentsareheatedtoatemperaturewhichismaintainedlongenoughtoensurethatallbacteria,mouldsandvirusesaredestroyed.10.12Thepassiveformofreportingverbsisoftenusedinanimpersonal"it"structure,whenitisclearwhosewordsorthoughtsyouaregivingorwhenyouaregivingthewordsorthoughtsofpeopleingeneral.See10.45inthesectiononimpersonal"it"structures.Itwasagreedthathewouldcomeandseeusagainthenextday.Itwasrumouredthathehadbeensentencedtolifeimprisonment,buthadescaped.USACENOTE10.13Whenpeopleingeneralaretheagents,anactiveformoftheverbissometimesusedinstead,with"you"or"they"asthesubject."One"isusedasthesubjectinthiskindofclauseinformalspeechandwriting.Youcan"tbuyironnow,onlysteel.Theysayshe"sverybright.Itisamatterofpersonalbelief,likethecolourofsocksonepreferstowearorthetelevisionprogrammesonechoosestowatch.Formoreinformation,seethesectiononpersonalpronounsbeginningatparagraph1.96.Youcanalsousetheindefinitepronouns"someone"or"something".Thisallowsyoutomentionanagent,withoutspecifyingwhoorwhattheyare.Formoreinformationaboutindefinitepronouns,seeparagraphs1.127to1.140.Ithinksomeone"scallingyou.Somethinghasupsethim.Ergativeverbscanalsoenableyoutoavoidmentioningtheperformerofanaction.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Sheopenedthedoor",youcansay"Thedooropened".Seethesectiononergativeverbsinparagraphs3.60to3.68.mentioningtheagentwith"by"10.14Whenyouusethepassive,youcanofcoursementiontheagentattheendoftheclausebyusing"by".Butthisputsemphasisontheagent,becausetheendoftheclauseisanimportantposition,andsoyouoftendothiswhenyouwanttoreferbacktotheagentinthenextclause.Hisbestfriendwaskilledbyagrenade,whichexplodedunderhiscar.Thedefendingchampion,JohnPritchard,wasbeatenbyChrisBoardman.Thisviewwasbeenchallengedbyanumberofworkers.mentioningthingsormethodsused10.15Aswithactiveformsofverbs,youcanmentionsomethingthattheagentusedtoperformtheactionafterthepreposition"with".385 Acirclewasdrawninthedirtwithastick.Moisturemustbedrawnoutfirstwithsalt.Youcanmentionthemethodusingan"-ing"formafter"by".Muchoftheirstrongtastecanberemovedbychangingthecookingwater.passiveofverbsreferringtostates10.16Afewtransitiveverbsrefertostatesratherthanactions.Whensomeoftheseverbsareusedinthepassive,theagentisputafterthepreposition"with".Theroomwasfilledwithpleasantfurniture.Therailingsweredecoratedwiththousandsofbouquets.Hereisalistoftransitiveverbsreferringtostateswhichareusedwith"with"inthepassive:cramcrowddecoratefillornamentthrongHowever,"by"isusedwithsomeverbswhichdescribeastate.TheMelbournemeetingislikelytobeovershadowedbytheimplicationsoftherecentOttawaeconomicsummit.Hereisalistoftransitiveverbsreferringtostateswhichareusedwith"by"inthepassive:concealexceedilluminateinhabitoccupyovershadowSomeverbs,suchas"adorn"and"surround"canbeusedwith"with"or"by"afterthem.Herrighthandwascoveredwithblood.OneentirewallwascoveredbyagiganticchartoftheEnglishChannel.Thehousewassurroundedwithtanksandpolicemenwithdog.Thebuildingwassurroundedbyadeepgreenlawn.Hereisalistoftransitiveverbswhichcanbeusedwitheither"with"or"by"inthepassive:adornbesiegecoverencircleoverrunsurroundTherearealsoseveralverbswhichareusedwith"in".DouglasHamilton"srecommendationsarecontainedinthereportofasurveyofAfricanelephantscarriedoutunderhisdirection.Freetransportwasnotincludedinthecontract.Thewallsofherflatarecoveredindirt.Hereisalistoftransitiveverbswhichcanbeusedwith"in"inthepassive:containcoverincludeinvolvesubsumeNotethat"cover"canbeusedwith"in","by"or"with".10.17Phrasalverbswhichconsistofatransitiveverbfollowedbyanadverborpreposition,orbyanadverbandapreposition,canbeusedinthepassive.Listsofphrasalverbsaregiveninparagraphs3.84to3.117.Twototallyopposingviewshavebeenputforwardtoexplainthisphenomenon.Millionsoftonsofgoodeartharebeingwashedawayeachyear.IwastalkedintomeetingNormanGranzataposhLondonrestaurant.Suchexpectationsaredrummedintoeverygrowingchild.10.18Becauseoftheirmeaning,sometransitiveverbsareusuallyusedinthepassive.Theagentoftheactionisusuallythoughttobenotworthmentioningorisnotknown.Hewasdeemedtobetheguardianofthechild.ThemeetingisscheduledforFebruary14.Drunkenairmenwereallegedtohaverampagedthroughthehotel.Thefollowingtransitiveverbsareusuallyusedinthepassive:beacclaimedbeallegedbeannihilatedbebaffledbebornbecompressedbeconditionedbeconstruedbecouchedbecrematedbedazedbedisconcertedbedubbedbedwarfedbeearmarkedbeempoweredbefinedbeguttedbeheadedbehorrifiedbehospitalizedbeindictedbemisdirectedbeovercomebeparalysedbepenalizedbeperpetratedbepilloriedbepopulatedbeprizedbepunctuatedberationedbereconciledbescheduledbeshippedbeshipwreckedbeshort-listedbeshroudedbestaffedbestrandedbestrewnbesubsumedbesuspendedbeswamped385 bedeafenedbedebasedbedeemedbeinundatedbejailedbemesmerizedbereprievedbereunitedberumouredbewoundedThefollowingphrasalverbsareusuallyusedinthepassive:bebowledoverbecaughtupbehandeddownbepensionedoffbeploughedupberainedoffbescaleddownbestruckoffbesworninbetakenabackbewrittenintoTheywerebowledoverbythenumberofvisitorswhocametotheshow.Thejournalistsweretakenabackbytheferocityofthelanguage.verbsrarelyusedinthepassive10.19Afewtransitiveverbsbecausethethingaffectedbytheactiontheydescribeisrarelythethingyouareinterestedin.Thefollowingarerarelyusedinthepassive:eludeescapefleegethaveletlikeraceresemblesuitsurviveThefollowingphrasalverbscontainingatransitiveverbarerarelyusedinthepassive:bandtogetherbitebackboomoutbrushupcalldownoncastbackchuckincryouteaseoffekeoutflickovergetbackgetdowngiveoverhaveonhaveoutheaveuphuntupjabatjackinjerkoutletthroughpaceoutphonebackringbackringoutsitoutsoboutstandofftideoverwaitoutwalkoffwhileawayditransitiveverbs10.20Inthecaseofditransitiveverbssuchas"give","teach",and"show",whichcanhaveanindirectobjectaswellasadirectobjectinanactiveclause,eitherobjectcanbethesubjectofapassiveclause.Forexample,insteadof"Hegavethereceptionistthekey",youcansay"Thereceptionistwasgiventhekey",wheretheindirectobjectoftheactiveclauseisthesubjectofthepassiveclause.Notethatthedirectobjectisstillmentionedaftertheverb.Theyweregivenapintofwatereveryday.Shehadbeentaughtlogicbyanuncle.Butyoucanalsosay"Thekeywasgiventothereceptionist",wherethedirectobjectoftheactiveclauseisthesubjectofthepassiveclause.Theindirectobjectcanbementionedafter"to"or"for".Thebuildinghadbeengiventothetowninthelate1920sbyaninvestmentbanker.Shelterhadbeenfoundformostofthosestillwanderingthestreets.Sometimesitisunnecessarytomentiontheindirectobjectatall.Thevaccinecanbegivenatthesametimeasinjectionsagainstdiphtheriaandtetanus.Interestischargedat2percentamonth.Forlistsofditransitiveverbs,seeparagraphs3.74to3.83.10.21Thereisagroupoftransitiveverbswhichcanhaveacomplementaftertheirobject.Theyarelistedanddescribedinparagraphs3.162to3.172.Whentheseverbsareusedinthepassive,thecomplementisputdirectlyaftertheverb.InAugusthewaselectedVicePresidentoftheSenate.Ifapersontodaytalksaboutghosts,heisconsideredignorantornutty.10.22Reflexiveverbs,whoseobjectisareflexivepronounreferringtothesubjectoftheverb,arenotusedinthepassive.Formoreinformationonreflexiveverbs,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph3.27.10.23Manyintransitivephrasalverbscanbeusedinthepassive.Theverbsarefollowedbyaprepositionandanoungroupreferringtothethingaffectedbytheactiontheverbdescribes.Theobjectoftheprepositioncanbemadethesubjectofthepassiveformoftheverb.Theprepositionremainsaftertheverb,withnoobjectafterit.Insomehouseholds,themanwasreferredtoas"themaster".Twopeopleattheheadofthelinewerebeingdealtwithbyacoupleofclerks.Theperformancehadbeenpaidforbyalocalculturalsociety.Sandersaskedifsuchmencouldbereliedontokeeptheirmouthsshut.Thefollowingisalistofintransitivephrasalverbswhicharequiteoftenusedinthepassive:accedetoaccountfordealwithdecideonjumponkeeptopickonplanforseetoseizeon385 actonadheretoaimatallowforalludetoapproveofaskforaspiretoattendtobargainforbiteintobreakintobudgetforbuildoncallforcalloncareforcaterforcountondespairofdictatetodispensewithdisposeofenterintofrownuponfussovergetatgetroundglossoverguessathearofhintathopeforimposeonimproveonindulgeininquireintoinsistonlaughatleanonleaponlightuponlistentolongforlookafterlookatlookintolookthroughlooktomeddlewithministertomournforobjecttooperateonpandertopaperoverpayforplanonplaywithplotagainstpointtoporeoverpounceonpresideoverprevailonpreyonprovideforputuponpuzzleoverreasonwithrefertorelyonremarkonresorttorushintoseethroughsendforsetonsettleonshootatskateoverstamponstareatsubscribetotalkabouttalktotamperwithtinkerwithtouchontrampleontriflewithwaitonwatchoverwonderatworkonAfewphrasalverbswhichconsistofanintransitiveverb,anadverb,andaprepositionareusedinthepassive.Thefarmlabourerusedtobelookeddownon.Iwasafraidofbeingdoneawaywith.Thefollowinglistcontainsthree-wordphrasalverbsusedinthepassive:doawaywithliveuptotookdownontookforwardtolookoutforlookuptoplayaroundwithtalkdowntoUSAGENOTE10.24NotethatininformalEnglish,"get"issometimesusedinsteadof"be"toformthepassive.Theagentisnotusuallymentioned.Ourcargetscleanedaboutonceeverytwomonths.MyhusbandgotfinedinGermanyforcrossedaroad.Selectingfocus:cleftsentences10.25Onewayoffocusingonaparticularpartofasentenceistouseacleftstructure.Thisinvolvesusingtheverb"be",eitherwith"it"asanimpersonalsubjectorwithaclausesuchasarelativeclauseora"to"-infinitiveclauseasthesubjectorcomplement.Sentencescontainingthisstructurearecalledcleftsentences."it"asthesubject10.26Ifyouwanttoemphasizeonenoungroupandmakethewholeclausesaysomethingaboutit,youcanmakethenoungroupthecomplementofanimpersonal"it"structure,andfollowitwitharelativeclausecontainingtherestofyourmessage.Thecomplementcanrefertothesubjectorobjectoftherelativeclause.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Georgefoundtherightanswer",youmaywanttostressthefactthatGeorgediditbysaying"ItwasGeorgewhofoundtherightanswer".ItwasTedwhobrokethenewstome.Itisusuallytheothervehiclethatsuffersmost.Similarly,insteadofsaying"Henrymakesclocks",youcansay"It"sclocksthatHenrymakes".It"smoneythattheywant.ItwastheDookiewanted.otherkindsoffocus10.27Inacleftsentence,youusuallyfocusonanoungroup.However,youcanfocusonotherclauseelementsorevenonawholeclause.Youthenusearelativeclausebeginningwith"that".Youcanmakeanadjunctthefocusofacleftsentence.Forexample,youcanfocusonaprepositionalphraseoranadverboftimeorplaceinordertostressthecircumstancesofanevent.ItwasfromFrancisthatshefirstheardthenews.ItwasthenthatIrecalledthatIhadleftmywristwatchupinthesaloon.ItwasinElliotdatethatIfirstsawthesefilms.Youcanalsofocusonanon-finiteclause,ifyouarestressinganaction.ItwasmeetingPeterthatreallystartedtheoffonthisnewlineofwork.Youcanfocusonaclausebeginningwith"because"tostressthereasonforsomething.385 Perhapsit"sbecausehe"samisfitthatIgetalongwithhim.10.28Ifyouwanttofocusonanactionperformedbysomeone,youcanuseacleftsentenceconsistingof"what"followedbythesubject,theverb"do",theverb"be",andaninfinitiveclausewithorwithout"to".Forexample,insteadofsaying"IwrotetoGeorgeimmediately",youcansay"WhatIdidwastowritetoGeorgeimmediately".WhatStephendidwastointerviewalotofoldpeople.Whatyouhavetodoistochoosefivecompaniestoinvestin.Whatitdoesisdrawoutallthevitaminsfromthebody.WhathedidwasgelChristopherfollowedbyaprivatedetective.Youcanuse"all"insteadof"what"ifyouwanttoemphasizethatjustonethingisdoneandnothingelse.Allhedidwasshakehandsandwishthegoodluck.Allsheeverdoesismakejam.10.29Clauseswith"what"astheirsubjectcanbeusedtofocusonthethingyouaretalkingabout.Theycanbeputaftertheverb"be"aswellasinfrontofit.Forexample,youcansay"Itsoriginalitywaswhatappealedtome",aswellas"Whatappealedtothewasitsoriginality".Whatimpressedthemostwastheirsincerity.Thesesixfactorsarewhatconstitutesintelligence.10.30Ifyouwanttofocusonthethingthatsomeonewants,needs,orlikes,youcanuseacleftsentencebeginningwithaclauseconsistingof"what"followedbythesubjectandaverbsuchas"want"or"need".Afterthisclause,youusetheverb"be"andanoungroupreferringtothethingwanted,needed,orliked.Hereisalistofverbswhichcanbeusedwith"what"inthisstructure:adoredislikeenjoyhatelikeloatheloveneedpreferwantForexample,insteadofsaying"Weneedabiggergarden",youcansay"Whatweneedisabiggergarden".Whatweasanationwantisnotwordsbutdeeds.Whatyouneedisadoctor.Whatheneededwasanexcusetotalk.Youcanuse"all"insteadof"what"withtheverbs"want"or"need"ifyouwanttoemphasizethatsomeonewantsofneedsaparticularthingandnothingelse.Alltheywantisaholiday.Allaprisonerneededwasapass.Ifyoudonotwanttomentiontheagentintheabovestructures,youcanuseapassiveformoftheverb,after"what"or"allthat".Whatwasneededwasanorganizedstruggle.Allthatwasneededwastoplacestripsofthepaperinathinrubbertube.Takingthefocusoffthesubject:usingimpersonal"it"10.31Youoftenonlywanttomentiononethingorfactinaclause.Forexample,youoftenwanttofocusonthetypeofinformationthatisnormallyexpressedbyanadjective.Butanadjectivecannotstandaloneasthesubjectofaclause.Acommonwayofpresentinginformationofthiskindistomaketheadjectivethecomplementof"be",with"it"asthesubject.Ifyoudonotwanttochooseanyoftheclauseelementsasthethingyouaregoingtotalkabout,youcanuseseveralstructureswith"it"assubject."It"canbeused:•todescribeaplaceorsituationIt"slonelyhere.•totalkabouttheweatherortosaywhatthetimeis.Ithadbeenrainingallday.Itisseveno"clock.Theseusesareoftencalledtheimpersonalusesor"it".10.32Intheseuses,"it"doesnotreferbacktoanythingearlierinthespeechorwriting,andsoitisdifferentfromthepersonalpronoun,whichusuallyrefersbacktoaparticularnoungroup:Thesunkeptchangingeverythingasitmovedacrossthesky.385 Parisisspecial,isn"tit?Formoreinformationaboutpersonalpronouns,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph1.96.Notethatthepronoun"it"canalsobeusedtorefertoawholesituationorfactwhichhasbeendescribedorimplied.He"snevercometoseehisson.It"smostpeculiar,isn"tit?Itdoesn"tmatter.It"smyfault.10.33"It"canalsobeusedtointroduceacommentonanaction,activity,orexperience.Thesubject"it"refersforwardtoa"to"-infinitiveclauseorafinitesubordinateclause.Itcostssomuchtogetthere.Itwasamazingthataudiencescametothetheatreatall.Thisstructurewith"it"allowsyoutoavoidhavingalongsubject,andtoputwhatyouaretalkingaboutinamoreprominentpositionattheendofthesentence.Describingaplaceorsituation10.34Ifyouwanttodescribetheexperienceofbeinginaparticularplace,youcanuse"it"followedbyalinkverbsuchas"be",anadjective,andanadjunctofplace.ItwasverypleasantattheHochstadts.Itwasterriblycoldinthetrucks.It"snicedownthere.Formoreinformationaboutadjunctsofplace,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph6.53.Similarly,youcanindicateyouropinionofasituationusing"it","be",anadjective,andaclausebeginningwith"when"or"if".It"ssonicewhenit"shot,isn"tit?Won"titseemoddifIhavenoluggage?10.35Youcanalsouse"it"astheobjectofverbssuchas"like"and"hate"todescribeyourfeelingsaboutaplaceorsituation.Ilikeithere.Heknewthathewouldhateitiftheysaidno.Hereisalistofcommonverbsthatareusedinthisway:adoredislikeenjoyhatelikeloathelovepreferTalkingabouttheweatherandthetime10.36Youcandescribetheweatherbyusing"it"asthesubjectofaverb.It"sstillraining.Itwaspouringwithrain.Itsnowedsteadilythroughoutthenight.Thefollowingverbsareusedafter"it"totalkabouttheweather:drizzlehailpourrainsleetsnowthunderYoucanalsodescribetheweatherbyusing"it"followedby"be"andacomplement.Thecomplementcaneitherbeanadjectivebyitself,oranadjectivefollowedbyanounreferringtoaperiodoftime."CanIgoswimming?"—"No,it"stoocold."Itwasverywindy.Itwasawarm,sunnyevening.It"salovelyday,isn"tit?Hereisalistofcommonadjectivesthatareusedtodescribetheweather:bitterblowyblusteryboilingbreezychillycloudycoldcooldampdarkdryfinefoggyfreezingfrostyhothumidicylightlovelymistymuggyrainyshowerystormysunnythunderywarmwetwindyNotethatyoucandescribeachangeintheweatherorlightbyusing"it"followedby"get"andanadjectivecomplement.Heputthetopupbecauseitwasgettingcold.385 It"sgettingdark.givingtimesanddates10.37Youcansaywhatthetime,day,ordateisbyusing"it"followedby"be"andacomplement.It"seighto"clock.It"sSaturdayafternoonandallmyfriendsareout.ItwasJuly,butfreezingcold.emphasizingtime10.38Youcanformmanyusefultimeexpressionsusingastructurewith"it"followedby"be"andanoungroupreferringtotime.Theuseofthisstructureputsemphasisonthetimeoftheevent.Youcansaywhensomethinghappenedusing"when".Itwas11o"clockatnightwhen16armedmencametomyhouse.ItwasnearlymidnightwhenKuntafinallyslept.Youcansayhowlongagosomethinghappenedusing"since".It"stwoweeksnowsinceIwrotetoyou.Itwasfortyyearssincethewar.Youcansayhowlongtheintervalwasbetweenoneeventandanotherusing"before".ItwasninetydaysbeforeRodin"ssearchwasover.Itwasfourminutesbeforehalf-time.Youcansayhowsoonsomethingwillhappenusing"to".It"stwodaystoD-day.Commentingonanaction,activity,orexperienceusinglinkverbs10.39Acommonwayofcommentingonwhatyouaredoingorexperiencingistouse"it"followedbyalinkverbandacomplement.Afterthecomplementyouuseapresentparticipleora"to"-infinitiveclause.It"sfunworkingforhim.Itwasdifficulttryingtotalktoher.It"snicetoseeyouwithyourbooksforachange.ItwillbeastimulatingexperiencetoseeMrsOliver.lfyouwanttomentionthepersonwhoperformstheactionorhastheexperience,youuseaprepositionalphrasebeginningwith"for"anda"to"-infinitiveclauseafterthecomplement.Itbecomeshardforachildtodevelopasenseofidentity.Youcanalsousethestructurewitha"to"-infinitiveclausewhenyouarerecommendingacourseofactionorsayingthatsomethingisnecessary.It"simportanttoknowyourownlimitations.It"sagoodideatohavealittlenotebookhandy.Itisnecessarytoexaminethisclaimbeforeweproceedanyfurther.usingotherverbs10.40Similarstructurescanbeusedwithverbsotherthanlinkverbs.Ifyouwanttosaywhateffectanexperiencehasonsomeone,youcanuse"it"withaverbsuchas"please","surprise",or"shock",followedbyanoungroupanda"to"-infinitiveclause.Foralistoftheseverbs,seeparagraph10.44.Italwayspleasedhimtothinkofhisfather.Itsurprisedhimtorealizethathehadn"tthoughtaboutthemuntilnow.Itinterestshimtohearwhatyou"vebeenbuying.Youcanuse"it"with"take"anda"to"-infinitiveclausetoindicatewhatisusedinaparticularactionoractivity,orisneededforit,forexampletheamountoftimeorthetypeofpersonthatisneeded.IttakesanhourtogettoIdlewild.Ittakesanexceptionalparenttocopewithachildlikethat.Ittookmanywoundstokillthem.Ifthereisalsoanindirectobject,thiscanbeplacedimmediatelyaftertheverb.Itlooktheayeartosaveupforanewhat.Iftheindirectobjectisexpressedbyaprepositionalphrase,usuallybeginningwith"for",itisplacedafterthedirectobject.Ittooksometimeforhimtorealizewhatwasrequired.Ittakesalotmoregutsforawomantoresignthanforaman."Cost"canbeusedinsimilarstructureswhentakingabouttheamountofsomething,usuallymoney,thatisusedinanactivity.Itcostsabout£150aweektokeepsomeoneinprison.385 With"find"and"think",youcanuse"it"astheobject,followedbyanobjectcomplementandeithera"to"-infinitiveclauseora"that"-clause.Hefoundithardtomakefriends.Hethoughtitrighttoresignimmediately.10.41Ifyouwanttofocusonanon-finiteclause,youcanusethisclauseasthesubjectofthemainclause,insteadof"it".Forexample,insteadofsaying"It"sfunworkingforhim"youcansay"Workingforhimisfun".Measuringthewatercorrectlyismostimportant.InformalEnglish,"to"-infinitiveclausesaresometimesused.Toloseasoninthegameswasashonourableaslosinghimonaforeignbattlefield.Commentingonafactthatyouareabouttomention10.42Whenyouwanttocommentonafact,event,orsituation,youcanuse"it"followedbyalinkverb,acomplement,anda"that"-clausegivingthefact.Itisstrangethatithasn"tbeennoticedbefore.It"sashamehedidn"tcome.Fromthephotographsitseemsclearmymotherwasnobeauty.Hereisalistofadjectivesusedincomplementsinthisstructure:amazingapparentappropriateawfulbadcleardoubtfulessentialevidentextraordinaryfairfunnygoodimportantinevitableinterestinglikelyluckynaturalobviousoddplainpossibleprobablequeersadstrangesurprisingtrueunlikelywonderfulHereisalistofnounsusedincomplementsinthisstructure:disgracemarvelnuisancepityshamesurprisewonderUSAGENOTE10.43Afteradjectiveslike"funny","odd",and"strange",aclausebeginningwith"how"issometimesusedinsteadofa"that"-clause,withthesamemeaning.It"sfunnyhowtheydon"tgeton.Itisreallywonderfulhowthetimehasgone.It"squeerhowyoudigthingsup."What"-clausescanbeusedaftersimilaradjectiveswhenyouwanttocommentonsomethingthatistheobjectofanaction.It"ssurprisingwhatyoucandigup.It"samazingwhatsomeofthemwoulddoforalittlepublicity."Wh"-clausescanbeusedafteradjectivessuchas"obvious"and"clear"whenyouwanttocommentonhowclearthereasontosomethingis.Lookingbackonthesecases,itisclearwhytheunionsdistrustthelaw."Whether"-clausescanbeusedafteradjectivessuchas"doubtful"and"irrelevant"whenyouwanttocommentonsomethingthatmayormaynotbetrue.Itisdoubtfulwhethersupplycouldeverhavekeptupwithconsumption.otherverbs10.44Ifyouwanttosaywhatsomeonethinksaboutafact,youcanuse"it"followedbyaverbsuchas"please"or"surprise".Theverbisfollowedbyanoungroupanda"that"-clause.Itwon"tsurpriseyouthatIstuckitinmypocket.ItgrievedherthatAshokcouldnotsleepthere.Hereisalistofverbsthatcanbeusedinthisway:amazeamuseannoyappalastonishastoundbewilderbotherdelightdisgustdistressgrievehorrifyinterestpleaseshocksurpriseupsetworrypassivesofreportingverbs10.45Ifyouwanttosaywhatissaid,thought,ordiscoveredbyagroupofpeople,youcanuse"it"asthesubjectofthepassiveformofareportingverb,followedbya"that"-clause.Itwasagreedthatthetransactionshouldbekeptsecret.Itwasfeltthattherehadbeensomeduplicationofeffort.Itwasfoundthatnocasesofhypothermiahadbeenrecorded.385 Foralistofverbsthatcanbeusedinthisway,seeparagraph7.65.Introducingsomethingnew:"there"assubjectsayingthatsomethingexists10.46Whenyouwanttosaythatsomethingexists,orwhenyouwanttomentionthepresenceofsomething,youcanuse"there"followedby"be"andanoungroup.ThisstructureisusedinEnglishbecausefiniteverbsmusthaveasubject.Butsomethingnewcannotbetalkedaboutuntilithasbeenintroduced.So"there"isusedasthesubjectofthesentenceandthenewinformationisintroducedafter"be".Thisuseisdifferentfromtheadverbofplace"there"anddoesnotrefertoaplace.InspokenEnglish,thedifferenceisoftenclearer,becausethisuseof"there"isoftenpronouncedwithoutstressas/ðə/whereastheadverbofplaceisalmostalwayspronouncedfullyas/ðɛə/."There"hasverylittlemeaninginthestructuresthatarebeingexplainedhere.Forexample,thesentence"Thereisagoodreasonforthis"justmeans"Agoodreasonforthisexists".10.47Thenoungroupisusuallyfollowedbyanadjunct,a"wh"-clause,oroneoftheadjectives"available","present",or"free".Therewerethirtyboysintheclass.Therearethreereasonswhyweshouldsupportthisaction.Therewerenootherjobsavailable.Adjunctsofplacecanbeputeitherinfrontof"there"orafterthenoungroup.Onamarble-toppedtabletherewasabigwhitechinamug.Therewasalongfieldononesideofthefillingstation.10.48Youcanalsouse"there"followedby"be"andanoungroupreferringtoaneventtosaythatsomethinghappenedorwillhappen.Therewasaknockathisdoor.Thereweretwogeneralelectionsthatyear.Therewillbebloodshedtonight.10.49Whenyouaredescribingasceneorsituation,youcanuseastructureconsistingof"there"followedby"be",anoungroup,andapresentparticiple.