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1.名词1.1名词用作单数的名词1.1.1经常用作单数的名词英语中除质名词外,经常用作单数的名词在形式上可分成两类;以s结尾及无s结尾。以s结尾的词通常是一些学科、疾病的名称及其他的词,如:electronics,physics,optics(光学),linguistics,mathematics,politics,statistics(统计学),arthritis(关节炎),bronchitis(支气管炎),measles(麻疹),classics,news等等。无s结尾的通常是一些抽象名词或某些具体名词的总称,如:information,knowledle,work,advice,weather,fun,luck,trouble,music,progress,happiness,machinery(机器、机械的总称),furniture,equipment(设备的总称),technology,luggage,baggage,evidence,homework等等。使用上述这些名词时要注意主谓的一致,即当它们作句子主语时动词须用单数形式,而且不能在这些名词词尾加s或es构成复数。Newsofvictorieskeepspouringin.Hehasobtainedmuchinformationconcerningagriculrure.Thereisnotmuchfurnitureintheroom.然而,上述不少名词均可在其前面加上一定的单位词予以量化:apiece/abit/anitemofgoodnewstwopiecesofadvicetherepieces/articles/suitesoffurniture1.1.2经常用作复数的形式经常用作复数的名词可分成:单数形态但表示复数概念及复数形态同时表示复数概念两类。1)单数形态表示复数概念的名词常见的有:people,police,militia,cattle,staff,poultry,livestock(家畜),vermin(害虫),personnel,以及由the+形容词或分词构成的一类人:therich,thepoor,theold,theyuong,thesick,theunemployed,thedying,等等。ThepolicehavecaughttheburglarAllhiscattleweregrazinginthefieldWhereareyourpoultry?Therewerefiveairlinepersonnelontheplanethatcrashed.Thericharenotalwaysgeneroustothepoor.27
2)复数形式表示复数概念的名词包括:①本身总是由两部分构成的物件;②常以-ings结尾的某些名词;③常具有复数形态的名词。这些名词一般均不用其单数形式,常见的有:pants,spectacles,scissors,shoes,trousers,socks,belongings(所有物),savings,earnings,surroundings,lodgings(租住的房间);clothes,goods,congratulations,manners(礼貌、规矩),thanks,particulars(细节),spirits(情绪),funds(基金),pains(辛苦),arms(武器),troops,regards,等等。Wherearemyapectacles?Thesesurroundingsarenotgoodforthechild.Manytrropsweresentoverseas.许多士兵被派往国外。Allmythanksareduetoyou.一切都得感谢你。1.1.3某些集合名词的数的特殊用法某些集合名词如:audience,firm,class,government,party,board(委员会),couple,crew,committee,family,public,team,group等既可用作单数,也可用作复数。当一个集合名词可看作整体时,用作单数;当一个集合名词可看成各个成员时,用作复数。Theaveragefamilyisagreatdealsmallerthanitusedtobe.(家庭)Myfamilyaregoingwithme.(家人)Thegouernmentismadeupofseniormembersofthefourmainrighr-wingparties.(政府)Thegouernmentarehopingtoeaseimportrestrictionssoon.(政府各位成员)1.1.4单复数同形的名词单复数同形的名词,一种以单数形成结尾,如:fish,deer,aircraft,sheep,youth,Chinese,Japanese;另一种则以复数形式结尾,如:means,species,barracks(兵营),headquarters,crossroads(十字路口),series,works等等,其谓语形式按具体情况确定。Fiveenemyaircraftwerebroughtdown.Deerareherbivorous(食草的).Thisspeciesisnowextinct.这一物种现已灭绝。Thesespeciesarenowextinct.这些物种现已灭绝。1.1.5由连字符构成的复合名词的数由连字符构成的复合名词作定语位于名词之前时,复合名词中的名词部分不能用复数形式,也不能加上表示名词所有格的“‘”。aten-poundnoteafive-minutetalk27
athirty-milejourney但是,当上述复合名词不用连字符连接,在句子中作表语或补充说明语,而不是作定语时,该用复数的名词还得加“s”。HislectureontheAmericanhistory,threehourslong,boredmostofthestudents.此外,合成名词在构成复数时,通常只将里面所包含的主体名词变为复数。looker(s)-on旁观者comrade(s)-in-arms战友editor(s)-in-chief总编辑son(s)-in-law女婿runner(s)-up亚军如果没有主体名词就在词尾加“s”。go-between(s)中间人grown-up(s)成年人但由man和woman构成的合成名词,里面所含的成分都要变成复数。man-servant-men-servantswomandoctor-womendoctors1.1.6不规则名词的单复数形式不规则名词的单复数变化可分成两类,即英语中古旧的复数形式和外来词的复数形式。古旧的复数形式man-men,woman-women,child-children,ox-oxen,tooth-teeth,goose-geees,foot-feet,mouse-mice 外来词的复数形式:1)将词尾-sis改成-sesanalysis-analyses,crsis-crises,basis-bases,thesis-theses,diagnosis-diagnoses,hypothesis-hypotheses2)将词尾-um改成-adatum(数据)-data,bacterium(细菌)-bacteria,spectrum(光谱)-spectra,medium(媒介)-media3)将词尾-us改成-inucleus-nuclei(或nucleuese),focus-foci(或focuses)4)将词尾-on改成-acriterion-criteria,phenomenon-phenomena1.1.7固定结构中的名词复数某些固定结构中的名词必须作复数形式,常见的有:takepains下苦功makearrangements作安排27
