英语语法精讲 40页

现代英语语法第一部分：引言《现代英语语法》是由李基安先生编写，全国高等教育自学考试指导委员会指定的全国高等教育自学考试教材。关于这门课程的考试要求，可参见该教程第425所附录的《英语语法自学考试大纲》。大纲是方向、目标，广大考生必须仔细了解。英语语法是关于英语语言结构的理论知识。通过该课程的学习，学员能够比较系统地认识英语从词，句到语篇的构造，从而提高他们应用英语的规范性。在学习该教材时，学员普遍存在两种倾向：一是，由于该教材都是用英文编写，里面又涉及很多专业术语，许多学员觉得高深、难懂；二是，有些学员认为，自己从学英语开始就在学习英语语法，没有必要在这门功课上花太多的精力，所有的语法书都大同小异，自己稍做准备就能对付过去。其实，两种看法都失偏颇。现代语法的发展与传统语法已经存在比较明显的差异，例如：传统语法认为，英语有九种（甚至十六种）时态，该教程则采取的是‘asystemoftwotensesandtwoaspects’—-—-—-两时两体体系。另外对phrases,clauses的概念也有不同的定义。书中提到的一些其他语言现象，如：外位[extraposition],分隔[discontinuity],分裂句[cleftsentence]等都是一般语法书所不提及或者阐述不同。该教材也并非高深莫测，毕竟多数语言现象还是我们日常英语学习中所耳濡目染的，只不过我们许多英语学习者没有考究过它们形成的理论根据，来龙去脉而已。所以，为了使自己的英语更加规范，让自己能用英语更准确、有效地传递信息、表达思想，英语专业的学生还是很有必要把这门课程学好。现在我们就结合《现代英语语法》教材，近几年英语语法专业考试试题，讲述英语语法考试中考生容易忽略的测试要点或难点。我们先通过几道语法题来检测你现有的现代语法水平，接着探讨一下该教材的学习方法，最后把教材各章的要点、难点归纳给大家。在整个讲解过程中，我们力争多采用教材里的素材以及往年试题中的一些经典考题，以便学员在学习、归纳语法现象的同时使自己的备考收效最大化。先测试一下自己的现代语法水平(同时了解一下英语语法考试的题型、结构；每年考试形式基本相同，有些部分稍有调整。为了节省篇幅，这里各部分只选取几个样题)ThePre-courseQuizI、单项选择题（本大题共20小题，每题1分，共20分）40 Choosethebestanswerfromthechoicesgiven:1.Intheend,he__________.a.gotinvitedb.getsinvitedc.wasinvitedd.wastobeinvited2.DowhatItellyou--__________!a.orelseb.orsoc.andthatd.anddo3.__________,hemanagedtoremainamongthetop5%ofhisclass.a.Toworkhardashedidb.Workinghardashedidc.Workhardashedidd.Workedhardashedid4._____therebelifeonMars?(p171)a.Mayb.Canc.Mightd.Ought5.Stay_____havedinnerwithus,willyou?(p263)a.tob.orc.andd.here6.You_____beshockedatthenews.(p168)a.shouldwellb.mustwellc.maywelld.canwell7.Youhavetowaitaminute,______?a.haven"tyoub.doyouc.don"tyoud.shouldn"tyou8.Stayinginhotelcost________rentingaroominadormitoryforaweek.a.twiceasmuchb.twiceasmuchasc.asmuchastwiced.twicethan9.Idon"tthinkshemeant_________you.(p206)a.hurtb.tohurtc.hurtingd.behurt10.___Iworkedhardatschool,I___thiskindofworknow.a.Had...wouldn"thavedoneb.Had...wouldn"tbedoingc.If...wouldn"tdod.If...wouldn"tbedoingII.多项选择题（本大题共5小题，每题2分，共10分）Fillintheblankswithoneoftheitemsgivenbelow:a,the,any,some,all1.__________ofusdecideswhattotakeintothefutureandwhattoleavebehind.That"swhy__________arrivaloftheYear2000hasbecomesuchapersonalmoment.2.be,is,was,are,were,willbe,shallbe,has,havehada.Sheisoneofthesegirlswho_______troublerunningaround.b.Thisoneofthemanyhousesherewhich_______destroyedintheearthquake.40 3.seem,seems,me,I,mineYourpolitics_____tobeentirelydifferentfrom_____.(p59)4.less,lessof,than,as,likeMr.Smithis_____apolitician______Mr.Lee.(p237)III.填空题（本大题共20小题，每题1分，共20分）Fillintheblankwithanappropriatecoordinatororsubordinator:1.Itwasanisland__________nameIhaveforgotten.2.Hecarriedhisluggageallthewayhome,__________wasactuallyunnecessary.3.Hesoonmadeitclear__________hehadaskedforameeting.4.Thepolicearrived,after__________thesituationbecamecalmer.Fillintheblankswithproperwords:5.IlikeAustraliabest_______alltheEnglish-speakingcountries.6.Imadeacomparison_______themajorEnglishspeakingcountries.(p251)IV.改错题（本大题共8小题，每小题1分，共8分）Correcterrorsinthefollowingsentences:1.FrancisBaconwrotethatreadingmadeafullman.2.Goandgetsomefreshair!Youweresittinghereallmorning.3.TheallofPariswelcomedthegeneral.(p79)4.I"vegotfivebrothers,andeveryofthemisquitedifferentfromtheothers.5.Noneofmyparentsareinterestedinmyidea.(p344)V.改写句子（本大题共14小题，每题2分，共28分）Rewritethefollowingsentencesasrequired:1.Combiningthesentencesintoonethatcontainsarelativeclause:YousentmysonanEnglish-Chinesedictionary.Thankyouverymuch.2.Combiningthesentencesintoonethatcontainsarelativeclause:Twentyhorseswereputintothecorral.Theyweretobetrainedforriding.3.Combinethesentencesintoonethatcontainsarelativeclause:(p289)Mybossisaveryconsiderateperson.Hispredecessorwasnotaconsideratepersonatall.4.Rewritethefollowingsentenceusingwhatevercohesivedeviceisappropriate:A:IsJohntryingtoenterHarvardLawSchool?B:No,Idon"tthinkJohnistryingtoenterHarvardLawSchool.Hehateslawyers.40 5.Usediscontinuity:ExcessiveexposuretoviolenceonTVismoreharmfulthanexpectedtochildren.VI.名词解释（本大题共2小题，每小题2分，共4分）Definethefollowingtermswithexamples:1.Non-finiteverbs2.DeterminersVII.简答题（本大题共5小题，每小题2分，共10分）1.Whatareinherentadjectives?2.CanHOW-exclamationsbeusedtohighlightthenoun?Ifnot,whatcanHOW-questionshighlight?Keytothepre-coursequizI.单项选择题（每小题1分，共20分）1、a　　2、a　　3、b　　4、b　　5、c　　6、c　7、c　　8、b　9、b　10、bII.多项选择填空题（每小题2分，共10分，）1.Each,the（共2分，一格1分）2.have,were（共2分，一格1分）3.seem,mine（共2分，一格1分）4.lessof,than（共2分，一格1分）III.填空题（每题1分，共20分）1.whose2.which3.why4.which5.among6.betweenIV.改错题（每小题1分，共8分）Correcterrorsinthefollowingsentences:1.FrancisBaconwrotethatreadingmakesafullman.2.Goandgetsomefreshair!Youhavebeensittinghereallmorning.3.ThewholeofPariswelcomedthegeneral.4.I"vegotfivebrothers,andeachofthemisquitedifferentfromtheothers.5.Neitherofmyparentsareinterestedinmyidea.40 V.改写句子（每题2分，共28分）1.ThankyouverymuchfortheEnglish-Chinesedictionaryyousentmyson.2.Twentyhorsesthatweretobetrainedforridingwereputintothecorral.3.Mybossisaveryconsiderateperson,whichhispredecessorwasnotatall.4.No,Idon"tthinkso.Hehateslawyers.5.ExcessiveexposuretoviolenceonTVismoreharmfultochildrenthanexpected.VI.