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Flameswerecomingoutofit",youcansay"Therewereflamescomingoutofit".Therewasamonsoonragingoutside.Thereweremenandwomenworkinginthefieldswithhorses.Therewasarevolverlyingthere.10.50Usuallyapluralformof"be"isusedifthenoungroupafteritisplural.Thereweretwomenintheroom.Youuseasingularformof"be"whenyouaregivingalistofitemsandthefirstnouninthelistissingularoruncountable.Therewasasofaandtwochairs.Thereisgriefinhisfaceandreproachattheinjusticeofitall.Notethatyouuseapluralformof"be"infrontofpluralquantifiersbeginningwith"a",suchas"anumberof","alotof",and"afewof".Therewerealotofpeoplecampedthere.Youalsouseapluralformof"be"infrontofnumbersbeginningwith"a",suchas"ahundred","athousand",and"adozen".Therewereadozenreasonwhyamanmighthurryfromabar.10.51InspokenandinformalwrittenEnglish"thereis"and"therehas"areoftencontractedto"there"s","therehad"and"therewould"to"there"d",and"therewill"to"there"ll".There"snodanger.Ididn"tevenknowthere"dbeenamurder."there"withadjectives10.52"There"isalsousedwithadjectivessuchas"likely","unlikely","sure",and"certain"toindicatethelikelihoodofsomethingoccurring.Thereareunlikelytobeanyproblemswiththetimetable."there"withotherverbs10.53Afewotherverbscanbeusedafter"there"inasimilarwayto"be".Ifyouwanttosaythatsomethingseemstobethecaseorthatsomethingseemstohavehappened,youcanuse"there"with"seem"or"appear"followedby"tobe"or"tohavebeen".Thereseemstohavebeensomecarelessnessrecently.Thereappearstobeavastamountofconfusiononthispoint."Tobe"issometimesomitted,especiallyinfrontofanuncountnoon.385 Thereseemslittledoubtthathewasinsane."There"issometimesusedfollowedbyapassiveformofareportingverbandtheinfinitive"tobe"toindicatethatpeoplesayofthinkthatsomethingexists.Formoreinformationonreportingverbs,seethesectionbeginningatparagraph7.5.Thereisexpectedtobeanannouncementabouttheproposedbuildingnextmonth.Thereisunderstoodtobenosuggestionofeitherdoctorbeinginvolvedinfinancialgainfrontthetransaction."Happen"isusedinthesamekindofstructuretoindicatethatasituationexistsbychance.Therehappenedtobearollofnylontubinglyingonthedesk.Youcanalsouse"tend"inthiskindofstructuretosaythatsomethinggenerallyhappensorexists.TheretendtobeoverlappingnetworksofMumswhohaveeachother"schildrenroundtoplay.formalandliteraryuses10.54"Exist","remain","arise","follow",and"come"canbeusedafter"there"tosaythatsomethingexistsorhappens.ThesestructuresonlyoccurinformalEnglishorliterarywriting.ThereremainedthematterofCranston.Therefollowedagreatfloodofindignationinthenewspapers.Therecomesatimewhenyouhavetomakeachoice.10.55Anotherconstructioncommonlyusedinliterarywritingistobeginasentencewithanadjunctofplacefollowedby"there"andaverbofpositionofmotion.Forexample,insteadofsaying"Theoldchurchstandsatthetopofthehill",awritermightsay"Atthetopofthehilltherestandstheoldchurch".Fromhishandstheredanglesashinynewbriefcase.Besidethemtherecurlsupatwistofbluesmoke.FocusingonclausesorclauseelementsusingadjunctsCommentingonyourstatement:sentenceadjuncts10.56Therearemanyadjunctsthatareusedtoindicateyourattitudetowhatyouaresayingortomakeyourhearerhaveaparticularattitudetowhatyouaresaying.Thesearedealtwithinparagraphs10.57to10.72.Othersareusedtoshowaparticularlinkbetweensentences.Thesearedealtwithinparagraphs10.73to10.81.Therearealsosomethatareusedtomakeastatementnarrowerortofocusattentiononaparticularthingthatitappliesto.Thesearedealtwithinparagraphs10.87to10.91.Alltheseadjunctsarecalledsentenceadjunctsbecausetheyapplytothewholesentencetheyarein.Theyaresometimescalledsentenceadverbialsordisjunctsinothergrammars.Sentenceadjunctsareoftenplacedatthebeginningofasentence.Somearealsousedinotherpositions,asshownintheexamplesgivenbelow,buttheyareusuallyseparatedfromthewordsaroundthembyintonationorbycommas,toshowthattheyapplytothewholesentence.Formoregeneralinformationaboutadjuncts,seeChapter6.Indicatingyourattitudetowhatyouaresaying10.57Onegroupofsentenceadjunctsisusedtoindicateyourreactionto,oryouropinionof,thefactoreventyouaretalkingabout.Surprisingly,mostofmyhelpcamefromthetechnicians.Luckily,IhadseentheplaybeforesoIknewwhatitwasabout.Itisfortunatelynotabadbump,andHenryisonlyslightlyhurt.Interestingly,thesolutionadoptedinthesetwocountrieswasthesame.Thefollowingadjunctsarecommonlyusedinthisway:absurdlyadmittedlyalasanywayastonishinglyatleastcharacteristicallycoincidentallyconvenientlyfortunatelyhappilyincrediblyinterestinglyironicallyluckilymercifullymiraculouslymysteriouslyoddlyofcourseparadoxicallypleasepredictablyremarkablysadlysignificantlystrangelytruetypicallyunbelievablyunderstandablyunexpectedlyunfortunatelyunhappilyunnecessarily385 curiouslynaturallysurprisinglyOneoftheusesof"atleast"and"anyway"istoindicatethatyouarepleasedaboutthefactyouaregiving,althoughtheremaybeotherlessdesirablefacts.Atleastwe"reagreedonsomething.Hefellbackwithalookofsurprise-dead.It"squick,anyway,Ithought.USAGENOTE10.58Thereareasmallnumberofadverbswhichareoftenfollowedby"enough"whenusedtoindicateyouropinionofwhatyouaretalkingabout.curiouslyfunnilyinterestinglyoddlystrangelyInterestinglyenough,thisproportionhasnotincreased.Funnilyenough,oldpeopleseemtolovebingo.IfindmyselfstrangelyenoughinagreementwithJohnforachange.distancingandqualifying10.59Thereareanumberofsentenceadjunctswhichhavetheeffectshowingthatyouarenotcompletelycommittedtothetruthofyourstatement.Ratseatpracticallyanything.Ifwasalmostareliefwhentheracewasover.Thereare,ineffect,stilltrappedinahistorywhichtheydonotunderstand.InawayIlikedherbetterthanMark.Thefollowingadjunctsareusedinthisway:almostinamannerofspeakinginawayineffectmoreorlesspracticallysotospeaktoallintentsandpurposestosomeextentuptoapointvirtuallyNotethat"almost","practically",and"virtually"arenotusedatthebeginningofaclause.Expressionssuchas"Ithink","Ibelieve",and"Isuppose"arealsousedtoindicateyourlackofcommitmenttothetruthofwhatyouaresaying.indicatingviewpoint10.60Withadverbssuchas"luckily","fortunately","happily",and"unfortunately",youcanindicatewhoseviewpointyouaregivingbyadding"for"andanoungroupreferringtotheperson."Doeshedohisfairshareofthehouseholdchores?"—"Ohyes,fortunatelyforme."Luckilyformeandthem,lovedideventuallygrowandflourish.indicatingqualityoftheagent10.61Anothergroupofsentenceadjunctsisusedtoindicatethequalityyouthinksomeoneshowedbydoinganaction.Theyareformedfromadjectiveswhichcanbeusedtodescribepeople,andareoftenplacedafterthesubjectofthesentenceandinfrontoftheverb.TheLeagueoffriendsgenerouslyprovidedaboutfivethousandpounds.PaulGaynerisrightlyfamedforhismenuforvegetarians.Sheverykindlyarrangedabeautifullunch.Foolishly,wehadsaidwewoulddothedecorating.Thefollowingadverbsareusedinthisway:bravelycarelesslycleverlycorrectlyfoolishlygenerouslykindlyrightlywiselywronglyindicatingyourjustificationforastatement10.62Ifyouarebasingyourstatementonsomethingthatyouhaveseen,heard,orread,youcanuseasentenceadverbtoindicatethis.Forexample,ifyoucanseethatanobjecthasbeenmadebyhand,youmightsay"Itisobviouslymadebyhand."Hisfriendwasobviouslyimpressed.Higginsevidentlyknewnothingabouttheirefforts.Apparentlytheyhadarow.Thesearesomecommonadverbsusedinthisway:apparentlyclearlyevidentlymanifestlyobviouslyplainlyunmistakablyvisibly10.63Peopleoftenusesentenceadjunctstopersuadesomeonetoagreewiththem.Byusingtheadjunct,theyindicatethattheyareassumingthatwhattheyaresayingisobvious.ObviouslyIcan"tdothewholelotmyself.Price,ofcourse,isacriticalfactor.Thefollowingadjunctsareoftenusedinthisway:385 clearlynaturallyobviouslyofcourseplainly10.64Anumberofadjunctsareusedtoindicatewhetherasituationactuallyexistsorwhetheritmerelyseemstoexist,ormightexist.Evensympatheticobservershavesaidthatwhathe"sreallydoingisprotectinghisowninterests.Germswereallegedlyscatteredfromairplanes.Extracashisprobablythebestpresent.Thefollowingadjunctsareusedlikethis:actuallycertainlyconceivablydefinitelydoubtlesshopefullyinfactinpracticeinrealityintheorymaybenodoubtofficiallyperhapspossiblypresumablyprobablyreallyunofficially~allegedlyapparentlynominallyostensiblypotentiallyseeminglysupposedlytheoreticallyundoubtedlyTheadverbsinthesecondgroupareoftenusedinfrontofadjectives.Wedrovealongapparentlyemptystreets.Theypointedoutthatitwouldbetheoreticallypossibletolayacablefromasatellitetoearth.10.65Ifyouwanttomakeitclearwhatyourattitudeistowhatyouaresaying,youcanuseasentenceadjunct.Frankly,themoreIhearabouthim,thelessIlikehim.Inmyopinionitwasprobablyamistake.Infairnessitshouldbesaidthathecannotbeaccusedofalackofobjectivity.Hereisalistofsomeofthecommonadjunctsusedinthisway:franklyhonestlyinallhonestyinfairnessinmyopinioninmyviewinretrospectonreflectionpersonallyseriouslytomymind10.66Anotherwayofindicatingthesortofstatementyouaremakingistouse"tobe"followedbyanadjective,or"toputit"followedbyanadverb.Idon"treallyknow,tobehonest.Toputitcrudely,allunionshavegottheresponsibilityoflookingaftertheirmembers.politeness10.67Whensomeonewhoismakingarequestwantstobepolite,theyusethesentenceadverb"please".MayIhaveawordwithyou,please?Wouldyoupleaseremoveyourglasses?Pleasebecareful.Statingyourfieldofreferencespecification10.68Whenyouaremakingitclearwhataspectofsomethingyouaretalkingabout,youusesentenceadverbsformedfromclassifyingadjectives.Forexample,ifyouwanttosaythatsomethingisimportantinthefieldofpoliticsorfromapoliticalpointofview,youcansaythatitis"politicallyimportant".Theseadverbsoftencomeinfrontofanadjective,oratthebeginningorendofaclause.Itwouldhavebeenpoliticallydamagingforhimtoretreat.Technically,marriagehasalegallyenshrinedstatus.Wehadaverybadyearlastyearfinancially.Thefollowingisalistofadverbsthatcanrefertoaparticularaspectofsomething:aestheticallybiologicallychemicallycommerciallyculturallyecologicallyeconomicallyemotionallyenvironmentallyethicallyfinanciallygeographicallyideologicallyintellectuallylogicallymechanicallymentallymorallynumericallyoutwardlyphysicallypoliticallypsychologicallyraciallyscientificallysexuallysociallyspirituallystatisticallysuperficiallytechnologicallyvisuallyPRODUCTIVEFEATURE10.69"Speaking"issometimesaddedtotheseadverbs.Forexample,"technicallyspeaking"canbeusedtomean"fromatechnicalpointofview".He"snotadoctortechnicallyspeaking.HeandMalcolmdecidedthat,raciallyspeaking,anyway,theywereincompleteagreement.385 ThisisaproductivefeatureofEnglish.ProductivefeaturesareexplainedintheIntroduction.generalization10.70Youoftenwanttoavoidmakingafirm,forcefulstatement,becauseyouareawareoffactsthatdonotquitefitinwithwhatyouaresaying.Onewayofdoingthisistouseasentenceadjunctwhichindicatesthatyouaremakingageneral,basic,orapproximatestatement.Basically,themorecratersasurfacehas,theolderitis.Byandlargethebroadcasterswerefreetotreatthismaterialverymuchastheywished.Ithinkonthewholewedon"tdotoobadly.Thefollowingadjunctsareusedlikethis:allinallallthingsconsideredaltogetherasaruleataroughestimatebasicallybroadlybyandlargeessentiallyforthemostpartfundamentallygenerallyinessenceingeneralonaverageonbalanceonthewholeoverallultimatelyNotethatyoucanalsousetheexpressions"broadlyspeaking","generallyspeaking",and"roughlyspeaking".Weareall,broadlyspeaking,middleclass.Roughlyspeaking,theproblemappearstobeconfinedtothetropics.10.71Youcanalsouseprepositionalphrasesformedwithclassifyingadjectives,suchas"infinancialterms"or"fromapoliticalpointofview".Similarprepositionalphrasescanbeformedusingthenounsrelatedtotheseadjectives,forexampleusing"money"insteadof"financial":"inmoneyterms","intermsofmoney","withregardtomoney",or"fromthemoneypointofview".Lifeisgoingtobealittleeasierineconomicterms.Thatisthebeginningofaverybigstepforwardineducationalterms.Thisstatewasalatedeveloperintermsofcommerce.ThisisaproductivefeatureofEnglish.ProductivefeaturesareexplainedintheIntroduction.10.72Anotherwayofsayingsomethinglike"withregardtomoney"is"money-wise".Youaddthesuffix"-wise"toanounreferringtotheaspectyoumean.Thisisgenerallyusedtoavoidthecreationoflongphrases.Nottohavevisitedthecompany"splantinFrankfurtortheAmericansubsidiarywithputyouatadisadvantagestatus-wise.WearemostlySocialistsvote-wise.ThisisaproductivefeatureinAmericanEnglish,butisnotsocommoninBritishEnglish.ProductivefeaturesareexplainedintheIntroduction.Showingconnections:linkingadjuncts10.73Thefollowingsectionexplainsthefunctionsofdifferentgroupsoflinkingadjuncts.Linkingadjunctsareusedtoshowwhatsortofconnectionthereisbetweenonesentenceandanother.10.74Inthecourseofspeakingorwriting,youcanintroducearelatedcommentoranextrareinforcingpieceofinformationusingoneofthefollowingadjuncts:alsoaswellatthesametimebesidesfurthermoremoreoverontopofthattooKuwait"soilwilllastformorethan200yearsatcurrentproductionlevels.Moreover,newreservescontinuetobediscovered.Hisfirstbookwaspublishedin1932,anditwasfollowedbyaseriesofnovels.HealsowroteabookonBritishpubs.Thedemandsofworkcancausegapsinregularattendance.Ontopofthat,manystudentsareofferednoextralessonsduringthevacations.Notethat"too"isnotusuallyplacedatthebeginningofasentence.Theyhadarrivedinstyle,carnationsintheirbuttonholes;theywentoutinstyletoo.indicatingaparallel10.75Youcanemphasizethatyouareaddingafactthatillustratesthesamepointastheoneyouhavejustmade,orasuggestionthathasthesamebasis,byusingoneofthefollowingadjuncts:againbythesametokenequallyinthesamewaylikewisesimilarlyEverybaby"sfaceisdifferentfromeveryother"s.Inthesameway,everybaby"spatternof385 developmentisdifferent.ThereseemtobefewermenaroundtowhomIfeelIoughttodefer.Bythesametoken,therearemoreandmoremenwhocometomeforadvice.Neverfeedyourrabbitrawpotatoesthathawgonegreen—theycontainapoison.Similarly,neverfeeditrhubarbleaves.contrastsandalternatives10.76Whenyouwanttoaddasentencethatcontrastswiththepreviousoneorgivesanotherpointofview,youcanuseoneofthefollowingadjuncts:allthesamealternativelybycontrastconverselyevensohoweverinsteadneverthelessnonethelessonthecontraryontheotherhandratherstillthenagainthoughyetHehadforgottenthattherewasarainyseasoninthewintermonths.Itwas,however,afine,softrainandtheairwaswarm.Heraimistopunishthecriminal.Nevertheless,sheisnotconvincedthatimprisonmentisalwaystheanswer.Thevisitorsgotintotheirstridetowardstheendofthematch.Atnopoint,though,wasinresultseriouslyindoubt.Ifyouarementioninganalternative,youcanuse"instead","alternatively",or"conversely".Peoplewhonormallyconsultedherbegantoaskotherpeople"sadviceinstead.Thecompanyisnowconsideringanappeal.Alternatively,theymaysubmitanewapplication.causes10.77Whenyouwanttoindicatethatthefactyouarementioningexistsbecauseofthefactorfactspreviouslygiven,youlinkyourstatementsusingoneofthefollowingadjuncts:accordinglyasaresultconsequentlyhencesotherebythereforethusOxfordandCambridgehavealargeincomeoftheirown.Sotheyarenotinquitethesamepositionasotheruniversities.Itisn"tanydetailedinformation.Thereforeitisn"tnecessary.Wewantadiversepressandwehaven"tgotit.Ithinkasaresultalotofoptionsaredeniedus.10.78Thereareanumberofadjunctsoftimewhichareusedtoindicatethatsomethingtakesplaceafterorbeforeaneventthatyouhavealreadymentionedoratthesametimeasthatevent:afterwardsatthesametimebeforehandearliereversincefinallyfirstinthemeantimelastlatermeanwhilenextpresentlypreviouslysimultaneouslysincesoonsoonaftersubsequentlysuddenlythenthroughoutGoandseeTerryBrownaboutit.Comebacktotheafterwards.Publishedin1983,thebookhassincegonethroughsixreprints.Onedaytheygotmarriedwithouttellinganyonebeforehand.WelookforwardtotheCommissionstudyingthisagreement.Inthemeantimewearepressingaheadwithourplans.10.79Informalwritingandspeech,peopleoftenwanttoindicatewhatstagetheyhavereachedinwritingorspeaking.Theydothisusingthefollowingadjuncts:firstfirstlysecondsecondlythirdthirdlyfinallyinconclusionlastlythentosumupWhataretheadvantagesofgeo-thermalenergy?Firstly,there"snofuelrequired,theenergyalreadyexists.Secondly,there"splentyofit.Finally,Iwanttosaysomethingabouttheheatpump.10.80Whenpeoplearespeakingorwritinginformally,theyoftenaddanextrapieceofinformationusingoneoftheconjunctions"and","but","yet","or",and"nor"tobeginanewsentence.WestayedfifteenmilesfromBonarBridge.Andwewentupthecoasttoo.Ithinkit"smotorcycling.ButI"mnotsure.It"snotimprovingtheircharacter.Northeirhomelife.10.81Linkingadjunctsareoftenputaftertheconjunctions"and"or"but"atthebeginningofaclauseorsentence.385 Thatwilltakealongtimeandbesidesyou"dgetitwrong.Theywerefamiliarandthereforeallright.Heraccentisnotperfect.Butstill,it"samarvellousperformance.Ifyouarelinkingtwonegativesentencesorclauses,youcanput"either"attheendofthesecondone.Ican"tuseit,butIcan"tbearnottouseiteither.Indicatingachangeinaconversation10.82Sometimespeoplewanttoavoidabruptnesswhenchangingthetopicofconversation,orwhenstartingtotalkaboutadifferentaspectofit.Theydothisbyusingaparticulargroupofsentenceadjuncts.Theseadjunctsaremostlyusedwhenyouarecontinuingaconversation,andrarelytobeginone.Thefollowingadjunctsarecommonlyusedinthisway:actuallyanyhowanywaybythewayincidentallylooknownowthenokayrightsothenwellwellnowwellthenyouknowTheyusuallyoccuratthebeginningofaclause.However,afewofthemcanbeusedinotherplacesintheclause,whenyouwanttopauseorwanttodrawattentiontothefactthatyouareintroducinganewtopic."Actually","anyhow","anyway","bytheway","incidentally",and"youknow"canbeusedattheendofaclause."Bytheway","incidentally",and"youknow"canbeusedafterthesubjectorafterthefirstwordinaverbgroup.Herearesomeexamplesshowingadjunctsusedtochangethetopicofaconversation:Actually,Dan,beforeIforget,sheaskedmetotellyouaboutmynewjob.Wellnow,we"vegotaverybigtaskaheadofus.Herearesomeexamplesshowingadjunctsusedtostarttalkingaboutadifferentaspectofthesametopic:Whatdoyousellthereanyway?Thisapproach,incidentally,alsohastheadvantageofbeingcheap.Unliketheotheradjuncts,"then"byitselfisnotusedatthebeginningofaclause,onlyattheend.That"sallrightthen.Areyoufondofher,then?10.83Someadjunctsareusedatthebeginningofaclausetointroduceafact,oftenonethatcorrectsthestatementjustmade.Theycanalsobeusedattheendofaclause,andelsewhere,toemphasizethefact.actuallyasamatteroffactasithappensImeanindeedinfactNotethat"actually"isusedheretoaddinformationonthesametopic,whereasinthepreviousparagraphitindicatedachangeoftopic.Actually,Idoknowwhyhemadethesolicitorswritetheletter.Heratherenviesyouactually.I"msureyou"reright.Infact,Iknowyou"reright.There"snoreasontobedisappointed.Asmatteroffact,thiscouldberatheramusing.Theycannothoporjump.Indeed,theycanbarelymanageeventorun."Yousee"isusedtoprefaceorpointtoanexplanation."Youdon"twanttocomewithme,then?"—"No.Yousee,it"snotoftenthatIgetthechancetobeabsolutelyfree."SomeranawaytoCanadaandwereneverheardofagain.Theycouldn"twrite,yousee."Afterall"isusedtoprefaceorpointtoareasonorjustificationofwhatyouhavejustsaid.Shedidnotregretacceptinghisoffer.Hewas,afterall,abouttherightage.10.84Prepositionalphrasescansometimesbeusedtointroduceanewtopicoradifferentaspectofthesametopic."Asto"or"asfor"canbeusedatthebeginningofasentencetointroduceaslightlydifferenttopic.Astowhatactuallytranspiredattheheadquarters,therearemanydifferingaccounts.Wewillcontinuetoexpandoureconomy.AsfortheUS,wewillaskthattheytakestepstoreducetheirbudgetdeficit."With"and"inthecaseof"canbeusedtomentionanotherthingthatisinvolvedinatypeof385 situationthatwaspreviouslymentioned.Withgoats,forexample,motherandinfantformaclosebondinthefirstfiveminutesofakid"slife.Thechangeswillbeevenmorestrikingandeffectiveinthecaseofteachingthaninmedicine.Emphasizing10.85Youmaywanttoemphasizethetruthofyourstatementortostresstheseriousnessofthesituationyouaredescribing.Youcandothisusingthefollowingsentenceadjuncts:aboveallactuallyatallbelievemebyallmeansevenforheaven"ssakeindeedpositivelyreallysimplysosurelytoputitmildlytosaytheleasttrulywithoutexceptionSometimesweactuallydaredtopenetratetheirterritory.Aboveall,donotbetooproudtoaskforadvice.Eightyearswasindeedasportspanoftime.Ireallyamsorry.Believeme,ifyougetrobbed,thebestthingtodoisforgetaboutit.Notethat"indeed"isoftenusedaftercomplementscontaining"very".Ithinksheisaverystupidpersonindeed."Atall"isusedforemphasisinnegativeclauses,usuallyattheend.Ididn"tlikeitatall.Iwouldnotbeatallsurprisediftheyturnedouttobethesameperson."Surely"isusedwhenyouareappealingforagreement.Surelyitisbettertoknowthetruththantobedeluded.Here,surely,isacasefortreatingpeopleasindividuals."Even"isplacedinfrontofawordorgrouptodrawattentiontoasurprisingpartofwhatyouaresaying.Evenatmid-daytheairwassharpandchilly.Somemenwereevensinging.Therewasnooneinthecafe,notevenawaiter."So"isusedasanemphaticintroductionwhenagreeingorcommenting."Derek!It"sraining!"—"Soitis.""He"sverygrateful!"