makepreparations作准备keepongoodtermswith...同......保持友好关系beinhigh/lowspirits情绪高/低extendthanksto...向......致谢bymeansof借助于......,依靠......onsecondthoughts进一步考虑后giveregardsto...向......问候beatoddswith...与......不和giverespectsto...向......致意singthepraisesof赞颂1.1.8专有名词的复数1)表示某姓的一家人AretheSimthscomingtoourpartytomorrowevening?(史密斯一家人)2)表示同姓或同名的若干人TherearetwoMarysandthreeRobertsinhisclass.(两个叫玛丽的,三个叫罗伯特的人)3)本身带有复数词缀的专有名词theUnitedStatesthePhilippinestheNetherlands1.2名词的风格1.2.1’s所有格的用法名词的’s所有格除大量地用于表示“人”的所有格如:teachers’readingroom,children’spalace,MissMary’sletter以外,还可表示:1)由“人”组成的集体名称,如某人的家,店铺等thegovernment’spolicy政府的政策mysister’s我姐姐的家thebutcher’s肉铺thebaker’s面包店2)价值、度量、时间tendollars’worth,aton’sweightanight’srest,today’snewspaper3)动物所属cow’smilk,sheep’swool,afrog’sleg4)天体所属theearth’ssurface,thesun’sheat,themoon’ssoftbeams,heaven’swill5)习语中的名词’s所有格英语某些习语中的名词经常用’s所有格,应注意它们的固定用法。astone’sthrow一箭之距toone’sheart’scontent尽情地27
atone’swit’send智穷计尽forGod’ssake看在上帝份上inone’smind’seye在某人心目中byahair’sbreadth险些儿1.2.2名词的双重所有格当某一名词同时使用of所有格及’s所有格作为另一名词的后置修饰语时称作为双重所有格。如:afriendofmyfather’s,thisbrilliantidesofDavid’s等。它们的适用场合为:1)当被修饰的词前面的一个表示数量的词(如:a,two,Some,any,no,few等),例如:apaintingofmycolleague’sa/anydaughterofMrsGreen’ssomestudentsofLaoYang’s2)当被修饰的词前面有一个指示词thatperformanceofthetaechers’thatcleverremarkofyoursister’sthisnotoriousschemeofyourcolleague’s用于这种场合的双重所有格多数有爱憎褒贬等感情色彩。有时of属格与双重所有格意义无甚区别,如:afeiendofmybrother/afriendofmybrother’s有时两种属格意义有很大区别,如:aportraitofMrBrown’s一张布朗先生画的(或收藏的)肖像aportraitofMrBrown一张布朗先生肖像acriticismofShaw对萧声的评论=opinionaboutshawacritisismofShaw’s萧所作有评论=opinionsbyShaw1.2.3名词作定语的用法现代英语中名词作前置定语的趋势已十分明显,这样的名词按其功能可分成以下几类。1)表示被修饰名词所构成的材料silverdollar银元stonehouse石屋strawhat草帽irondoor铁门goldring金戒指2)表示被修饰名词所属的学科门类electronicsindustry电子工业physicslsboratory物理实验室historyteacher历史教师geographylesson地理课3)表示被修饰名词所有盛的液体teakettle茶壶beer/milkbottle啤酒(牛奶)瓶oilcan油壶gasolinetank汽油箱coffeecup/pot咖啡杯(壶)4)表示被修饰名词的类别27
appleseeds苹果籽cottonfiled棉田featurefilm故事片rosegarden玫瑰园youthdelegation青年代表团注:个别情况下也有用名词的复数形式作为定语的,如:goodstrain,savingsbanks,sportsmeet。1.3名词前置修饰语的几个问题1.3.1名词前的单位词单位词多用于某些物质名词或不可数的抽象名词之前,用介词of连接,从而使这些名词具有数量概念;同时也可用于某些表示个体的可数名词前面以表示它们的整体概念,常见的单位词如:apiece(一条、一块、一张、一支、一件、一片、一段)ofadvice/bread/cake/chalk/work/furniture/cloth/paper/news/information/evidence/luggage/luckanitem(条、则)ofnews/informationacake(块)ofsoapadrop(滴)ofwater/oil/whiskyanarticle(件)ofchthing/luggage/furnitureabar(条)ofchocolate/soap/iron/goldanear(穗)ofwheat/riceagrain(粒)ofwheat/rice/corn/salt/sandaloaf(只、条)ofbreakalump(块)ofcoal/sugar/clayaslice(片)ofbreak/bacon/meat/cake以下是表示成群的单位词:aflock(群)ofbirds/geese/pigeons/visitors/custonmersaberd(群)ofbees/ants/stars(星)apack(帮、群)ofthieves/wolves/hounds(猎狗)abunch(串、束)ofkeys/bananas/grapes/rosesabundle(捆、束、包)ofclothes/letters/bank-notes/firewoodacrowd(群、堆)ofpeople/booksagang(帮、伙、群)ofbanfits/robbers1.3.2名词前表示数量的词名词前表示数量的词可分成三种情况,修饰可数名词;修饰不可数名词;既可修饰可数名词又可修饰不可数名词。1)只修饰可数名词的数量词有:many,ggoodmany,a(great/small)numberof,num-bersof,few,afew,onlyafew,27
onlyafew,scoresof,dozensof,aseriesof,avaretyof(各种各样的)2)只修饰不可数名词的数量词有:much,agreatdealof,alittle,little,a(n)(small/large)amountof3)既可修饰可数名词又可修饰不可数名词的数量词有:Some,more,most,alotof,lotsof,plentyof,a(small/great)quantityof,(large)quantities,aportionof1.3.3名词前置修饰语与不定冠词及形容词的相对位置名词前有修饰语so,such,as,too,rather,quite,how,what等时,它们的词序有如下两种情况。(以adifficultproblem为例)1)不定冠词位于形容词之前Itissuch/quiteadiddicultproblem.Whatadifficultproblemitis!2)不定冠词位于形容词之后Itistoo/sodifficultaproblemHowdifficultaproblemitis!Itisasdifficultaproblemastheonewesolvedlastweek注:①rather的用法比较灵活,既可就:aratherdifficultproblem,也可说:ratheradifficultproblem。②so只用于后续单数可数名词,但somany/solittlr/somuch除外,如:a)(正)sostrangeawomanb)(误)sostrangepeoplec)(正)sobeautifulagardend)(误)sobadweather应将上述b),d)两短语中的so改成such。1.3.4名词被多个形容词修饰时的形容词词序当一个名词被多个形容词前置修饰时应注意形容词的词序,一般可遵循以下原则:(1)限定词(如:冠词、指示代词、数量词);(2)表示大小、高度、长度时间;(3)表示质地的词;(4)表示年龄的词;(5)表示颜色的词;(6)表示国名的词。例如:abigbeautifulgreenhouse(1-2-3-5)alargeoldbrowndesk(1-2-4-5)thisprettylittleSwedishgirl(1-3-4-6)27