名词解释（每题2分，共4分）1.Thenon-finiteverbsareverbsthatarenotmarkedfortenseorforsubject-verbconcord.2.Determinersrefertowordswhichareusedinthepre-modificationofanounphraseandwhichtypicallyprecedeanyadjectivesthatpre-modifytheheadword.VII.简答题（每小题2分，共10分）1.Generallyspeaking,adjectivesdenotinginherentqualitiescharacterizethereferentofthenoun.e.g.Abighousereferstoahousewhosesizeisbig.2.No,theycan"t.Theycanhighlighttheadjectives,adverborverb.第二部分：教材的学习与使用一．首先，仔细研读教材后面所附录的《高等教育自学考试英语语法自学考试大纲》，做到学习重点、考试要求了然于心。二．由于教材涉及的术语较多，考试时所有的考题均用英文表述，学员必须熟记这些术语。可参照书后《课程内容与考核目标》所列出的主要概念中英文对照。如：词素（morphemes），词缀法(affixation),修饰性状语(adjunct)，评注性状语(disjunct)等。三．对于每个概念，术语，都要做到能用简单的英语解释，最好能用书中的定义进行解释。语法考试中就有一部分要检查考生对概念的理解及记忆。如：（1）Morpheme(p4):Amorphemeistheminimaldistinctivegrammaticalunit,andisthelowestunitingrammaticalhierarchy.Morphemesareactuallyabstractelementsofanalysis.Whatoccursisanorthographicforminwritingtermed“morph”whichrealizesthemorpheme.(词素是语法的最小区别性单位,即最低一级的语法单位.词素的语音或拼写法的体现叫形素.词素是抽象的形式成分，在不同的环境中由若干不同的形素来体现)（2）Massnouns(p57):Thosenounsthatcannottakepluralformsaremassnouns,suchasbutter,cheese,homeworkmusic,etc.(没有复数形式的名词叫物质名词)四．在理解的基础上，熟记教材上的例句。从以往的试卷分析来看，很多考题就是教材上的原句或略作变动。例如：在全国2003年4月高等教育自学考试英语语法试题第Ⅱ.多项选择填空题(本大题共8小题，每小题2分，共16分)中，几乎所有的题目均能从书中找出：Fillintheblankswithoneoftheitemsgivenbelow:21.bank,bunch,congregation,pack,series（P65）A.a_____ofmusicians40 B.a___oflectures22.board,bunch,choir,packet,party（P66）A.a______ofguestsB.a______ofkeys23.is,are,was,were,willbe,shallbe（P344）Somemoney_____carriedtothespotandallthefoodandeverythingelse_____readyforthepicnic.24.seem,seems,me,I,mine（P59）Yourpolitics_____tobeentirelydifferentfrom_____.25.less,lessof,than,as,like（P237）Mr.Smithis_____apolitician______Mr.Lee.26.moreof,manyof,muchof,than,as,like（P236）Johnisas_____afool_____Bill.27.be,is,was,are,were,willbe,shallbeA.Thatsheisstillalive______sheerluck.B.Neitherhisoralstatementnorwhathewrote_____true.28.have,has,had,willhave,shallhave（P346）A.Sheistheonlyoneofherfamilywho______troublemakingupthemind.B.Thisistheonlyfamilyinthecommunitywho____differentopinionswhilemakingupthemind.一．每一章后面设计的练习题也非常重要，学员要做到每一题都能够理解，作答正确。许多题目被用作以往的考题，将来的试卷同样会从中选择不少题目。二．勤于动手，加强实践。该教程共分十六章，学习时可以把每一章节的重点概念摘录出来，把重点例句归纳出来，供自己复习巩固。只有这样，才能让自己掌握好各章节的精华。我们不主张大家去找别的语法练习来训练，因为采取不同的语法体系编辑的练习题有可能差距很大。教材上的例句及练习题稍作变动就可以产生无数的新语法题，足以让同学得到充分地训练。三．善于请教，多方求索。学员对自己学习过程中弄不清楚的问题，可以与别的学员共同商讨，或请教老师。互联网也是一种很好的助学手段，但不要在那上面花太多的精力，因为那里的东西庞杂而良莠不齐。只要通过‘www.google.com’或‘www.baidu.com’，输入你想搜寻的内容的关键词,如：‘自考语法’；‘语法考试’等，它们就会为你提供大量的网站或网页供你登陆或浏览。四．学会归纳、总结。学习任何东西都应该多动脑筋。死记硬背得来的东西往往遗忘也很快，理解基础上熟记的东西才能长时间为主人服务。为什么“Abookisonthedesk..”不对而“Onthedeskisabook.”正确；为什么“Thereisabusoverthere.”是存在句，“Therecomesthebus”是倒装句；什么情况下‘family’之后的动词用复数，什么情况下‘family’之后的动词用单数。这些只有在理解的基础上，通过归纳总结才能真正牢记住。第三部分：教材的重点与难点归纳40 Chapter1TheStructureoftheEnglishSentence(第一章绪论)一、难点、重点1.Presentthegrammaticalunitsthatformahierarchicalorder.(指出构成层次结构的语法单位.)Answer:Thegrammaticalunitsthatformahierarchicalorderareexplainedandshownasfollows:Higher|Asentenceconsistsofoneormoreclauses|Aclauseconsistsofoneormorephrases|AphraseconsistsofoneormorewordsLower|AwordFromthemacro-grammaticalpointofview,wecancometoahierarchicalstructureas:Higher|Atextconsistsofoneormoresentences|Asentenceconsistsofoneormoreclauses|Aclauseconsistsofoneormorephrases|Aphraseconsistsofoneormorewords|AwordconsistsofoneormoremorphemesLower|Amorpheme英语句子的结构层次是：分句(clauses)、词组(phrases)、单词(words)，图示如下：高级层次句子(由一个或多个分句组成)分句(由一个或多个词组组成)词组(由一个或多个词组成)低级层次词图1.1语法单位的层次(Leech等，1982：27)如果从语义的角度来考虑，单词以下还可再分为词素(morphemes)；句子以上还有更大的语言单位，即把句子按一定逻辑规则组织起来的语篇。所以，从超语法的角度来看，语法层次结构可以如下图所示：高级层次语篇(由广个或多个句子组成)句子(由一个或多个分句组成)分句(由一个或多个扣组组成)词组(由一个或多个词组成)词(由一个或多个词素组成)低级层次词素图1.2扩大的语法层次结构图2．Morphemes词素(Terms:morpheme,morph,allomorph,freemorphemeandboundmorpheme)（注：此部分内容的学习可以借鉴‘词汇学’40 的相关内容，然而必须注意两门课程描述的不同点。）什么是词素(morpheme)?词素是语法的最小区别性单位，即最低一级的语法单位。词素的语音或拼写法的体现叫形素(morph)。词素是一种抽象形式的成分，在不同的环境中一个词素可以由若干个不同的形素体现，如英语中的复数词素可以表现为／s，z，iz／。某一词素在不同的环境中可以用不同的变体或词素变体(allomorph)表示。所谓词素变体是指词素的非区别性变体，几个不同的变体一起构成一个词素。词素又分为自由词素和粘附词素。自由词素(freemorpheme)是指本身具有完整意义，可以独立使用的词素。它可以是简单的单词，如boy，girl，do，so等，也可以是派生词的词根，如im-polite，self-ish等。自由词素具有较强的构词能力。粘附词素(boundmorpheme)是指没有完整意义不能独立使用的词素。粘附词素只表示一种附加意义或语法意义，这种词素不能单独存在和使用，只有粘附在其他词素(主要是自由词素)上才能表示出它的意义。粘附词素的主要功能是在构词中充当词缀，如unfriendliness中的un-，-ly，-ness等。3.Finiteclausesandinfiniteclauses(限定性分句与非限定性分句,定义参见下面的简答题部分)注意这里分句的概念与传统语法的区别，特别是非限定性分句。FiniteClauses(1)名词性分句Whathesaidwasincredible.(2)关系分句ThisisoneofthebestbooksI’veeverread.(3)状语分句IfIwereinyourshoes,Iwouldn’tquit.Non-finiteclauses：(1)非限定性名词性分句：Shedidn’tknowwhattosay．(2)非限定性关系分句：Themanstandingbythewindowisherbrother.(3)非限定性状语分句：Publishedtenyearsago，thisisstillthebestdictionary．一、重要概念1.morpheme(参见第一部分测试题)2.parsing：Breakingasentenceintosmallercomponentsforanalysisandthengroupingthemintovariousclassesinasystematicway.把一个句子中的各种词按语法范畴给出名称一如主语、宾语、动词、性、数、格等一叫做句子成分分析(parsing)。3.DefinethecomplexsentenceThecomplexsentenceisasentencethatcontainsmorethanoneclausethatarejoinedtogetherbysubordinatingonetoanother．