自考英语语法名词解释 10页

外语下载中心http://down.tingroom.comAcronymsAcronymsisawordcoinedbyputtingtogethertheinitiallettersofagroupofwords.AffixationAwordformationapproachthatattachesmorpheme–anaffixtoabase，whichisawordwith1ormoreaffixesinit.Anaphoricreference前照应Ademonstrativedeterminerwithanaphoricreferenceismorelikelytogowithanon-restrictiverelativeclauseCataphoricreference后照应Ademonstrativedeterminerwithcataphoricreference，whichgoeswitharestrictiverelativeclauseCollectivenounsThesearegenerallycountablenouns，buteveninthesingulartheyrefertogroupsofpeople，animalsorthings.CompoundAcompound，theproductofcomposition，anditisalexicalunitconsistingofmorethanonebaseandfunctioningbothgrammaticallyandsemanticallyasasingleword.ConversionThederivationalprocesswherebyanitemisadaptedorconvertedtoanewwordclasswithouttheadditionofanaffix.Coordination并列词Realizedbycoordinators（alsotermedcoordinatingconjunctions）whichjoinunitsatthesamelevel.CountablenounsNounsthatcantakeplural.Danglingparticiple:{2{Z0NAWhenthesubjectofparticipleisnotexpressed,itisnormallytobethesubjectoftheclause.Itisusuallypoorgrammar,andsometimesabsurd,ifthisruleisbroken:Tryingtobequiet,thefloorboardcreaked.Buttheruleisoftenbrokenwhenthesubjectisvaguelyunderstoodtobe“one”,“we”,“you”,peopleingeneral.DeterminerWordsusedinthepremodificationofnounphraseandputbeforeanyadjectivesthatpremodifytheheadwordofnoun.DynamicadjectivesManyadjectivescanalsobeusedinthedynamicsense（bebeinga.）inpredicativepositiontoshowsubjectivemeasurementorsuggestatemporarystate，implyingthequalitiescanbecontrolledorrestricted.（e.g.heisbeingrude）end-focus尾部焦点underneutralconditions，thenucleusfallsonthelastelementofthesequenceasitiscommonthatweprocesstheinformationinamessagetoachievealinearpresentationformlowtohighinformationvalue.Werefertothisastheprincipleofend-focus.ellipsis：省略leavesouttheredundant/wordypartanddonotprovideasubstitute.ExclamationExpressourimpression，especiallyoursurprise，excitement，amazement，etc.Itdoesn‘ttakeS-Vinversion. 外语下载中心http://down.tingroom.comexophoricreference语言外照应Nonlinguisticorsituationalcontext.FiniteverbphraseItsheadwordisafiniteverb，whichisrestrictedbytenseandkeepsconcordwiththesubject.ForeignpluralsWordsthatareborrowedfromotherlanguagesoftenhaveforeignplurals.Fronting:华夏大地教育网4YTcS_m6_Frontingisatermwhichreferstotheremovalofanitemfromitsunmarkedpositiontothemarkedpresubjectposition.InfinitiveTheinfinitiveoccursasaverbinthebaseformwhichmaygowithorwithoutto.InherentadjectivesInherentadjectivesdenoteinherentqualitiescharacterizethereferentofthenoun.（e.gabighouse）MassnounsNounsthatcan‘ttakeplural.aNon-finiteVerbPhraseItsfirstelementisanon-finiteverbfreefromtherestrictoftenseandconcordofsubject.Non-inherentadjectivesNon-inherentadjectivesidentifyqualitiesinanindirectway.（e.g.abigeater）Non-predictive（non-epistemic）Non-predictivemeaningsofmodalauxiliariesareveryheterogeneousinnature，thiscategorycoversavarietyofmeanings，except“prediction”。Non-restrictiveadjectives非限定性形容词Non-restrictiveadjectivesprovideadditionalinformationnotessentialfortheidentificationofthenoun.Adjectivemodifyingpropernounarenormallynon-restrictive.