2.代词2.1代词的格2.1.1代词主格及宾格的正确方法在正式场合,than后面作主语的人称代词要用主格。MrMossseemedevenmorefrightenedthanwe.(不说:...thanus)IthankyouunderstandtheproblembetterthanI.在正式场合,连系动词be之后作表语的人称代词用主格,但在口语中往往用宾格。此外,在“Itis/was+代词+who从句”这样的强调句中,在正式场合下代词总是主格来表示行为的执行者。Openthedoor,please.It’sme.Whatwouldyoudoifyouwerehim?ItwasIwhosurvived.Itisshewhowantsit.2.1.2名词性物主代词的正确方法名词性物主代词有mine,ours,yours,his,hers,its,theirs,它们可在句中替代名词词组,充当不同的句子成分。Ours(=Ourmission)isagloriousmission.(主语)Helefthiscarneraathome.Youcanusemine.(=mycarnera)(宾语)Thesepicturesareforyourfriendsandtheirs.(=theirfriends)(介词宾语)Thefaultischieflymine.(=mylault)(表语)此外,名词性物主代词也可与of连用作为名词的修饰语。Jackisafriensofhers.Thatideaofhishasfoundfavourwithmanyofus.2.1.3代词代有格用作V-ing的逻辑主语在正式文体中,V-ing的逻辑主语用代词所有格来表示(如有名词则用’s所有格)。Idon’tobjecttohissmokingintheromm.Forgivemyringingyouupsorerly.Doyoumindmyopeningthewindows?2.2反身代词的用法2.2.1反身代词的非强调性用法反身代词用在pride,avail,absent,busy,behave,conduct,adapt,enjoy,help,force等及物动词后,具有非强调性的用法,例如:Heprideshimself(自夸)uponhisskillasapianist.27
Weauailourselves(利用)ofeveryopportunitytopractisespeakingEnglish.Notasinglestudentabsentedhimselffromthelecture.Hobbusiedhimselfpreparinghislessons.Theybehaved(=conducted)themselveswell.Whenyougotoaforeigncounrty,youmustadaptyourselftonewmannersandcustoms.Didyouenjoyyourselfduringthewinterwacation?Pleasehelpyourself(自己动手吃)totheapples.2.2.2反身代词的强调性用法反身代词用作同位语时属强调性用法,它在句中的位置比较灵活。Thepresidenthimselfwillattendtheopeningceremong.Thepost-graduateswillwritethebookthemselves.2.2.3用于介词短语中的反身动词1)byoneself自己(无需他人帮助),单独于Theymadethemachineallbythemselves.Thisisamachinethatworksby-itself.2)ofineself自动地Thedoorclosedofitself.3)foroneself为(给)自己You’llhavetojudgeforyourself.Hehasarighttodecideforhimself.4)inoneself本性,自身Thisisnorabadideainitself.Theyweregoodmeninthemselves.5)betweenourselves私下说的话(不可告人)Allthisisbetweenourselves.6)amongthemselves(在内部)相互间Theyhadaheateddiscussionamongthemselves.7)besideoneself欣喜若狂Hewasbesidehimselfwithjoy8)tooneself独自拥有HowIwishtohavearoomtomyself.2.2.4习语中的反身代词反身代词常出现于某些习语中充当宾语,从而构成固定搭配。1)vt.+反身代语+ad.27
pulloneselftogether振作起来takeoneselfaway走开giveoneselfaway露马脚2)vt.+反身代词+prep.availoneselfof利用prideoneselfon夸耀absentoneselffrom没有出席abaptoneselfon适应于accustomonesflton习惯于applyoneselfto专心致志于surrenderoneselfto听任,沉溺于3)vt.+反身代词Behaveoneself使举止规矩conductoneself为人,表现deportoneself举止kickoneself严厉自责2.3名词性替代词的基本用法2.3.1替代词one/ones的用法替代词one/once只能替代单数/复数可数名词,而且常有形容词或指示代词修饰。Mychidldoesn’tlikethisbook.Showhimamoreinterestingone.Theysentusalotofsmallapplesinsteadofbigones.如果名词词组中心词是不可数名词,就不能用one/ones替代,可采用省略名词的办法避免重复。Weprefergreenteatoblack(tea).Theoldequipmentworksjustaswellasthenew(equipment).替代词one/ones和它们所替代的名词词组中心词的“数”可以不一致。Comparetheneweditionwiththeoldones.Iperferthelargebottletotheamallones.此外,one/ones不用于物主代词之后,不说my/your/hisone(s),应该用名词性物主代词。Yourhatisblueandmineisblack.(不能说:...myone...)2.3.2替代词thesame的用法thesame的替代作用有如下几个方面。1)替代整个名词词组,通常指物,所替代的名词词组并非共指同一对象,而是同类东西。A:I’llhavetwopoachedeggsontoast,please.B:I’llhavethesame.(=twopoachedeggsontoast)替代词thesame一般不带有前置修饰语,但可带有表示条件的后置修饰语。A:I’dlikeacupodtea.B:I’dlikethesamewithbutwithoutsugar.27