[复杂句是用从属连词(如if,when,though等)连接的一个以上分句的句子.]40 一、典型考题I.选择题1.Thereare()morphemesin“gunfighter”.A.twoB.threeC.fourD.one2.In“Hedownedhisbeerandpunchedmeonthenose.”“downed”belongsto().(P13)A.backformationB.clippingC.conversionD.blending3.Suffixesbasicallychange().A.wordmeaningB.wordclassC.nothingD.wordformation4.Theprefix“uni-”means().A.withoutB.selfC.falseD.oneKey:1.B2.C3.B4.DII.简答题1.Intermsofwhichthreefactorsarewordsclassified?Thethreefactorsare:theenvironmentwherewordsoccur,theirinternalstructureandtheirmeaning.2.Definethefiniteclausesandthenon-finiteclauses.Thefiniteclausesaretheonesthathavesubjectsandfiniteverbsaspredicates．Thenon-finiteclausesaretheonesthatleavesubjectsunsaidandverbsinnon-finiteforms．(限定分句是主语加限定动词作谓语的分句。非限定分句是省略主语而动词以非限定形式出现(主语省略是因为其前面或后面已有主语。)Chapter2SentenceTypes(第二章句子类型)一、难点、重点1.ThefourmajortypesofsentencesinEnglishandtheirdiscoursefunctions.Thefourmajortypesofsentencesaredeclaratives，interrogatives，imperativesandexclamatives．Thesefourtypesarerespectivelyassociatedwithgivinginformation，requiringinformation，requiringactionsandexpressingthespeaker’simpressionofsomething．英语句子四大类型为陈述句，疑问句，祈使句和感叹句；这四种句型分别表示提供信息，寻求信息，要求动作进行和表达说话者的情感.2.Explaintheconditionsinwhichweneedtousenon-assertivewordsin40 positivestatementsandassertivewordsinquestions.(解释在肯定句中使用非肯定词和在疑问句中使用肯定句的情况。)Whenapositiveanswerisexpected,assertivewordscanbeusedinquestions,suchas:Wouldyoulikesomemorecoffee?Issomebodywaitingforme?Andinaffirmativesentencesinwhichtherearenegativeimport,if-clauses,putativeshould-clauses,andcomparativeclauses,non-assertivewordscanbeused,suchas:Heistooyoungtotakeanyjob.Ifanyonecallsmeatthismoment,itmustbeXiaoZhang.It’soddthattheheroshouldsayanythinglikethat.He’sbetterthananyoneelseinthiscompany.疑问句中如期望肯定回答,可用肯定词，在含有带否定含义的词，If-分句,should推定分句,比较分句中也可用非肯定词.3．Explainthedifferencebetweenatagquestionwithafinalrisingtoneandonewithafinalfallingtone．(解释附加疑问句结尾升调与降调的区别。)Witharisingtone，thequestionexpressesthespeaker’sneutralexpectationofthehearer’sresponseandinvitesthehearertoverifythetruthofthepropositioninthestatement．Withafallingtone，thespeakerasksforthehearer’sconfirmationofthestatement．Itcanberegardedassimilartoanexclamation．(念升调，附加疑问句的说话者对对方的回答不是很确定；念降调，说话者期望对方证实他的陈述，有点类似于感叹句。)Examples:Lovelyweather,isn’tit?(Seeingthestudent’sID)Youareastudent,aren’tyou?以上两句，都应该念降调。另外，在附加疑问句中，HAVE一词也是常考的重点：Youhaveheardme,haven’tyou?(Auxiliary‘have’)Maryhastoliveonherown,doesn’tshe?Tomhascoffeewithmilk,doesn’the?(Inthesenseof‘possess’,‘own’,etc.)Youhaveabighouse,don’t/haven’tyou?4．Commands1)Bepatient.(Command)2)Youbepatient.(Emphaticeffect,ortolightacontrast)3)Dobepatient.(Toreinforceacommand)4)Bepatient,please!(Tosmoothawayabruptness)5)Youbepatient,please!(Thissentenceisincorrect!)40 Sothefollowingsentencesarealsocommands:1)Someonetakeouttherubbish.2)Anybodyhelphim!3)Everyonefreeze!一、重要概念1.Alternativequestions:Thosequestionsthatsuggesttwo(ormore)alternativesandusuallyimplythatoneofthemcouldbetrue.2.How-exclamations:Exclamationsthatareledbytheadverb‘how’.Ithighlightstheadjective,adverb,orverbinexclamations.二、典型考题I.选择题1.Youhavetowaitamoment,______?A.haven"tyouB.doyouC.don"tyouD.shouldn"tyou2."Marywasn"tinthereading-room,wasshe?""_________."A.Yes,shewasn"tB.No,shewasC.Yes,shewasD.Shewasn"tKey:1.c2.cII.简答题1.Whataretheverbswhichtransferrednegationoftenoccurswith?Whatistheirsharedsemanticfeature?(转移否定经常与哪些动词同现?它们有什么共同的语义特征?)Theverbswhichtransferrednegationoftenoccurswithare：think，believe，suppose，imagineandexpect．Theyaretheverbsthatexpress“opinion”．(转移否定经常与think，believe，suppose，imagine和expect等动词连用。这些动词都是表示“意见”的语义。)2.Whatarethetwomajortypesofexclamations?(感叹句的两大类型是什么?)ThetwomajortypesofexclamationsareWHAT—exclamationsandHOW-exclamations．Theformerisfollowedbyanounphrase；thelatterisfollowedbyanadjectiveoradverb．感叹句分为WHAT-感叹句和HOW-感叹句。前一种后接名词词组，后者接形容词或副词。III．完成下列句子1.You’dratherwedidn’tgothere,_______2.Idon’tthinkhewillcome,________?3.Theymusthavelosttheirway,_____?4.Let’stalkaboutitlater,_____?5.Everyoneishere,________?Key:1.hadn’tyou2.willhe3.mustn’t/didn’tthey4.shallwe5.isn’there/aren’tthey40 Chapter3NounandNounPhrase(1):NounandNumber(第三章名词和名词词组(1)：名词和名词的数)一、难点、重点1.Thefunctionsofnounphrases:Infunction,anounphrasecanplaysuchgrammaticalrolesassubject,object,complement,modifierandevenadverbial.名词词组的功能，可以作主语、宾语、补语、修饰语（ateatable），有些的甚至可以作状语(yesterday,lastweek)。2.Nounclasses名词可以以多种方法分类,如具体名词(table,water)与抽象名词(happiness,hatred),可数名词(table,girl)与不可数名词(water,money),有生物名词(boy,monkey)与无生物名词(table,water)等.但名词通常按以下方式分类:名词-----|专有名词Propernouns(nouns)|可数名词----------|普通名词(commonnouns)(c.nouns)|物质名词(massnouns)我们在可数名词和物质名词中还可以再划分具体名词和抽象名词:名词--|专有名词|普通名词--|可数名词--|具体名词(concretenouns)(commonn.)||抽象名词(abstractnouns|物质名词--|具体名词(concretenouns)|抽象名词(abstractnouns)3.缩略词：加-’s，-s，双写或零形式复数，首字母缩略词，加-‘s或-s：MP(议员)MP’s／MPsPOW(战犯)POW’s／POWsVIP(要人)VIP’s／VIPslaserlasers缩略词加-s，双写或用零形式复数：缩略词加-sDr．(医生)Drs．hr(小时)hrs．(或hr．)yd．(码)yds．Yr.(年)yrs．双写:ex．(例子)exx．40 gal．(加仑)gall．1.(行)ll．p．(页)pp或用零形式复数ft．(英尺)ftkg．(公斤)kg．km．(公里)kmmin．(分)min．sec．(秒)Sec4.