（e.g.myfatwife）Predictivemeaning（epistemic）Thepredictivemeaning，ratherhomogeneousinnature，isconcernedwiththespeaker‘sassumptionorassessmentofprobabilityandindicatesthespeaker’sconfidenceinthetruthofhisstatement.ProperNounsPropernounsdenoteindividualpersons，places，etc，normallybeginswithacapitalletter，hasnopluralformandcan‘toccurafteranarticle.Pseudo-passiveApseudo-passivesentenceispassiveinformbutactiveinmeaning.Itsed-participleisadjectivalized；itcanoccurinacomparativeconstruction，withavarietyofprepositionalphrasesotherthanby-phrase，andwithotherlinkverbsbesidesbeandget.PutativeShouldPutativeshouldisnotverymeaningfulinitsownright；inmanycases，itsfunctionistofillinastructuralslot.Thisuseofshouldiscommonlyfoundinthethat-clauseafteranadjectiveoranoundenotingafeelingoranopinion.e.g.It‘sstrangethatsheshouldwearhereveningdressforsuchaninformalparty. 外语下载中心http://down.tingroom.comUnitnounsUnitnounsareusedtospecifythequantitiesofthemodifiednoun.reference照应usinggrammaticalpro-formwhichexplicitly/clearlyreferelsewhereRestrictiveadjectivesRestrictiveadjectiveshelpidentifythenounbydescribingitsdistinctivequalities（e.g.afatwoman）StativeadjectivesThemajorityofadjectivesarestativeinnature，describingpermanentinherentqualities.e.g.abighouseSubjectcomplementSemantically，subjectcomplementsdenotewhatthesubjectisorwhatthesubjectbecomes–thetwonotionsthataremosttypicallyexpressedbybeandbecome.Subordination主从连接词Realizedbysubordinators（alsotermedsubordinatingconjunctions），involvesthelinkingofunitsatdifferentlevelssothattheyformahierarchy.Asubordinatorintroducesasubordinateclausewhichisattachedtothemainclause（alsotermedthesuperordinateclause）。substitute替代cutsoffpartofthesentence（aword，phrase，oraclause）andfillsinthegapwithasmalleritem，whichcorrespondstothereplaceitem.TagquestionsAtagquestionnormallyconsistsofastatementandaquestiontag.textReferstoaunifiedpassageanditisasemanticunit.Itisstructurallywell-integrated，andsemanticallycoherent.VerbPhraseTheheadwordofaverbphraseisthemainverb.Twoelementsinthestructureareimportant：themainverbandauxiliaries.WH-questionsWH-questionsbeginwithWH-seriesofwords.（Whatif=whatshouldIdo，Howcome=why）YES-NOquestionsYES-NOquestionscanbeansweredby“Yes”or“No” 外语下载中心http://down.tingroom.com1.Whatarethetwomajortypesofalternativequestions?TheyarethetypeofYES-NOquestions,e.g.A:Wouldyouliketeaorcoffee?B:Tea,please.AndthetypeofWH-questions,e.g.A:Whatwouldyoulike,teaofcoffee?B:Tea,please.2.Whydoweneedtogobeyondthesentenceandstudythetext?Becausetoexpressaclearandcompleteideaorthought,weneedmorethanonesentence.Itisquiterarethatweonlyuseonesentencetoexpressourideas.Whenanideaorthoughtisexpressedinmorethanonesentence,wehaveatext,whichrelatessentencestogether.Inotherwords,sentencesinatextarecoherentsothattheyhelpeachotherinexpressingacompleteidea.Thestudyofthetextistoknowhowsentencescanbejoinedtogethercoherentlysothattheycanbestexpressideas.3.Explainthesyntacticdistinctionbetweenthepredictiveandnon-predictiveuseofmodalauxiliarywithexamples.Thesyntacticdistinctionbetweenthepredictiveandnon-predictiveuseofmodalauxiliaryisclearinthefollowingtwosentences:1)Hecan’thavebeenthereyesterday.2)Hecouldn’tbethereyesterday.Thetwosentencesrevealtwoquitedifferentusesofthemodalauxiliary.Thefirstsentence,wherethepredictivecan’trelatestoimpossibilityandthemainverbismarkedforpasttimereference,referstothespeaker’spresentdenialofpossibilityofapastevent.Inthesecond,themodalauxiliaryitself,innon-predictiveuse,ismarkedforpasttense,referringtolackofabilityinthepast.4.What’sthefunctionofrelativepronoun?Therelativepronounservesasa“link”betweentherelativeclauseanditsantecedent.Itperformstwofunctions:showingconcordwithitsantecedentandindicatingitsfunctionwithintherelativeclause.5..Provideexampletoillustratenominal,verbalandcausalellipsis.1)Nominalellipsis:Whygivemetwocupsofcoffee?Ionlyaskedforone.2)Verbalellipsis:--Haveyouseenhimbefore?--Yes,Ihave(seenhimbefore).3)Causalellipsis:--AreyouOK?--Yes(,IamOK).6.Iftenseisrelatedtotime,whatisaspectrelatedto?Whentensepointstothetemporallocationofaneventorastateofaffairs,aspect“reflectsthewayinwhichtheverbactionisregardedorexperiencedwithrespecttotime”.7.Apartfromqueryingthetruthofastatement,whatotherpotentialfunctionscanaNoquestionperform?Theymayberegardedasthespeaker’sinvitationsorsuggestions,madeinatentativewayastheyoftenare,ratherthanhisnegativeassumptions.Theyarelikeimperatives.Forexample:Won’tyoucomein?Won’tyousitdown?Theycanalsobelikeexclamations:Isn’titlovely?Aren’tyousilly? 外语下载中心http://down.tingroom.com8.Listthetypesofantecedents.Theantecedentisdividedintonominalantecedentandnon-nominalantecedent.Nominalantecedentsfallintodifferentsubclasses:theymaybecommonnounsorpropernouns,personalpronounsordemonstrativepronouns.Non-nominalantecedentcanbesubdividedintothreetypes:clause,verbphrase,predicativeadjective.9.Provideexamplestoillustrateresult-adjunctsandpurpose-adjunctsthatareintroducedbysothat.Heworkedharder,sothathemanagedtopasstheexaminations.(result)Heworkedhardersothathecouldpasstheexaminations.(purpose)10.Provideexamplestoillustratethethreedegreesofcomparison.Mybrotherisastallasme.(positivedegree)Mybrotheristallerthanmyfather.(comparativedegree)Mybrotheristhetallestinthefamily.(superlativedegree)11.Whenthesimplepresentreferstothepresenttime,whatareitscharacteristicuses?Whenthesimplepresentreferstothepresenttime,itissuitableforthegeneraltimelessstatementsortheexpressionofso-called“eternaltruths”.Atthesametime,italsodenotesthepresentexistenceorstateofaffairs.Besides,itcanexpressregularrecurrencesuchasahabit,anditisalsofoundinthepresentationofaneventthathappenssimultaneouslywithspeech.12.Underwhatgeneralcircumstancesdoweprefergenitivetoof-phraseandviceversa.Whennounsrefertopeople,andtherelationbetweenthenounsisoneofdefinition,classification,etc.genitivesarepreferred.Whennounsrefertoinanimate,lifelessobjects,andtheheadwordsofnounphrasesareclassifyingadjectives,of-phrasesareclassifyingadjectives,of-phrasesarepreferred.13.WhatistheprimaryofaWH-question?TheprimaryfunctionofaWH-questionistoaskforinformationconcerningwhat,when,why,whose,whichandhow.14.Whatarecontingencyadjuncts?Howmanytypesofcontingencyadjunctshavewerecognized?Contingencyadjunctsareanadverbialcategorythatincludesadjunctsdenotingsomekindofcause-effectrelation.Theycanbedividedintosubclasses:reason-adjuncts,result-adjuncts,purpose-adjuncts,concession-adjunctsandcondition-adjuncts.15.Explainthedifferencesbetweenadoublerelativeclauseandanembeddedrelativeclause.Indoublerelativeclauses,therearetworelativeclauses,oneenclosingtheother,whereasinembeddedrelativeclausethereisonlyonerelativeclausewhichitselfisembeddedinaclause. 