2)替代一个名词性从句所表示的事实。A:Johnthoughtitwaspossible.B:Yes,Ithoughtthesame.(=thatitwaspossible)3)替代上文中的某个过程。A:Ilostmywayinthegalleries.B:Thesamehappenedtome.(=Ialsolostmywayinthegalleries.)4)替代一个作表语的形容词词组或比较结构A:Johnsoundedratherregretful.B:Yes,Marysoundedthesame.(=ratherregretful.)A:Theseapplesarejustsasoursathelastoneswehad.B:Yes,theytastethesame.(=sasourasthelastoneswehad.)2.2.3比较级中的名词性替代比较级后than引导的从句中,常采用名词替代词,可数名词一般用theone,those=theones,不可数名词多采用that.Ilikethiscoatbetterthantheoneyoushowedmebefore.Thegirlsinyourclassaremoreactivethanthose(=theones)inourclass.Theoutputofsteedis11percenthigherthanthatofthesameperiodoflastyear.2.4不定代词2.4.1关于another,theother,others,other+名词复数,theothers,theother+名词复数的正确用法1)another:泛指,不定数目中的“另一个”;theother:特指,确定数目中的“另一个”。Thisglassisbroken.Getmeanother.(任意一个)Noagreementwasreachedinthediscussionasneithersidewouldgivewaytotheother.(双方中的一方)2)other与other+名词复数泛指其他的人或物的复数。I’vefinishedreadingthesebooks.Canyougivemesomeotherbooks/other?Shehasnoregardforathers.3)theother与theother+名词复数,用于特指一定范围内的人或物的复数。Ofthefourstudents,oneisgoingtoweekinafactory;theother/theotherstudentswilltakeupagriculturalwork.2.4.2关于noone与nonenonoe=nobody,仅用于人,不用于后续of短语,动词用单数形式。Noonelikeshisfriendstotakeadvantageeofhim.27
none既能指人,又能指物;既可用单数动词,又可用复数动词;可后续of短语。Noneofthesuggestionswas/wereacceptable.Noneofhisclassmateslikes/likeliterature.2.4.3关于everyone与everyoneEveryone=everybody仅用于人,不能后续of 短语;everyone可用于人或物,可后续of短语。EveryoneisreadyEveryoneofusisready,Everyoneofhisbooksiskeptclean.2.4.4由不定代词mothing,anything,something,everything,构成有习惯方法1)nothingbut只有,只不过Don’tworryformyillness;whatIneedisnothingbutafewday’srest.2)nothinglike没有什么给比得上......Insummerthereisnothinglikeswimmingasameansofkeepingfit.3)anythingbut根本不Iwilldoanythingbutthat.4)somethinglike大约;有几分像Itmustbesomethinglikeseveno’clock.Itisshapedsomethinglikeaball.5)somethingof在某种意义(程度)上Heissomethingofamusician.(他有几分音乐家的才能。)6)beeverythingtosb,在某人看来是最重要(宝贵)的InlearningEnglish,grammarisnoteveryingtobeginners.(对初学者来说,学英语单学语法是不行的。)2.5作为限定词的代词之间的搭配关系用作中词修饰的代词如:物主代词、指示代词、不定代词以及冠词、数词、名词所有格也称为限定词,根据它们在名词前的相互搭配关系可分成三类:1)前位限定词:如all,both,half,double,such,what,threetimes,one-third等。2)中位取定词:如a,an,the,that,this,these,those,every,each,either,my,your,John’s,theteacher’s等。3)后位限定词:如one,two,first,another,few,last,next,other,many,much,scuh等。这三类限定词同时修饰一个名词中心词时,它们间的搭配关系按照“前位——中位——后位”顺序排列,一般不能颠倒。27
Allthefourteachers前中后Alltheselastfewdays前中后后一般来说,后位限定词之间没有互相排斥的问题,可以连续使用,如上例中的last或few之间,然而前位限定词之间或中位限定词之间是互相排斥有,不能连续作用。*theteacher’sthatbook应改成:thatbookoftheteacher’s*ourthatroom应改成:thatroomofours注:正文中标有星号“*”的例证往往欠妥或错误。3.冠词3.1定冠词the的基本用法在以下场合需用定冠词the。1)世上独有的事物,天体、方位、左右等theworld,thesun,theearth,themoon,theright,theleft,theeast(south,west,north)2)表示上文提到的人或事物Heorderedabooksometimeago.Thebookhasnowarrived.Ihavewochildren;aboyandagirl.Theboy’snameisJohn.Thegirl;snameisMary3)用在带有限制性修饰语的名词之前IsthisthetraintoShanghai?Theaeroplanethechildrenwerewatchingwasajet.4)用在形容词最高级和比较级之前ThisisthebestdictionaryIhaveeverhad.Thisdictionaryisthebetterofthetwo.定冠词用于形容词比较级之前,主要是对两个人或物进行比较时起特指作用。5)指谈话双方都知道的特定的人或物Turnontheradio,please.Besuretolockthedoorwhenyouleavetheroom.6)用于序数词或next,last,same前构成名词短语thetwentiethcentury,thenextbook,thelastxhance,thesameamountofmoney27