熟记教材（P65）单位名称表一、重要概念1.Propernoun:Propernounsarenounsreferringtospecificperson,placeorthing,suchasSmith,Mark(persons),WashingtonD.C.,London(places),NATO,UnitedNations(things)(专有名称是特指人,地方或事物的名词)2.Massnoun:Thosethatcannottakepluralaremassnouns,suchasbutter,cheese,homeworkmusic,etc.(没有复数形式的名词叫物质名词)3.Unitnoun:Itisalsocalled"partitive",isaveryspecialclassofwordsthatisusedtospecifythequantitiesmeasuresandshapesofthemodifiednounsuchas:piece,batch,bunch,item,etc.(单位名词亦称“部分词”用于说明所修饰名词的量、大小和形状等)4.Foreignplurals：Theyarewordsborrowedfromsomeotherlanguageswhichstilltaketheiroriginalformsofplural，Mostoften，theyarefrom-Latin，French，Greek：alumna--alumnae，index--indices，plateau--plateaux，analysis—analyses，etc．(外来词复数是指从外语中借来尚保持原来复数形式的复数名词，多是拉丁语、法语和希腊语等)三、典型考题I.选择题1._________plasticsaremadeinthischemicalplant.A.ManykindofB.ManykindsofC.ManykindsD.Manykind2."Jackhasjustmovedintoanewhouse.""Didhehavetobuy________forit?"A.manynewfurnitureB.muchnewfurnitures40 C.muchnewfurnitureD.manynewfurnitures3.Michaeltook_______astowhatheshoulddo.A.hisfriend"sadviseB.hisfriend"sadvisesC.hisfriendadviceD.hisfriend"sadviceKey:1.B2.C3.DI.简答题1.Collectivenoun:Thesearegenerallycountablenouns,buteveninthesingulartheyrefertogroupsofpeople,animalsorthings,suchasfamily,class,team,government,committee,etc.(集体名词一般是可数名词,但就是单数,也指人,动物或事物的群体)2.singularinvariables:Theyarepropernounslikecountrynames,personalnamesandmassnounslikethosedenotingsciences,subjects,diseases,andgames.Forexample:theUnitedStates，theUnitedNations，Black，Jones，classics，physics，bronchitis，bowls，et。．(单数名词指的是某些国家名称，人名和表示学科、疾病和运动项目等形式上有以—s结尾的名词，一般用作单数)3.pluralinvariables：Theyare1)namesoftoolsandarticlesofdressconsistingoftwoequalparts：binoculars，compasses，jeans，shorts，etc．2)somecollectivenouns：cattle，people，police，etc．3)geographicalnamesofmountainranges，waterfalls，groupsofislands：theRockies，theBalkans，NiagaraFalls，etc．4)othernounsendingin-s：archives，arms，etc．(复数名词指由两部分构成的工具或服饰；某些集体名词；山脉、瀑布、群岛等地理名词以及其他以-s结尾的名词，用作复数)II.其他题型Supplytheappropriateunitnounfromthelistbelow:companycollectiontroopherdbundledroppiecerayswarmcanschoolpackfleetcrew1.a______ofships2.a______oflies3.a______offirewood4.a______ofwhales5.a______ofsailors6.a_____ofbees7.a______oftourists8.a_____ofcrudeoil9.a______ofcattle10.a_____ofmusic11.a_____ofmonkeys12.a_____ofcoins13.a_____ofblood14.a_____ofsunshineKey:1.fleet2.pack3.bundle4.school5.crew6.swarm7.company8.can9.herd10.piece11.troop12.collection40 13.drop14.rayChapter4NounandNounPhrase(2)：DeterminerandGenitive(第四章名词和名词词组(2)：限定词和属格)一、难点、重点1.Theconstraintsthatthedoublegenitiveissubjectto:Thesecondnouninthedoublegenitivealmostalwaysreferstopersons，nevertoobjects，andthefirstnounusuallyhasindefinitereference(typicallypremodifiedbytheindefinitearticle)andthesecondnounisalwaysdefinite．(双重属格的第二个名词指人，不指物，第一个名词不确指，通常用不定冠词，第二个名词必须确指)awindowofthehouse’s/apageofthenewspaper’sthefriendofthatreporter’s/thefriendofateacher’s[以上表达均有错误！]2.Groupgenitive集体属格集体属格是指把’s加在后位修饰词组或并列名词词组后面的属格，如：someoneelse’scar，anhourandahalf’stest(一个半小时的测试)，aweekorso’sbreak(一个星期左右的休息)。但集体属格不用于含有后位修饰分句(限定分句和非限定分句)的名词词组中：*theladylivingnextdoor’shat*thechildrenkilledinthewar’spictures3.Genitive:Generally,of-phraseisnotusedwithfirstnames,butwouldbeacceptablewithfullnames:*ThebikeofTomThecarofGeorgeBush4.DeterminersThepre-determinersorcentraldeterminersaremutuallyexclusive:*allhalftheemployees(twopre-determiners)*allthehisemployees(twocentraldeterminers)5.Thedifferencebetween‘all’and‘whole’whentheymodifyapropername:AllBeijingwasexcitedatthenewsofwinningthebid.ThewholeofBeijingwasexcitedatthenews.*WholeBeijingwasexcitedatthenews.*ThewholeBeijingwasexcitedatthenews.*TheallBeijingwasexcitedatthenews.40 二、重要概念1.Determiners(什么是限定词)?Determinersrefertowordswhichareusedinthepremodificationofanounphraseandwhichtypicallyprecedeanyadjectivesthatpremodifytheheadword．(限定词是指用于各词词组的前位修饰语的词，限定词放在修饰中心词的形容词前面)2.GenitivesFormsorconstructionusedtodenotepossession,measurementorsource.Example:John’scar;amoment’sdigression;theresistanceofIraq一、典型考题I.选择题1.Jackis____________________.a.afriendofadoctor’sb.thefriendofadoctor’sc.thefriendofthedoctor’sd.afriendofthedoctor’s2.Thisis________________________.a.thepassportofJohnb.thepassportofJohn’sc.thepassportofJohnSmithd.theJohnpassportKey:1.d3.cII.简答题1.Whataregenericreferenceandspecificreference(什么是类指和特指)?Genericreferenceandspecificreferencearethetwousesofarticles．Geneticreferenceindicatesthewholespeciesorkind，whilespecificreference，specificoneorthing.[类指和特指是冠词的两个用法。类指指事物(或人)的整个种类，而物特指则是某一具体的事物(或人)]2.Underwhatgeneralcircumstancesdoweprefergenitivetoof-phraseandviceversa?(在什么情况下用属格不用of-词组，什么情况下用of-词组，不用属格?)Whennounsrefertopeople，andtherelationbetweenthenounsisoneofdefinition，classification，etc，genitivesarepreferred，whennounsrefertoinanimate，lifelessobjects，andtheheadwordsofnounphrasesareclassifyingadjectives,of—phrasesarepreferred．