外语下载中心http://down.tingroom.com16.Provideexamplestoillustratesomedifferenttypesoftimeadjuncts.1)When-adjuncts:soon,onFridaymorning,now,etc.2)Duration-adjuncts:fortenyears,verylong,sincewemet,etc.3)Frequency-adjuncts:daily,weekly,often,etc.17.Whatkindofrelativeclausedowenormallyusetomodifyanon-nominalantecedent?Wenormallyusenon-restrictive-relativeclausetomodifyanon-nominalantecedent.e.g.1)Herhusbandismybrotherandmywifeishersister,whichmakesusdoublein-laws.2)Shedancewell,whichIdon’t.3)Nickistall,whichIwillneverbe.18.Wherearegiveninformationandthenewinformationlocatedinthesentence.Generallyspeaking,thegiveninformationisofferedatthebeginningineachsentencewhilethenewinformationisconsistentlyfoundinthepredicatewhichnormallyconstitutesthelatterhalfofsentence.19.Explaintherelationshipbetweentenseandtime.Timeandtensearenotthesamething:timeisconceptandtenseisagrammaticaldevice.Differenttensescanexpressthesameperiodoftime,suchasthepresent.20.Whataretwomajortypesofexclamations?ThetwomajortypesofexclamationsareWHAT-exclamationsandHOW-exclamations.Theformerisfollowedbyanounphrase,thelatterisfollowedbyanadjectiveoradverb.21.Whatisthepseudo-passive?Apseudo-passivesentenceispassiveinformbutactiveinmeaning.Itsed-participleisadjectivalzedsothatitbecomesasubjectcomplementintheSVCstructure.Asanadjective,therefore,itcanoccurinacomparativeconstruction,withavarietyofprepositionalphrasesotherthanby-phrase,andwithotherlinkverbsbesidesbeandget.22.Explaintheconditionsinwhichweneedtousenon-assertivewordsinpositivestatementsandassertivewordsinquestion.Whenapositiveanswerisexpected,assertivewordscanbeusedinquestions,suchas:Istheresomenewsforme?Issomebodywaitingforme?Andinaffirmativesentencesinwhichthereareifclauses,putativeshould-clauses,andcomparativeclauses,non-assertivewordscanbeused,suchas:Ifanyonecallsme,itmustbeJohn.It’soddthatheshouldsayanythinglikethat.Heisbetterthananyoneelseinthisclass.23.Listthemajortypesofpostponement.Postponementisgenerallyrealizedbyactive-to-passivetransformation,byextrapositionofaclauseelement,bydiscontinuityofadjacentelements. 外语下载中心http://down.tingroom.com24.Provideexamplestoillustratereferenceasrealizedbypronouns,demonstrativesandcomparison.1)Referencebypronouns:Lookattheman.Ithinkhe’sthepersonwantedbythepolice.2)Referencebydemonstratives:Theyfinallyarrivedatanagreementtostopfire.Thatagreementsavedthecountryfromwar.3)Referencebycomparison:Johnisbothstupidandlazy.Hisbrotherisnobetter.25.Provideexamplestoillustratenominal,verbalandclausalsubstitution.1)Nominalsubstitution:IknowIneedagoodcar,butIcan’taffordone.2)Verbalsubstitution:--Haveyoufinishedalltheessays?--Ihavedoneone.3)Clausalsubstitution:--Ishetherightpersonforthejob?