然而,last和next在以下场合不用定冠词:timelastweeknextmonthyearSunday7)用于“十或其倍数”的复数数词之前,表示年代thefifties(50年代)theeighties(80年代)8)用于单数名词前,指类型ThetigerisananimalThecomputerisveryessentialtomodernbusiness.9)用于形容词或分词前,表示整个类别或某一抽象概念Therichandthepoorshouldbetreatedalike.Thehospitalistakingcareofthewoundedandthedying.Hecan’ttellthegoodbromtheevil.10)用于表示计量单位的名词前Meatissoldbythekilogram.Gaslineissoldbythegallon.11)用在名词前表示强调,有“正是......的”,“最......的”的意义Thisisthewordtobeusedhere.(最恰当的字眼)Johnsonisthemanforthejob.(最合适的人)12)定冠词在某些习语中的用法在下列习语中应使用的定冠词,如:atthehandsofalltheyearroundbytheway顺便(说/问一下)forthetimebeing暂时inthecaseof至于......inthedistancre远处intheeastofintheendinthefrontof在......的前部inthemorninginthepossessionof为......所有intheshadeintheway挡道的;妨碍人的onthejob忙碌onthepartofontheright/leftontheshoulderonthespot在现场;当场onthewholetheotherdaytobeinthehabitoftobeontheair广播27
tobeoutofthequestion不可能tofollowtheplough务农totellthetruth3.2不定冠词的基本用法在以下场合需要用不定冠词1)用于单数可数名词前,表示任何泛指的,不限定的或首次提到的人或物Iboughtahorseyesterday,Ihaveanappleinmypocket.2)表示数量“-”,但其数量概念比one弱Abirdinthehandisworthtwointhebush.一鸟在手胜于二鸟在林。Hecanfinishtheiobinadayortwo.3)表示“每一”,但意思不如every强Hetakesthepillsthreetimesaday.Itrunsat60kilometresanhour.4)表示“同一”,但意思不如thesame强Theyweremuchofasizw.Visttorsmaycomeintothehallfiftyatatime.5)用于系动词be之后,表示主语的身份等Hehasbecomeamerchant.Theycalledhimafool.注:但在turn后的主语补足语前往往不同冠词,如:Heturnedwriter.6)用于表示一类人或物,此用法与定冠词the相同Atigerisananimal.Acompassisaninstrumentforshowingdirection.7)不定冠词在某些习语中的用法在下列习语中要用不定冠词:allofasuddenasarule通常amatterofcourse理所当然的事asamatteroffact事实上atalossatadiscount打折扣inafashion勉强的;马马虎虎onalargescale大规模地withaviewto为了......inahurryinagood/hadtempertoget/flyintoatemper发怒tohaveahandin插手tohaveamindtodo想做tohaveagoodtimetohaveasay有发言权27
tolendahandtokeepaneyeon留心......toputapremiumon重视3.3零冠词的基本用法零冠词也就是名词前不用冠词的场合,主要有以下几点。1)专有名词、抽象名词和物质名词前China,Canade,Smith,science,wood,cotton,milk,tea2)节日、假日、星期、月份、季节前Chrisrmas,MayDay,Wednesday,January,spring3)头衔称谓前GeneralWashington,ProfessorSmith,Uncle,Sister等4)三餐名词前afterbreakfast,beforelunch5)球类前playbasketball/football等6)两个相同或相对词并列使用构成的短语中daybyday,persontoperson,sidebyside,shouldertoshoulder,arminarm,atepbystep,facetofacefatherandson,hushandandwife,manandwoman,dayandnight,frombeginningtoend,fromtoptobottom,fromrighttoleft,fromhandtomouth(仅够糊口地)7)在一些独立结构中的名词前Hatinband,hestoodstill.Pipeinmouth,besatdeepinthought.Guninhand,thehuntersplungeddeepintotheforest.8)在“普通名词+as”引出的让步状语从句的普通名词前ThecherasOscaris,heisnotagrammarian.ChildasTomis,youcan’tfoolhim.9)在与at,in,to连用的某些组织名称或机构名称以及home,town等名词之前,多用于表示经常从事的活动而不是一次性的行动tobeinbed/church/prison在睡觉,做礼拜,坐牢tobeatschool/college/university/sea在上(中、大)学,航海gotoshool/church/college/prison上学、做礼拜,上大学,坐牢此外,在下列短语中也用零冠词gototown,athome,intown,oncampus10)在与by连用的交通工具名称之前27
bicyclecargo/travel/come/leave/bybustrainboat/shipplane注:①在介词in或on后面情况则不同,例如:ina/mycar;ona/hisbicycle.②类似交通工具的用法还有:byair,byland,bywater,bysea,byrail,etc.11)零冠词在某些习语中的用法在下列习语中使用零冠词:atanchor停泊andinner在吃饭athand在附近;即将到来atpresentatshortnotice在短时间内,一俟通告马上就......attableatwarbeyondhopeof没有希望beyondreachof够不到,力不能及byrule刻板地inadvanceincaseofindanger/debt/troubleinfear/haste/distressinhonorof为向......表示感谢;为庆祝......;为纪念......inpeaceinplaceinsightofinviewonboard/deck/shoreonhand现有,在手头onshorewithinreachoftokeep/bearinmindtosendword转告tomakeway让路tomaketea沏茶toloseface丢脸5.形容词和副词5.1兼有两种形式的副词有些副词兼的两种形式,一种与形容词同形,另一种由该形容词加ly构成,这些成对副词有些在意义上并无多大区别而有些则有明显区别。现列举有区别的几对如下:27