(当名词指人，或名词之间属于定义或归类关系时，用属格；而当名词指无生物，或中心词是the+形容词时，用of-词组)examples:men’sclothes/theteacher’sbookthecolorofthecar/thestruggleoftheexploitedChapter540 VerbandVerbPhrase(1)：Tense，AspectandFuture(第五章动词和动词词组(1)：时、体和将来时间)一、难点、重点1.Whydoesthisbookadoptthesystemoftwotensesandtwoaspects?Thereasonisthreefold.Firstofall,thetraditionalsystemidentifiestenseformsonthebasisofreferencetotimedistinctions,inwhichcasetenseisbasicallyequivalenttotime.Secondly,tenseandaspectareindependentgrammaticalcategories,theformerbeinginflectionalandthelatteranalytical.Andthirdly,fromthepedagogicalpointofview,thenewsystemcontributestoEnglishlearningbysimplifyinggrammaticalcategories.本书采用两时两体体系,理由有三。第一，传统语法是以时间为参照划分英语时态的，而在处理像Thetrainleavesateighttomorrowmorning和Theywouldhaveheardthenewslastnight等句子时遇到麻烦，因为在语言中形式与意义是不常等同或对应的。我们将英语的时分为两时——现在时和过去时，是基于对英语形态的考虑。像汉语这样没有词汇屈折变化的语言根本就没有时。第二，时（tense，）和体（aspect）是两个彼此独立的语法范畴。前者基于词汇的屈折变化，而后者基于结构分析。由于时与体经常合用，所以导致时体不分，时指动作发生的时间而体标记动作发生的状态或方式。第三，从教学角度上看，新的时体体系简单易学，还可以让学生懂得一种意义可以用不同的形式表示，一种形式也可表示不同的意义。2.WhydomostcontemporaryEnglishgrammariansadoptatwo-tensesystem?(当代英语语法家为什么采用两时体系?)Becausetenseisaverbform．Morphologically，onlypresenttenseandpasttensehavetheirformsofverbs．Alanguage(suchasChinese)whichhasnotverbformshasnotense.(因为时态是动词的形式。从形态上讲，英语只有现在时和过去时，动词才有变化形式，所以英语是两时体系。一门语言(如汉语)如没有动词的变化形式就没有时态。)3.Whyisthepasttenseoftenusedforpoliteness?(过去时为什么常用来表示客气的语气?)Becausethepasttensecanmakeaquestionorastatementorasuggestionlessdirect．Itismorepolitetousethepasttenseonthepartofthespeaker．(因为过去时使疑问句、陈述句或建议不直接提出，显得委婉，所以说话者觉得它比现在时更利于表达客气的语气。)4.Non-progressiveverbs:verbsthatcannotoccurintheprogressiveaspect.非进行体动词不用于进行体中非进行体动词也可再分为关系动词(如be，have，own，equal，weigh，等)，感知动词(如see，smell，taste，等)和态度动词(如think，wonder，guess,like等)e.g.*Iamlikingthecar.40 *Heisn’tthinkingthatisright.However,theycantaketheprogressiveforminthecircumstanceswheretheysuggesttemporariness,gradualincreaseofdecrease,etc.但在表达动作的短暂性、逐渐增加或减少时也使用进行体形式：e.g.Youarebeingimpolite.Maryisresemblinghermotherincreasinglyasshegrowsolder.Themilkistastingworse.5.Since-分句一般不用于否定句：Wehaven’tseeneachothersince1989.*It’stenyearssinceIdidn’tseehim．*He’shadseveraljobssincehewasn’tastudent．6.现在进行体表示将来时间指的是人的行为和努力，别的情况不能用现在进行体：*It’srainingtomorrow．*Thetreesarelosingtheirleavessoon．二、重要概念1.Tense:Anyoneoftheinflectedformsintheconjugationofaverbthatindicatesthetemporallocationofaneventorastateofaffairs.时态指示时间如过去、现在动词的各种曲折变化形式的任何一种2.Aspect:aspectreflectsthewayinwhichtheverbactionisregardedorexperiencedwithrespecttotime.(反映动词的动作在时间上被识别和经历的方式。)三、典型考题I.选择题1.Fiveandfive________________ten.a.makeb.madec.willmaked.ismake2.Theweather________verycoldassoonasthenightfellinthatmountainousarea.a.wastobeb.wasgoingtobec.wasd.wasgettingKey:1.a2.bII.简答题1.Explaintherelationshipbetweentenseandtime．(时态与时间有何区别?)Timeandtensearenotthesamething；timeisconceptandtenseisagrammaticaldevice．Differenttensescanexpressthesameperiodoftime，suchasthepresent．(时间与时态不是一回事；时间是一种概念而时态是一种语法手法。同一个时段(如现在)可以由多个不同的时态表示。)2.Iftenseisrelatedtotime,whatisaspectrelatedto?(40 如果时与时间有关，体又与什么有关?)Whentensepointstothetemporallocationofaneventorastateofaffairs，aspect“reflectsthewayinwhichtheverbactionisregardedorexperiencedwithrespecttotime．”时与一个事件或状态的具体时间有关，而体则“指与时间有关的动作发生的方式”。III.其他题型Correctthefollowingsentences:1.Haveyouhadagoodtimelastweek?2.Thechildrenranouttoplayaftertheyfinishtheirhomework.3.Itrainstomorrow.4.Hecan"tgoonholidaybecausehebrokehisleg.5.WhenFathercameback,wehavealreadygonetobed.Key:1.Didyouhaveagoodtimelastweek?2.Thechildrenranouttoplayafterthey(had)finishedtheirhomework.3.Itwill/isgoingtoraintomorrow.4.Hecan"tgoonholidaybecausehehasbrokenhisleg.5.WhenFathercameback,wehadalreadygonetobed.Chapter6VerbandVerbPhrase(2):PassiveVoiceandSubjunctiveMood(第六章动词和动词词组(2)：被动态和虚拟式)一、难点、重点1.Get-passiveandbe-passiveGet-passiveisfarlesspopularthanbe-passive.Thereasonsare:first,get-passiveisgenerallyavoidedinformasyle,andevenininformalEnglishitisfarlessfrequentthanbe-passive.Second,semantically,get-passiveistypicallyusedtorefertoanevent,ratherthanastate;todenotetheconsequenceratherthattherocess,ofanevent;andtolayemphasisonwhathappens(usu.Unfavorably)tothesubjectasaresultoftheevent,ratherthanwhoactuallycausestheevent.get-型被动态的使用不如be-型被动态广泛，在正式语体中，通常避免使用get-型被动态，即使在非正式语体中，get-型被动态也不如be-型被动态使用率高。从语义上看，get-型被动态常用于表示突然发生、未曾料到的事件(或事故)，而非一种状态；它强调动作所产生的结果，而非动作本身；它强调动作对主语的影响(通常是不利的)，而非动作的执行者。e.g.Thechildrengotpunished.40 *Canthekitegetseennow?*TheplaygotwrittenbyCaoYu.1.Thedifferencebetweenregularpassiveandthepseudo-passive:Apseudo-passivesentenceispassiveinformbutactiveinmeaning.Itsed-participleisadjectivalizedsothatitbecomesasubjectcomplement.Asanadjective,itcanoccurinacomparativeconstruction,withavarietyofprepositionalphrasesotherthanby-phrase,andwithotherlinkverbsbesidesbeandget.真假被动态的一些主要区别：假被动态是被动的形式，主动的意义，其中的-ed分词已经形容词化，在“主语一动词一补语”(SVC)结构中作主语补语(即表语)。作为形容词，—ed分词可有比较等级形式。除了-by词组，-ed分词可与许多别的介词搭配使用；除了be和get，—ed还可与别的连系动词连用：become，feel，look，seem，remain。e.g.Shebecamemoreannoyedathisnegligenceatworknow.2.动词+介词这一结构通常叫做介词动词(prepositionalverb)然而“动词+介词”结构在形式上易与“动词+介词词组”相混淆：Theyfinallyarrivedatthestation．…theconclusion．Thepolicecarefullywentintothetunnel．…thecase．不可转换成：*Thestationwasfinallyarrivedat．