--Isupposeso.26.What’sthemajorfunctionofpreposition?Andlistthetwotypesofpreposition.Themajorfunctionofprepositionistoconnectwordsofnounsverbsandadjectivestootherpartofthesentence.Wedivideprepositionsintotwotypes:simpleprepositionandcomplexpreposition.27.Provideexamplesofpartialinversionandcompleteinversion.Partialinversion:Undernocircumstancescanyouunderestimateyourrival.Completeinversion:Thedoorburstopenandinrushedalargeangrycrowd.28.Whatisaunifiedtext?Theunifiedtextisonethatisnotonlystructurallywell-integratedbutalsosemanticallycoherent.29.Asafuturetimeexpression,whatspecialmeaningdoesthesimplepresentimpart?Whenthereissomethingweconceiveasunalterableandwecanbeasconfidentofasweareofthegivenfacts,weusethesimplepresenttorefertothefuturetime.Somethingthathappensoncalendarortimetablefallsintothiscategory.30.Whataretheverbswhichtransferrednegationoftenoccurswith?Whatistheirsharedsemanticfeature?Theverbswhichtransferrednegationoftenoccurswithare:think,believe,suppose,imagineandexpect.Theyaretheverbsthatexpress“opinion”.31.Whatarethethreeprincipleofconcord?Thethreecomplementaryprinciplesofconcordarethegrammaticalprinciple,thenotionalprincipleandtheprincipleofproximity.32.Whatorderdothedifferenttypesofplaceadjunctsfollowwhentheyco-occur?Whenplaceadjunctsofdifferenttypesco-occur,theyusuallyfollowthisorder:distance+direction+source+goal+position. 外语下载中心http://down.tingroom.com33.Whatarethesemanticandfunctionaldifferencesbetweenaprefixandasuffix?Thefunctionofaprefixtendstobesemanticallyoriented.Thatis,itaddsnewmeaningtoabase.Mostofprefixesdonotchangewordclasseswhileonlyafew(likea-,be-,em/en-etc)changewordclasses.Suffixesarebasicallyclass-changingmorphemes.Theychangenounstoverbs,adjectives,orchangeadjectivestonouns,verbs,oradjectivestonouns,verbs,oradjectivestoadverbs.34.Whatarethefourmajortypesofsentencesandwhatdiscoursefunctionsaretheynormallyassociatedwith?Thefourmajortypesofsentencesaredeclaratives,interrogativesimperativesandexclamatives.Thesefourtypesarerespectivelyassociatedwithgivinginformation,requiringinformation,requiringactionsandexpressingthespeaker’simpressionofsomething.35.Whyisthepasttenseoftenusedforpoliteness?Becausethepasttensecanmakeaquestionorastatementorasuggestionlessdirect.Itismorepolitetousethepasttenseonthepartofthespeaker.36.Dowealwaysusethesingularverbwithaclausalsubject?No.Generally,aone-clausesubjecttakesthesingularverbandatwo-clausesubject,thepluralverb.Thenotionalprincipleofconcordappliesifthecontextsuggeststhepluralityofaone-clausesubject.37.Provideexamplestoillustratethethreemajortypesofnon-finitesubordinateclause.1)Infinitiveclauses:Hedidn’tknowwhattodowithhisenemy.2)–ingparticipleclauses:Shekeptnoddingherheadfromtimetotimeasthoughunderstandingeverywordofhislecture.3)–edparticipleclauses:Workharduntiltoldtostop.38.Whatarethetypicalexpressionsofthefuturetime?Thefuturetimecanbeexpressedbywill/shalldosomething,begoingtodosomething,presentprogressive,andsimplepresent.39.Whataresomeoftheconstraintsthatthedoublegenitiveissubjectto?Thesecondnouninthedoublegenitivealmostalwaysreferstopersons,nevertoobjects.Andthefirstnounusuallyhasindefinitereference(typicallypremodifiedbytheindefinitearticle)andthesecondnounisalwaysdefinite.40.Distinguishroot,stemandbaseasmorphologicalterms.“Root”,“stem”and“Base”mayrefertothesamethinginsomecases,buttheyaredifferentfromeachotherinthat:Arootisthatpartofawordthatremainswhenallaffixeshavebeenremoved;Arootisnotfartheranalyzableinmorphologicalforms;Astemhastodowithinflectionalfeaturesandisthepartthatremainswhenallinflectionalaffixeshavebeenremoved;Abaseisanyformtowhichaffixesofanykindcanbeadded. 