hard努力near接近hardly几乎不nearly几乎high高late迟highly高度地,非常lateky最近short突然;简短的free免费的shortly立刻;不久freely无拘束地direct直线地close近directly直接地,立即closely严密地;密切地easy轻松地;自在地clean彻底地;完全地easily容易地cleanly清洁地试比较下列各对例句:Ihatearrivinglate.Ihaven’tbeentothetheatrelately.Throwitashighasyoucan.Theyspokeveryhighlyofhim.Babiesareallowedtotravelfreeonbuses.Youmayspeakquitefreelyinfrontofme.Thedriverstoppedshortwhenthechildranintothestreet.MrJoneswillbebackshortly.Hewasfollowingclosebehind.WatchcloselywhatIdo.Takeiteasy.Icaneasylyfinishittoday.除上述兼有两种形式的副词在词义上有明显的区别外,还存在着搭配上的差异。如firm与firmly,前者常用于某些固定搭配中:standfirm(站稳立场);holdfirmtoone’sbelief(坚持某人的信仰)等;而后者则无一定的固定搭配关系。又如:high与highly,它们的固定搭配有:aimhigh(力争上游),payhigh(付高价),playhigh(大赌),livehigh(过奢侈生活),searchhighandlow(互处搜寻);speakhighlyofsb.(称赞某人),thinkhighlyofsb.(对某人评价很高)等等。5.2“不及物动词”+“副词”与“系动词+形容词”两种结构的区别这是两种完全不同的语法结构:前者实质上是“不及物动词+状语”;后者实质上是“系动词+表语(或称主谓补足语)”。关键是要弄清楚结构中的动词是一般的不及物(实义)动词还是系动词。请看以下实例:Herchildbehavedbadly.(不用bad)27
Therecordssoundbadatthevolume.(音量)Theexperimenthasprovedsuccessful.Shelookedbeautifulinhernewdressbutherhusbandlookedangrilyinthewallet.(句中第一个look为系动词,意为“看上去”;第二个look为不及物动词,意为“朝里看”)一般一说,系动词be,become往往需要后续表语,而不单独使用;另外,一些系动词同时又是不及物动词的实义动词,常见的有:seem,look,appear,sound,taste,feel,smell,stay,temain,keep,grow,turn,go,run,get,prove,stand,lie,rise,sit等等。注:有的语言学家把上述的部分“动词+形容词(或分词)”结构称为双重谓语,例如:Thevalleylayquietandpeacefulinthesun.Themoonrosered.InthatpartofAfricathenatives(当地人)gonaked(赤身裸体)alltheyearround.5.3表语形容词和定语形容词表语形容词一般不作前置定语,只用作表语、宾语补足语、后置宾语;定语形容词则用作定语。常见的表语形容词及相应的定语形容词见下表:表语形容词定语形容词asleepsleepingalikelike/similaraliveliving/liveasharnedsharneful(用于事或行为)awareconscious(用于事)/deliberatealonelonely(兼作表语)awakewakingolderelderillsickafraidfrightened(兼作表语)请看下列实例:Theyaremuchalikeinappearance.TheseclothesaremadeoffabricsoflikequalityIlivedalonelylifeinthecountryside.Sheintendedtoleavehimentirelyalone.(alone表示“独自”,lonely表示“孤独”,具有感情色彩)27
MyeldersisteristhreeyearsolderthanI.Heisamanolderinappearancethanforhisrealage.Thedogisasleep.Letsleepingdogslie.(莫惹是菲)5.4形容词作状语形容词或形容词短语可位于句首或句末充当状语的语法作用,相当于省略形式的状语从句,表示原因、方式等。当单个形容词作状语时,不要将其与副词混淆使用。Enthusiastic,theymakegoodstudents.(表示原因)MrsBrowngazedathimspeachlessforamoment.(表示方式)5.5形容词与副词的比较级5.5.1比较级基本用法中应注意的问题1)进行比较级的双方必须保持平等(误)Thesalaryofaprofessorishigherthanasecretary.(正)Thesalaryofaprofessorishigherthanthatofasecretary.(误)Theweeksofsummertrainingareoftenastenseforsportwritersasitisforfootballplayersandcoaches.(正)Theweeksofsummertrainingareoftenastenseforsportswritersastheyareforfootballplayersandcoaches.除了在意义上要保持对等,在语法结构上也要保持对等。(误)Swimmingisamorestrenuous(紧张的)exercisethantowalk.(正)Swimmingisamorestrenuousexercisethanwalking.2)比较结构的修饰语修饰morethan结构的可以是:far,even,many,much,still,alot,alittle/bit,rather,slightly,(three)times,notany等,它们一般置于morethan结构之前。Heisfarmoretruthfulthanmostpeople.HecameevenearlierthanIhadexpected.Adeliverymancancarrymanymoreplasticcontainersthancontainersmadeofwoodorglass.Shecouldn’tanymoreboredthanLucywas.修饰最高级结构的可以是:byfar,much,easily,nearly,almost,bynomeans,notreally,next,thesecond/third,butone等,它们的位置各有不同。Whatyousaidisbyfarthemostreasonable.Howmuchdidthesecondmostexpensivehatcost?27
3)形容词比较结构与名词搭配时的词序问题对以下几种词序问题应予以重视。a.在as...as或morethan结构中,如果出现名词,通常将名词置于比较结构中间或之前。Ihaven"tseenasoldacarasthisforyearsacarasoldTherearemoreintelligentmenthanJohnmenmoreintelligentb.当as...as结构与复数可数名词搭配时,只能将比较结构用作名词的后置修饰语。Icancarryparcelsasheavyasthis.(不可说:...asheavyparcelsasthis)Hesmokescigarettesasexpensiveashecanafford.c.当as...结构与带有某些限定词(如some,alittle等)的名词词组搭配时,比较结构也只能用作名词的后置修饰语。Fetchmwsomewaterascleanasthis.(不可说:...someascleanwaterasthis)4)以-ior结尾的形容词的用法这类本身量具有比较意义的形容词后接介词to,不能接than,因为本身具有比较意义,无需在前面再加上more,这类词常见的有:senior(=older),junior(=younger),Superior(=better),inferior(=wores),prior(=earlier)Thisengineissuperiorinmanyrespectstothatone.Heistwoyearsseniortome.Icalledomhimproirtomydeparture.5)用其他结构表示的最高级在一定的上下文中,最高级含义可用如下一些结构表示:①more...thanGeorgedidmoreworkthismorningthananyoneelse.(=Georgedidthemostwork)②否定词+so...as...NathinginmylifeshookmesodeeplyasmyfirstvisittoChina.(MyfirstvisittoChinashookmethemostdeeply.)③否定词+比较级Itcan’tbeworse.(=It’stheworstthingI’veeverknown.)Ilikenothingbetter.(=It’sthebestthingIlike.)6)notmore...than与nomore...thanr的区别27