—"Soheoughttobe.""Byallmeans"isusedforemphasiswhengivingpermission.Ifyourbabylikeswater,byallmeansgiveittohim"Forheaven"ssake"isusedwhenmakingarequestoraskingaquestion.Forheaven"ssake,don"tpull,Chris.Whatareyoustaringat,forheaven"ssake?emphasizingexactness10.86Youmaywanttoemphasizethatyourstatementisnotonlygenerallytrue,butthatitistrueinallitsdetails.Theadverbs"exactly","just",and"precisely"areusedforthis.They"dalwaystreatedherexactlyasifsheweretheirowndaughter.Theirdecorwasexactlyright.Iknowjusthowyoufeel.Thepeasantsareweakpreciselybecausetheyarepoor.Indicatingthemostrelevantthing:focusingadverbs10.87Ifyouwanttoindicatethemostrelevantthinginvolvedinwhatyouaresayingforexamplethemainreasonforsomethingorthemainqualityofsomething,youcanuseafocusingadverb.I"mparticularlyinterestedinclassicalmusic.Theyhavebeenusedincertaincountries,notablyinSouthAmerica.Wewantespeciallytothankthenumerousfriendswhoencouragedus.Thefollowingadverbscanbeusedlikethis:chieflyespeciallymainlymostlynotablyparticularlypredominantlyprimarilyprincipallyspeciallyspecificallyrestricting10.88Somefocusingadverbscanbeusedtoemphasizethatonlyoneparticular385 thingisinvolvedinwhatyouaresaying.TheexistenceofthatbalconywasasecretsharedonlybyKairi.Thisissolelyamatterofmoney.It"salargecanvascoveredwithjustonecolour.Thefollowingadverbscanbeusedlikethis:aloneexclusivelyjustonlypurelysimplysolelyselecting10.89Focusingadverbscanbeusedtoaddafurtherpieceofinformationwithselectsaparticulargroupofpeopleorthingsfromalargerset.Theycanbeusedinthiswaywithnoungroups,prepositionalphases,adjectives,andsubordinateclauses.Ienjoythecompanyofyoungpeople,especiallymygrandchildren.Butmanyemployers,notablyintheengineeringindustry,aremorethanhappywiththenewsystem.Theyweremostlyprofessionalpeople.You"llenjoyitdowninLondon,especiallyifyougetajob.positionoffocusingadverbs10.90Incarefulwriting,focusingadverbsareusuallyputimmediatelyinfrontofthewordorclauseelementtheyapplyto,inordertoavoidambiguity.Inspeech,itisusuallyclearfromtheintonationofthespeakerwhattheyapplyto.However,inmanycasesthefocusingadverbdoesnotnecessarilyfocusonthewordorelementimmediatelyafterit.Forexample,inthesentence"Hemainlyreadsarticlesaboutmechanicalthings"theword"mainly"almostcertainlyappliesto"aboutmechanicalthings",notto"reads".Focusingadverbsarenotnormallyusedatthebeginningofasentence.However,youcanuse"only"tobeginasentencewhenitfocusesonthethingthatfollowsit.Onlythirty-fivepercentoffour-year-oldsgetnurseryeducation.Onlyinsciencefictionisthetopictouchedon.Youcanuse"just"and"simply"atthebeginningofsentencesgivinginstructions.Justaddboilingwater.Simplyremoveonecubeatatime."Alone"isalwaysusedaftertheelementthatitfocuseson."Only"issometimesusedinthisposition.Ithadalwaysbeenfeltthatfosterparentsshouldmakenoprofit—thejobshouldbedoneforlovealone.Theywereidentifiedbytheirfirstnamesonly.Ininformalspeechandwriting,otherfocusingadverbsaresometimesusedaftertheelementtheyfocuson.Forexample,youcansay"Wetalkedaboutmemostly"insteadof"Wetalkedmostlyaboutme".WehavetalkedaboutFrancemainly.Chocolate,particularly,issuspectedofcausingdecayoftheteeth.Intheearlyyears,especially,achildmaybeafraidofmanythings.Thispositioncanalsobeusedwhenaddingapieceofinformation.HelikedAmerica,NewYorkparticularly.Shewasbusywriting,poetrymostly.10.91Someotheradjunctscanbeusedtofocusonadditionalinformation.Theadverbsofdegree"largely","partly",and"entirely",andadverbsoffrequencysuchas"usually"and"often",canbeused.Thesituationhadbeencreatedlargelybyluridnewspapertales.ThehousewascheappartlybecauseitwasfallingdownandpartlybecauseSeyerStreetwasaslum.Thefemalescarefortheiryoungentiretybythemselves.Theyoftenfoughteachother,usuallyasaresultofargumentsovermoney.Menfrombothdivisionsfoughtsidebyside,oftenforobjectivestheyhadneverheardof.Theadjunct"inparticular",whichhasasimilarmeaningto"particularly",canbeusedinthepositionsshownintheexamplesbelow.Wednesdayinparticularisverybusy.Nextweekweshallbetakingalookateducationandinparticularcomprehensiveschools.HesworeatlifeingeneralandOttoinparticular.Inparticular,I"mgoingtoconcentratedhydro-electricity.385 OtherinformationstructuresPuttingsomethingfirst:fronting10.92InEnglish,thefirstelementinadeclarativeclauseisusuallythesubjectoftheverb.However,ifyouwanttoemphasizeanotherelement,youcanputthatfirstinstead.Puttingawordatthefrontofaclauseforemphasisiscalledfronting.Sometimeswhenfrontingtakesplacethenormalorderofsubjectandverbischanged.Thisiscalledinversion.adjuncts10.93Adjunctscanoftenbeputfirst.Thisisthenormalpositionforsentenceadjuncts(seeparagraph10.56),sotheyarenotparticularlyemphaticinthisposition.Otheradjunctsaresometimesplacedfirst,usuallyforextravividnessinstoriesandaccounts.Ateighto"clockIwentdownformybreakfast.ForyearsI"dhadtohidewhatIwasthinking.Inversionoftenoccursafteradjunctsofplaceandnegativeadjuncts.SherangthebellforSylvia.Incameagirlshehadnotseenbefore.Onnoaccountmusttheybeletin.Inversiondoesnotoccurwhenthesubjectisapronoun.Withasigh,heroseandwalkedaway.Forgeneralinformationonadjuncts,seeChapter6.NegativeadjunctsaredealtwithinChapter4.reportedquestions10.94Whenyouaresayingthatyoudonotknowsomething,youcanputthereportedquestionfirst.WhatI"mgoingtodonextIdon"tquiteknow.HowheescapedafracturedskullIcan"timagine.Formoreinformationonreportedquestions,seeparagraphs7.29to7.35.otherclauseelements10.95Acomplementcanoccasionallybeputfirst,butthisisnotcommon.Noreen,shewascalled.Shecamefromtheviltage.Rareindeedistheindividualwhodoesnotbelongtooneofthesegroups.Theobjectofaverbissometimesputfirst,usuallyinformalorliteraryuses.Notethatthesubjectstillhastobementioned.OneofthecopieshefoldedintoanenvelopeandsenttotheCommissioner.Whentheyscentedmyfear,theywouldattack.ThisIknew.Introducingyourstatement:prefacingstructures10.96Peopleoftenusestructureswhichpointforwardtowhattheyaregoingtosayandclassifyorlabelitinsomeway.Thesearecalledprefacingstructuresorpreface.Aprefaceusuallyintroducesthesecondpartofthesamesentence,usuallya"that"-clauseora"wh"-clause,butoccasionallyanon-finiteclauseoranoungroup.However,youcanuseawholesentenceastheprefacetoanothersentence(seeparagraph10.101).prefacestosecondpartofsentence10.97Acommonprefacingstructureis"the"andanoun,followedby"is".Thenounissometimesmodifiedorqualified.Thenounsmostcommonlyusedinthisstructureare:answerconclusionfactpointproblemquestionrulesolutionthingtragedytroubletruthwonder"Thefactis","thepointis",and"thethingis"areusedtoindicatethatwhatyouareabouttosayisimportant.Thesimplefactisthatifyougetill,youmaybeunabletotaketheexamination.Thepointistofindoutwhowasresponsible.Thethingis,howarewetogetherout?10.98Someofthesenounsareusedinprefacestoindicatewhatsortofthingyouareabouttosay.Theruleis:ifindoubt,dryclean.Ismedicineanartorascience?Theansweristhatitisboth.Theinevitableconclusionisthatmanisnotresponsibleforwhathedoes.10.99Someofthesenounsareusedinprefacestolabelwhatyouareabouttotalkabout.Theproblemisthatthedemandforhealthcareisunlimited.Theonlysolutionistoapproacheachculturewithanopenmind.Theanswerisplanning,timing,and,aboveall,practicalexperience.385 10.100Cleftstructures(seeparagraphs10.25to10.30)canbeusedinlabelling.Whatweneedislawandorder.Impersonal"it"structureswithadjectivesfollowedbya"that"-clausearealessemphaticwayofprefacing(seeparagraph10.42).Itisinterestingthattheimpactofthecomputerrevolutionwillbegreatestinthoseareas.Youcanusethesentenceadjuncts"atanyrate","atleast",and"rather"asprefaceswhenyouareslightlycorrectingapreviousstatement,oftenafter"or".Thishadsavedherlife;oratanyratehersanity."Anyway"canalsobeused,usuallyafterthecorrection.Itis,formostofitslengthanyway,apainfulromanticcomedy.10.101Awholesentencecanbeusedasaprefacetothesentenceorsentencesthatfollowit.Forexample,asentencecontaininganadjectivelike"interesting","remarkable",or"funny",orageneralabstractwordsuchas"reason"of"factor"(seeparagraphs9.19to9.23),isoftenusedasapreface.Itwasratherfunny.Thereweretwogentlementhatwerestanding-onewasterriblyelegant—andweweresittingthere,acoupleofinterlopers.Thishashadveryinterestingeffectsondifferentpeople.Herewereotherfactors,ofcourse:ItoowastiredofLondon.Buttherewereproblems.Howcouldtheeggsbepreventedfromdryingoutandhowcouldtadpolesdevelopoutofwater?Doingbysaying:performativeverbs10.102Peoplesometimesexplicitlysaywhatfunctiontheirstatementisperforming.Theydothisusing"I"andthesimplepresentofareportingverbsuchas"admit"or"promise"whichreferstosomethingthatisdonewithwords.Forexample,insteadofsaying"I"llbethere"youcouldsay"IpromiseI"llbethere",whichmakesthestatementstronger.Isuggestwedrawupadocument.I"llbebackatone,Ipromise.Iwassomewhatshocked,Iadmit,bytheseevents.Thefollowingverbscanbeusedinthisway:acknowledgeadmitassureclaimconcedecontenddemanddenyguaranteemaintainpledgepredictpromiseprophesyproposesaysubmitsuggestsweartellvowFormoredetailedinformationaboutreportingverbs,seeChapter7.10.103Someotherverbswhichrefertodoingsomethingwithwordsareusedwithouta"that"-clauseafterthem.Whenusedwithouta"that"-clause,theuseofthesimplepresentwith"I"performsthefunctionofastatementinitself,ratherthancommentingonanotherstatement.Iapologizeforanydelay.Icongratulateyouwithallmyheart.Iforgiveyou.Thefollowingverbsarecommonlyusedinthisway:absolveacceptaccuseadviseagreeauthorizebaptizechallengeconfesscongratulateconsentdeclarededicatedefyforbidforgivenamenominateobjectorderpronounceprotestrefuserenounceresignsecondsentence10.104Theverbsintheabovelistsaresometimescalledperformativeverbsorperformatives,becausetheyperformtheactiontheyreferto.USAGENOTE10.105Someoftheseverbsareusedwithmodalswhenpeoplewanttobeemphatic,polite,ortentative.ImustapologizeforMayfield.Iwouldsuggesttheseareaboutfiveinnumber.Shewasverythoroughlychecked,Icanassureyou.MayIcongratulateyouagainonyourexcellentperformance.385 Exclamations10.106Exclamationsarewordsandstructuresthatexpresssomethingemphatically.Youusuallyshowthisinspeechbyyourintonationandinwritingbytheuseofanexclamationmarkattheendofthesentence,althoughfullstopsareoftenusedinstead.Iftheexclamationisonlyapartofthesentence,itisseparatedfromtherestofthesentencebyacomma.showingyourreactions10.107Therearevariouswaysofshowingyourreactiontosomethingthatyouareexperiencingorlookingat,orthatyouhavejustbeentold.Onewayistouseanexclamationsuchas"bother","goodheavens","ohdear",or"ouch".Ow!Thathurt."MargaretRavenscroftmayhavebeenresponsibleforhersister"sdeath."—"Goodheavens!"saidDrWilloughby."Shediedlastautumn."—"Ohdear,I"msosorry."Someexclamationsareonlyusedtoshowreactions.Hereisalistofsomecommonones:ahablastblimeybotherbravocrikeydamngoodgraciousgoodgriefgoodheavensgoodlordgoodnessmegoshhonestlyhurrayohohdearoohoopsouchowreallyughwellIneverwhatwhoopswowyippeeyou"rejokingyuk10.108Otherclauseelementsorclausescanbeusedinexclamations.Noungroupscanbeusedtoshowyourreactiontosomething.Somenouns,forexample"rubbish"and"nonsense",canbeusedontheirowntoexpressstrongdisagreement."Love"sgottobebuiltontrust."—"Nonsense.Lovegrowswhereitgrows."Predeterminers,especially"what",areoftenusedbeforethenoun.Whatapleasantsurprise!Suchanintelligentfamily!Quiteashow!Qualitativeadjectivescanbeusedontheirown,orwith"how"infrontofthem,usuallytoshowapositivereactiontoastatement."Doyouthinkwecouldmeet?Canyougetfree?"—"Imightbeableto."—"Lovely!"Oh!Look!Howsweet!Aprepositionalphrasewith"of"canbeusedtospecifyaperson,anda"to"-infinitiveclausetorefertotheaction.Howniceofyoutocome!Hownicetoseeyou.Sentenceswith"how"andanadjectiveoradverb,or"what"andanoungroupcanalsobeusedasexclamations.Theadjectiveornoungroupisthecomplementorobjectoftheverb,eventhoughitcomesfirst.Howniceyoulook!Howcleverlyyouhidyourfeelings.WhatanidiotIamWhatmorbidthoughtswe"rehaving."How"canbeplacedatthebeginningofanordinarysentencetoindicatetheintensityofafeelingoraction.HowIhateposters.Howhetalked!10.109Peopleoftenusequestionsasawayofmakingacommentorexclamation.Theydonotexpectananswer.Questionslikethisarecalledrhetoricalquestions.Youcanuseanegative"yes/no"-question,ifyouwanttoencourageotherpeopletoagreewithyou.OhAlbert,isn"tshelovely?Wouldn"titbeawfulwithnoChristmas!IninformalEnglish,youcanuseapositivequestion."Howmuch?"—"Ahundredmillion."—"Areyoucrazy?"Haveyounoshame!"Wh"-questions,especiallyonescontainingmodals,arealsoused.HowthehellshouldIknow?Whymustshebesonastytome?Whybother?385 SeeChapter4formoreinformationaboutquestions.Makingastatementintoaquestion:questiontags10.110Thissectiondealswithtagsorquestiontags.Atagisashortstructurethatisaddedtotheendofastatementtoturnitintoaquestion.Thisisusuallydonewhenyouexpertthepersonyouareaddressingtoagreewithyouorconfirmyourstatement.TagsaremostoftenusedinspokenEnglish.Thewholesentence,consistingofthestatementandthetag,iscalledatagquestion.formingtags10.111Tagsareformedusinganauxiliaryoraformof"be"or"do",followedbyapersonalpronounreferringtothesubject.Ifthemainclauseisintheaffirmative,youuseanegativetag.Negativetagsarealwayscontracted,exceptinold-fashionedorveryformalEnglish.Itisquitewarm,isn"tit?Ifthemainclauseisinthenegative,youuseanaffirmativetag.Youdidn"tknowIwasanartist,didyou?Ifthemainclauseofyourstatementhasanauxiliaryinit,youusethesameauxiliaryinthetag.Youwillstayintouch,won"tyou?Ifthemainclausehasthesimplepastorpresentformof"be"asthemainverb,youusethisinthetag.Theyare,aren"tthey?Ifthemainclausedoesnothaveanauxiliaryorverb"be",youuse"do","does",or"did"inthetag.Afteracoupleofyearstheheatgetstoomuch,doesn"tit?HeplayedforIreland,didn"the?Notethatthenegativetagwith"I"is"aren"tI",when"am"istheauxiliaryormainverbinthemainclause.I"mcontrollingit,aren"tI?checkingstatement10.112Ifyouhaveanopinionorbeliefaboutsomethingandyouwanttocheckthatitistrueortofindoutifsomeoneagreeswithyou,youcanmakeastatementandaddatagafterittomakeitintoaquestion.Ifyoumakinganaffirmativestatementandyouwanttocheckthatitistrue,youuseanegativetag.YoulikeRalphalot,don"tyou?Theyarebeautifulplaces,aren"tthey?Ifyouaremakinganegativestatementandwanttocheckthatitistrue,youuseanaffirmativetag.Itdoesn"twork,doesit?Youwon"ttellanyoneelseallthis,willyou?Youcanalsouseanaffirmativetagifyourstatementcontainsabroadnegative,anegativeadverb,oranegativepronoun.Thathardlycounts,doesit?You"veneverbeentoBenidorm,haveyou?Nobodyhadbotheredtoplantnewones,hadthey?10.113Thepersonyouarespeakingtorepliestothecontentofyourstatementratherthantothetag,andconfirmsanaffirmativestatementwith"yes"andanegativestatementwith"no"."Itbecamestronger,didn"tit?"—"Yesitdid.""Youdidn"tknowthat,didyou?"—"No."10.114Ifyouaremakingastatementaboutyourselfandyouwanttocheckifthepersonyouaretalkingtohasthesameopinionorfeeling,youcanputatagwith"you"afteryourstatement.Ithinkthisisthebestthing,don"tyou?Ilovetea,don"tyou?Tagscanalsobeusedtoshowyourreactiontosomethingthatsomeonehasjustsaidorimplied,forexampletoshowinterest,surprise,oranger.Notethatyouuseanaffirmativetagafteranaffirmativestatement.Youfellonyourback,didyou?You"vebeentoNorthAmericabefore,haveyou?Oh,hewantsustomakefilmsaswell,doeshe?385 Whenusing"let"s"tosuggestdoingsomething,youcanaddthetag"shallwe"tocheckthatthepeopleyouaretalkingtoagreewithyou.Let"sforgetit,shallwe?Ifyouaresuggestingthatyoudosomethingandyouwanttocheckthatthepersonyouarespeakingtoagrees,youcanaddthetag"shallI?"I"lltellyouroughly,shallI?Ifyouaretellingsomeonetodosomethingandyouwanttomakeyourordersoundlessforceful,youcandosobyaddingatag.Thetagisusually"willyou",but"won"tyou"and"can"tyou"arealsoused.Comeintothekitchen,willyou?Lookatthat,willyou?Seethatshegetssafelyback,won"tyou?Whenyouareusinganegativeimperative,youcanonlyuse"willyou"asatag.Don"ttellHoward,willyou?Addressingpeople:vocatives10.115Whenyouaretalkingtopeople,yousometimesaddressthemusingtheirownnameortitle,orawordlike"darling"or"idiot".Wordsusedlikethisarecalledvocatives.VocativesarenotusedinBritishEnglishascommonlyasinsomeotherlanguages,ofeveninAmericanEnglish.Someareusedonlyinformalcontexts,someonlyininformalones.LookinaCobuilddictionaryformoredetailedinformation.positionofvocatives10.116Vocativesareoftenusedattheendofasentenceorclause,inwriting,theyareusuallyprecededbyacomma.Whereareyoustaying,MrSwallow?Thanks,love.Youcanputthematthebeginningofascienceinordertoattractsomeone"sattentionbeforespeakingtothem.John,howlonghaveyoubeenattheuniversity?Dad,whyhaveyougotthatsuiton?titles10.117Whenyouaddresssomeoneinafairlyformalway,youusetheirtitleandsurname.Informationabouttitlesisgivenin1.56to1.58.Goodbye,DrKirk.Thankyou,MrJones.Howoldareyou,MissFlewin?Titlesindicatingaspecialqualification,rank,orjobcanbeusedontheirown.What"swrong,Doctor?Well,professor?WARNING10.118Thetitles"Mr","Mrs","Miss",and"Ms"areusedonlywithasurname.Toaddresspeopleformallywithouttheirsurname,"sir"and"madam"areused,especiallybyemployeestocustomersorclients.Yes,sir.Whatisthat,madam?othervocatives10.119Youcanusenoungroupstoshowyouropinionofsomeone.Thosewhichshowdislikeorcontemptareoftenusedwith"you"infrontofthem.No,youfool,theotherway.Shutyourbigmouth,youstupididiot.Vocativesshowingaffectionareusuallyusedbythemselves,but"my"canbeusedinmoreold-fashionedorhumorouscontexts.Goodbye,darling.We"vegottogo,mydear.Nounsthatrefertofamilyorsocialrelationshipscanbeusedasvocatives.Someone"sgottodoit,mum.Sorry,Grandma.She"llbeallright,mate.Trustme,kid.Vocativesareoccasionallyusedintheplural.Sitdown,kids.Comeon,youknowwhatImean,youidiots.Notethat"ladies","gentlemen",and"children"areonlyusedintheplural.385 Ladiesandgentlemen,thankyouforcoming.ContentsoftheReferenceSectionpageR1Pronunciationguide317R2-19Formingpluralsofcountnouns317R20-31Formingcomparativeandsuperlativeadjectives319R32-40Thespellingandpronunciationofpossessives321R41-49Numbers322R50-135Verbformsandtheformationofverbgroups324R136-149Formingadverbs335R150-154Formingcomparativeandsuperlativeadverbs337ReferenceSectionPronunciationguideR1HereisalistofthephoneticsymbolsforEnglish:vowelsoundsconsonantsoundsɑːheart,start,calm.bbedttalkæact,mass,lap.ddonevvanaɪdive,cry,mind.ffitwwinaɪəfire,tyre,buyer.ggoodxlochauout,down,loud.hhatzzooauəflour,tower,sour.jyellowʃshipɛmet,lend,pen.kkingʒmeasureɛɪsay,main,weight.llipŋsingɛəfair,care,wear.mmatʧcheapɪfit,win,list.nnineƟthiniːfeed,me,beat.ppayðthenɪənear,beard,clear.rrunʤjoyɒlot,lost,spot.ssoonəunote,phone,coat.ɔːmore,cord,claw.ɔɪboy,coin,joint.ucould,stood,hood.uːyou,use,choose.uəsure,poor,cure.əːturn,third,word.ʌbut,fund,must.ətheweakvowelinbutter,about,forgotten.Hereisalistofthevowelletters:aeiouHereisalistoftheconsonantletters:bcdfghjklinnpqrstvwxyzFormingpluralsofcountnounsR2InformationonwhichnounshavepluralsisgiveninChapter1(1.14to1.193).R3Inmostcases,thepluraliswritten"s".hat=>hatstree=>treesR4Thepluraliswritten"es"after"sh","ss","x",or"s",anditispronounced/ɪz/.bush=>bushes385 glass=>glassesbox=>boxesbus=>busesThepluralisalsowritten"es"andpronounced/ɪz/after"ch",when"ch"ispronounced/ʧ/.church=>churchesmatch=>matchesspeech=>speechesR5Whenthe"s"followsoneofthesounds/f/,/k/,/p/,/t/or/Ɵ/,itispronounced/s/.belief=>beliefsweek=>weekscap=>capspet=>petsmoth=>mothsR6Whenthe"s"followsoneofthesounds/s/,/z/,or/ʤ/,itispronounced/ɪz/.service=>servicesprize=>prizesage=>agesR7Somenounswhichendwiththesound/Ɵ/,forexample"mouth",havetheirpluralformspronouncedasendingin/ðz/.Withothers,suchas"bath"and"path"thepronunciationcanbeeither/Ɵs/or/ðz/.YoumayneedtocheckthepronunciationsofwordsliketheseinaCobuilddictionary.R8Inmostothercasesthe"s"ispronounced/z/.bottle=>bottlesdegree=>degreesdoctor=>doctorsidea=>ideasleg=>legssystem=>systemstab=>tabsR9Withnounswhichendinaconsonantletterfollowedby"y",yousubstitute"ies"for"y"toformtheplural.country=>countrieslady=>ladiesopportunity=>opportunitiesWithnounswhichendinavowelfetterfollowedby"y",youjustadd"s"toformtheplural.boy=>boysday=>daysvalley=>valleysR10Thereareafewnounsendingin"f"or"fe"whereyouformthepluralbysubstituting"ves"for"f"or"fe".calf=>calveself=>elveshalf=>halvesknife=>knivesleaf=>leaveslife=>livesloaf=>loavesscarf=>scarvessheaf=>sheavesshelf=>shelvesthief=>thievesturf=>turveswife=>wiveswolf=>wolvesR11Withmanynounswhichendin"o",youjustadd"s"toformtheplural.photo=>photosradio=>radiosHowever,thefollowingnounsendingin"o"havepluralsendingin"oes":dominoechoembargoheronegropotatotomatovetoThefollowingnounsendingin"o"havepluralswhichcanendineither"s"or"es":buffalocargoflamingofrescoghettoinnuendomangomanifestomementomosquitomottosalvostilettotornadotorpedovolcanoR12ThefollowingnounsinEnglishhavespecialpluralforms,usuallywithdifferentvowelsoundsfromtheirsingularforms:child=>childrenlouse=>liceox=>oxen385 foot=>feetgoose=>geeseman=>menmouse=>micetooth=>teethwoman=>womenR13Mostnounswhichrefertopeopleandwhichendwith"man","woman",or"child"havepluralformsendingwith"men","women",or"children".postman=>postmenEnglishman=>Englishwomengrandchild=>grandchildrenR14Inadditiontothenounsmentionedabove,therearewordswhichareborrowedfromotherlanguages,especiallyLatin,andwhichstillformtheirpluralsaccordingtotherulesofthoselanguages.Manyofthemaretechnicalorformal,andsomearealsousedwitharegular"s"or"es"pluralendinginnon-technicalorinformalcontexts.YoumayneedtochecktheseinaCobuilddictionary.R15Somenounsendingin"us"havepluralsendingin"i".focus=>focinucleus=>nucleiradius=>radiistimulus=>stimuliR16Somenounsendingin"um"havepluralsendingin"a".aquarium=>aquariamemorandum=>memorandareferendum=>referendaspectrum=>spectrastratum=>strataR17Mostnounsendingin"is"havepluralsinwhichthe"is"isreplacedby"es".analysis=>analysesaxis=>axesbasis=>basescrisis=>crisesdiagnosis=>diagnoseshypothesis=>hypothesesneurosis=>neurosesparenthesis=>parenthesesR18Withsomenounsendingin"a",thepluralsareformedbyadding"e".larva=>larvaevertebra=>vertebraeSome,suchas"antenna","formula","amoeba",and"nebula",alsohavelessformalpluralsendingin"s".R19Othernounsformtheirpluralsinotherways.Someofthesehavetwopluralforms,oneformedwith"s"andoneformedinadifferentway.Usuallytheformwith"s"isusedinlessformalEnglish.appendix=>appendicesorappendixesautomaton=>automataorautomatonscorpus=>corporacriterion=>criteriagenus=>generaindex=>indicesorindexesmatrix=>matricesphenomenon=>phenomenatempo=>tempiortemposvirtuoso=>virtuosiorvirtuososvortex=>vorticesFormingcomparativeandsuperlativeadjectivesR20InformationonhowtousethecomparativesandsuperlativesofadjectivesisgiveninChapter2(2.108to2.127).R21Thecomparativeofanadjectiveisformedeitherbyadding"er"totheendofthenormalformoftheadjective,orbyputting"more"infrontofit.Thesuperlativeisformedbyadding"est"totheendoftheadjective,orbyputting"most"infrontofit.Thechoicebetweenadding"er"and"est"orusing"more"and"most"usuallydependsonthenumberofsyllablesintheadjective.Superlativesareusuallyprecededby"the".R22Withone-syllableadjectives,youusuallyadd"er"and"est"totheendofthenormalformoftheadjective.tall=>taller=>thetallestquick=>quicker=>thequickestHereisalistofcommonone-syllableadjectiveswhichformtheircomparativesandsuperlativesusually,oralways,byadding"er"and"est".bigdulllargeproudstrong385 brightbroadcheapcleanclearclosecoldcoolcrossdarkdeepdryfairfastfatfinefirmflatfreshfullgreathardhighhotlatelightlonglooseloudlownewniceoldpaleplainpoorquickrarerichroughsadsafesharpshortsickslowsmallsoftsweettallthickthintighttoughwarmweakwetwidewildyoung______Notethatwhen"er"and"est"areaddedtosomeadjectives,aspellingchangeneedstobemade.ThepatternsofspellingchangeinformingcomparativesandsuperlativesfromadjectivesareexplainedinparagraphR27.R23Youalsoadd"er"and"est"withtwo-syllableadjectivesendingin"y",suchas"angry","dirty",and"silly".happy=>happier=>thehappiesteasy=>easier=>theeasiestNotethatthereisaspellingchangehere,whichisexplainedinparagraphR27.Hereisalistofcommontwo-syllableadjectivesendingin"y"whosecomparativesandsuperlativesareformedlikethis:angrybusydirtyeasyfriendlyfunnyhappyheavylikelylovelyluckyprettysillysteadytinyR24Othertwo-syllableadjectivesusuallyhavecomparativesandsuperlativesformedwith"more"and"most".careful=>morecareful=>themostcarefulfamous=>morefamous=>themostfamousNote,however,that"clever"and"quiet"havecomparativesandsuperlativesformedbyadding"er"and"est".R25Sometwo-syllableadjectiveshavecomparativesandsuperlativeswitheithertheendings"her"and"est",or"more"and"most".Icanthinkofmanypleasantersubjects.Itwasmorepleasantherethaninthelectureroom.Exposuretosunlightisoneofthecommonestcausesofcancer....fivehundredofthemostcommonword"s.Hereisalistofcommonadjectiveswhichcanhaveeitherkindofcomparativeandsuperlative:commoncruelgentlehandsomelikelymaturenarrowobscurepleasantpoliteremoteshallowsimplestupidsubtleR26Adjectiveswhichhavethreeormoresyllablesusuallyhavecomparativesandsuperlativeswith"more"and"most".dangerous=>moredangerous=>themostdangerousridiculous=>moreridiculous=>themostridiculousHowever,somethree-syllableadjectivesareformedbyadding"un"tothebeginningofotheradjectives.Forexample,"unhappy"isrelatedto"happy"and"unlucky"to"lucky".Thesethree-syllableadjectiveshavecomparativesandsuperlativesformedeitherbyadding"er"and"est"orbyusing"more"and"most".Hefeltcrosserandunhappierthanever.R27Whenyouadd"eror"est"toanadjective,yousometimesneedtomakeanotherchangetotheendoftheadjectiveaswell.Ifaone-syllableadjectiveendsinasinglevowelletterfollowedbyasingleconsonantletter,youdoubletheconsonantletterwhenadding"er"of"est".big=>bigger=>thebiggesthot=>hotter=>thehottestHowever,youdonotdothiswithtwo-syllableadjectives.385 common=>commoner=>thecommoneststupid=>stupider=>thestupidestIfanadjectiveendsin"e",youremovethe"e"whenadding"er"or"est".wide=>wider=>thewidestsimple=>simpler=>thesimplestNotethatwithadjectivesendingin"le",thecomparativeandsuperlativehavetwosyllables,notthree.Forexample,"simpler"(from"simple"/sɪmpəl/)ispronounced/sɪmplə/.Ifanadjectiveendsinaconsonantletterfollowedby"y",youreplacethe"y"with"i"whenadding"er"or"est".dry=>drier=>thedriestangry=>angrier=>theangriestunhappy=>unhappier=>theunhappiestNotethatwith"shy","sly",and"spry",youadd"er"and"est"intheordinaryway.R28"Goodand"bad"havespecialcomparativesandsuperlativeswhicharenotformedbyadding"er"and"est"orbyusing"more"and"most"."Good"hasthecomparative"better"andthesuperlative"thebest".Theremightbebetterwaysofdoingit.Thisisthebestmuseumwe"vevisitedyet."Bad"hasthecomparative"worse"andthesuperlative"theworst".Thingsareworsethantheyusedtobe.Theairstriptherewastheworstplaceintheworld.Notethat"ill"doesnothaveacomparativeformandso"worse"isusedinstead.EachdayKuntafeltalittleworse.R29Theadjective"old"hasregularcomparativeandsuperlativeformsbut,inaddition,ithastheforms"elder"and"theeldest".Theseformsareusedonlytotalkaboutpeople,usuallyrelatives....thedeathofhistwoeldersonsintheFirstWorldWar.Bill"seldestboyisadoctor.Notethatunlike"older","elder"neverhas"than"afterit.R30Thereisnocomparativeorsuperlativeof"little"instandardEnglish,althoughchildrensometimessay"littler"and"thelittlest".Whenyouwanttomakeacomparison,youuse"smaller"and"thesmallest".R31Thecomparativesandsuperlativesofcompoundadjectivesareusuallyformedputting"more"and"most"infrontoftheadjective.self-effacing=>moreself-effacing=>themostself-effacingnerve-racking=>morenerve-racking=>themostnerve-rackingSomecompoundadjectiveshaveadjectivesastheirfirstpart.Comparativesandsuperlativesofthesecompoundsaresometimesformedusingthecomparativeandsuperlativeoftheadjective.good-looking=>better-looking=>thebest-lookingSimilarly,somecompoundadjectiveshaveadverbsastheirfirstpart.Theircomparativesandsuperlativesaresometimesformedusingthecomparativeandsuperlativeoftheadverb.well-paid=>better-paid=>thebest-paidbadly-planned=>worse-planned=>theworst-plannedThecomparativesandsuperlativesofadverbsareexplainedinparagraphsR150toR154.ThespellingandpronunciationofpossessivesR32TheuseofthepossessiveformofnamesandothernounsisexplainedinChapter2(2.180to2.192).R33Thepossessiveformofanameorothernounisusuallyformedbyaddingapostrophes("s)totheend.Ginny"smotherdidn"tanswer.Howardcameintotheeditor"soffice.R34Ifyouareusingapluralnounendingin"s"torefertothepossessor,youjustaddanapostrophe(").Iheardthegirls"stepsonthestairs.TheKirksgotopublishers"partiesinBloomsbury.However,ifyouareusinganirregularpluralnounwhichdoesnotendin"s",youaddapostrophes("s)totheendofit.385 Itwouldcostatleastthreepolicemen"ssalariesperyear.TheEqualPayActhasfailedtobringwomen"searningstothesamelevel....children"sbirthdayparties.R35Ifsomethingbelongstomorethanonepersonorthingwhosenamesarelinkedby"and",theapostrophes("s)isputafterthesecondname....HelenandTim"sapartment....ColinandMary"srelationship.Thecrowdmetoutsidefatherandmother"shouse.R36Ifyouwanttosaythattwopeopleorthingseachpossesspartofagroupofthings,boththeirnameshaveapostrophes("s).Thepuppywasasuperbblendofhisfather"sandmother"sbestqualities.R37Whenyouareusinganamewhichalreadyendsin"s",youcansimplyaddanapostrophe,forexample"StJames"Palace",oryoucanaddapostrophes("s),forexample"StJames"sPalace".Thesespellingsarepronounceddifferently.Ifyousimplyaddanapostrophe,thepronunciationremainsunaltered,whereasifyouaddapostrophes("s),thepossessiveispronounced/ɪz/.R38Apostrophes("s)ispronounceddifferentlyindifferentwords.Itispronounced•/s/afterthesound/f/,/k/,/p/,/t/,or/Ɵ/.