但可以说Theconclusionwasfinallyarrivedat．不可转换成：*Thetunnelwascarefullygoneintobythepolice．但可以说：Thecasewascarefullygoneinto(bythepolice)．二、重要概念1．Voice:Apropertyofverbsorasetofverbinflectionsindicatingtherelationbetweenthesubjectandtheactionexpressedbytheverb.(态)是表示主语和动词之间的主动或被动关系的动词形式，英语动词有两种态：主动态和被动态。例如：PeoplealmostallovertheworldspeakEnglish.(主动态)；Englishisspokenalmostallovertheworld．(被动态)。(see6．1)2．Mood:Asetofverbformsorinflectionsusedtoindicatethespeaker"sattitudetowardthefactualityorlikelihoodoftheactionorconditionexpressed.InEnglishtheindicativemoodisusedtomakefactualstatements,thesubjunctivemoodtoindicatedoubtorunlikelihood,andtheimperativemoodtoexpressacommand.语气用来强调说话人对表达的行为或条件的真实性或可能性所持有态度的一系列动词形态或变化形式。在英语中陈述语气(式)用于描绘真实的陈述，虚拟语气(式)则用于强调怀疑或不可能，而祈使语气(式)则用来表达一个命令.40 (式)是表示语气的动词形式，英语动词有三种式：陈述式、祈使式和虚拟式。例如：WestudyEnglishhard．(陈述式)；Let’splaychesstonight(祈使式)；Heorderedthata11theemployeesbethereat8sharptomorrow．(虚拟式)。三、典型考题简答题1．Whatarethevoiceconstraints?Thevoiceconstraintsrefertogrammaticalconstraints,semanticconstraintsandstylisticconstraints.(语态限制有：语法，语意及文体限制)。2．be-passive(be-型被动态)：Thepassivemadeupof‘auxiliarybe+v-ed’由“助动词be的一定形式+及物动词的-ed分词”构成的被动态叫be-型被动态，例如：ThebookwaswrittenbyHamilton.3.be-subjunctive(be-型虚拟式):Thebe-subjunctiveisformallymarkedbytheuseofthebaseoftheverb;thatis,theverbinvariablyoccursinthebaseformfreefromtheconcordconstraintswiththesubjectandfromthetenseagreementwithotherverbs.不管主语是什么人称,一律以动词原形表示的虚拟式,例如:Itisimportantthatthebosshandleitinperson.4.Whatarethethreemoodforms:Thethreemoodformsare:indicative,imperativeandsubjunctive.Chapter7VerbandVerbPhrase(3):ModalAuxiliaries(第七章动词和动词词组(3)：情态助动词)一、难点、重点1.could可用来泛指过去的一般“能力”，但通常不能用其表示过去做某一特定事情的“能力”(其否定形式couldn’t／couldnot除外)。要想表示过去做某一具体事情的“能力”，可用beable(to)，manage，succeed等：*Theyworkedhardandcouldpassthetest．Theyplayhardbutstillcouldn’twinthegame．*Heranfastandcouldcatchthefirstbus.Heranfastandmanagedtocatchthefirstbus．2.表示推测意义的may很少用于疑问句，这时通常用can代替：40 CantherebelifeonMars?(*MaytherebelifeonMars?)Wherecanhebefound?(*Wheremayhebefound?)3.haveto与havegottohaveto和havegotto的区别：a．haveto比较正式而havegotto属于口语体b．havegotto很少用过去时形式c．havegotto没有非限定动词形式，所以不能说：*willhavegotto，*tohavegotto，*havinggotto而须说：willhaveto，tohaveto，havingtod．haveto往往表示客观上的必要性而havegotto却通常表示主观上的必要性，与must同义。4.darea.情态助动词dare意为“胆敢”，语法作用与need相近，通常用于非肯定语境：Dareyoujumpdownfromthetopofthatwall?b.主要用作主动词,后面可以跟一个不带to的不定式：Hedoesnotdare(to)saythat．Iwonderhowhedares(to)dosuchthings．Youhaveneverdaredtochallengehim，haveyou?一、重要概念Modalauxiliary:OneofasetofEnglishverbs,includingcan,may,must,ought,shall,should,will,wouldandetc.,thatarecharacteristicallyusedwithotherverbstoexpressmoodortense.情态助动词一组英语动词中的一个，包括can、may、mast、ought、shall、should、will和would等，其特点是与其它动词联用表示语气或时态三、典型考题I.选择题1.Anewtheory__________beforeitcanbeputintopractice.a.mustbetestedb.betestedc.canbetestedd.tobetested2.Where_______thebossbefound?a.canb.mayc.dared.oughtKey:1.a2.aII.简答题40 1.Whatarethetwomajorsemanticcategoriesofmodalauxiliaries?情态助动词从语义来看分为哪两大类?Thepredictiveandnon-predictive(alsotermed‘epistemicandnonepistemic’)推测性意义和非推测性意义2．Thethreemajorsemanticcomponentsof‘can’are:possibility,abilityandpermission.推测性意义的possibility(可能性)和非推测性意义的ability(能力)和permission(许可)III.其他题型Rewritethefollowingsentencesbyusingmodalauxiliaries:1.Iamsureyouhaveleftyourdictionaryinthedormitory.2.Theywereobligedtoselltheircartopayforthemedicine.Key:1.Youmusthaveleftyourdictionaryinthedormitory.2.Theyhadtoselltheircartopayforthemedicine.Chapter8VerbandVerbPhrase(4):Non-finiteVerbs(第八章动词和动词词组(4)：非限定动词)一、难点、重点1.Thenon-finiteverbsaresocalledbecausetheyarenotmarkedfortenseorforsubject-verbconcord.Therearethreetypesofnon-finiteverbs:infinitive,-ingparticiplesand–edparticiples.英语动词形式按其在句子中所起的作用可分为限定动词和非限定动词。两者的主要区别在于：非限定动词一是没有“时”的标志，二是不必在人称和数上与主语保持一致。非限定动词有三种形式，即不定式、-ing分词和-ed分词。2.如果介词but／except之前有动词do的某种形式，其后的不定式通常不带to，否则要带to。例如：Theenemyhadnochoicebuttosurrender．敌人除了投降之外，没有别的选择了。(介词but前面没有动词do的任何形式，所以不定式要带to)：Theycoulddonothingbutsurrender．Youcandoanythingexceptleavetheroom．3.一个及物动词的不定式，既不带主语也不带宾语,在用作后置修饰语的时候，会产生歧义：Heistoogoodamantokill．可有两种理解：他太好了我不忍杀害他。他太好了是不会杀害别人的。Sheisthenextpersontoconsult．也有两种理解：她是下一个我要请教的人。她是下一个要请教我的人。40 如果没有上下文语境，需要将不定式分句按例句方式进行扩展或是合适的话，使用一个被动结构：Heistoogoodamantobekilled．Sheisthenextpersontobeconsulted．4.begin，cease，continue，start后面可以用不定式，也可以用分词-ing。当后接的动词表示“知道、理解、喜爱、嫌恶”等意义时多用不定式。但是-ing分词不能用于下列语境：IbegantolikeEnglishwhenIwasten．(不可说：*IbeganlikingEnglish…)Theyceasedtoloveeachotheraftertheironlydaughterdied.(不可说：*Theyceasedlovingeachother…)Shecontinuedtohateherfirsthusbandtwentyyearsaftertheirdivorce．(不可说：*Shecontinuedhatingher…)I’mgladtofindthatyoufinallystarttoseemypoint.(不可说：*youfinallystartseeingmypoint．)注意：(1)如果句中已经有了动词的-ing形式，其后就不可再接-ing分词，如：He’sbeginningtochangehishabit.(不可说:*He’sbeginningchanginghishabit.)It’snousecontinuingtocomplain．(不可说：*It’snousecontinuingcomplaining．)5.Danglingparticiple垂悬分词无主分词又叫“悬垂分词”或者“无依着分词”，指-ing分词或-ed分词在句中找不到它的逻辑主语，因而处在一种“悬垂无依着”状态，即“无主”状态，这在句法上是错误的，在逻辑上是不合理的。如：*Tryingtobequiet，thefloorboardcreaked．