上述第一种结构属于普通比较结构,第二种所表示的可以说是该形容词或副词的反义,比较以下两句:JohnisnotbetterthanTom.约翰不比汤姆好。(两人好的程度相当)JohnisnobetterthanTom约翰与汤姆一样坏。5.5.2不具有比较意义的比较结构以下这些虽属比较结构并不具有比较意义,它们是:1)moreAthanB:与其说是B,不如说是A;lessAthanB:与其说是A,不如说是B;notsomuchAasB:相当于lessAthanB;ratherAthanB:相当于moreAthanB。请看以下实例:Itisevenmoreapicturethanapoem.这与其说是一首诗,倒不如说是一幅画。Experienceshowsthatsuccessisduelesstoabilitythantozeal.经验表明,成功的取得与其说由于能力不如说由于热情。Heisratherdiligentthanclever.说他聪明不如说他勤奋。2)allthemore…因而更加……That’llmaketheworkallthemorediffictlt.这将使这工作更加难做。3)muchmore更加,何况It’sdifficulttounderstandhisbooks,muchmorehislectures.4)much/stillless更不Ididn’tevenseehim,muchlessspeaktohim.我见也没有见到他,更谈不上和他说话了。注:结构3)muchmore多用于肯定句之后,结构4)则用于否定句或具有否定含义的句子之后。5)nonetheless依然,仍然Forallhisyears,heismonethelessvigorousandactive.他虽年老,但仍然精力旺盛,积极活跃。6)otherthan不同于……,非……Thetruthisquiteotherthanwhatyouthink.7)knowbetterthan…很明白而不至于……Shecertainlyknowsbetterthantodoitherself.8)noneotherthan不是别人而正是……ItwasnoneotherthanMissMary.9)nothingless/elsethan完全是That’snothinglessthanamiracle.27
Whathetoldyouwasnothingelsethannonsense.10)nomore+名词than+名词,……不是……,如同……不是……一样Awhaleisnomoreafishthanahorseis.鲸不是鱼,如同马不是鱼一样。11)morethan简直不……;不仅仅ThisismorethanIcantell.这简直是无法言表的。MytriptoBeijingismorethansightseeing.我的北京之行不仅仅是浏览观光而已。5.5.3倍数表示法英语中的倍数主用下结构表示。1)xtimes+as+形容词/副词+asIronisalmostthreetimesasheavyasaluminium.铁的比重几乎是铝的三倍。Thissubstancereactsthreetimesasfastastheotherone.这种物质的反应速度是那种的三倍。2)xtimes+形容词/副词的比较级+thanAisfourtimeslargerthanB.Waterconductsheatabout20timesbetterthanairdoes.水的导热性约是空气的20倍。注:有人认为结构2)在倍数问题上有歧义,不如用结构1)精确。3)xtimes+thesize(length,width,breadth,depth,value,level,veloctiyof/that…)Thisriveristwicethewidthofthatriver.这条河比那条河宽一倍。Theearthis49timesthesizeofthemoon.Heeatstwicetheamountthatyoueat.4)increase(be,goup,speedup,raise,rise)+by+倍数/数字百分比,此结构的by后表示的是净增加数。Theveloctiyhasbeenincreasedby4times.速度增加了四倍。Theproductionoflargehigh-precisionmachinetoolshasgoneupby20to30percentsincelastyear.注:上述结构中如不用by,则表示“增加到…倍”,即“增加了X-1倍”。此外,用谓语动词decrease,reduce,drop,则表示相反意义。5.6以-ly结尾的形容词以-ly结尾的词有些可兼作形容词和副词,如:early,daily,monthly,yearly,bodily等,而有些只能作形容词不能作副词用,它们是:costly昂贵的lovely可爱的lively活泼的lonely孤独的ugly丑陋的deadly致命的friendly友好的fatherly慈父般的brotherly兄弟般的27
5.7部分同根形容词的辨义部分形容词系同根派生,不同形式。有的无多大区别,而有的则区别很大。注意下列各组同根形容词的词义区别。1)sensible可意识到的;明智的sensitive对……敏感的sensational耸人听闻的;轰动的Heissensibleofthedangerofhisposition.他意识到自己处境的危险性。Theoldwomanisveryweakandsensitivetocold.那位老太太身体很虚弱,很容易着凉。Itwasasensationalnewsreport.这是篇耸人听闻的新闻报道。2)economic(有关)经济economical节俭的Thecountryisinabadeconomicstate.Weshouldbeeconomicalintheuseofourfunds.3)industrial工业的industrious勤劳的Itisanindustrialcountry.TheChinesepepolearebraveandindustrious.4)historic有历史意义的historical有关历史的WheredidthehistoricMay4thMovementtakeplace?Isitahistoricalnovel?5)practical实际的;实践的practicable行得通的;可行的NowthatyouaregoingtoliveinFrance,you’llbeabletomakepracticaluseofyourknowledgeofFrench.Itispracticabletotrytogrowcropsindeserts?6)considerate体贴人的considerable相当大的;值得重视的ItwasconsiderateofyounottoplaythepianowhileIwashavingasleep.Whenherfatherdied,Janebecameheadofaveryconsiderablebusinessempire.7)continual略的间隙或间隔的“连续不断”continuous没有间隙或间隔的“连续不断”I’mreallytiredofyourcontinualcomplaints.27