•/ɪz/afterthesound/s/,/z/,/ʃ/,/ʒ/,/ʧ/,or/ʤ/.•/z/afterallothersounds.R39Ifyouareusingacompoundnoun,youaddapostrophes("s)tothelastiteminthecompound.Hewenttohismother-in-law"shouse.TheparadeassembledintheDetectiveConstable"sroom.R40Apostrophes("s)canbeaddedtoabbreviationsandacronymsinthesamewayastootherwords.HewillgetamajorityofMPs"votesinbothrounds.HefoundtheBBC"soutput,onbalance,superiortothatofITV.ThemajorityofNATO"smembersagreed.NumbersR41Theusesofcardinalnumbers,ordinalnumbers,andfractionshavebeenexplainedinChapter2(2.225to2.266).Theuseofordinalstoexpressdatesisexplainedinparagraph5.87.Listsofnumbersanddetailsabouthowtosayandwritenumbersandfractionsaregivenbelow.CardinalnumbersR42Hereisalistofcardinalnumbers.Thelistshowsthepatternsofformingnumbersgreaterthan20.0123456789101112131415161718zero,nought,nothing,ohonetwothreefourfiveeightseveneightnineteneleventwelvethirteenfourteenfifteensixteenseventeeneighteen2627282930405060708090100101110120200100010011010twenty-sixtwenty-seventwenty-eighttwenty-ninethirtyfortyfiftysixtyseventyeightyninetyahundredahundredandoneahundredandtenahundredandtwentytwohundredathousandathousandandoneathousandandten385 19202122232425nineteentwentytwenty-onetwenty-twotwenty-threetwenty-fourtwenty-five200010,000100,0001,000,0002,000,0001,000,000,000twothousandtenthousandahundredthousandamilliontwomillionabillionR43Whenyousayorwriteinwordsanumberover100,youput"and"beforethenumberexpressedbythelasttwofigures.Forexample,203issaidorwritten"twohundredandthree"and2840issaidorwritten"twothousand,eighthundredandforty".Fourhundredandeighteenmenwerekilledandahundredandseventeenwounded."And"isoftenomittedinAmericanEnglish....onehundredfiftydollars.R44Ifyouwanttosayorwriteinwordsanumberbetween1000and1,000,000,therearevariouswaysofdoingit.Forexample,thenumber"1872"canbesaidorwritteninwordsas•eighteenhundredandseventytwo•onethousandeighthundredandseventy-two•oneeightseventwo•eighteenseventy-twoNotethatyoucannotuse"a"insteadof"one"forthesecondway.Thethirdwayisoftenusedtoidentifysomethingsuchasaroomnumber.Withtelephonenumbers,youalwayssayeachfigureseparatelylikethis.Thelastwayisuseifthenumberisadate.R45Unlikesomeotherlanguages,inEnglishwhennumberover9999arewritteninfigures,acommaisusuallyputafterthefourthfigurefromtheend,theseventhfigurefromtheend,andsoon,dividingthefiguresintogroupsofthree.Forexample,15,000or1,982,000.Withnumbersbetween1000and9999,acommaissometimesputafterthefirstfigure.Forexample1,526.Whenanumbercontainsafullstop,thenumberornumbersafterthefullstopindicateafraction.Forexample,2.5isthesameastwoandahalf.OrdinalnumbersR46Hereisalistofordinalnumbers.Thelistshowsthepatternsofformingordinalnumbersgreaterthan20.1st2nd3rd4th5th6th7th8th9th10th11th12th13th14th15th16th17th18th19th20th21st22nd23rd24th25thfirstsecondthirdfourthfifthsixthseventheighthninthtentheleventhtwelfththirteenthfourteenthfifteenthsixteenthseventeentheighteenthnineteenthtwentytwenty-firsttwenty-secondtwenty-thirdtwenty-fourthtwenty-fifth26th27th28th29th30th31st40th41st50th51st60th61st70th71st80th81st90th91st100th101st200th1000th1,000,000th1,000,000,000thtwenty-sixthtwenty-seventhtwenty-eighthtwenty-ninththirtieththirty-firstfortiethforty-firstfiftiethfifty-firstsixtiethsixty-firstseventiethseventy-firsteightietheighty-firstninetiethninety-firsthundredthhundredandfirsttwohundredththousandthmillionthbillionth385 R47Asshownintheabovelist,ordinalscanbewritteninabbreviatedform,forexampleindatesorheadingorinveryinformalwriting.Youwritethelasttwolettersoftheordinalafterthenumberexpressedinfigures.Forexample,"first"canbewrittenas"1st","twenty-second"as"22nd","hundredandthird"as"103rd",and"fourteenth"as"14th"....onAugust2nd....the1stDivisionoftheSovereign"sEscort.FractionsandpercentagesR48Youcanwriteafractioninfigures,forexample½,¼,¾,and2/3.Thesecorrespondto"ahalf","aquarter","three-quarters",and"two-thirds"respectively.R49Fractionsareoftengiveninaspecialformasanumberofhundredths.Thistypeoffractioniscalledapercentage.Forexample,"three-hundredths",expressedasapercentageis"threepercent".Itcanalsobewrittenas"threepercent"or"3%"."Ahalf"canbeexpressedas"fiftypercent","fiftypercent",or"50%".About20percentofstudentaccountantsarewomen.90percentofmostfoodiswater.Before196045%ofBritishtradewaswiththeCommonwealth.Youcanusepercentagesontheirownasnoungroupswhenitisclearwhattheyreferto.Ninetypercentwereselfemployed....interestat10%perannum.VerbformsandtheformationofverbgroupsR50Verbshaveseveralforms.Theseformscanbeusedontheirownorcombinedwithspecialverbscalledauxiliaries.Whenaverboracombinationofaverbandanauxiliaryisusedinaclause,itiscalledaverbgroup.Verbgroupscanbefiniteornor-finite.Ifaverbgroupisfinite,ithasatense.Verbgroupsareusedtorefertoactions,states,andprocesses.TheuseofverbgroupsinclausestomakestatementsisexplainedinChapter3.R51Verbgroupscanbeactiveorpassive.Youuseanactiveverbgroupifyouareconcentratingontheperformerofanaction,andyouuseapassiveverbgroupifyouareconcentratingonsomeoneorsomethingthatisaffectedbyanaction.FurtherinformationontheuseofpassiveverbgroupsisgiveninChapter10(10.8to10.24).R52Regularverbshavethefollowingforms:•abaseformEGwalk•an"s"formEGwalks•apresentparticipleEGwalking•apastformEGwalkedThebaseformofaverbistheformthatisusedintheinfinitive.Itistheformthatisgivenfirstinadictionarywhereaverbisexplained,andthatisgiveninthelistsinthisgrammar.The"s"formofaverbconsistsofthebaseformwith"s"ontheend.Thepresentparticipleusuallyconsistsofthebaseformwith"-ing"ontheend.Itissometimescalledthe"-ing"form.Thepastformofaverbusuallyconsistsofthebaseformwith"-ed"ontheend.Inthecaseofregularverbs,thepastformisusedforthepasttenseandisalsousedasthepastparticiple.However,withmanyirregularverbs(seeparagraphR72)therearetwopastforms:•apasttenseformEGstole•apastparticipleformEGstolenTherearerulesaboutthespellingofthedifferentformsofverbs,dependingontheirendings.TheseareexplainedinparagraphsR54toR70.Certainverbs,especiallycommonones,haveirregularforms.ThesearelistedinparagraphsR72toR75.Theformsoftheauxiliaries"be","have",and"do"aregiveninparagraphR80.R53Eachverbformhasvarioususes.Thebaseformisusedforthepresenttense,theimperative,andtheinfinitive,andisusedaftermodals.The"s"formisusedforthethirdpersonsingularofthepresenttense.Thepresentparticipleisusedforcontinuoustenses,"-ing"adjectives,"-ing"nouns,andsomenon-finiteclauses.Thepastformisusedforthesimplepasttense,andforthepastparticipleofregularverbs.385 Thepastparticipleisusedforperfecttenses,passivetenses,"-ed"adjectives,andsomenon-finiteclauses.R54ThebasicverbformshavebeendescribedinparagraphR52.Thefollowingparagraphsexplainhowthevariousformsofverbsarespelled.Theyalsogivedetailsofverbswhichhaveirregularforms.Theformsoftheauxiliaries"be","have",and"do"aredealtwithseparatelyinparagraphsR80toR88.R55The"s"formofmostverbsconsistsofthebaseformoftheverbwith"s"addedtotheend.sing=>singswrite=>writesWhenthe"s"followsoneofthesounds/f/,/k/,/p/,/t/,or/Ɵ/,itispronounced/s/.break=>breakskeep=>keepsWhenthe"s"followsoneofthesounds/s/,/z/,or/ʤ/,itispronounced/ɪz/.dance=>dancesmanage=>managesInmostothercasesthe"s"ispronounced/z/.leave=>leavesrefer=>refersR56Withverbswhosebaseformendsinaconsonantletterfollowedby"y",yousubstitute"ies"for"y"toformthe"s"form.try=>triescry=>criesR57Withverbswhichendin"sh","ch","ss","x",or"zz","es"ratherthan"s"isaddedtothebaseformoftheverb.The"es"ispronounced/ɪz/.diminish=>diminishesreach=>reachespass=>passesmix=>mixesbuzz=>buzzesecho=>echoesR58Withone-syllableverbswhichendinasingle"s",youadd"ses".bus=>bussesgas=>gassesR59Mostverbshavepresentparticiplesformedbyadding"ing"tothebaseform,andpastformsformedbyadding"ed"tothebaseform.paint=>painting=>paintedrest=>resting=>restedWithallpresentparticiples,the"ing"ispronouncedasaseparatesyllable/ɪŋ/.Withverbswhosebaseformendswithoneofthesounds/f/,/k/,/p/,/s/,/ʃ/,or/ʧ/,the"ed"ofthepastformispronounced/t/.Forexample,"pressed"ispronounced/prɛst/and"watched"ispronounced/wɒʧt/.Withverbswhosebaseformsendswiththesound/d/or/t/,the"ed"ofthepastformispronounced/ɪd/.Forexample,"patted"ispronounced/pætɪd/and"fadedispronounced/fɛɪdɪd/.Withallotherverbs,the"ed"ofthepastformispronounced/d/.Forexample,"joined"ispronounced/ʤɔɪnd/and"lived"ispronounced/lɪvd/.R60Withmostverbswhichendin"e",thepresentparticipleisformedbysubstituting"ing"forthefinal"e".Similarly,yousubstitute"ed"forthefinal"e"toformthepastform.dance=>dancing=>dancedsmile=>smiling=>smiledfade=>fading=>fadedR61Inthecaseofafewverbsendingin"e",youjustadd"ing"inthenormalwaytoformthepresentparticiple.Youstillsubstitute"ed"for"e"toformthepastform.singe=>singeing=>singedagree=>agreeing=>agreedHereisalistoftheseverbs:385 ageagreedisagreedyefreekneerefereesingetiptoeR62Toformthepresentparticipleofaverbwhichendsin"ie",yousubstitute"ying"for"ie".tie=>tyingNotethatthepastformofsuchverbsisregular,followingthepatterninR60.R63Toformthepastformofaverbwhichendsinaconsonantletterfollowedby"y",yousubstitute"ied"for"y".cry=>criedNotethatthepresentparticipleofsuchverbsisregular,followingthepatterninR59.R64Ifthebaseformofaverbhasonesyllableandendswithasinglevowelletterfollowedbyaconsonantletter,youdoublethefinalconsonantletterbeforeadding"ing"toformthepresentparticipleor"ed"toformthepastform.dip=>dipping=>dippedtrot=>trotting=>trottedNotethatthisdoesnotapplyifthefinalconsonantletteris"w","x",or"y".row=>rowing=>rowedbox=>boxing=>boxedplay=>playing=>playedR65Thefinalconsonantletterofsometwo-syllableverbsisalsodoubled.Thishappenswhenthesecondsyllableendsinasinglevowelletterfollowedbyaconsonantletter,andisstressed.refer=>referring=>referredequip=>equipping=>equippedR66InBritishEnglish,whenatwosyllableverbendsinasinglevowelletterfollowedbyasingle"l",the"l"isdoubledbefore"ing"or"ed"isaddedtoit,evenifthereisnostressonthelastsyllable.travel=>travellingtravelledquarrel=>quarrelling=>quarrelledAfewotherverbsalsohavetheirfinalconsonantletterdoubled.program=>programming=>programmedworship=>worshipping=>worshippedhiccup=>hiccupping=>hiccuppedkidnap=>kidnapping=>kidnappedhandicap=>handicapping=>handicappedR67AlltheverbsdescribedinR66,except"handicap",canhavetheirpresentparticipleandpastformspelledwithasingleconsonantletterinAmericanEnglish.travel=>traveling=>traveledworship=>worshiping=>worshipedR68Hereisalistoftheverbswhosefinalconsonantletterisdoubledbefore"ing"and"ed"inbothBritishandAmericanEnglish:banbarbatbegblotblurbobbragbrimbugcapchatchipchopclapclogclotcramfitflagflapflipflopfogfretgasgelglutgrabgringripgritgrubgunguthemmarmobmopmugnagnetnipnodpadpatpegpenpetpinpitplanplodplugshopshredshrugshunsinsipskidskimskinskipslamslapslimslipslopslotslumslurstrutstunsunswabswapswatswigswottagtantapthinthrodtiptoptraptrektrimdeferdeterdistilembedemitenrolenthralequipexcelexpelincurinstiloccuromitoutwitpatrolpropelrebel385 cribcropcupdabdamdimdindipdotdragdropdrugdrumdubfanhophughumjamjetjigjogjotknitknotlaglaploglopmanpopprodpropribrigriprobrotrubsagscanscarscrapscrubshipsnagsnapsnipsnubsobspotsquatstabstarstemstepstirstopstrapstriptriptrotvetwagwrap~abetabhoracquitadmitallotcommitcompelconfercontrolrebutrecaprecurreferregretremitrepelsubmittransfertransmit~handicapNotethatverbssuchas"re-equip"and"unclog",whichconsistofaprefixandoneoftheaboveverbs,alsohavetheirfinalconsonantletterdoubled.R69Hereisalistofverbswhosefinalconsonantletterisdoubledbefore"ing"and"ed"inBritishEnglishbutnotalwaysinAmericanEnglish:canceldialduelenamelenrolenthralequalfuelfunnelgambolgrovelhiccupinitialkidnaplabellevellibelmarvelmodelpanelpedalpencilprogrampummelquarrelrefuelrevelrivalshovelshrivelsnivelspiralstencilswiveltotaltraveltunnelunravelworshipR70Withverbsendingin"c","king"and"ked"areusuallyaddedinsteadof"ing"and"ed".mimic=>mimicking=>mimickedpanic=>panicking=>panickedR71Alargenumberofverbshaveirregularpastformsandpastparticiples,whicharenotformedbyadding"ed"tothebaseform.Withregularverbs,thepastparticipleisthesameasthepastform.Howeverwithsomeirregularverbs,thetwoformsaredifferent.R72Thetableoppositegivesalistofirregularverbsandtheirforms.Notethatthepastformandpastparticipleof"read"appearthesameasthebaseformbutarepronounceddifferently.Thebaseformispronounced/riːd/andthepastformandpastparticiple/rɛd/.SeeaCobuilddictionaryforthepronunciation,ofirregularformsofverbs.R73Someverbshavemorethanonepastformorpastparticipleform.Forexample,thepastformandpastparticipleof"spell"canbeeither"spelled"or"spelt",andthepastparticipleof"prove"canbeeither"proved"or"proven".Heburnedseveralletters.Heburntallhispapers.Hisbandagedfoothadswelledtothreetimesnormalsize.Hiswristhadswollenupandbecomehuge.R74Someverbshavetwoformswhichcanbeusedaseitherthepastformorthepastparticiple.Hereisalistoftheseverbs.Theregularformisgivenfirst,althoughitmaynotbethemorecommonone.burn=>burned,burntbust=>busted,bustdream=>dreamed,dreamtdwell=>dwelled,dweltfit=>fitted,fithang=>hanged,hungkneel=>kneeled,kneltlean=>leaned,leantleap=>leaped,leaptlight=>lighted,litrelay=>relayed,relaidsmell=>smelled,smeltspeed=>speeded,spedspell=>spelled,speltspill=>spilled,spiltspoil=>spoiled,spoiltwet=>wetted,wetR75Hereisalistofverbswithtwopastforms:bid=>bid,badelie=>lied,laywake=>waked,wokeweave=>weaved,woveHereisalistofverbswithtwopastparticipleforms:bid=>bid,biddenswell=>swelled,swollen385 lie=>lied,lainmow=>mowed.mownprove=>proved,provenwake=>waked,wokenweave=>weaved,woven"Gotten"isoftenusedinsteadof"got"asthepastparticipleof"getinAmericanEnglish.Notethatsomeverbsappearinboththeabovelistsastheyhaveadifferentpastformandpastparticipleform,eachofwhichhasmorethanoneform.baseformpastformpastparticiplebaseformpastformpastparticiplebaseformpastformpastparticiplearisearosearisenfreezefrozefrozenshutshutshutawakeawokeawokengetgotgotsingsangsungbearborebornegivegavegivensinksanksunkbeatbeatbeatengowentgonesitsatsatbecomebecamebecomegrindgroundgroundslayslewslainbeginbeganbegungrowgrewgrownsleepsleptsleptbendbentbenthearheardheardslideslidslidbetbetbethidehidhiddenslingslungslungbindboundboundhithithitslinkslunkslunkbitebitbittenholdheldheldsowsowedsownbleedbledbledhurthurthurtspeakspokespokenblowblewblownkeepkeptkeptspendspentspentbreakbrokebrokenknowknewknownspinspunspunbreedbredbredlaylaidlaidspreadspreadspreadbringbroughtbroughtleadledledspringsprangsprungbuildbuiltbuiltleaveleftleftstandstoodstoodburstburstburstlendlentlentstealstolestolenbuyboughtboughtletletletstickstuckstuckcastcastcastloselostloststingstungstungcatchcaughtcaughtmakemademadestinkstankstunkchoosechosechosenmeanmeantmeantstrewstrewedstrewnclingclungclungmeetmetmetstridestrodestriddencomecamecomepaypaidpaidstrikestruckstruckcostcostcostputputputstringstrungstrungcreepcreptcreptquitquitquitstrivestrovestrivencutcutcutreadreadreadswearsworesworndealdealtdealtrendrentrentsweepsweptsweptdigdugdugrideroderiddenswimswamswumdrawdrewdrawnringrangrungswingswungswungdrinkdrankdrunkriseroserisentaketooktakendrivedrovedrivenrunranrunteachtaughttaughteatateeatensawsawedsawnteartoretornfallfellfallensaysaidsaidtelltoldtoldfeedfedfedseesawseenthinkthoughtthoughtfeelfeltfeltseeksoughtsoughtthrowthrewthrownfightfoughtfoughtsellsoldsoldthrustthrustthrustfindfoundfoundsendsentsenttreadtrodtroddenfleeflewflownsetsetsetunderstandunderstoodunderstoodflingflungflungsewsewedsewnwearworewornflyflewflownshakeshookshakenweepweptweptforbearforboreforborneshedshedshedwinwonwonforbidforbadeforbiddenshineshoneshonewindwoundwoundforgetforgotforgottenshoeshodshodwringwrungwrungforgiveforgaveforgivenshootshotshotwritewrotewrittenforsakeforsookforsakenshowshowedshownforswearforsworeforswornshrinkshrankshrunkR76Insomecases,differentpastformsorpastparticipleformsrelatetodifferentmeaningsorusesoftheverb.Forexample,thepastformandthepastparticipleoftheverb"hang"isnormally"hung".However,"hanged"canalsobeusedbutwithadifferentmeaning.CheckthedifferentmeaningsinaCobuilddictionary.AnironCrosshungfromaribbonaroundtheman"sneck.385 Hehadbeenfoundguiltyofmurderinghischildandhanged.Theyhadbiddownthechemicalcompany"sstock.Hehadbiddenhertobuythebest.Everyonegatheredasherelayedthetragicnews.Theycarefullyrelaidthepavements.R77Someverbsconsistofmorethanoneword,forexample"browbeat"and"typeset",andsomeconsistofaprefixplusaverb,forexample"undo"and"disconnect".Histeachersunderestimatehisgeneralability.Physicalmiraclesofouttimeoutdotheircreators.No-oneknowsbetterhowyoumismanageyourtimethanthosewholiveorworkwithyou.R78Verbswhichconsistofmorethanonewordorofaprefixplusaverbusuallyinflectinthesamewayastheverbswhichformtheirfinalpart.Forexample,thepastformof"foresee"is"foresaw"andthepastparticipleis"foreseen",thepastformandpastparticipleof"hamstring"is"hamstrung",andthepastformandpastparticipleof"misunderstand"is"misunderstood".Iunderestimatedhim.Hehadoutdonehimself.Ihadmisunderstoodandmismanagedeverything.Shehaddisappearedintothekitchenandreappearedwithaflashlight.R79Withmanyverbsofthissort,thefactthattheyconsistoftwopartsdoesnotmakeanydifferencetotheirforms.Theyfollowthenormalspellingrules.Hereisalistofverbswhosesecondpartisanirregularverb:browbeatbroadcastforecastmiscastrecasttypecastovercomeundercutoutdooverdoundowithdrawovereatbefallforegoundergooutgrowoverheatmishearbeholdupholdwithholdmislaywaylaymisleadremakerepaymisreadoverrideoutrunoverrunre-runforeseeoverseeoutsellresellbesetresettypesetoutshineovershootoversleepmisspellwithstandhamstringmistakeovertakeretakeundertakeforetellretellrethinkoverthrowmisunderstandrewindunwindrewriteunderwriteNotethepastformsandpastparticiplesoftheverbsshownbelow,whosesecondpartisaverbwithalternativepastformsandpastparticiples.refit=>refitted=>refittedoverhang=>overhung=>overhungfloodlight=>floodlit=>floodlitHereisalistofcompoundverbswhosesecondpartisanirregularverb:bottle-feedbreast-feedforce-feedspoon-feedbaby-sitlip-readproof-readsight-readghost-writeR80Thedifferentformsoftheauxiliaries"be","have",and"do"aresummarizedinthetablebelow.behavedoSimplepresent:with"I"am"mhave"vedowith"you","we","they",&pluralnoungroupsare"rewith"he","she","it"&singularnoungroupsis"shas"sdoesSimplepast:with"I","he","she","it"&singularnoungroupswashad"ddidwith"you","we","they",&pluralnoungroupswereParticiples:presentparticiplepastparticiplebeingbeenhavinghaddoingdoneR81Thepresenttenseformsof"be"canusuallybecontractedandaddedtotheendofthesubjectoftheverb,whetheritisanounorapronoun.ThisisoftendoneinspokenEnglishorininformalwrittenEnglish.I"minterestedintheroleofwomenallovertheworld.385 You"relate.We"remakingsomeprogress.It"sadelightfulcountry.Mycar"sjustacrossthestreet.Thecontractedformsof*be"areshowninthetableabove.R82Contractedformsof"be"arenotusedattheendofaffirmativestatements.Thefullformmustbeusedinstead.Forexample,yousay"Richard"snotveryhappybutAndrewis".Youcannotsay"Richard"snotveryhappybutAndrew"s".However,youcanuseacontractedformof"be"attheendofanegativestatementifitisfollowedby"not".Forexample,"Mary"squitehappy,buthermother"snot".R83When"be"isusedinnegativeclauses,eithertheverbor"not"canbecontracted.Formoreinformationoncontractionsinnegativeclauses,seeparagraphs4.55to4.56.R84Thepresenttenseandpasttenseformsof"have"canalsobecontracted.Thisisusuallyonlydonewhen"have"isbeingusedasanauxiliary.I"vechangedmymind.Thisisthefirstpartywe"vebeentoinmonths.She"sbecomeaveryinterestingyoungwoman.Idowishyou"dmetGuy.She"smanagedtokeepitquiet.We"ddoneagoodjob.Thecontractedformsof"have"areshowninthetableatparagraphR80.R85"scanbeshortforeither"is"or"has".Youcantellwhat"srepresentsbylookingatthenextword.If"srepresents"is",itisfollowedbyapresentparticiple,complement,oradjunct.Ifitrepresents"has",itisusuallyfollowedbyapastparticiple.She"sgoingtobeallright.She"salovelyperson.She"sgonetoseesomesocialworkpeople.R86Anounendingin"scouldalsobeapossessive.Itisfollowedbyanothernounwhenthisisthecase.Formoreinformationonpossessivesseeparagraphs2.180to2.192.R87"Is"and"has"arewritteninfullafternounsendingin"x","ch","sh","s",or"z",althoughinspeech"has"issometimespronouncedas/əz/afterthesenouns.R88"dcanbeshortforeither"had"or"would".Youcantellwhat"drepresentsbylookingatthenextword.If"drepresents"would",itisfollowedbythebaseformofaverb.Ifitrepresents"had",itisusuallyfollowedbyapastparticiple.We"dhavetotrytoescape."It"dbecheapertogetmarried,"Alansaid.Atleastwe"dhadthecouragetoadmitit.She"dboughtnewsunglasseswithdeep-bluetintedtenses.FiniteverbgroupsandtheformationoftensesR89Afiniteverbgroupisthekindofverbgroupthatgoeswithasubjectinmostclausesthathaveasubject.Itcontainsaformoftheverbthatyouareusingtoconveyyourmeaning(themainverb),andoftenoneormoreauxiliaries.Afiniteverbgrouphasthefollowingstructure:(modal)(have)(be)(be)mainverb.Theelementsinbracketsarechosenaccordingtofactorsrelatingtoyourmessage,forexample,whetheryouaretalkingaboutthepastorthepresent,orwhetheryouareconcentratingontheperformerofanactionorthethingaffectedbyit.Theyarecalledauxiliaries.Ifyouwanttoindicatepossibility,orindicateyourattitudetoyourhearerortowhatyouaresaying,youuseakindofauxiliarycalledamodal.Modalsmustbefollowedbyabaseform.TheuseofmodalsisexplainedinChapter4(4.95to4.262).Shemightseeus.Shecouldhaveseenus.Ifyouwanttouseaperfecttense,youuseaformof"have".Thismustbefollowedbyapastparticiple.Shehasseenus.Shehadbeenwatchingusforsometime.Ifyouwanttouseacontinuoustense,youuseaformof"be".Thismustbefollowedbya385 