外语下载中心http://down.tingroom.com41.Explaintheprincipleofproximityofconcordwithexamples.Theprincipleofproximitydenotes“agreementoftheverbwithacloselyprecedingnounphraseinpreferencetoagreementwiththeheadofthenounphrasethatfunctionsassubject”.Forexample:NeithermywifenorIamcomingtotheceremony.Notonlythelayersbutalsothecoachwasresponsibleforthedefeat.42.Listthetypesofsubordinateclauses.Subordinateclausesareusuallydividedintothreetypesbytheirfunction:relativeclauses,adverbialclausesandnominalclauses.Inform,subordinateclausesmayalsobedividedintofiniteclausesandverblessclauses.43.Explainthedifferencesbetweenatagquestionwithafinalrisingtoneandonewithafinalfallingtone.Witharisingtone,thequestionexpressthespeaker’sneutralexpectationofthehearer’sresponseandinvitesthehearertoverifythetruthofthepropositioninthestatement.Withafallingone,thespeakerasksforthehearer’sconfirmationofthestatement.Itcanberegardedassimilartoanexclamation.44.Whataregenericreferenceandspecificreference?Genericreferenceandspecificreferencearethetwousesofarticles,Genericreferenceindicatesthewholespeciesorkind,whilespecificreferenceindicatesonespecificpeopleorthing.45.Giventhepresenttimeasitsmostimportantmeaning,whatisspecialaboutthesimplepresentwhenitisusedtorefertothepastandthefuture?Whenthesimplepresentreferstothepast,itbringsthepasteventsorstatestothepresenttimeasiftheywereactuallyhappeningatthemomentofspeech,itisusedinnarrativewritingtoachievevividness.Itcanalsobefoundin1)Newspaperheadlines2)Photographiccoptions3)Statedirectionsand4)Utteranceswithverbsofcommunication(say,hear,tell,etc).Simplepresentreferringtothefutureiscommonindependentclauses.46.Whatconcordprincipledowenormallyapplytotheexistentialsentence?Concordintheexistentialsentencenormallycomplieswiththenotionalprinciple.Theverbagreeswiththenotionalsubject.47.Whatarerestrictiveadjectivesandnon-restrictiveadjectives?Arestrictiveadjectivehelpsidentifythereferentofthenounbydescribingitsdistinctivequalities.Whereasanon-restrictiveadjectivemerelyprovidesomeadditionalinformationwhichisusuallynotessentialfortheidentificationofthereferent.48.Pointoutinstancesofthestativeanddynamicusesofprepositionswithreferencetospatialrelations.Thecarwasparkedinfrontofthebuilding.(Infrontofindicatesastaticlocation)Hejumpedintotheriver.(Intoindicatesthedirectionofamovement) 外语下载中心http://down.tingroom.com49.Whatarethedifferencesbetweendeterminersandadjectives?Determinersandadjectivesaredifferentinfiveways:1)Determinersusuallyprecedeadjectivesinpremodification;2)Thechoiceofdeterminersisoftendeterminedbytheheadwordbutnotthatofadjectives;3)Adjectivesdescribetheheadwordbyshowingitscharacteristics,butdeterminersdeterminetheheadwordbyidentifyingorquantifying;4)Adjectivescanpostmodifytheheadword,butnotdeterminers(exceptthough);5)Adjectiveshavecomparativeforms,inflectionalorperiphrastic,butnotdeterminers(exceptfew,little,manyandmuch).50.Whataresomeofthetypicalsemanticcomponentsofthepresentprogressive?Someofthetypicalsemanticcomponentsofthepresentprogressiveare:duration,simultaneity,temporariness,incompleteness,vividness,emphasis,etc.51.asexpressionsofpossibility,whatisthedifferencebetweencanandmay?canexpressesthepossibilityintheorywhilemaydenotesthepossibilityinreality.