*Grilledonthecharcoal，welikedthefishmuchbetter．*Cookinginthekitchen,thephonerang.上述这几个句子显然是错误的，因为它们的-ing分词或-ed分词结构没有逻辑主语，与句子其他部分“无依着”。从逻辑上说，意思讲不通。一、重要概念1.Thenon-finiteverbs:Thenon-finiteverbsareverbsthatarenotmarkedfortenseorforsubject-verbconcord.2.Danglingparticiple:Whenthesubjectofaparticipleisnotexpressed,itisnormallyunderstoodtobethesubjectofthemainclause.Iftheruleisbroken,theparticipleisregardedasadanglingone.三、典型考题I.选择题1.Thebossexpectsallthedocuments__________promptly.a.beingtypedb.tobetyped40 c.havingbeentypedd.tohavebeentyped2.Theinformationwaslateradmitted__________fromwell-informedpeople.a.tobeobtainedb.tohavebeenobtainedc.thatithasbeenobtainedd.thatitwasobtained3.Westillhavealotofproblems__________.a.unsolvedb.unsolvingc.unsolved.tobeunsolved4.Heregretted__________herthetruth.a.havingtoldb.tohavetoldc.hadtoldd.totellKey:1.b2.b3.a4.aII.简答题1.Whatarethethreetypesofnon-finiteverbs?Theyare:infinitive,-ingparticipleand–edparticiple2.Thebareinfinitive?Theinfinitive,whichoccursasaverbinthebaseformwithouttoiscalledbareinfinitive.III.其他题型Correcterrorsinthefollowingsentences:1.Thereisnopointtoarguewithhim.2.HebeganlikingEnglishattheageof5.3.Whatwecandonowistowait.4.Youmighttrytocutitwithaknife.5.Hewilldowhateverhecanhelpus.Key:40 1.Thereisnopointtoarguingwithhim.2.HebegantolikeEnglishattheageof5.3.Whatwecandonowiswait.4.Youmighttrycuttingitwithaknife.5.Hewilldowhateverhecantohelpus.Chapter9AdjectivePhraseandComparison(第九章形容词词组和比较)一、难点、重点1.Thefourfeaturesofadjective:Attributivefunction,predicativefunction,pre-modificationbytheintensifier‘very’andcomparative/superlativeforms形容词具有四个特点：即定语特点、补语特点、用强调词very前置修饰的特点及比较级和最高级特点。2.只有极少数的单个形容词可作后置修饰语：(1)theministerdesignate(尚未上任的部长)thepresidentelect(当选的主席)Hehasfriendsgalore.(他有许多朋友。)(2)broad(广阔的)，deep(深的)，high，long，old，tall，thick，wide等词必须用在数量名词后，表示大小、持续时间、事物的年代及人的年龄：sixfeettallthreemeterswide(3)concerned(担心的[前置],有关的[后置]),involved(复杂的[前置],涉及的[后置]present(目前的，现在的[前置]；出席的，到场的[后置])；proper(适合的，适当的[前置],严格意义上的，本身的[后置])responsible(认真负责的，尽责的[前置]；有责任的，应负责任的[后置])等这些形容词用在名词前或后，其意义有所改变：themotherconcerned(所提到的母亲)theconcernedmother(焦虑的母亲)themanresponsible(应负责任的人，负有责任的人)theresponsibleman(认真负责的人，有责任心的人)(4)affected(受影响的；假装的，做作的)，available(可得到的，可达到的)，required(需要，要求的)suggested(建议的)等这些词可用在名词前或名词后，意义没有变化：availableinformationinformationavailable(可获得的信息)40 suggestedimprovementsimprovementssuggested(建议的改善方法)3.形容词sick和healthy可以用作定语，而i11和well则通常用作补语，如：What’sthematterwithMr.White?——He’sasickman．Tomwasveryill，buthe’snowahealthyman．Howareyou?——I’mverywell，thankyou．／I’mfine，thanks．4.比较级结构注意当所比较的两个称呼不属于同层次时，修饰语不能前置,如，Mr.Whiteisaprofessormuchmorelearnedthanhisstudents．*Mr.Whiteisamuchmorelearnedprofessorthanhisstudents．TherearealotofwomenmoreintelligentthanJohn．*TherearealotofmoreintelligentwomenthanJohn．三、典型考题I.简答题1.Whatareattributiveadjectivesandpredicativeadjectives?定语形容词和补语形容词各指什么?Anattributiveadjectivereferstoanadjectivethatmodifiesanounandstandseitherbeforeorafterthenouninanounphrase.Anpredicativeadjectivereferstoanadjectivethatcanmodifyanounbywayofservingasasubjectcomplementoranobjectcomplement．(修饰语形容词指用来修饰名词,可放名词前或名词后的形容词。补语形容词指通过用作主语补足语或宾语补足语来修饰名词的形容词。)2.Whenadjectivesareusedinthedynamicsense,whataretheirsyntacticandsemanticfeatures?当形容词表示动态意义时，其句法特征和语义特征是什么?Whenadjectivesareusedinthedynamicsense，theirsyntacticfeaturesaretodenotesubjectivemeasurementorsuggestatemporarystate;andtheirsemanticfeaturesarethatthequalitiesdenotedbytheadjectivescanbecontrolledorrestricted.(当形容词用作动态意义时，其句法特征是表示主观评定或暂时情况，其语义特征是形容词表示的特征能被控制或限制。)3.Whatarerestrictiveadjectivesandnon-restrictiveadjectives?限制性形容词和非限制形容词各指什么?Arestrictiveadjectivehelpsidentifythereferentofthenounbydescribingitsdistinctivequalities．Whereasanon—restrictiveadjectivemerelyprovidessomeadditionalinformationwhichisusuallynotessentialfortheidentificationofthereferent．(限制性形容词通过描述与众不同的特征来识别名词所指的对象.40 非限制性形容词仅仅提供一些额外信息，而这些信息不是识别名词所指对象的根本。)Chapter10PrepositionandPrepositionalPhrase(第十章介词和介词词组)一、难点、重点1.Themajorfunctionsprepositions:Apartfromthespatialandtemporalrelations，prepositionscallbeusedtoindicateamannerinwhichanactionisdone，aninstrumentwithwhichataskisfulfilled，orapurposethatisaimedatandsoon．介词除了表示空间和时间外，还可表示动作进行的方式，完成任务所使用的工具，以及瞄准的目标等。Examples:InBeijing(space),onMonday(time),leavewithoutaword(manner),listentotheradio(instrument),prayforpeace(purpose)2.between和among用法比较a.between表示两者之间，among表示三者或三者以上之间：Shesatbetweenthetwochildren．Shesatamongthethreechildren．b.between表示两者之间的关系，作“在…之间”解，可以表示位置、时间、顺序、距离、数量等。而among表示“在…中间；被…所围绕”：Ourhousestandsbetweenaschoolandasupermarket．Helosthissonwhenthefilmwasoverandfoundhimamongthepeopleoutsidethecinema．电影散场时，他找不到儿子了，在电影院外人群中找到了他。c.between表示:“介于…之间”,among表示“在…之中”；其中之一(与最高级连用)：Agoodteachermustbeneithertoostrictnortooweak；hismannermustbebetweenthesetwo．好教师既不能太严厉又不能太软弱；其举止必须介于两者之间。Amonghismanygoodqualities，punctualityisthemostimpressiveone．在他众多优秀品质中，守时给人留下了最深刻印象。