presentparticiple.Shewaswatchingus.Wewerebeingwatched.Ifyouwanttousethepassive,youuseaformof"be".Thismustbefollowedbyapastparticiple.Wewereseen.Wewerebeingwatched.Ifthereisanauxiliaryinfrontofthemainverb,youuseanappropriateformofthemainverb,asindicatedabove.Ifthereisnoauxiliary,youuseanappropriatesimpletenseform.Theverb"do"isalsousedasanauxiliary,withsimpletenses,butonlyinquestions,negativestatements,andnegativeimperativeclauses,orwhenyouwanttobeveryemphatic.Itisfollowedbythebaseformofthemainverb.Detailedinformationontheusesof"do"isgiveninChapter4.Doyouwantmetodosomethingaboutit?Idonotrememberher.Idoenjoybeingwithyou.R90Afiniteverbgroupalwayshasatense,unlessitbeginswithamodal.Tenseistherelationshipbetweentheformofaverbandthetimetowhichitrefers.Thissectiondealswiththewaysinwhichmainverbsandauxiliariescanbeusedtoformdifferenttenses.Thewayinwhichparticulartensesareusedtoindicateparticulartimesinrelationtothetimeofspeakingortothetimeofaneventiscoveredinparagraphs5.7to5.68.R91Whenaverbisbeingusedinasimpletense,thatis,thesimplepresentorthesimplepast,itconsistsofjustoneword,aformofthemainverb.Ifeeltired.Marylivedthereforfiveyears.Forothertenses,oneormoreauxiliariesareusedincombinationwiththemainverb.Iamtestingrecklesstonight.Ihavelivedhereallmylife.R92Thefirstwordofafiniteverbgroupmustagreewiththesubjectoftheclause.Thisaffectsthesimplepresenttense,andalltenseswhichbeginwiththepresentorpasttenseof"be"orthepresenttenseof"have".Forexample,ifthetenseisthepresentperfectandthesubjectis"John",thentheformoftheauxiliary"have"mustbe"has".Johnhasseemedworriedlately.Shelikesme.Yourlunchisgettingcold.R93Inthissectiontheexamplesgivenaredeclarativeclauses.Theorderofwordsinquestionsisdifferentfromtheorderindeclarativeclauses.Seeparagraphs4.10to4.30forinformationaboutthis.R94Continuoustensesareformedbyusinganappropriatetenseoftheauxiliary"be"andthepresentparticiple.Detailedinformationontheformationofthesetensesisincludedbelow.Theusesofcontinuoustensesareexplainedindetailinparagraphs5.7to5.68.R95Theformationofactivetensesisexplainedbelow.TheformationofpassivetensesisexplainedinparagraphsR109toR118.R96Thesimplepresenttenseofaverbisthesameasthebaseformwithallsubjectsexceptthethirdpersonsingular.Iwantabreathofair.Weadviseeveryonetoringbeforetheyleave.Theygiveyouacertificateandthentellyoutogetajob.Thethirdpersonsingularformisthe"s"form.Floraputsherheadback,andlaughsagain."Moneydecideseverything,"shethought.MrPaintingplaysPhilArcherintheradioserial.R97Thepresentcontinuousisformedbyusingthepresenttenseof"be"andthepresentparticipleofthemainverb.Peoplewhohavenofaithinartarerunningtheartschools.Thegardenindustryisbooming.Thingsarechanging.385 R98Thesimplepasttenseofaverbisthepastform.Themomentheenteredtheclassroomalleyesturnedonhim.Hewalkedoutofthekitchenandclimbedthestairs.ItwasdarkbythetimeIreachedEastLondon.R99Thepastcontinuousisformedbyusingthepasttenseof"be"andthepresentparticipleofthemainverb.Thetouristswerebeginningtodrivemecrazy.Webelievedwewerefightingforagoodcause.Atthetime,Iwasdreadingtransfer.R100Thepresentperfecttenseisformedbyusingthepresenttenseof"have"andthepastparticipleofthemainverb.Advanceshavecontinued,thoughactualproductivityhasfallen.Footballhasbecomeinternational.Ihaveseenthisbefore.Thepresentperfectissometimescalledtheperfecttenseinothergrammars.R101Thepresentperfectcontinuousisformedbyusingthepresentperfectof"be"andthepresentparticipleofthemainverb.Howardhasbeenworkinghardovertherecess.Whatwehavebeendescribingisverysimple.Theirshareshavebeengoingup.R102Thepastperfecttenseisformedbyusing"had"andthepastparticipleofthemainverb.TheIndiansummerhadreturnedforaday.Everyonehadlikedher.MurrayhadresentedthechangesIhadmade.R103Thepastperfectcontinuousisformedbyusing"hadbeen"andthepresentparticipleofthemainverb.Shedidnotknowhowlongshehadbeenlyingthere.Fortenyearsofherlife,teachershadbeenmakinguphermindforher.Ihadbeenshowingawomanaroundwithherlittleboy.R104ThereareseveralwaysofreferringtothefutureinEnglish.Theonethatisusuallycalledthefuturetenseinvolvesusingthemodal"will"or"shall"andthebaseformoftheverb.Itisexactlythesortofschemehewilllike.Myreceptionistwillhelpyouchoosetheframes.Don"tgoscatteringseedaboutorweshallhavemice.InspokenEnglish,thecontractedform"llisusuallyusedinsteadof"will"or"shall",unlessyouwanttobeemphatic.SendhimintotheArmy,he"lllearnabitofdiscipline.Assoonaswegettheticketsthey"llbesentouttoyou.Nextweekwe"llbetakingalookatmathematics.R105Ifthefullformsareused,"will"isgenerallyusedifthesubjectoftheverbisnot"I"or"we"."Shall"issometimesusedifthesubjectis"I"or"we",otherwise"will"isused.Inflationisrisingandwillcontinuetorise.Ishallbeawaytomorrow.R106Thefuturecontinuousisformedbyusing"will"or"shall",followedby"be"andthepresentparticipleofthemainverb.Indeed,wewillbeopposingthatpolicy.Fordmanualworkerswillbeclaimingatenpercentpayrise.Ishallbeleavingsoon.R107Thefutureperfectisformedbyusing"will"or"shall",followedby"have"andthepastparticipleofthemainverb.Longbeforeyoureturn,theywillhaveforgottenyou.Beforetheendofthisera,computergameswillhavereachedsuchheightsofrealism.Bythattime,Ishallhaveretired.R108Thefutureperfectcontinuousisformedbyusing"will"or"shall",followedby"havebeen"andthepresentparticipleofthemainverb.ByMarch,Iwillhavebeendoingthisjobforsixyears.Saturdayweek,IwillhavebeengoingoutwithSusanforthreemonths.R109Passivetensesareformedbyusinganappropriatetenseof"be"andthepastparticipleofthemainverb.Detailedinformationonformingpassivetensesisgivenbelow.385 R110Thesimplepresentpassiveisformedbyusingthesimplepresentof"be"andthepastparticipleofthemainverb.Theearthisbakedbythesunintoahard,brittlelayer.Ifyourcourseisfulltimeyouaretreatedasyourparents"dependent.Specificsubjectsarediscussed.R111Thepresentcontinuouspassiveisformedbyusingthepresentcontinuousof"be"andthepastparticipleofthemainverb.Thebuffetcounterisbeingarrangedbytheattendant.Itissomethingquiteirrelevanttowhatisbeingdiscussed.Jobsarestillbeinglost.R112Thesimplepastpassiveisformedbyusingthesimplepastof"be"andthepastparticipleofthemainverb.Nodatewasannouncedforthetalks.Thewallsofhistinyshopwereplasteredwithpicturesofactorsandactresses.Anumberofcottageswerebuilt,allwiththemostmodernofconveniences.R113Thepastcontinuouspassiveisformedbyusingthepastcontinuousof"be"andthepastparticipleofthemainverb.Thestagewasbeingsetforfutureprofits.Beforelong,machineswerebeingusedtocreatecodes.Strenuouseffortswerebeingmadelastnighttoendthedispute.R114Thepresentperfectpassiveisformedbyusingthepresentperfectof"be"andthepastparticipleofthemainverb.Theguest-roomwindowhasbeenmended.Oncerealprogresshasbeenmade,thegainsarelikelytobeimmense.Thedirtyplateshavebeenstackedinapileonthekitchencabinet.R115Thepastperfectpassiveisformedbyusing"hadbeen"andthepastparticipleofthemainverb.Theyhadbeentaughttobecritical.Theyhadbeendrivenhomeinthestationwagon.R116Thefuturepassiveisformedbyusing"will"or"shall",followedby"be"andtheparticipleofthemainverb.Hisownauthoritywillbeundermined.Congresswillbeaskedtoapproveanincreaseof47,5percent.R117Thefutureperfectpassiveisformedbyusing"will"or"shall",followedby"havebeen"andthepastparticipleofthemainverb.Anotherphaseoftheemancipationofmanfromtheneedtoworkforhislivingwillhavebeenachieved.Thefigureswillhavebeenheavilydistortedbythecontinuingeffectsofthecivilservants"strike.R118Thefuturecontinuouspassiveandtheperfectcontinuouspassivearerarelyused.R119Thetablebelowgivesasummaryoftheactiveandpassivetenses.Thepassivetensesmarkedwithastarareveryrarelyused.activepassivesimplepresentpresentcontinuouspresentperfectpresentperfectcontinuoussimplepastpastcontinuouspastperfectpastperfectcontinuousfuturefuturecontinuousfutureperfectfutureperfectcontinuousHeeatsit.Heiseatingit.Hehaseatenit.Hehasbeeneatingit.Heateit.Hewaseatingit.Hehadeatenit.Hehadbeeneatingit.Hewilleatit.Hewillbeeatingit.Hewillhaveeatenit.Hewillhavebeeneatingit.Itiseaten.Itisbeingeaten.Ithasbeeneaten.Ithasbeenbeingeaten.*Itwaseaten.Itwasbeingeaten.Ithadbeeneaten.Ithadbeenbeingeaten.*Itwillbeeaten.Itwillbebeingeaten.*Itwillhavebeeneaten.Itwillhavebeenbeingeaten.*R120Thereareanumberofverbswhicharenotusuallyusedincontinuoustenses,andsomethatarenotusedincontinuoustensesinoneormoreoftheirmainmeanings.Hereisalistofverbswhicharenotusuallyusedincontinuoustenses:admiredespiseimagineoweseem385 adoreappearastonishbebelievebelongconcernconsistcontaindeservedesiredetestdislikedoubtenvyexistfitforgetguesshatehavehearimpressincludeinvolvekeepknowlacklastlikelovemattermeanownpleasepossesspreferreachrealizerecognizerememberresemblesatisfyseesoundsmellstopsupposesurprisesurvivesuspectunderstandwantwishVerbsofthiskindaresometimescalledstativeverbs.Verbswhichareusedincontinuoustensesaresometimescalleddynamicverbs.R121"Be"isnotgenerallyusedasamainverbincontinuoustenseswithcomplementswhichindicatepermanentcharacteristics,orwithattributeswhichdonotrelatetobehaviour.However,"be"isusedincontinuoustensestoindicatesomeone"sbehaviourataparticulartime.Heisextremelynice.HewasanAmerican.You"rebeingverysilly."Have"isnotusedasamainverbincontinuoustenseswhenitindicatespossession,butitissometimesusedincontinuoustenseswhenitindicatesthatsomeoneisdoingsomething.Ihavetwodinghies.Wewerejusthavingaphilosophicaldiscussion.R122Someverbshaveveryspecificsensesinwhichtheyarenotusedincontinuoustenses.Forexample,"smell"isoftenusedincontinuoustenseswhenitmeans"tosmellsomething",butseldomwhenitmeans"tosmellofsomething".Comparethesentences"Iwasjustsmellingyourflowers",and"Yourflowerssmelllovely".Hereisalistofverbswhicharenotusedincontinuoustenseswhentheyhavethemeaningsindicated:depend(berelatedto)feet(haveanopinion)measure(havelength)smell(ofsomething)taste(ofsomething)think(haveanopinion)weigh(haveweight)R123Theimperativeformofaverbisregardedasfinite,becauseitcanstandastheverbofamainclause.However,itdoesnotshowtenseinthesamewayasotherfiniteverbgroups.Itisalwaysinthebaseform.Seeparagraphs4.31to4.35fortheusesoftheimperative.Stopbeingsilly.Comehere.Non-finiteverbgroups:infinitivesandparticiplesR124Anon-finiteverbgroupisaninfinitive,aparticiple,oraverbgroupbeginningwithaparticiple.Itcannotbecombinedwithasubjecttoformasentence.Non-finiteverbgroupsareusedafterverbsinphasestructures(seeparagraphs3.193to3.213)andarealsousedinnon-finitesubordinateclauses(seethesectiononsubordinationinChapter8).Theyarealsousedinsomestructureswithimpersonal"it"(seeparagraphs10.39to10.41)."To"-infinitivesarealsousedaftersomenounsandadjectives(seeparagraphs2.310to2.316,and2.55to2.66).Presentparticiplesarealsousedastheobjectsofprepositions.Non-finiteverbgroupscanhaveobjects,complements,oradjunctsafterthem,justlikefiniteverbgroups.Aclausebeginningwitha"to"-infinitivesiscalleda"to"-infinitiveclause,aclausebeginningwithapresentparticipleiscalledapresentparticipleclause,andaclausebeginningwithapastparticipleiscalledapastparticipleclause.R125Theorderofauxiliariesisthesamefornon-finiteverbgroupsasforfiniteverbgroups(seeparagraphR89).Notethatmodalsareneverusedinnon-finiteverbgroups.R126Theactive"to"-infinitiveconsistsof"to"andthebaseformoftheverb.Thissometimescalledthepresentinfinitiveorsimplytheinfinitive.Iwanttoescapefromhere.IaskedDonCardtogowithme.385 R127Theactiveinfinitivewithout"to"consistsofthebaseformoftheverb.Itissometimescalledthebareinfinitive.Theyhelpedmegetsettledhere.R128Otheractiveinfinitiveformsareoccasionallyused.Thepresentcontinuousinfinitiveconsistsof"tobe"or"be",followedbythepresentparticiple.Itismuchbetterforyoungchildrentobelivingathome.Theperfectorpastinfinitiveconsistsof"tohave"or"have",followedbythepastparticiple.Onlytwoareknowntohavedetected.Theperfectorpastcontinuousinfinitiveconsistsof"tohavebeen"or"havebeen",followedbythepresentparticipleIseemtohavebeeneatingallevening.R129Therearealsopassiveinfinitives.Theordinarypassiveinfinitiveconsistsof"tobe"or"be",followedbythepastparticiple.Ididn"twanttobecaughtoffguard.Theperfectorpastpassiveinfinitiveconsistsof"tohavebeen"or"havebeen",followedbythepastparticiple.Heseemstohavebeencompletelyforgotten.R130Thetablebelowgivesasummaryofinfinitives.Thepassiveinfinitivesmarkedwithastarareveryrarelyused.activepassivepresentcontinuousperfectperfectcontinuous(to)eat(to)beeating(to)haveeaten(to)havebeeneating(to)beeaten(to)bebeingeaten*(to)havebeeneaten(to)havebeenbeingeaten*R131Thepresentparticipleisusedasanon-finiteverbgroup,usuallywithanactivemeaning."Youcouldplaymeatune,"saidSimon,sittingdown.Hecouldkeepintouchwithmebywritingletters.R132Combinationsbeginningwith"having"areoccasionallyused.Theperfectorpast"ing"formconsistsof"having"andthepastparticiple.Ash,havingforgottenhisfear,hadbecomeboredandrestless.Theperfectorpastcontinuous"ing"formconsistsof"havingbeen"andthepresentparticiple.Itisrarelyused.HavingbeensupportingTomandMickontheclimbforaweek,theyneededarest.R133Therearealsocombinationsbeginningwith"being"and"having"whichhaveapassivemeaning.Theordinarypassive"ing"formconsistsof"being"andthepastparticiple....fearsthatpatientswouldresentbeinginterviewedbyamedicalcomputer.Theperfectorpast"ing"formconsistsof"havingbeen"andthepastparticiple.Havingbeendeclaredinsane,hewasconfinedforfourmonthsinaprisonhospital.Somewereshotfullofarrowsafterhavingbeenmortallywoundedbygunshot.R134Thetablebelowgivesasummaryof"ing"forms.The"-ing"formmarkedwithastarisveryrarelyused.activepassiveperfectperfectcontinuouseatinghavingeatenhavingbeeneatingbeingeatenhavingbeeneatenhavingbeenbeingeaten*R135Thepastparticipleisalsousedasanon-finiteverbgroup,withapassivemeaning.Stunnedbytheswiftnessoftheassault,theenemywereoverwhelmed.Whenchallenged,shestartedandseemedquitesurprised.FormingadverbsR136TheusesofadverbsareexplainedinChapters2,5,6,and10.R137Mostadverbsarerelatedtoadjectivesinform,andofteninmeaning.Theyareformedbyadding"ly"totheadjective.Forinformationonwhichadjectivesyoucanadd"ly"to,seeparagraphs6.17to6.27.sad=>sadlycheerful=>cheerfullyprivate=>privately385 accidental=>accidentallysurprising=>surprisinglyR138Sometimestheformationisslightlydifferent.Withadjectivesendingin"le",youreplacethe"le""with"ly".suitable=>suitablyterrible=>terriblygentle=>gentlyNotethat"whole"hastherelatedadverb"wholly".R139Withadjectivesendingin"y",youreplacethe"y"with"ily".easy=>easilysatisfactory=>satisfactorilyNotethatone-syllableadjectivesendingin"y"usuallyhave"ly"added,inthenormalway.wry=>wrylyshy=>shylyNotethattheadverbrelatedto"dry"canbespelled"drily"or"dryly".R140Withadjectivesendingin"ic",youadd"ally".automatic=>automaticallytragic=>tragicallyNotethat"public"hastherelatedadverb"publicly".R141Withafewadjectivesendingin"e"(not"le"),youreplacethe"e"with"ly".due=>dulytrue=>trulyundue=>undulyeerie=>eerilyR142With"full"and"dull",youjustadd"y".full=>fullydull=>dullyR143Notethat"ly"isnotgenerallyaddedtoadjectivesendingin"ed"toformadverbs.However,hereisalistofadverbswhichareformedinthisway:absent-mindedlyadmittedlyallegedlyassuredlybelatedlyblessedlycontentedlycrookedlydecidedlydejectedlydelightedlydeservedlydeterminedlydistractedlydoggedlyexaggeratedlyexcitedlyfixedlyfrenziedlyguardedlyhalf-heartedlyheatedlyhurriedlylight-heartedlymarkedlypointedlyrepeatedlyreportedlyreputedlyresignedlysupposedlyundoubtedlyunexpectedlyunhurriedlywholeheartedlywickedlyR144Afewadverbswhichendin"ly"arerelatedtonouns.Theseincludesometimeadverbs.day=>dailyfortnight=>fortnightlyhour=>hourlymonth=>monthlyquarter=>quarterlyweek=>weeklyyear=>yearlyNotethespellingof"daily".Thesewordsarealsothemselvesusedasadjectives.Otheradverbsrelatedtonounsareshownbelow.name=>namelypart=>partlypurpose=>purposelybody=>bodilyR145Afewadverbsendingin"ly"arenotrelatedtoanyadjectiveornoun.accordinglyexceedinglyjokinglylonginglymanfullymostlypresumablyR146Hereisalistofadverbswhichhavethesameformasadjectives:alikeallrightfinefirstjustkindlyoff-handonlysolostill385 alonecleandeepdirectevenextrafarfastfreefreelancefullfull-timefurtherhardhighjollylastlatelittlelongloudlownextnon-stopoutrightoverallpart-timepastprettyquickrightslowstraighttightwellwidewrongNotethattheadverbissometimesnotrelatedinmeaningtotheadjectivewhoseformitshares.CheckthemeaningsinaCobuilddictionary.Withsomeofthesewords,therearealsorelatedformsendingin"ly".cleanlydirectlydeeplyevenlyfinelyfirstlyfreelyfullyhardlyhighlyjustlylastlylatelyloudlyquicklyrightlyslowlytightlywidelywronglyNotethatthese"ly"formssometimeshavethesamemeaningastheotheradverbform,andsometimesnot.Theadverbsoftimeendingin"ly"whicharementionedinparagraphR144alsohavethesameformasadjectives.R147Notethatordinalnumbersareusedbothasmodifiersandasadverbs.Theyalsohaverelatedadverbsendingin"ly".R148Hereisalistofadverbswincharenotrelatedtoanyadjective:afreshalasalikealmostaloudalsoaltogetheranyhowanywayapartbesidesdoubtlesseitherenoughforthwithfurthermorehalfhenceherebyhoweverindeedinsteadlikewisemaybemeanwhilemoremoreovermuchneverthelessnonethelessotherwiseperhapsquiteratherregardlesssosomehowsomewhatthereforethereuponthoughthustogethertooverywhatsoeverR149Adverbsoftimeandmanyadverbsofplacearealsonotrelatedtoadjectives.SeeChapters5and6forlistsoftheseadverbs.FormingcomparativeandsuperlativeadverbsR150Informationonhowtousecomparativesandsuperlativesofadverbs,andwhichhavethem,isgiveninChapter6(6.30to6.35).R151Thecomparativeofanadverbusuallyconsistsofthenormalformoftheprecededby"more".freely=>morefreelyappropriately=>moreappropriatelyR152Thesuperlativeofanadverbusuallyconsistsofthenormalformoftheadverbprecededby"most".commonly=>mostcommonlyeagerly=>mosteagerlyR153Afewverycommonadverbshavecomparativesandsuperlativesthataresinglewordsandnotformedusing"more"and"most"."Well"hasthecomparative"better"andthesuperlative"best".Shewouldaskhimlater,whensheknewhimbetter.IhavetofindoutwhatIcandobest."Badly"hasthecomparative"worse"andthesuperlative"worst".Shewastreatedfarworsethananyanimal.TheexpeditionfromMozambiquefaredworst.Adverbswhichhavethesameformasadjectiveshavethesamecomparativesandsuperlativesastheadjectives.Forexample,thecomparativeandsuperlativeoftheadverb"fast"are"faster"and"fastest",andthecomparativeandsuperlativeoftheadverb"hard"are"harder"and"hardest".Priceshavebeenrisingfasterthanincomes.385 Youprobablylearnquickerbyhavinglessons.Theoldpeopleworkthehardest.Theoneswiththeshortestlegsruntheslowest.R154Afewadverbsoftimeandplacehaveirregularcomparativesandsuperlatives.SeeChapter5(5.69,5.114,and5.123)andChapter6(6.89).early=>earlier=>earliestlate=>later(nosuperlative)soon=>sooner(nosuperlative)long=>longer=>longestdeep=>deeper=>deepestfar=>farther,further=>farthest,furthestnear=>nearer=>nearestclose=>closer=>closestIndexNote,entriesinboldaregrammaticalterms;entriesinitalicsarelexicalitems;anarrow=>denotesacross-referencewithintheindex.Aa/an1.213-220withsingularcountnouns1.213,1.220awithwordsstartingwithaconsonantsound1.214anwithwordsstartingwithavowelsound1.214mentioningsomethingforthefirsttime1.215inmodifiedorqualifiednoungroups1.216incomplements1.217withqualifiedormodifieduncountnouns1.218usingindividualstorefertogroups1.219afternotsuch2.135sayingaoraninsteadofone2.232infrontoflargenumbers2.238expressingspeed2.274withdaysoftheweek5.95inadjunctsoffrequency5.115ablebeabletoforfuturepossibility4.122,4.228-235aboutinadjunctsoffrequency5.116asprepositionindicatingmovement6.77asadverbofdirection6.96afterreportingverbtoindicatesubjectmatter7.81beabouttoexpressingthefuture5.59above9.12absolutely2.153,6.50abstractnouns2.304,2.314-315accordingto7.70activeoractivevoice10.8adjectivalclausesseerelativeclauseadjectives2.2-173=>attributiveadjectives2.45-47=>classifyingadjectives2.29-33=>colouradjectives2.34-39=>compoundadjectives2.98-107=>"-ed"adjectives2.81-97=>emphasizingadjectives2.40-43=>"-ing"adjectives2.67-80=>predicativeadjectives2.48-57=>qualitativeadjectives2.24-28usedasheadwords1.67-73385 attributiveorpredicativeposition2.19-23thatcanbeclassifyingorqualitative2.33postdeterminers2.44orderandpositionofadjectives2.58-66listsofadjectivesusedafteranoun2.62-63differentmeaningswhenusedinfrontoforafteranoun2.65-66comparativesandsuperlatives2.108-127,R20-31withnounmodifiers2.177withfractions2.258followingmeasurementnounsofsize2.270ascomplements3.133-138,3.163-172aftertransitiveverbsandas3.181withhowin"wh"-questions4.28formedbyadding-lytotimewords5.120adding-lytomakeadverbs6.17,R137-143thatdonotformadverbs6.27followedby"that"-clauses7.85-88afterconjunctionintimeclauses8.24afterifinconditionalclauses8.37inthestructuresso...thatorso...as8.58aftercoordinatingconjunctions8.164waysoflinkingadjectives8.173-175,8.189listsofadjectivesthatcanreferback9.38adjectivesinimpersonalitstructures10.36,10.42adjuncts6.1-127=>adjunctsofdirection6.73-79=>adjunctsofduration5.123-144=>adjunctsoffrequency5.114-122=>adjunctsofplace6.64-93=>adjunctsoftime5.1-112=>linkingadjuncts10.73-81=>sentenceadjuncts10.56-72incomparativestructures2.111withtransitiveverbs3.20-21withergativeverbs3.67withlinkverbs3.173-178positioninclause6.7-13invertingsubjectandobjectafteradjuncts6.15asfocusofcleftsentence10.27seealsoadverbs,prepositionalphrasesadjunctsofduration5.123-144withperfecttenses5.48,5.50listofadverbs5.123listofprepositions5.124usingfor5.125-128negativestatements5.132noungroupsasadjunctsofduration5.133withapproximatingadverbsandexpressions5.134indicatingthewholeofaperiod5.135-136indicatingstartorendofaperiod5.137-142adjunctsoffrequency5.114-122withpresenttenses5.23-24withpasttenses5.44-49listofadverbsofindefinitefrequency5.114usingapproximatingadverbs5.116formedbyadding"-ly"totimewords5.120usingbyinexpressionslikeyearbyyear5.122adjunctsofindefinitetimelistofadverbsofindefinitetime5.41385 