We’vehadcontinuoushotweatherforthreeweeks.8)credible可信的,可靠的credulous轻信的,易信的It’shardlycredible.Shewassocredulousthatshecouldbeeasilyfooled.注:一般来说,在成对的同要派生形容词中,词尾为-ed,-ible,-able的具有被动含义,词尾为-ing,-ful,-ous,-some等有具有主动含义。其他实例还有:desirous9想要的,渴望的)与desirable(合乎需要的,理想的);contemptuous(轻蔑的)与contemptible(可鄙的);tiresome(令人厌烦的)与tired(感到厌烦的)等等。5.8与形容词构成固定搭配的介词以下是介词位于“(be)+形容词+介词”结构中的一些情况。1)about对于;关于angry,anxious,crazy,curious,doubtful,eager,uneasy2)at在……方面bad,efficient,good,quick,slow,skillful3)for对……;因……;为……anxious,available(可供……),fit,grateful(因……而感激),good(对……有益),greedy,insufficient(缺乏……),necessary,ready,responsible,ripe(……有时机已成熟),sorrymsuitable,valid(有效期为……)4)from与……;离开……absent,distinctive(与……不同),different,free(无……;不受……)5)in在……方面abundant,confident,deficient,fortunate,honest,major,rich,poor,weak6)of由于……;在……方面;对……afraid,ashamed,aware,capable,careful,certain,conscious,confident,convinced,critical(对……表示谴责),doubtful,fond,full,greedy,guilty,ignorant,independent,proud,short,shy,sick,thoughtful,tired,typical,uncertain,worthy,regardless(尽管……还……),ture(符合于……,对……适用)7)on对……;在……方面dependent,hard(对……苛求),keen8)to对……;为……;与……accustomed,close,obliged(对……感激),applicable,available,beneficial,blind,aonvenient,dear,drink(为……千杯),equal,equivalent(相当于……),essential,27
faithful,familiar,fit,grateful,harmful,helpful,identical,(与……相同,相一致),important,loyal,necessary,obvious,opposite,polite,preferrable(比……更好),previous(在……以前),prior(早于……),proportional(与……成比例),relative(与……有关),resistant(对……有抵抗力),senior,sensitive,similar,superior,subject(隶属于;受……支配)9)with由于……;对于……,与……angry,comparable,consistent(与……一致),content(对……满足),familiar(熟悉……),identical,patient,pleased,popular(受……喜爱),strict,satisfied请看以下一些实例:Sheisveryanxiousaboutherhusband’shealth.Hewasslowatlearningalanguage.Iamverygratefulforthehelpyouhavegivenme.Allthemainroadsarenowfreeofobstructions.Frashairandgoodfoodarebeneficialtohealth.Thetreeareabundantinfruit.Theywentcamping,soassobeindependentofinnsandhotels.Whatyousaynowisnotconsistentwithwhatyousaidlastweek.5.9作名词后置修饰语的副词某些地点副词、频度副词、时间副词和程度副词可以作名词(或代词)的定语,通常后置。比如:thewayahead,thedirectionback,thesentencebelow,thephotoaboue,hisjourneyhome,theneighbourupstairs,themeetingyesterday,thedaybefore,theirstayovernight,schoolshere/there,holidaysabroad等。然而,上述某些副词作前置定语的情况也是有的,如:theabouesentence,hishomejourney,thethan(当时的)chairman等。5.10形容词+that从句语言学家对于形容词后续的that从句有不同见解,有人认为是宾语从句,有人认为是状语从句或形容词补足语等。常用于这一结构的形容词多与人的情感有关。如:sure,glad,amazed,surprised,confident,certain,proud,sad,alarmed,annoyed,shocked,pleased,astonished,disappointed等。I’msure(that)we’llsucceed.Shewasamazed(that)heshouldarrivesosoon.Heisconfident(that)hewillbeabletopasstheexam.在口语中上述句子中的that均可省略。5.11形容词作后置修饰语的几种情况27
在下列情况下形容词作后置修饰语。1)在由some,any,no等构成的合成词之后Haveyoureadanythinginterestinglately?I’dlikesomethingcheaper.2)形容词本身带有不定式,介词短语等修饰语Studentsbraveenoughtotakethecoursedesercetosucceed.Heisamandeseruingofsympathy.Itwasaconferencefruitfulofresults.3)表语形容词常置于被修饰名词之后Hewastheonlypersonawake(=whowasawake)atthemoment.Allthepeoplepresentweresatisfiedwiththeconclusion.Heisoneofthefewworkersalivetodaywhotookpartinthestrike.4)当involved,concerned,interested表示“有关的”意思时,常后置Presentatthemeetingwereleadingmembersofthedepartmentsconcerned.(有关部门)注:形容词available与possible既可位于被修饰名词之前,也可位于其后,如:theonlyreferencebookavailableallavailablemeansineverywaypossiblethebestpossiblemeans27