usedwithfuturetenses5.60adjunctsofplace6.64-93afteradjectivesasqualifiers2.308afterlinkverbs3.176listofprepositions6.65referringtopartofaplaceorobject6.69specifyingplacebystatingadistance6.71-72instructureswiththereis10.47adjunctsoftime5.1-5,5.21-25,5.40-51,5.60-62,5.69-112afteradjectivesasqualifiers2.308afterbe3.177givingtimereferences5.69-83listsofadverbsofindefiniteandspecifictime5.41positioninclause5.41,5.70restrictionsonusewithpresentperfect5.34specifictimesusingthatorthen5.74withfuturetenses5.60-62withpasttenses5.40-51withpresenttenses5.21-25inreportedclauses7.59followedbytimeclauses8.8seealsoadjunctsofduration,adjunctsoffrequencyadverbialclauses8.6-82=>clausesofmanner8.78-82=>concessiveclauses8.65-72=>conditionalclauses8.25-42=>placeclauses8.73-77=>purposeclause8.43-48=>reasonclauses8.49-53=>resultclauses8.54-64=>timeclause8.8-24adverbialparticles6.83adverbialphrases,adverbials,adverbsphrasesseeadjunctsadverbs6.16-52=>adverbsofdegree6.45-52=>adverbsofdirection6.95-100=>adverbsofmanner6.36-44=>adverbsofposition6.82-90=>focusingadverbs10.87-91=>indefiniteplaceadverbs6.90-93modifying"-ed"adjectives2.90usedinphrasalverbs3.86typesofadverbs6.16twoadverbsrelatedtothesameadjective6.26comparativesandsuperlatives6.30-35,R151-154asqualifiersafternoungroups6.102afterreportingverbs7.12linkedbyand8.176"-ly"adverbsfromadjectivesandnounsR137-144"-ly"adverbsnotrelatedtoadjectivesornounsR145listofadverbswiththesameformasadjectivesR146listofadverbsnotrelatedtoadjectivesR148listofadverbsplacedinfrontofthemainverb6.10adverbsofdegree6.45-52infrontof"-ed"adjectives2.89emphasizingadverbs6.49-50assubmodifiers6.51adverbsofdirects6.94-100385 lists6.94-95severaldirectionsorrepealedmovement6.96movementaway6.97movementalongaline6.98movementacrossorpastsomething6.99adverbsofmanner6.36-44infrontof"-ed"adjectives2.89listof"-ly"adverbsofmanner6.38describingfeelingsaswellasmanner6.40indicatingcircumstances6.41-42formedfromqualitativeadjectives6.43adverbsofposition6.82-90lists6.83,6.85followedbyanotheradjunct6.87comparativesandsuperlatives6.89affixesseenegativeaffixesafterrelatingeventsorperiodsoftime5.106-107inadjunctsofduration5.129,5.139asprepositionindicatingdirection6.75intimeclauses8.15again5.119age2.275-280agreementseeconcordallusedinsteadofpersonalpronoun1.155asdeterminer1.209-210,1.227inadjunctsofduration5.135followedbydefiningrelativeclause8.87atstartofcleftsentences10.28alloverasprepositionofposition6.66almostinfrontofas...asstructure2.169withnoorneverinbroadnegatives4.90intimeexpressions5.100inadjunctsoffrequency5.116already5.83although8.66,8.71always5.45anseea/anandwithbetweenexpressingarangeofnumbers2.288linkingtwoverbsinphasestructure3.201between...andinadjunctsofduration5.142atbeginningofresultclauses8.55linkingclauses8.140-150linkingnoungroups8.160,8.166linkingadjectives8.169-171,8.173-174linkingadverbs8.176linkingprepositionsandprepositionalphrases8.179-180linkingmodifiers8.181withbothforemphasis8.183linkingmorethantwoclausesorwordgroups8.188anotheraspronoun1.159asgeneraldeterminerwithcountnouns1.209385 withsingularcountnounsornumbers1.225anyasgeneraldeterminer1.209-210withvarioustypesofnoun1.224withcomparatives2.168,6.35innegativestatements4.45,4.89anyofasaquantifier2.205anybody1.127-140anyone1.127-140anything1.127-140anywhere6.90,6.93apostrophes2.180-192formofthepossessive2.181withdeterminers2.181withvarioustypesofnoun2.185-186,2.191followedbyownforemphasis2.187indicatingsomeone"shomeorplaceofwork2.188inprepositionalphraseswithof2.189spellingandpronunciationR32-40appear3.135,7.66,10.53apposition2.319-320approximatingadverbsinnon-specifictimeexpressions5.99inadjunctsoffrequency5.116inadjunctsofduration5.134approximation2.281-288amountsandmeasurements2.281,2.286minimumandmaximumnumbers2.262,2.284positionofapproximatingexpressions2.283-287indicatingarange2.288around6.77,6-96as3.179-182afterverbs,describingthesubject3.180-182expressingsimilarity6.112-113intimeclauses8.11inreasonclauses8.50inclausesofmanner8.79-81as...as2.129-135afterjust,quite,nearly,andalmost2.169asfollowedbyanadverb,followedbyas6.114asif8.81-82asthough8.81-82askasareportingverb7.6,7.30,7.39,7.72atintimeexpressions5.90-92inadjunctsoffrequency5.121indicatingdirection6.75referringtoexactposition6.69inreportstructurestomentionthehearer7.74atallforemphasistonegativestatement4.91attributiveadjectives2.45-47lists2.46auxiliariesinquestions4.12innegativestatements4.49-52linkingtwoverbs8.155inellipsis9.49-62inquestiontags10.111385 formsandcontractedformsR80-87away6.97awayfromindicatingstartingpoint6.78BbareinfinitiveR127seealsoinfinitivewithoutto,infinitives,"to"-infinitivesbarely4.83,4.88beinstructuresexpressingage2.276-280aslinkverb3.127-132followedbyprepositionalphrases3.174followedbyadjunctsoftime3.177asmainverbina"yes/no"-question4.14with"that"-clauseascomplement7.89in"whether"-clauses8.41repeatingbeinstructuresinvolvingellipsis9.53usedtoformpassives10.9getinsteadofbeinpassives10.24asauxiliaryR80,R89contractedformsR81because8.50become3.127beforerelatingeventsorperiodsoftime5.106-107inadjunctsoffrequency5.119inadjunctsofduration5.141asprepositionofposition6.66intimeclauses8.16below9.46best6.32,6.52better4.251,6.32,6.52between2.288,5.142billion2.238-239billionsusedforemphasis2.241bitabitandalittlebitassubmodifiers2.167abitasadverbofdegree6.52bothusedinsteadofapersonalpronoun1.155asdeterminer1.209,1-227usedwithandforemphasis8.183boundbeboundtousedinsteadofwill4.238broadnegatives4.83-90butafterindefinitepronounsstartingwithany-4.70afternegativewordsstartingwithno-4.70usedtolinkclauses8.140,8.145usedtolinkadjectives8.175usedtolinkadverbs8.176usedwithnottoshowcontrast8.187byafternouns,fortheperformerofanaction2.303eventshappeningbeforeacertaintime5.110adjunctsoffrequency5.122prepositionreferringtoexactposition6.69fortheperformerofanactioninpassives10.14listsofverbsusedwithbyinthepassive10.16C385 canindicatingability4.119-122indicatingpermission4.146askingforhelp4.165makingarequest4.167offeringtodosomething4.180offeringhelp4.183expressinganopinionaboutsomething4.224introducingyourstatement4.223inreportedclauses7.52seealsocouldcannotnegativeformofcan4.105expressingimpossibility4.130expressingprohibition4.151expressingunwillingness4.203can"tshortenedformofcannot4.105usedinrequests4.169cardinalnumbers2.230-248aspronouns1.156,2.237positioningroup2.230,2.236concordwithnounsandverbs2.234-235largenumbers2.238-242usedtoquantity2.244-245withgeneraltimewordstoexpressduration.248writingandsayingcardinalnumbersR42-45seealsoordinalnumberscaseincaseorjustincaseinreasonclauses8.51certainasgeneraldeterminer1.230classifyingadjectives2.29-33lists2.30,2.44,2.46,2.103withsubmodifiers2.152-153linkingclassifyingadjectives8.171,8.189usedtoformsentenceadjuncts10.68clauses=>clausesofmanner8.78-82=>concessiveclauses8.65-72=>conditionalclauses8.25-42=>placeclauses8.73-77=>purposeclauses8.43-48=>reasonclauses8.49-53=>resultclauses8.54-64=>timeclauses8.8-24seealsorelativeclausesandnon-finiteclausesclausesofmanner8.78-82listofconjunctionsused8.78describingthewaysomethingisdone8.79makingcomparisons8.80usingasiforasthough8.81-82cleftsentences10.25-30usingimpersonalit10.26usingwhatorall10.28closeclosetoandclosertoasprepositions6.68cohesion9.2-69referringback9.2-40385 referringforward9.41-48seealsoellipsiscollectivenouns1.48-52colouradjectives2.34-39listofcompoundcolouradjectives2.104linkedbyand8.170come3.201,10.54commas2.320,8.169,8.86commonnouns1.3-4,1.163comparativeadjectives2.108-116comparativeofcolouradjectives2.36positionofcomparatives2.59,2.112asmodifiers2.109ascomplements2.110followedbythan2.111usedasheadwords2.114contrastingcomparatives2.116submodifyingcomparatives2.162-168withanyorno2.168formationR20-31comparativeadverbs6.30-35forms6.31structures6.35formationandirregularformsR151-154comparison2.108-144,2.162-168complementation3.127-182complements3.127-172adjectivesafterlinkverbs2.21-22,3.134linkingadjectivesincomplements2.61comparativesascomplements2.110superlativesascomplements2.120measurementnounsascomplements2.269-271positioninclause3.128adjectivesascomplements3.133-138noungroupsascomplements3.139-148followedbya"to"-infinitive3.149-155followingintransitiveverbs3.156-161objectcomplements3.162-172atbeginningofconcessiveclause8.70thatascomplementofdefiningrelativeclause8.90referredtobysoinsteadofbeingrepeated9.24positionwithpassiveoftransitiveverbandobject10.21inimpersonalitstructures10.39,10.42seealsolinkverbscomplexsentences8.4compoundadjectives2.98-107patternsofformation2.100-101lists2.102-104madeupofmorethentwowords2.105fromotherlanguages2.107withcardinalnumbers2.247expressingage2.276-280compoundnouns1.84-93summaryofuse1.84lists1.86-89composition1.90fromphrasalverbs1.90formingplurals1.92expressingage2.276-277385 compoundsentences8.5compoundverbs3.118-126forms3.121-122lists3.123-125inflections3.126concessiveclauses8.65-72listofconjunctionsused8.65usedforsimplecontrast8.66useofevenif,notthat,andexceptthat8.67-69puttingadverbsandcomplementsinfrontofthough8.70non-finiteconcessiveclauses8.71-72concordwithdifferenttypesofnouns1.17,1.25,1.36,1.43,1.47,1.49withadjectivesasheadwords1.69withtheyorthem1.108withindefinitepronouns1.128possessivedeterminerswithnoun1.197withquantifiers2.198,2.204withpartitives2.211withcardinalnumbers2.234-235withfractions2.261withplacenames6.104withtwonoungroupsassubject8.165firstwordoffiniteverbgroupandsubjectR92conditionalclauses8.25-42inreportstructures7.56summaryofuses8.25beginningwithiforunless8.26inimperativestructures8.27withmodalinmainclause8.27choicesoftense8.28-35omissionofifwithshould,were,orhad8.36iffollowedbyanadjective8.37expressingnecessaryconditions8.33usingevenif8.39usingwhether...or8.40useof"wh"-wordsendingin-ever8.42conjunctions8.1-199introduction8.2subordinatingconjunctions8.6-116lists8.43,8.49,8.55,8.65,8.78coordinatingconjunctions8.137-189contractionsn"tfornot4.55-56,4.105,4.253ofwillandwould4.108ofauxiliariesR80coordinatingconjunctions8.137-189definition8.5list8.137emphasizingcoordinatingconjunctions8.182-187coordination8.137-189listofcoordinatingconjunctions8.137linkingclauses8.139-151linkingverbs8.152-158linkingnoungroups8.159-167emphasizingandwithboth8.183linkingadjectives8.169-175,8.189linkingadverbswithand,but,oryet8.176linkingprepositionsandprepositionalphrases8.179-180385 linkingmodifiers8.181emphasizingcoordinatingconjunctions8.182-187linkingmorethantwoclausesorwordgroups8.188coordinatorsseecoordinatingconjunctionscopulasseelinkverbscoildinsteadofcaninreportstructures4.114indicatingability4.113,4.119-122expressingpossibility4.127-128,4.137-138,4.142withnegative,expressingimpossibility4.130,4.145expressingstrongassertion4.131expressinguncertaintyaboutthepast4.143indicatingpermission4.148givinginstructionsoraskingforhelp4.164makingrequests4.168makingsuggestions4.187expressingopinions4.224inreportedclauses7.51-52couldn"t4.105seealsocouldcountablenounsseecountnounscountnouns1.16-23concordwithverbs1.17useofdeterminers1.18list1.19formingplurals1.20-21,R2-19irregularpluralsR12-19singularformwithpluralmeaning1.22nounsthatcanbeuncountorcount1.33usedastitles1.58usingsomewhennounisplural1.221listofcountnounsusedindelexicalstructures3.36Ddareassemi-modal4.252-257samemeaningwhenmodalorordinaryverb4.253usedwithothermodalsordo4.255-256daren"t4.253seealsodaredeclarativemood4.6-9givinginformation4.6expressinganopinion4.7makingpromises4.8withdoforemphasis4.9givingconfirmation4.36givinginstructions4.37deep6.88,6.94definingnon-finiteclauses8.132-133definingrelativeclauses8.86-107referringtopeople8.90referringtothings8.91useofwhen,whereandwhy8.105-107definitearticle1.162-181delexicalstructuresseedelexicalverbsdelexicalverbs3.33-46385 listofdelexicalverbs3.34alternativestodelexicalstructures3.35nounsusedindelexicalstructures3.36-46demonstrativeadjectives1.182-191demonstrativepronouns1.123-126demonstratives1.182-191determiners1.161-236=>a/an1.213-220=>demonstratives1.182-191=>possessivedeterminers1.192-207=>the1.162-181generaldeterminers1.208-231listofgeneraldeterminers1.208specificdeterminers1.162-207listofspecificdeterminers1.162usingnounswithoutadeterminer1.212,3.145predeterminers1.236withapostrophesstructures2.181whose,whichandwhatinquestions4.23-24,4.29anyinnegativestatements4.45linkingtwonoungroups8.162directobjectseeobjectdirectspeechseequotestructuresdisjunctsseesentenceadjunctsditransitiveverbs3.74-83directandindirectobjects3.75-82lists3.83inthepassive10.20doasdelexicalverb3.33-41withbaseformofaverbforemphasis4.9asauxiliary4.13,4.20,4.50,4.63,4.256replacingaverbgroupwhenthereisellipsis9.52incleftsentences10.28usedinformingquestiontags10.111doublenegatives4.46dozen2.238-239dozenusedforemphasis2.241-242duebeduetousedtoexpressthefuture5.59during5.102-103,5.121Eeachaspronoun1.154usedinsteadofpersonalpronoun1.155asdeterminer1.209,1.228eachofandeachoneofasquantifier2.303eachtimeexpressingfrequency8.13eachotherasreciprocalpronoun1.141-144withreciprocalverbs3.71"-ed"adjectives2.81-47relatedtotransitiveverbs2.83,2.93lists2.86,2.88,2.91,2.95-97modifiedbyadverbs2.89-90usedonlyafteralinkverb2.92385 relatedtonouns2.94-95notrelatedtoverbsornouns2.97relatedtointransitiveverbs2.91submodified2.147either1.209,1.227,8.144usedwithorforemphasis8.185"either/or"-questions4.16ellipsis9.49-69withmodals4.109withlinkingclauses8.140useofauxiliaries9.49-62omittingverbsandclauses9.61-62whenasking"wh"-questions9.64whenansweringquestions9.66-67repeatingauxiliarieswithtooornot9.68-69elsewithindefinitepronouns1.137withindefiniteplaceadverbs6.92elseandorelseinresultclauses8.64elsewhere6.92emphasisusingreflexivepronouns1.118,1.120-121,3.30usingall,both,oreach1.155oneusedafteranotherdeterminer1.157usingthetoemphasizethefollowingnoun1.179usingown1.198,2.187emphasizingnumbersandamounts1.226,1.229,2.331,2.241submodifiersemphasizingadjectives2.153usingeachotheroroneanother3.71emphasizing"wh"-questions4.30usingdo4.9,4.38usingnever4.60-61,4.63emphasizingnegatives4.91-94emphasizingdurationorrepetition5.129emphasizingfrequency5.24puttingreportedclausefirst7.28usingjustinfrontofasif8.81usingsowithresultclauses8.60usingandtolinkidenticalverbs8.156emphasizingcoordinatingconjunctions8.182-187repeatingamainverbinsteadofusingellipsis9.59usingcleftsentences10.25-30usingsentence10.85-86usingexactly,just,andprecisely10.86fronting10.92-95emphasizingadjectives2.40-43emphasizingadverbs6.49-50enoughasdeterminer1.209.210,1.226withadjectives2.155asquantifier2.195-196insentenceadjuncts10.58ergativeverbs3.60-68describingchangingstates3.61lists3.62,3.64,3.66-67restrictionsonsubjects3.65similarfunctiontoverbsinthepassive3.68ergativephrasalverbs3.98-101even385 withcomparatives2.165evenifinconditionalclauses8.37,8.39evenifinconcessiveclauses8.67eventhoughinconcessiveclauses8.66everafternegativewordsforemphasis4.93asadjunctoffrequency5.114eversinceintimeclauses8.19everyasdeterminer1.209,1.228inadjunctsoffrequency5.115everyoneofasquantifier2.203everytimeinclausesexpressingfrequency8.13everybody1.127-140everyone1.127-140everything1.127-140everywhere6.90-93,8.76except8.69exclamations10.106-109Ffarsubmodifyinggeneraldeterminers1.233withhowin"wh"-questions4.28followedbyadjuncts,modifiers,orqualifiers6.88asadverbsofdestination6.94farawayusedinsteadoffar6.88feel3.133,3.136fewaftertoo2.158asgeneraldeterminer1.209,1.226afewasgeneraldeterminer1.232fewerasdeterminer1.231fewerofascomparativequantifier2.206finiteverbsR89inphasestructures3.186firstseeordinalnumbersfocusingadverbs10.87-91placedinfrontofmainverb6.10following2.249,5.106,9.44forlistofnounsusuallyfollowedbyfor2.305introducingindirectobject3.78,8.97withwhatin"wh"-questions4.29withthepresentperfect5.34inadjunctsofduration5.125-128,5.132inreasonclauses8.53aftersentenceadjuncts10.60fractions2.257-266fromfrom...toexpressingarangeofnumbers2.288expressingdistance6.71listofadverbsthatcancomeafterfrom6.79usedwithfarandfaraway6.88inadjunctsofduration5.138,5.142indicatingstartingpoint6.78inreportstructures7.76fronting10.92-95385 puttingreportedquestionsfirst10.94puttingcomplementsfirst10.95-ful2.218-219future5.52-62goingtofollowedbyaninfinitive5.58beduetoandbeaboutto5.59usingpresenttenses5.64futuretenses5.53-57withwillorshall5.53-57usedwithadjuncts5.60-62continuousandperfectformsR106-108passiveformsR116-117gender1.74-77nounsreferringtomalesorfemales1.74-ess,-woman,-man,and-personasnounendings1.75-76nounsformaleandfemaleanimals1.77generaldeterminers1.208-231listsofgeneraldeterminers1.208,1.211,1.153,1.180a/an1.213-220some1.221-223any1.224-225enough1.226all,both,andeither1.227eachandevery1.228littleandmuch1.229certain,numerous,andvarious1.230more,less,andfewer1.231submodifiedbyvery,too,andfar1.233no4.65genitiveseeapostrophesgerundssee"-ing"nounsgetinphrasestructures3.202usedtoformpassives10.24withimpersonalit10.37giveasdelexicalverb3.33-41nounsthatgowithdelexicalgive3.44asditransitivewithindirectobject3.74,3.77goaslinkverb3.158inphrasestructures3.197,3.201begoingto4.237,4.241begoingtofollowedbyaninfinitivetoexpressthefuture5.58gotseegetandhavegradability2.25Hhadinconditionalclauses8.36hadbetter4.251halfassubmodifier2.152infrontofpronounsandasquantifier2.259seealsofractionshardlyasbroadnegative4.83-90385 beforeatimeclause8.17haveasdelexicalverb2.33-42nounsthatgowithdelexicalhave3.42,3.46inphrasestructures3.199,3.211-212asmainverb4.14,4.52,9.54havegotindicatingpossession3.14,3.17havegotasmainverbin"yes/no"-questions4.14havenotshortenedtohaven"t4.52havetoandhavegotto4.236,4.244,4.248-249havetoinreportedclauses7.53inflectedformsR80asauxiliary9.57,R84,R90,R100,R107he1.97-103usedinsteadofthey1.108usedtoreferbacktoanindefinitepronoun1.132herasobjectpronoun1.104-106aspossessivedeterminer1.192-207hers1.110-113herself1.115-122,3.27-32high6.88,6.94himasobjectpronoun1.104-106usedtoreferbacktoanindefinitepronoun1.132usedinsteadofthem1.108himself1.115-122,3.27-32hisaspossessivepronoun1.110-113aspossessivedeterminer1.192-207holdasdelexicalverb3.33-41followedbyobjectcomplement3.164howin"wh"-questions4.17-21inclausesaftersomeadjectives10.43inexclamations10.108inrhetoricalquestions10.109however8.42,10.76hundred2.238-239hundredsusedforemphasis2.241hyphensincompoundnouns1.85in"-ed"adjectivesfromphrasalverbs2.82incompoundadjectives2.105incompoundverbs3.120II1.97-103ifinconditionalclauses8.26,8.37afterwhatin"wh"-questions4.29seealsoasifandevenif"if"-clausesusedtoreportquestions7.32listofverbsthatcomebefore"if"-clauses7.33followedbythen8.26imperativemood4.31-35usedwhenmakinganoffer4.38neveratbeginningofimperativestructure4.64385 imperativeusedwithconditionalclauses8.27impersonalit10.31-45asobjectcomplement,with"to"-infinitive3.169usedininstructionsandrequests4.239incleftsentences10.26subjectofpassivereportingverbs7.65subjectofverbs,with"that"-clause7.83,7.88inexpressingage2.277-278indicatingwhatsomeoneiswearing2.302intimeexpressions5.93-94inadjunctsoffrequency5.121inadjunctsofduration5.130-132referringtoexactposition6.69summaryofbasicuses6.127usedwithverbsinthepassive10.16indefinitearticles1.208,1.213-220indefiniteplaceadverbs6.90-93indefinitepronouns1.127-140aspartofcomplement3.146nothing,noone,andnobody4.69butafterindefinitepronounsstartingwithany-4.70followedbydefiningrelativeclause8.87indirectobjectseeobjectindirectquestionsseereportedquestionsindirectspeechseereportstructuresinfinitiveclauses10.66infinitivessummaryofinfinitiveformsR130seealso"to"-infinitivesinfinitivewithouttoinphrasestructures3.188formR127"-ing"adjectives2.67-80referringtofeelingsorideas2.68-71referringtoprocessesorstates2.72-75relationshiptoverbs2.76-79"-ing"formsR133-134"-ing"nouns1.78-83intensifiersseesubmodifiersinterrogativemood4.10-30"yes/no"-questions4.12-16"either/or"-questions4.16"wh"-questions4.17-30whataboutorwhatofwithoutaverb4.41formingquestionswithmodals4.106interrogativepronouns1.150-152intransitiveverbs3.9-14listofverbsrelatedto"-ing"adjectives2.74verbswhichcanbetransitiveorintransitive3.49intransitivephrasalverbs3.86-91,3.107,3.112-113listofintransitivecompoundverbs3.123actinglikelinkverbs3.156followedbyprepositionalphraseswithas3.180linkedbycoordinatingconjunctions8.153385 inversionafteranadjunct6.15afteraprepositionalphrase6.63whenreportingverbcomesafteraquote7.22invertedcommas7.14-15,7.23-ishaddedtocolouradjectives2.36itaspersonalpronoun1.97-107seealsoimpersonalitits1.192-207itself1.115-122,3.27-32Jjustinfrontofanadjectivefollowedbyenough2.155infrontofas...asstructure2.169asemphasizingadverb6.50justincaseatstartofreasonclause8.51infrontofasifinclausesofmanner8.81Kkeepasdelexicalverb3.33-41followedbyobjectcomplement3.164know7.33Llastshowingpositioninsequence2.249aspronoun2.254inadjunctsoffrequency5.119asverb5.133leastleastandtheleastassuperlatives2.127assuperlativeadverbofdegree6.52leavefollowedbyobjectcomplement3.164lefttotheleftexpressingdirection6.74,6.76lessasdeterminer1.231lessofascomparativequantifier2.206formingthecomparativeofanadjective2,115lessthanasanemphaticnegative2.115lesslikeascomparativeoflike2.138lessthanindicatingamaximumamount2.284orlessinadjunctsoffrequency5.116seealsoquantifiers-lessasnegativesuffix4.81listofwordsendingin"-less"4.81let4.35likewithcomparativesandsuperlatives2.137-138,2.170submodifyinglike2.139givingorders4.171makingrequests4.175makingoffersorinvitations4.179makingpolitesuggestions4.190expressingawish4.207expressingsimilarity6.112-113385 inclausesofmanner8.79linkverbs3.137-148functioninclause3.128listsoflinkverbs3.134,3.139,3.175followedbyadjective3.133,3.138followedbytobeandacomplement3.135followedbyapastparticipleascomplement3.136followedbycomplementandapreposition3.137followedbyadjuncts3.173-178describingqualities3.140followedbyanoungroup3.142-144ordinaryverbsusedaslinkverbs3.148orderofadjectivesafteralinkverb2.61followedbycomparatives2.110followedbysuperlatives2.120followedbylike2.137withmeasurementnouns2.269-271intransitiveverbsaslinkverbs3.157-160inclausesofmanner8.81inimpersonalitstructures10.39,10.42linkingadjuncts10.73-81asanadditiontoyourstatement10.74-75introducingacontrastoralternative10.76indicatingcause10.77indicatingasequence10.78orderingpoints10.79afterandorbutatbeginningofclause10.81littleasdeterminer1.210,1.229,1.232alittlesubmodifyingcomparatives2.167alittleasadverbofdegree6.52"llasshortformofwill4.108lookaslinkverb3.127,3.136lookuponfollowedbyas3.182lotlotsasinformalsubmodifier2.163alotofandlotsofasquantifiers2.195alotasadverbofdegree6.52seealsoquantifierslowindicatingdistanceandposition6.88lowdownusedinsteadoflow6.88indicatingdestination6.94-lyaddedtotimewords5.120addedtowordstoformadverbsR136-144"-ly"adverbs6.17-23withadjectives6.20-23listof"-ly"adverbsofmanner6.38Mmainclauses8.1makeasdelexicalverb3.33-41nounsthatgowithdelexicalmake3.45followedbyobjectcomplement3.165manyasgeneraldeterminer1.209,1.226,1.232385 aftertoo2.158withhowin"wh"-questions4.28withtimesasadjunctoffrequency5.115followedbydefiningrelativeclause8.87massnoun1.29-32uses1.30-31,2.220list1.32mayexpressingpossibility4.127-128expressingnegativepossibility4.129expressingpossibilityinthefuture4.137-138expressinguncertaintyaboutthepast4.143-144indicatingpermission4.147expressingprohibition4.152makingrequests4.170offeringtodosomething4.181mayaswellinsuggestions4.191expressingawish4.214mentioninganopinion4.225inreportedclauses7.52me1.104-106measurements2.267-274,2.281-288lists2.268ascomplements2.269-271asmodifiers2.272size,volume,temperature,orspeed2.273-274approximatemeasurements2.281mightnegativeformmightn"t4.105expressingpossibility4.127-129expressingpossibilityinthefuture4.137-138expressingpossibilityinthepast4.142-144makingrequests4.170makingpolitesuggestions4.191mightaswellusedinsuggestions4.191mentioninganopinion4.225withdare4.255inreportedclauses7.51-52mightn"t4.105seealsomightmillion2.238-239millionsusedforemphasis2.241-242mine1.110-113modals4.95-262=>semi-modals4.252-262followedbybaseformofaverb4.102-103donotinflect4.104negatives4.105questions4.106questiontags4.107shortformsofwillandwould4.108ellipsis4.109shallandwillforthefuture4.111couldandwouldforthepast4.112-117indicatingability4.119-122indicatinglikelihood4.124-145referringtofuturepossibility4.132-138referringtopossibilityinthepast4.139-145indicatingpermission4.146-149385 indicatingunacceptability4.150-157givinginstructions,makingrequests4.106-176makingoffersandinvitations4.177-185makingsuggestions4.186-193statingintentions4.194-199expressingunwillingnessorrefusal4.200-205expressingwishes4.206-214indicatingimportance4.215-219introducingyourstatement4.220-226alternativestructures4.227-251reportingsuggestions7.40in"that"-clauses7.42,7.82inreportedclauses7.50-53inmainclausebeforeaconditionalclause8.27infinitepurposeclauses8.47-48withperformativeverbs10.105modifiersinnoungroupsstartingwiththe1.174innoungroupsstartingwitha/an1.216comparativesasmodifiers2.109superlativesasmodifiers2.119measurementnounsasmodifiers2.272placenamesasmodifiers6.107linkedbyandoror8.181mood4.2-42declarativemood4.6-9interrogativemood4.10-30imperativemood4.31-35otherusesofmood4.36-42moreasgeneraldeterminer1.209-210,1.231moreofascomparativequantifier2.206morethanasadverbofdegree2.113modifyinganoungroup2.113incomparativestructures6.52,R21,R26mostasgeneraldeterminer1.209-210,1.226assubmodifier2.118,2.148insuperlativestructures6.52,R21,R26muchasgeneraldeterminer1.210,1.229aftertoo2.158withhowin"wh"-questions4.28muchandverymuchasadverbofdegree6.52muchasinsteadofalthough8.70followedbydefiningrelativeclause8.87mustnegativeformmustn"t4.105expressingwhatyoubelieve4.126expressingcertaintyaboutthefuture4.135expressingunacceptability4.157makingpersuasiveoffers4.184makingpersuasivesuggestions4.189statingintentions4.198expressingimportance4.216introducingyourstatement4.221inreportedclauses7.51mustn"t4.105seealsomust385 my1.192-207myself1.115-122,3.27-32Nnamesseepropernounsnear6.68-69nearlyinas...asstructures2.169intimeexpressionsonlyafterbe5.100inadjunctsoffrequency5.116need4.252-257assemi-modal4.252-257inphrasestructures3.192,3.199,3.213needtousedinsteadofmust4.249needn"t4.253seealsoneednegativeaffixes4.76-82list4.76dis-4.79in-,il-,ir-4.78-less4.81-82non-4.80un-4.77negatives4.43-94=>broadnegatives4.83-90=>negativeaffixes4.76-82=>neither4.60-64=>never4.60-64=>no4.65-66=>noone4.69-70=>none4.67-68=>nor4.71-75=>not4.48-59=>nothing4.69-70=>nowhere4.69-70listofnegativewords4.43usinganyasadeterminer4.45doublenegatives4.46emphasizinganegative4.91-94withmodals4.105withreportingverbs7.13neither4.71-75withnortoexpressalternatives4.71usedonitsown4.72,4.74positioninclause4.73neitherofusedasaquantifier4.75asgeneraldeterminerwithcountnouns1.209neither...norlinkingadjectivesoradverbs8.144,8.175-176usedwithnorforemphasis8.186never4.60-64positioninverbgroup4.60-62usedwithdoasauxiliaryforemphasis4.63inimperativestructures4.64asnegativeadverb5.114nextshowingpositioninsequence2.249,2.254withtimereferencetoexpressfuture5.62nexttimeorthenexttimeinadjunctsoffrequency5.119usedtoreferforward9.45385 no4.65-66asgeneraldeterminer1.209-210,4.65usingn"twithanyinsteadofno4.66withcomparativeadjectives2.168withcomparativeadverbs6.35nobody1.127-140,4.69-70non-4.80non-definingnon-finiteclauses8.120-131withsamesubjectasmainclause8.120-126referringtosimultaneousevents8.121referringtosequenceofevents8.122,8.125givingreasons8.123referringtoearlierevents8.126withdifferentsubjectfrommainclause8.127-131makingtheclausenegative8.131non-definingrelativeclauses8.85-86,8.93-111punctuation8.86choiceofsubjectandobject8.93-94modifyingtherelativepronoun8.100whosefollowedbysubjectorobject8.101whosereplacedbyofwhichorofwhom8.102usingwhenandwhere8.104describingasequence8.109beginningwithwhich8.110-111none4.67-68asnegativepronoun4.67noneofasquantifier4.68aspronoun1.154non-finiteclauses8.117-133withoutaconjunction8.117-133positionofnon-finiteclauses8.119non-definingnon-finiteclauses8.120-131definingnon-finiteclauses8.132-133non-finiteclausesasqualifiers2.310-318reportingsuggestions7.41similarstructures8.135asfocusofcleftsentence10.27non-finiteverbsR124seealsophrasestructures,non-finiteclauses,impersonalitnoone1.127-140,4.69-70nor4.71-75withneithertoexpressalternatives4.71positioninclause4.73nororandnorlinkingnegativeclauses8.144withneitherforemphasis8.186not4.48-59positioninverbgroup4.49,4.53-54withdoasauxiliary4.50,52shortenedton"t4.55-56,4.105beforecomplementwithnegativemeaning4.58withveryandothersubmodifiers4.58usedforcontrast4.59,8.187expressingreluctance4.117notthatinconcessiveclauses8.68linkingtwonoungroups8.160,8.166usedafterif9.25nothing1.127-40,4.69-70noungroups1.1-1.3incomparativestructures2.111385 ascomplementsafterintransitiveverbs3.160usingadeterminerwhenlinkingtwonoungroups8.162linkingpronounsandnoungroups8.164,8.166emphasizingwithacleftsentence10.26instructureswiththereisandadjunct10.47seealsonounsnounmodifiers2.174-179positionofnounmodifiers2.60,2.175keepingorlosingsending2.175usingmorethanonemodifierinagroup2.176adjectiveswithnounmodifiers2.177propernounsasnounmodifiers2.178nouns1.1-93=>collectivenouns1.48-52=>compoundnoun1.84-93=>countnouns1.16-23=>"-ing"nouns1.78-83=>massnouns1.29-32=>nounmodifiers2.174-179=>pluralnouns1.42-47=>propernouns1.53-59=>singularnouns1.35-41=>uncountnouns1.24-34tableofthesixmaintypesofnoun1.14nounsrarelyusedalone1.60-66nounsusedwithmodifiers1.61,1.63nounsusedwithqualifiers1.62nounsusedwithpossessivestructures1.64metaphoricaluses1.65nounsusedwithsupportingmaterial1.66gender1.74-77itemsthatqualifynouns2.289-320listsofnounsfollowedbyprepositions2.305noungroupsinapposition2.319-320nounsusedwithdelexicalverbs3.42-46nounsassociatedwithergativeverbs3.66nounsfollowedby"that"-clauses7.84nounsfollowedby"to"-infinitive7.84insuch...thatstructuresinresultclauses8.61referringback9.19-23nounsusedinimpersonalitstructures10.42formationof"-ly"adverbsfromnounsR144seealsodeterminersnow8.18nowhere6.90-93followedbybut4.70n"tcontractionofnot4.55-56insteadofno4.66addedtomodals4.105seealsonotnumberanumberofasquantifier2.208numbers2.225-266summaryoftypesanduses2.225-229cardinalnumbers2.230-248ordinalnumbers2.249-256fractions2.257-266writingandsayingnumbersR41-47385 Oobjectdirectobjectdefined3.4indirectobjectdefined3.7formofpronounsasobjects1.104-106ellipsis3.23-24,3.50-53verbswithadirectobjectorprepositionalphrase3.56-59objectswithditransitiveverbs3.74,3.76indirectobjectsinprepositionalphrases3.75-78indirectobjectinfrontofthedirectobject3.80pronounsasindirectobjects3.82,8.97positionofdirectobjectofphrasalverb3.102-104directobjectfollowedbycomplement3.162prepositionalobjects6.53,6.57contrastwithagent10.8objectcomplements3.162-172describingquality3.163describingastate3.164-165,3.172followingverbsmeaningconsider3.166-167introducedbya"to"-infinitive3.168impersonalitwith"to"-infinitive3.169namesordescriptions3.170titles3.171objectpronouns1.104-106afteras...asstructure2.130ascomplements3.146of2.294-300in1.113,2.296-300afterpredicativeadjectives2.51withquantifiers2.194afternumbers2.244,2.252instructuresexpressingage2.276asfinalunitofmulti-wordpreposition6.70afternouns6.126indicatingsubjectmatter7.81off6.78,6.97onlistofnounsusuallyfollowedbyon2.305intimeexpressions5.95-97withpluralformsoftimewords5.121referringtoexactposition6.69indicatingsubjectmatter7.81onceatonceindicatingsimultaneousevents5.108asadjunctoffrequency5.115referringtosequenceofevents8.15followedbyprepositionalphraseoradjective8.24oneaspronoun1.54,1.60,1.109referringback1.157-158ascardinalnumberandasqualifier2.231usedasdeterminerforemphasis1.234sayingandwritingthenumberone2.232aspartofcomplement3.141oneanotherasreciprocalpronoun1.141-144withreciprocalverbs3.71orafterwhetherinconditionalclauses8.40385 linkingclauses8.140-147,8.150linkingnoungroups8.161,8.166linkingadjectives8.175linkingmodifiers8.181witheitherforemphasis8.185linkingmorethantwoclausesorwordgroups8.188orderinordertoinnon-finitepurposeclauses8.45inorderthatinfinitepurposeclauses8.47ordinalnumbers2.249-256definition2.249position2.250writtenabbreviations2.251followedbyofora"to"-infinitive2.252aspronouns2.253nextandlastusedlikeordinals2.254withfractions2.258writingandsayingordinalnumbersR46,R47seealsocardinalnumbersotherothersortheothersaspronoun1.159-160usedwithcountnouns1.209-210,1.225everyother5.118oughtfollowedbya"to"-infinitive4.102negativeformoughtn"t4.105expressingexpectationsaboutthefuture4.136expressingexpectationsaboutthepast4.140makingsuggestions4.188expressingimportance4.219introducingyourstatement4.222inreportedclauses7.53oughtn"t4.105seealsooughtour1.192-207ours1.110-113ourselves1.115-122,3.27-32outprepositionalwithoutof6.74outofaspreposition6.78asadverbofdirection6.97overexpressingage2.277-278referringtoperiodsoftime5.105alloverasprepositionofposition6.66alloverasprepositionofmovement6.77own1.198,2.187Ppairapairofusedwithpluralnouns1.47apairofinpartitivestructures2.223participialadjectivessee"-ing"adjectivesparticiplesseepresentparticiples,pastparticiplespartitives2.211-224concord2.211withoutofandafollowingnoungroup2.212withuncountnouns2.212-213385 indicatingshapeormovement2.214referringtogroups2.215referringtosize,capacity,andweight2.216-217adding-ful2.218-219partofsomething2.221referringtoindividualitems2.222withapairof2.223passive10.8-24formofthepassive10.9,R109-119,R129notmentioningtheperformerofanaction10.10focusingonanaction10.11mentioningtheperformerofanaction10.14mentioningwhatwasused10.15listsofverbsreferringtostates10.16phrasalverbsusedinthepassive10.17,10.23listsofverbsusuallyusedinthepassive10.18listsofverbsrarelyusedinthepassive10.19ditransitiveverbs10.20positionofcomplement10.21getusedtoformthepassive10.24passiveconstructionsinphrasestructures3.208reportingverbsinthepassive7.65,7.69pastcontinuous5.31-32referringtorepeatedactions5.31contrastingpastevents5.32referringtoeventsplannedinthepast5.67formofthepastcontinuousR99pastcontinuousinfinitiveR128pastcontinuous"-ing"formR132pastcontinuouspassiveR113pastformsR59-70pastinfinitiveR128past"-ing"formR132pastparticiplespastparticiplesclausesasquantifiers2.317ascomplement3.136inphasestructures3.188,3.202describingasequenceofevents8.125describinganearlierevent8.126,8.130formingpastparticiplesR59-70formingperfecttensesR100-102,R107formingthepassiveR109-118asnon-finiteverbgroupR135pastpassiveinfinitiveR129pastperfect5.37-39referringtopreviousevent5.37usingthecontinuous5.38withadjunctsoffrequency5.49withadjunctsofduration5.50formingthepastperfectR102pastperfectcontinuousemphasizingduration5.38specifyingthebeginningofanevent5.51formofpastperfectcontinuousR103pastperfectpassiveR115pasttenses5.26-51=>pastcontinuous5.31-32=>pastperfect5.37-39=>presentperfect5.33-36385 =>simplepast5.27-30withadjuncts5.40-51per2.274percentages2.266,R49perfectcontinuousinfinitiveR128perfectcontinuous"-ing"formR132perfectinfinitiveR128perfect"-ing"formR132perfectpassiveinfinitiveR129performativeverbs10.102-105lists10.102-103withouta"that"-clause10.103expressingpoliteness10.105personalpronouns1.96-109mainuse1.96subjectpronouns1.97-103,1.106objectpronouns1.104-106specialusesofsheandher1.107theyorthemusedtorefertoasingleperson1.108one1.109replacedbyreflexivepronounsforemphasis1.120ascomplements3.146objectpronounsasobjectofprepositions6.57followedbydefiningrelativeclause8.87phase3.183-213definition3.183verbforms3.186-187typesofnon-finiteverbused3.188usingtwoverbstogether3.190-202listsofphaseverbs3.191,3.193,3.196,3.205-207choiceofpresentparticipleor"to"-infinitive3.197-198transitiveverbswithtransitive"to"-infinitive3.199twoverbsinbaseformlinkedbyand3.201getfollowedbyapastparticiple3.202actionsperformedbydifferentpeople3.203-213passiveconstructions3.208verbsfollowedbyforanda"to"-infinitive3.210transitiveverbsbeforeinfinitivewithoutto3.211havebeforeanobjectandapastparticiple3.212wantandneedinphasestructures3.213phrasalverbs3.84-117basicform3.84intransitivephrasalverbs3.86-91,3.107,3.112-113listsofintransitivephrasalverbs3.87,3.89,3.91,3.113intransitivephrasalverbswithadverbs3.86intransitivephrasalverbswithprepositions3.88intransitivephrasalverbswithadverbofpreposition3.90positionofprepositionalobjectwithintransitivephrasalverb3.107intransitivephrasalverbswiththreewords3.112transitiveorintransitivephrasalverbs3.94-97transitivephrasalverbs3.92-93,3.102-106,3.108-112,3.114listsoftransitivephrasalverbs3.93,3.106,3.108-114positionofobjectwithtransitivephrasalverbs3.102-106transitivephrasalverbswithprepositions3.108transitivephrasalverbswithprepositionoradverb3.110ergativephrasalverbs3.98-101listofergativephrasalverbs3.99positionofprepositionalobjectinquestions3.116positionofprepositionandrelativepronoun8.99385 listifphrasalverbsusedinthepassive10.18,10.23listofphrasalverbsusedinthepassive10.18,10.23listofphrasalverbsrarelyusedinthepassive10.19placeclauses8.73-77beginningwithwhere8.74-75useofwhereveroreverywhere8.76placenames6.102-107concordwithverbs6.104referringtopeople6.105referringtoevents6.106usedasmodifiers6.107please4.176,10.67usedwithmodalsinpoliterequests4.176inpoliterequests10.67pluralnouns1.42-47concordwithverbs1.43,1.47listsofpluralnouns1.45usedwithsupportingmaterial1.46withthoseinfrontandarelativeclauseafter1.190usedasnounmodifiers2.175usedindelexicalstructures3.37possessivedeterminers1.192-207mainuses1.192tableofpossessivedeterminers1.193spellingofits1.194positioninclause1.195concordwithnoun1.197usingownforemphasis1.198showingassociationandpossession1.199-200showingwhoorwhatisaffected1.201replacedbythe1.202-203restrictedtopeopleoranimals1.205inphasestructures3.204possessiveformsinfrontofasuperlative2.122intimeexpressions5.112spellingandpronunciationR32-40seealsoapostrophespossessivepronouns1.110-114mainuses1.110tableofpossessivepronouns1.111inprepositionalphrasesheadedbyof1.113usingpossessivepronounstodistinguishthings1.112ascomplements3.146possessivestructures2.108-192seealsoapostrophespossiblebepossibletoexpressinggeneralpossibility4.231afterconjunctionintimeclauses8.24postdeterminersdefinition2.44listofclassifyingadjectivesusedaspostdeterminers2.44predeterminerslist1.236halfaspredeterminer2.264predicativeadjectives2.48-57lists2.48,2.53usuallyfollowedbyaprepositionalphrase2.49-54followedbyto2.50385 followedbyof2.51followedbywith2.52followedby"to"-infinitive2.55-56followedby"that"-clause2.57prefacingstructures10.96-101usingthefactis,thepointis,andsoon10.97labellingyourstatement10.99usingcleftsentences10.100usingsentencesasprefaces10.101prefixesforming"-ing"adjectives2.79formingverbsR77-78seealsonegativeaffixesprepositionalphrases6.53-81positioninclause6.58-63specifyingposition6.64-72listofprepositionsspecifyingposition6.65specifyingdirection6.73-79listofprepositionsspecifyingdirection6.74usesafternounsandadjectives2.49-54,6.123-126asqualifiers2.292-308,6.80-81insuperlativestructures2.121aftermeasurementnouns,within2.271inintransitiveclauses3.11,3.72,3.75inditransitiveclauses3.77-78afteracomplement3.137afterlinkverbs3.173-178intransitiveclauses3.178-82addinginformationafterindefiniteplaceadverb6.91givingmoreinformationaboutfeelings6.111likeandasexpressingsimilarity6.112-113circumstancesandcauses6.115-116afterreportingverbs7.12,7.37,7.66,7.73-76afterconjunctionintimeclauses8.24linkedbyand8.180headedbyforaftersentenceadjunct10.60prepositions6.53-81listsofprepositionsreferringtoplace6.54positionofobject6.57listofprepositionsreferringtoposition6.65comparativeforms6.68referringtospecificposition6.69multi-wordprepositionsendinginof6.70expressingdistance6.71-72specifyingdirection6.74-78listsofprepositionsusedwithadjectivesandnouns2.53,2.305listsofprepositionsusedwithintransitiveverbs3.12,3.88usedinnon-specifictimeexpressions5.99usedinadjunctsofduration5.124listofprepositionsnotreferringtoplace6.108summaryofusesofprepositionsafterverbs6.117-122ofusedafternouns6.126"wh"-clauseasobject7.92-93relativepronounasobject8.95-100relativepronounasindirectobject8.98inrelativeclausewithphrasalverb8.99linkedbyand8.179presentcontinuous5.17-20referringtothepresent5.17-18385 indicatingprogressivechange5.19referringtohabitualactions5.20withadjunctsoffrequencyforemphasis5.24narrativereferringtothepast5.64expressingfirmplansforthefuture5.65formofpresentcontinuousR97presentcontinuousinfinitiveR128presentcontinuouspassiveR111presentinfinitivesee"to"-infinitivepresentparticiplespresentparticipleclausesasqualifiers2.318inphasestructures3.191,3.196reportingsuggestions7.41describingsimultaneousevents8.121describingsequenceofevents8.122givingreasons8.123withasubjectinnon-definingnon-finiteclauses8.129inimpersonalitstructures10.39instructureswiththereis10.49formingpresentparticipleR59-70usedtoformcontinuoustensesR94,R97-108asnon-finiteverbgroupR131presentperfect5.33-37fornon-specifictimeinthepast5.33useofadjuncts5.34referringtopastsituationswhichstillexist5.35usingthecontinuous5.36indicatingrepeatedaction5.46indicatingacontinuingsituation5.47withadjunctsofduration5.48intimeclauses8.9formingthepresentperfectR100presentperfectcontinuousemphasizingduration5.36withadjunctsofduration5.48formingthepresentperfectcontinuousR101presentperfectpassiveR114presenttenses5.7-25=>presentcontinuous=>simplepresentwithadjuncts5.21-25adjunctsusedwithpresenttenses5.25narrativereferringtothepast5.64expressingfirmplansforthefuture5.65previousshowingpositioninsequence2.249relatingoneeventtoanother5.106referringback9.11promiseinreportstructures7.21-72pronouns1.94-160=>demonstrativepronouns1.123-126=>indefinitepronouns1.127-140=>interrogativepronouns1.150-152=>personalpronouns1.96-109=>possessivepronouns1.110-114=>reciprocalpronouns1.141-144=>reflexivepronouns1.115-122385 =>relativepronouns1.145-149generaldeterminersusedaspronouns1.153cardinalnumbersusedaspronouns1.156oneusedtoreferback1.157theoneandtheonesusedtoreferback1.158qualifiedbycardinalnumbers2.246asdirectobjectofditransitiveverb3.76positioninclausewithphrasalverb3.104pronounsin"wh"-questions4.23-24,4.29linkingpronounsandnoungroupsusingand,or,ornot8.166pronunciationofthe1.164,1.179ofaandan1.214ofthere10.46ofthepluralsofnounsR4-8ofapostrophesformsR37,R38ofverbformsR55,R57,R59,R72propernouns1.53-59asnames1.53startingwithcapitalletter1.53referringtobooksandpaintings1.54relationshipnouns1.55titles1.56-58usedwiththe1.166asnounmodifiers2.178punctuationofquotestructures7.14,7.23ofdefiningandnon-definingclauses8.86purposeclauses8.43-48listofconjunctionsusedinpurposeclauses8.43subjectthesameinmainclauseandpurposeclause8.44non-finitepurposeclauses8.45-46finitepurposeclauses8.47-48Qqualifiers2.289-320typesofqualifier2.290-291prepositionalphrases2.292-307,6.80-81adjectivesasqualifiers2.62-66,2.308non-finiteclauses2.310-318withnoungroups1.176,1.216innoungroupsbeginningwithaoran1.216adverbsasqualifiers6.102seealsorelativeclausesqualitativeadjectives2.24-28definition2.24gradability2.25list2.28thatcanalsobeclassifying2.33listofqualitativeattributiveadjectives2.46listofcompoundqualitativeadjectives2.102withas...asstructure2.129withsubmodifiers2.150,2.153,2.158linkingqualifierswithand8.169,8.189quantifiers2.194-210alwaysusedwithof2.194formofquantifiers2.194list2.195usedwithnoungroup2.196-197,2.199-202concordwithverb2.198,2.204385 eachof2.203anyof2.205comparativequantifiers2.206usingquantifierswithoutof2.207usinganumberof,aquantityof,andanamountof2.208submodifyingquantifiers2.209-210cardinalnumbers2.244-245halfasquantifier2.259quantityuseofaquantityofasquantifier2.208questionsseeinterrogativemood,reportedquestionsquestionstags10.110-114usingauxiliariestoformquestiontags10.111replyingtotagquestions10.113summaryofuses10.114withmodals4.107quiteinfrontofas...asstructure2.169submodifyingquantifiers2.210asemphasizingadverb6.50quotescontrastedwithreportingclauses7.14occurringwithoutreportingclauses7.14positioninrelationtoreportingclauses7.19seealsoquotestructuresquotestructuresrepresentingsomeone"sthoughts7.15listofreportingverbsusedinquotestructures7.16indicatingthemannerofspeaking7.17positionofreportingclauseandquote7.19-22punctuation7.23Rrarely4.83-90rathersubmodifyingcomparatives2.167expressingapreference4.210reasonclauses8.49-53listofconjunctionsusedinreasonclauses8.49usingbecause,since,oras8.50choiceoftense8.51forpossiblefuturesituations8.51beginningwithfor8.53beginningwithseeingthat8.53reciprocalpronouns1.141-144asobjectorindirectobjectofverb1.141eachotherandoneanother1.142eachandother1.143adding"s1.144reciprocalverbs3.69-73definition3.69withpluralsubject:verbusedintransitively3.70lists3.71transitiveandintransitiveuses3.71-72usedwithwith,orwitheachother3.71verbsusedwithprepositionsotherthanwith3.71reflexivepronouns1.115-122tableofreflexivepronouns1.115singularorpluralforms1.116385 asobjectorindirectobject1.117,3.27,3.82foremphasis1.118,1.120-121asobjectofpreposition1.119followedbytheandapartofthebody1.203asobjectofreportingverbsorprepositionalphrases7.77reflexiveverbs3.27-32verbswhicharealwaysreflexive3.28-29verbswithareflexivepronounasobjectforemphasis3.30relativeclauses8.83-116position8.83definingandnon-defining8.85-87punctuation8.86definingrelativeclausesusedafterpronouns,oraftersome,many,much,several,all,orthose8.87relativepronounsindefiningclauses8.89-91relativepronounsinnon-definingclauses8.89-91relativepronounswithprepositions8.95-100whoseinrelativeclauses8.101whosereplacedbyofwhichorofwhom8.102whenandwhereinrelativeclauses8.104-105whyandwherebyindefiningclauses8.107describingasequence8.109whichinrelativeclauses8.110-111nominalrelativeclauses8.113-116followingapluralnounwiththose1.190insuperlativestructures2.121addingmoreinformation6.91relativepronouns1.145-149definition1.145whoandwhomreferringtopeople1.146whomasobjectofrelativeclauseorpreposition1.146whoassubjectorobjectofrelativeclauseorpreposition1.146whichassubjectorobjectofrelativeclauseorpreposition1.147thatreferringtopeopleorthings1.148thatassubjectorobjectofrelativeclauseorpreposition1.148listofcommonrelativepronouns8.84indefiningclauses8.92-94,8.100asobjectofprepositions8.95-100whosefollowedbysubjectorobjectofverb,orbyobjectofpreposition8.101whosereplacedbyofwhichorofwhom8.102useofwhenandwhereinrelativeclauses8.104-105useofwhyandwherebyindefiningclauses8.107non-definingclausesbeginningwithwhich8.110-111reportedclausescontrastedwithreportingclauses7.24summaryoftypesofreportedclause7.25"that"-clauses7.26position7.28reportedquestions7.29-35basicverbs7.30reporting"yes/no"-questions7.32reporting"wh"-questions7.34reportingclausescontrastedwithaquote7.14positioninrelationtoquote7.19-20contrastedwithreportedclauses7.24position7.28reportingverbs7.5-13sayasreportingverb7.6385 askasreportingverbforquestions7.6lists7.7,7.9showingthepurposeofanutterance7.7referringtolearningandperceivingfacts7.10followedbyadverbsorprepositionalphrases7.12makingtheverbinthereportingclausenegative7.13listofverbsusedinquotestructures7.16indicatingthemannerofspeaking7.17positionofverbandquote7.21-22listofverbsthatgowith"that"-clauses7.27reportingverbsfollowedbya"to"-infinitive7.36-37reportingsuggestions7.40reportingintentions7.42,7.44reportinguncertainty7.45usedforpoliteness7.62verbsusedinpassivefollowedby"to"-infinitive7.65,7.69typicalsubjectsinreportstructures7.68mentioningthehearerasdirectobject7.71-75specifyingthesourceofinformation7.76listsofverbsthatcanhavenounsasobjectinsteadofreportingclause7.78-79usingsaywithageneralobject7.80indicatingsubjectmatterafterabout,oforon7.81relatednouns7.84unrelatednounsthatcanbefollowedby"that"-clauses7.84reportingverbsfollowedbyso9.26asperformativeverbs10.102reportstructures7.24-77=>reportedquestions7.29-35typesofreportedclause7.25"that"-clauses7.26orderofclauses7.28reportingrequestsoradvice7.36-39reportingsuggestions7.40-41reportingintentions7.42,7.44reportinguncertainty7.45timereference7.46-56choosingmodalsforthereportedclause7.50-53havetoinreportedclauses7.53usedtoinreportedclauses7.54reportingconditionals7.56choosingapronoun7.58choosinganadjunctoftime7.59choosingthereferencetoplace7.60usedforpoliteness7.62makingapoliterequest7.63reportingverbinpassive7.65seemandappearinreportstructures7.66typicalsubjectsofreportingverbs7.68notmentioningthespeaker7.69mentioningthehearerasdirectobject7.71-72mentioningthehearerinaprepositionalphrase7.73-76reflexivepronounsasobjecttosaywhatsomeonethinks7.77resultclauses8.54-64alwaysafterthemainclause8.54beginningwithso,andso,andand8.55beginningwithsothat8.55-56usingso...thatorso...aswithadjectives8.58usingso...thatwithmany,few,much,orlittle8.59usingsoforemphasis8.60385 usingsuch...thatwithnouns8.61usingsuchatthebeginningofthesentence8.62suchfollowedby"that"-clause,orbyasanda"to"-infinitive8.63usingotherwise,else,ororelse8.64rhetoricalquestions4.40,10.109righttotherightexpressingdirection6.74,6.76roundasadverb6.96aspreposition6.69,6.77S"sseeapostrophessamestructuresusingsameforcomparison2.140-142submodifiersusedinfrontofsame2.141,2.171referringbacktowhathasbeenmentioned9.34-36sayasreportingverb7.6usedwith"if"-clausesor"whether"-clauses7.33usedastransitivereportingverbonlywithverygeneralobject7.80usedtodescribewhatisinabook5.13secondseeordinalnumbersseeusedwith"if"-clausesor"whether"-clauses7.33seeingthatatstartofreasonclauses8.53seemaslinkverb3.135-137followedbytobeandacomplement3.135inreportedstructures7.66afterthere10.53seldomasbroadnegative4.83-90modifiedbyso,very,too,orpretty4.89semi-colonsusedtolinkclauses8.149semi-modals4.252-262dareandneed4.253-257usedto4.258-262sentenceadjuncts10.56-72indicatingareactionoropinion10.57qualifyingwhatyouaresaying10.59specifyingwhoseviewpointisinvolved10.60indicatingaquality10.61indicatingyourjustificationforastatement10.62assuminghearer"sagreement10.63indicatingrealityornon-reality10.64makingyourattitudeclear10.65usedwithspeaking10.69expressinggeneralizations10.70changingthetopicofaconversation10.82introducingacommentinconversation10.83usedforemphasis10.58-86sentenceadverbialsseesentenceadjunctssentences8.4-5sequenceoftenses385 inreportstructures7.46-56intimeclauses8.9,8.17-20inconditionalclauses8.28-36severalasgeneraldeterminerwithcountnouns1.209withcountnounsintheplural1.226followedbytimesasadjunctoffrequency5.115followedbyadefiningrelativeclause8.87shallnegativeformshan"t4.105referringtothefuture4.111,5.53,R104expressingcertaintyaboutthefuture4.134shallnotusedtoexpressprohibition4.154givinganorder4.172offeringtodosomething4.182makingsuggestions4.192statingintentions4.197expressingtheimportanceofafutureaction4.218usedinreportedclauses7.52shan"t4.105seealsoshallshe1.97-103usedtorefertoships,cars,andcountries1.107shouldnegativeformshouldn"t4.105expressinglikelihood4.125expressingexpectationaboutthefuture4.136expressingexpectationaboutthepast4.140shouldnotusedtoexpressunacceptability4.156shouldlikeusedtomakearequest4.175offeringtodosomething4.182makingasuggestion4.188expressingawish4.209expressingtheimportanceofdoingsomething4.219introducingwhatyouaresaying4.222expressinganopinion4.226usedinreportstructures7.40,7.45,7.53usedinconditionalclauses8.33,8.36shouldn"t4.105seealsoshouldmakingasuggestion4.188showusedinpassivefollowedbya"to"-infinitive7.82simplepast5.27-30referringtothepresent5.27referringtothepast5.28-30usedwithadjunctsoffrequency5.44-45formofsimplepastR98simplepastpassiveR112simplepresent5.8-16referringtothepresent5.8-9referringtogeneraltruths5.10,5.22referringtoregularactions5.11referringtoworksoffiction5.12sayusedtodescribewhatisinabook5.13usedincommentaries5.14usedwithreportingverbs5.15usedwithperformativeverbs5.16expressingregularity,withadjunctsoffrequency5.23385 usedinnarrativereferringtothepast5.64expressingfirmplansforthefuture5.65usedintimeclauses8.9formofsimplepresentR96simplepresentpassiveR110sincewiththepresentperfect5.34inadjunctsofduration5.137intimeclauses8.19inreasonclauses8.50singularnouns1.35-41concordwithverbs1.36referringtothingsthatareunique1.37-38usedwithdelexicalverbs1.39usedwithsupportingmaterial1.40usedasacomplement,witha1.40usedwiththe1.40,1.166soinnotso...asstructures2.133orsoinadjunctsoffrequency5.116soastoinnon-finitepurposeclauses8.45soorsothatinfinitepurposeclauses8.47sothat,so,orandsoinresultclauses8.55-56so...thatandso...as8.58-59linkingclauseswithsamesubject;usualtorepeatsubject8.140usedtoavoidrepetition9.24-26useofdoso9.27someasgeneraldeterminerwithcountnouns1.209-210usedwithuncountnouns1.221usedwithcountnouns1.221,1.223usedwithnumbers1.222followedbyadefiningrelativeclause8.87somebody1.127-140someone1.127-140something1.127-140somewhere6.90-93soonerwouldsoonerusedtoexpressapreference4.210nosoonerbeforeatimeclause8.17speakingusedwithsentenceadjuncts10.69specificdeterminers1.162-207list1.162useoftheasaspecificdeterminer1.163-181this,that,these,andthose1.182-191possessivedeterminers1.192-207spiteinspiteofinnon-finiteconcessiveclauses8.71splitinfinitives6.11stillinfrontoforafteracomparative2.165referringtoasituationthatiscontinuing5.76witha"to"-infinitivetosaysomethinghasnothappened5.77assubmodifierafteracomparative6.51subjectconcordofsubjectandverb1.17,1.25,1.36,1.43,1.69,8.165usualposition4.4,10.1positionin"yes/no"-questions4.12-14385 positionin"wh"-questions4.19-20impersonalsubjects3.131-132,10.31-55inversion7.22,10.92-95ofnon-finiteclauses8.23,8.44ofrelativeclauses8.90-94differentinmainclauseandnon-finiteclause8.128-131notrepeatedinlinkedclauses8.140,8.144ofpassiveverbs10.8subjectpronouns1.97-106usedafteras...asstructure2.130subjunctivereportingsuggestions7.40in"that"-clausesafterarrangeorrequire7.82afterwhetherinconditionalclauses8.41infinitepurposeclausesbeginningwithlest8.48submodifiers5.145-173withcolouradjectives2.35withlike2.139withqualitativeadjectives,tointensifymeaning2.148-149expressinganopinion2.149reducingtheeffectofqualitativeadjectives2.150indicatingtheextentofaquality2.151-153usedwithclassifyingadjectives2.152-153adequately,sufficiently,andacceptably2.154tooinfrontofpredicativeadjectives2.158usedwithcomparativesandsuperlatives2.162-173usedwithquantifiers2.209-210usedwithnot4.58usedinfrontofadverbs6.51subordinateclauses8.1-133seeadverbialclauses,non-finiteclauses,relativeclauses,andreportingclausessubordinatingconjunctions8.1-82table8.6usedinadverbialclauses8.6-82subordination8.1-136subsequentusedtoshowpositioninsequence2.249subsequenttousedtorelateoneeventtoanother5.106suchinnotsucha...asstructure2.135followedby"that"-clause,orbyasanda"to-infinitiveinaresultclause8.63usedtoreferbacktosomethingalreadymentioned9.29-31usedtoreferforward9.47suffixesaddedtonouns,referringtogender1.75-76seealsonegativeaffixessuperlativeadjectives2.117-127positioninnoungroup2.59normallyprecededbythe2.117usedasmodifiersinfrontofanoun2.119usedascomplements2.120structuresfollowingasuperlative2.121omissionoftheinfrontofasuperlative2.122withadjectivesendingin-ableor-ible2.123usedasheadwords2.124usedwithordinalnumbers2.126leastandtheleast2.127submodifyingsuperlatives2.172-173formationR20-31385 superlativeadverbs6.30-35usualform6.31irregularforms6.32structures:optionaluseofthe;usedassubmodifiers6.35formationR152-154Ttagquestions10.110-114afterbroadnegatives4.89seealsoquestiontagstakeasdelexicalverb3.33-43nounsthatgowithdelexicaltake3.43,3.46followedbynoungroupasadjunctofduration5.133tenses5.7-58=>future5.52-59=>pastcontinuous5.31=>pastperfect5.37-39=>presentcontinuous5.17-20=>presentperfect5.33=>simplepast5.27-30=>simplepresent5.8-16choiceoftenseintimeclauses8.9choiceoftenseinconditionalclauses8.28-35choiceoftenseinreasonclauses8.51summaryofactiveandpassivetensesR119verbsthatarenotusuallyusedincontinuoustensesR120-122seealsoR89-119thanincomparativestructures2.111-113followedbycomparativeadverbs6.35thatasdemonstrativepronoun1.123-126asrelativepronoun1.145,1.148,8.84asspecificdeterminer1.182-189followedbyspecifictimereference,asadjunct5.74assubject,object,orcomplementofarelativeclause8.90-91,8.94notthatinconcessiveclauses8.68referringbacktosomethingalreadymentioned9.7,9.9"that"-clauses7.24-77omissionofthat7.26usedinreportstructures7.26-28,7.40,7.42-43,7.66listofverbsthatgowith"that"-clauses7.27reportingsuggestions7.40reportinganintendedaction7.42containingamodalorsubjunctive7.82usedinimpersonalitstructures7.83,10.42usedafternounsrelatedornotrelatedtoreportingverbs7.84usedafteradjectives7.85-87usedafteritasimpersonalsubjectoflinkverbandadjective7.88usedascomplementofbe7.89usedassubjectofverb7.90followingadjectiveinpredicativeposition2.57afterwouldtoexpressawish4.213the1.162-181usedinfrontofanycommonnoun1.162-163pronunciation1.164,1.179referringtospecificpeopleorthings1.165usedwithpropernounsandsingularnouns1.168referringtospecificplacesandorganizations1.167385 referringtoallmembersofagroup1.169referringback1.171-172positionofmodifiersinnoungroupswiththe1.174andmodifiers1.175addingqualifierstonoungroupswhichbeginwiththe1.176usedwithuncountnouns1.177usedforemphasis1.179usedwithcomparativesandsuperlatives1.178,2.114,2.122,2.124,6.35usedwithgeneraldeterminers1.180usedwithnumbers1.181usedtoshowpossessioninsteadofpossessivedeterminers1.202usedwithpartsofthebody1.203usedwithdaysoftheweek5.95their1.192-207theirs1.110-113them1.104-106themselves1.115-122,3.27-32usedtorefertooneperson1.108thenasadjunctreferringtoaknowntime5.74followingan"if"-clause8.26linkingclauses8.14,8.143usedtoreferbacktoatimethathasalreadybeenmentioned9.15thereusedtoreferbacktoaplacethathasbeenalreadymentioned9.16withseemorappear10.53withthepassiveofareportingverbandtobe10.53followedbyexist,remain,arise,follow,orcome10.54thereaboutsorthereaboutsintimeexpressions5.101there"d10.51thereis10.46-55contrastedwithadverbofplacethere10.46pronunciationofthere10.46usingthereisorthereare:concordwithfollowingnoungroup10.50contractedforms10.51withadjectivesindicatinglikelihood10.52withnoungroupandanadjunct10.47-48withnoungroupandpresentparticiple10.49there"ll10.51there"s10.51theseasdemonstrativepronoun1.123-126asspecificdeterminer1.182-187,1.191usedtoreferback9.7usedtoreferforward9.42they1.97-103usedtorefertooneperson1.108usedtorefertopeopleingeneral10.13thirdseeordinalnumbersthisasdemonstrativepronoun1.123-126asspecificdeterminer1.182-187,1.191referringbacktosomethingalreadymentioned9.7,9.9referringforward9.42thoseasdemonstrativepronoun1.123-126asspecificdeterminer1.182-190385 usedwithrelativeclauses1.190,8.87usedtoreferbacktosomethingalreadymentioned9.7thoughusedinconcessiveclauses8.66,8.70-71seealsoasif,asthoughthousand2.238-239thousandsusedforemphasis2.241-242thus9.17tillfrom...tillinadjunctsofduration5.142intimeclauses8.20,8.24timeontime5.70atthesametime5.108everytimeandeachtime8.13bywhichtime8.21timeunitsoftime5.113timeclauses8.8-24afteradjunctsoftime8.8choiceoftense8.9,8.19expressingcircumstances8.11expressingrepeatedevents8.13oneeventhappeningafteranother8.15-21non-finitetimeclauses8.23containingprepositionalphraseoradjective8.24timeexpressions5.84-112specifictimeexpressions5.84-98clocktimes5.85timesoftheday5.86referringtoyears5.89useofat5.90-93useofin5.93-94useoftheorawithadayoftheweek5.95useofon5.95-97orderofinformation5.98non-specifictimeexpressions5.99-106almostandnearlyonlyafterbe5.100useoforthereabouts5.101useofduringforperiodsoftime5.102-103useofoverforperiodsoftime5.105useofbefore,priorto,andafter5.106beforeandafterusedtoshoworderofevents5.107eventshappeningatthesametime5.108useofbytorefertoanearlierevent5.110usedasqualifiersormodifiers5.112titlesasobjectcomplements3.171seealsopropernounstoafterpredicativeadjectives2.50expressingarangeofnumbers2.288listofnounsusuallyfollowedbyto2.305asheadofprepositionalphrasecontainingindirectobject3.77inreportstructures7.66,7.73atstartofprepositionalphrasementioningthehearerinareportstructure7.73followedbyrelativepronounasindirectobject8.97"to"-infinitiveclausesasqualifiers2.311-316385 listofnounthatusuallyhavea"to"-infinitiveclauseafterthem2.316"to"-infinitivesafteradjectives2.55-56,2.308afterordinalnumbers2.252useoftransitiveverbsinthe"to"-infinitiveformwithoutanobject3.24aftercomplements3.149-155,3.169introducinganobjectcomplement3.168inphrasestructures3.188,3.193,3.196,3.199expressingreasonforanaction3.200usedwithnot4.54positionsofadjuncts6.11addingmoreinformationafteranindefiniteplaceadverb6.91afterreportingverbs7.6-45,7.65afterseemorappear7.66afterarrange7.82afterprove,require,orshowinthepassive7.82afternounsrelatedtoreportingverbs7.84afterprepositionand"wh"-word7.93afterwereinconditionalclauses8.33non-finitepurposeclauses8.46afterasiforasthough8.82linking"to"-infinitiveclauseswithandoror8.150inimpersonalitstructures10.39-40formR126toousedtosubmodifygeneraldeterminers1.233infrontofmany,much,orfew2.158submodifyinganadjectivefollowedbyforora"to"-infinitive2.158transitiveverbs3.15-26typesofobjectthatgowithtransitiveverbs3.16listoftransitiveverbs3.17verbswhoseobjectsarepeople3.18-19verbswhichneedtobefollowedbyanadjunct3.20-21listofverbsofmovementandposition3.22usedwithoutanobject3.23-24usedwithreflexivepronounsasobjects3.27listofverbswhicharetransitiveinsomemeaningsandintransitiveinothers3.49absenceofobjectwhenthisisclear3.50listofnormallytransitiveverbswhichcanbeusedwithoutanobject3.51absenceofobjectafteratransitiveverbbecausetheobjecthasbeenrecentlymentioned3.52listofnormallytransitiveverbswhichcanbeusedwithanomittedobject3.53transitivephrasalverbs3.92-93,3.102-106,3.108-112,3.114listoftransitivephrasalverbs3.93,3.106,3.109,3.111,3.114listoftransitivecompoundverbs3.124verbsfollowedbyanobjectcomplement3.162-172verbsfollowedbyanobjectandas3.181useoftransitiveverbsinphrasestructures3.203-213listofverbsrelatedto"ing"adjectives2.71coordinationoftransitiveverbs8.154seealsodelexicalverbstryinphrasestructureswithand3.201twice5.115Uun-4.77uncountablenounsseeuncountnounsuncountnouns1.24-34385 concordwithverbs1.25listofcommonuncountnouns1.26listofuncountnounswhicharecountnounsinotherlanguages1.27referringtoamountofsomethingexpressedbyanuncountnoun1.28usedascountnounstoexpressquantity1.29usedasmassnouns1.30-32nounsthatcanbeuncountorcount1.33listofuncountnounswhichendin-s1.34usedwiththe1.177usedwithaoranwhenthenounismodifiedorqualified1.218precededbysome1.221usedindelexicalstructures3.38untilinnegativeclauses5.140inadjunctsofdurationtoindicatewhensomethingstopped5.140from...until5.142intimeclauses8.20,8.24us1.104-106usedto4.258-262insteadofwouldtorefertoirregulareventsinthepast4.115,4.259inreportedclauses7.54Vvarious1.230verbalnounssee"-ing"nounsverbs=>compoundverbs3.118-126=>delexicalverbs3.33-46=>ditransitiveverbs3.74-83=>ergativeverbs3.60-68=>intransitiveverbs3.9-14=>linkverbs3.137-148=>performativeverbs10.102-105=>phrasalverbs3.84-117=>reciprocalverbs3.69-73=>reflexiveverbs3.27-32=>reportingverbs7.5-13=>transitiveverbs3.15-26listofverbsfollowedbyadjunctsofdirection3.13listofverbsfollowedbyadjunctsofposition3.13verbsusedintransitiveorintransitiveclauses3.48-55listofverbswhicharetransitiveinsomemeaningsandintransitiveinothers3.49omittingtheobject3.50-53listsofnormallytransitiveverbswhichcanbeusedwithoutanobject3.51,3.53verbswhichtakeadirectobjectorprepositionalphrase3.56-59verbswhichactlikelinkverbswhenfollowedbycertainprepositions3.148positionofmainverbin"yes/no"-question4.12listofverbsusedtospecifyposition6.58concordwithplacenames6.104verbsthatdonotrefertospeechorthoughtbutcanbefollowedbya"that"-clause7.82choiceoftenseintimeclauses8.9usingandtolinkidenticalverbsforemphasis8.156listsofverbsusuallyusedinthepassive10.18listsofverbsrarelyusedinthepassive10.19listofverbsreferringtoneedsorwantsthatcanbeusedincleftsentences10.30listofverbswhichcanhaveimpersonalitasobject10.35listofverbsusedwithimpersonalittodescribetheweather10.36verbsusedwithimpersonalitassubject10.40verbformsR52-79385 formingparticiplesR59-70pronunciationR55,R57,R59listofverbswithirregularpastformsandpastparticiplesR72formsofauxiliariesR80-87formationoftensesR89-119verbsnotusuallyusedincontinuoustensesR120-122non-finiteverbgroupsR123-135veryasemphasizingadjective2.43assubmodifier2.145submodifyinglike2.170submodifyingsuperlatives2.173submodifyinggeneraldeterminers1.233vocatives10.115-119positioninsentence10.116usingtitlesandsurnames10.117voiceseeactive,passiveWwantinphasestructures3.192,3.199,3.213usedinmakingrequests4.240waytheway,inaway,andintheway,usedlikeconjunctionsinclausesofmanner8.78we1.97-103wellaftercould,might,ormaytoexpressstrongpossibility4.128wereinconditionalclauseswitha"to"-infinitive8.33,8.36insteadofwasafterasiforasthough8.81whatasinterrogativepronoun1.150-152in"wh"-questions4.17-21,4.29whataboutorwhatofinquestionswithoutaverb4.41innominalrelativeclauses8.113incleftsentences10.28-30inexclamations10.107-108whateverin"wh"-questions4.30inconditionalclauses8.42whatsoever4.92whenin"wh"-questions4.17-21,4.25inrelativeclauses8.104-105whenever8.13,8.24wherein"wh"-questionswithadjectivessuchasnecessaryorpossible8.24inplaceclauses8.74inrelativeclauses8.104-105,8.114whereas8.66whereby8.107whereupon8.21whereverin"wh"-questions4.30withadjectivessuchasnecessaryorpossible8.24inplaceclauses8.76whether"whether"-clausesusedtoreportquestions7.32385 listofverbsthatcancomebefore"whether"-clauses7.33in"to"-infinitiveclauses,withor8.40-41whichasrelativepronoun1.145,1.147,8.84,8.91,8.94asinterrogativepronoun1.150-152in"wh"-questions4.17-21,4.24ofwhichinsteadofwhoseinrelativeclauses8.102inrelativeclausescommentingonthewholeofthemainclause8.110inclausescommentingonasituationortime8.111whicheverinconditionalclauses8.42innominalrelativeclauses8.115whileintimeclauses8.11,8.24inconcessiveclauses8.66,8.71whilstintimeclauses8.11inconcessiveclauses8.66,8.71whoasrelativepronoun1.145-146,8.84,8.90,8.93asinterrogativepronoun1.150-152in"wh"-questions4.17-22useofwhocontrastedwithwhom4.22whoeverin"wh"-questions4.30inconditionalclauses8.42innominalrelativeclauses8.115whomasrelativepronoun1.145-146,8.84,8.90,8.93asinterrogativepronoun1.150-152in"wh"-questions4.17-22useofwhomcontrastedwithwho4.22ofwhominsteadofwhoseinrelativeclauses8.102whoseasrelativepronoun1.149,8.84,8.101asinterrogativepronoun1.150-152in"wh"-questions4.17-21,4.23replacedbyofwhichorofwhominwrittenEnglish8.102"wh"-questions4.17-30wordorder4.19-20questionswithoutaverb4.21useofwhoandwhom4.22useofwhose4.23useofwhich4.24useofwhenandwhere4.25useofwhy4.26useofhow4.27howcombinedwithotherwordsin"wh"-questions4.28useofwhat4.29whatcombinedwithiforforin"wh"-questions4.29useofwhatever,wherever,andwhoever4.30useofwhataboutorwhatofwithnoverb4.41-42negative"wh"-questionsbeginningwithwhytomakesuggestions4.42reporting"wh"-questions7.34"wh"-wordslist4.18wordorderin"wh"-questions4.19-20usedafterapreposition,followedbya"to"-infinitive7.93nominaluseof"wh"-clauses7.92385 usedtoreport"wh"-questions7.34verbsthatcancomebeforeclausesstartingwith"wh"-words7.35seealso"wh"-questionswhyin"wh"-questions4.17-20,4.26negative"wh"-questionsbeginningwithwhyusedtomakesuggestions4.42useofwhyandwherebyindefiningclauses8.107willnegativeformwon"t4.105shortenedto"llafterapronoun4.108referringtothefuture4.111,5.53,R104replacedbywouldinreportstructures4.114expressinglikelihood4.124expressingcertaintyaboutthefuture4.133willnotusedtoexpressprohibition4.153usedininstructions4.162usedtoaskforhelp4.162usedtogiveanorder4.172usedtomakeanofferorinvitation4.178usedtostateintentions4.195willnotusedtoexpressunwillingnesstodosomething4.201usedtoexpressthenecessityofanaction4.217usedwithdare4.255usedtoformthefuturetense5.53,R104usedinreportedclauses7.52withafterpredicativeadjectives2.52mainuseaspreposition2.301useinreportstructures7.75useinpassiveconstructions10.15listsofverbsusedwithwithinthepassive10.16withininadjunctsofduration5.130-131wonderasreportingverb7.21usedwithan"if"-clauseora"whether"-clause7.33usedtomakeapoliterequest7.63won"tasshortenedformofwillnot4.105usedtoexpressunwillingnesstodosomething4.195,4.201wordorderpositionofadjectives2.19-23,2.58-66positionofnumbers2.230,2.236,2.250positionofobjectsofditransitiveverbs3.80positionofobjectsofphrasalverbs3.102-105positionofprepositioninphrasalverbs3.116orderofsubject,verb,andcomplement3.128"yes/no"-questions4.12negativenon-finiteclauses4.53-54negativestatements4.49-52,4.60-62,4.73,4.208positionofbroadnegatives4.84-88positionofadjuncts5.41,5.70-83,6.7-13timeexpressions5.98orderofsubjectandverbafteradjuncts6.15positionofadverbs6.24,6.48,6.50,6.90positionofobjectsofprepositions6.57orderofprepositionalphrasesandafteraverb6.122positionofprepositionalphrases6.58-63orderofsubjectandintransitiveverbafteraprepositionalphrase6.63385 quotestructures7.19-21reportstructures7.24,7.28adverbialclauses8.7puttingtheverbfirstinsomeconditionalclauses8.36resultclauses8.54,8.62ofsentencescontainingresultclauses8.62concessiveclauses8.70placeclauses8.75relativeclauses8.98-99positionofnon-finiteclauses8.119,8.132orderofelementsinaclause10.1-2positionofcomplementinpassiveconstructions10.21positionoffocusingadverbs10.90positionofvocative10.116worseassuperlativeofbadly6.32asadverbofdegree6.52assuperlativeofbadR28worstascomparativeofbadly6.32asadverbofdegree6.52ascomparativeofbadR28wouldnegativeformwouldn"t4.105shortenedto"dafterapronoun4.108usedinsteadofwillinreportstructures4.114referringtoregulareventsinthepast4.115referringtothefutureinnarrative4.116withnottoexpresspastreluctance4.117,4.202expressinglikelihood4.124-125expressingpossibilityinthepast4.141usedininstructions4.163askingforhelp4.163wouldlikeusedtogiveanorder4.171wouldlikeusedtomakearequest4.175usedtomakeanofferorinvitation4.179wouldlikeusedtoexpressawish4.207wouldnotusedtoexpressanegativewish4.208wouldratherorwouldsoonerusedtoexpressapreference4.210expressingawishaboutthepast4.211followedbya"that"-clausetoexpressawish4.213usedinexpressinganopinion4.226usedwithdare4.255usedinreportedclauses7.51-52wouldn"tasshortenedformofwouldnot4.105usedtomakeanofferorinvitation4.179usedtoexpresspastunwillingnesstodosomething4.202Y-yaddedtocolouradjectives2.36"yes/no"-questions4.12-16positionofauxiliary,subject,andmainverb4.12positionoftheauxiliarydo4.13beorhaveasmainverb4.14tagquestions4.15rhetoricalquestions4.40reporting"yes/no"-questions7.32yet385 usedwithcomparativesandsuperlatives2.165,5.80referringtoanexpectedsituation5.78-79usedafteradjunctsofdurationwithfor5.127usedtolinkclauses8.140,8.145usedtolinkadjectives8.175usedtolinkadverbs8.176you1.97-106usedtorefertopeopleingeneral10.13your1.192-207yours1.110-113yourself1.115-122,3.27-32yourselves1.115-122,3.27-32385