HemadeacomparisonbetweenthemajorEnglishspeakingcountries.IlikeNewZealandbestamongalltheEnglishspeakingcountries.d.Wealwaysuse‘between’whenwespeakofclearandexactlocativepositions:Thevillageisbetweenthreemountains.EcuadorliesbetweenColombia,Peru,andthePacificOcean.40 一、重要概念Preposition:Insomelanguages,awordplacedbeforeasubstantiveandindicatingtherelationofthatsubstantivetoaverb,anadjective,oranothersubstantive,asEnglishat,by,in,to,from,andwith.介词在一些语言中放在一实词前，用于表示这一实词与动词、形容词或另一实词的关系，如英语中的at,by,in,to,from和with三、典型考题I.选择题1.Somepeopleshowanindifference_____changesintheweather.a.tob.forc.withd.by2.Doesn"tJackhaveanysympathy______thecrippledboy?a.atb.forc.ind.of3.Thepresidentrefusedtoacceptotherpeople"sopinions___carefulthought.a.forb.inc.ofd.without4.Universitygraduateshaveanadvantage____othersingettingajob.a.ofb.overc.aboved.for5.Mr.Smithhasthecapability_____doingfirst-ratework.a.inb.fromc.ond.of6.Ourfactoryislocated_________threemountains.a.amongb.overc.betweend.insideKey:1.a2.b3.d4.b5.d6.cII.简答题1.解释表示空间关系的介词静态及动态使用方法?Weuseprepositionstoindicatetheplacewheresomeoneorsomethingis，ortheplacewhereanactionoccurs．Thisdistinctionmayalsoberegardedasonebetweenthestaticuseandthedynamicuseofprepositions，theformerrelatedwithstaticlocationandthelatterwithmovementwithrespecttoanintendeddirection．(我们用介词表示某人或某物所在的位置，或者某个动作发生的位置。其区别在于介词的静态使用和动态使用。介词静态使用指与静态位置有关，动态使用指与所指方向有关的运动。)2．指出表示持续时间和非持续时间介词的例子。(1)Hewasillforaweek，andduringthatweekheatelittle．他病了一周，这一周，他吃得很少。(for，during表持续时间)(2)TheairplaneleftJapanatseveninthemorning。飞机早晨7点离开日本。(at表非持续时间)3.Thesyntacticfunctionsofaprepositionalphrase:apost-modifierinthenounphrase,anadverbialandacomplement.介词词组，在句子中作后置修饰语、状语、补语等。E.g.agirlinwhite,handleitinaproperway,beinterested40 incooking.III.其他题型Correctthefollowingsentences:1.ThecultureinIraqisverydifferentthanthatintheU.S.2.Comeintheroom,please.3.Amanofwordsandnotofdeedsisasagardenfullofweeds.Key:1.than----from2.in-----into3.as----likeChapter11CoordinationandSubordination(第十一章并列与从属)一、难点、重点1.Coordinationandsubordinationaretwoimportantwaysinwhichtwoormoreunitsarecombinedintolargerandmorecomplexunits,evensentences.Coordinationistypicallyrealizedbycoordinators(alsotermedascoordinationconjunctions)whichjoinunitsatthesamelevel,whereassubordination,realizedbysubordinators(alsotermedassubordinatingconjunctions,involvesthelinkingofunitsatdifferentlevelssothattheyformahierarchy.并列和从属是连接句子的两个手段。并列是靠并列连词(coordinatingconjunctions)实现的，它把同一层次的几个单位连接起来。从属是靠从属连词(subordinatingconjunctions)实现的，它把不同层次的几个单位连接起来，从而形成了一个等级(主从关系)。2.And具有多种功能,如：a.Theprofessorwentintotheclassroom，openedhisnotebook，andstartedthelecture．教授走进教室，打开笔记本，然后开始讲课。(and表示先后顺序，然后，其后)b.Heheardhisdogbarkatdoor，andhelookedoutofthewindowonlytofindthathishousewassurroundedbyalargecrowdofangrypeople．他听到狗冲门叫，于是朝窗外看，发现他的房子被愤怒的群众包围了。(and=therefore表因果)c.Workharderandyou’llpassthetest．如果努力学习，考试就会及格。(=Ifyouworkharder，you’11passthetest．and表条件)d.Lizistalkativeandherhusbandisreserved．(and=but表对照)e.Englishisdifficulttolearn，andsoisFrench．(and表相似性)f.Heisachainsmoker，andhestinksallover．他是一支接一支抽烟的人，浑身是烟味。(and表另外)g.Sheranandranuntilshewasoutofbreath．她跑啊跑直到跑得上气不接下气。(and表示重复或连续)3.0r也可用在一些固定表达法中，or仍然引出一个选择：40 a.Cleanupthemess，orelse!你好好弄干净了，否则给你好看!(orelse用作威胁)b.Youmaystayhereforadayortwo．(ortwo大约，至少，或多一些)c.ThetribewascalledMilwaukeeorsomething．(orsomething或什么的，表说话者不肯定)三、典型考题简答题1.Whatisthedifferencebetweencoordinationandsubordination?Coordinationistypicallyrealizedbycoordinatorswhichjoinunitsatthesame,level,whereassubordinationrealizedbysubordinators,involvesthelinkingofunitsatdifferentlevelssothattheyformahierarchy.Thedifferencebetweencoordinationandsubordinationalsoliesintheamountofimportancethespeakerwishestoattachtothejoinedconstituents.(并列是靠并列连接词实现的,它把同一层次的各个成分连接起来。而从属是由从属连接词实现的，它把不同层次的各个成分连接起来从而形成一个等级。并列和从属的区别还在于说话人对构成成分的重视程度不同)2.Whatarethemajortypesoffiniteandnon-finitesubordinateclauses?限定从属分句和非限定从属分句的主要形式是什么?Themajortypesoffinitesubordinateclausearerelativeclause，adverbialclauseandnominalclause．Themajortypesofnon—finitesubordinateclauseareinfinitiveclause，—ingparticipleclauseand—edparticipleclauseandverblessclause．(限定从属分句的主要形式有关系分句，状语分句和名词性分句。非限定从属分句的形式有不定式分句，以—ing结尾的分词分句，以—ed结尾的分词分句和无动词分句)Chapter12RelativeClause(第十二章关系分句)一、难点、重点1.Explainthedifferencesinformandinfunctionbetweentherestrictiveandthenon-restrictiverelativeclauses:解释限制性关系分句与非限制性关系分句在形式和功能上的不同.40 Inform,firstly,non-restrictiveclauseissetoffinwritingbycommas,whichisindicatedinspeechbyaslightpauseandcharacteristicchangeinpitchbothbeforeandafter.Therestrictiveclauseisnotsetoffbysuchfeatures.Secondly,thechoiceofpronounsisdifferent.Iftheclauseisintroducedby‘that’orazerorelativepronoun,itmustbearestrictiverelativeclause;ifitisintroducedbywhichorotherwh-words,itmaybeeitherrestrictiveornon-restrictive.Withthenon-restrictiverelativeclause,‘that’cannotbeused.Infunction,therestrictiverelativeclauseisanintegralpartofthenounphraseandgivesessentialinformationfortheidentificationofwhatitsantecedentrefersto.Ontheotherhand,thenon-restrictiverelativeclausemerelyoffersadditionalinformationwhichisnotneededtoidentifythepersonorthingwearetalkingabout,andthereforemaybediscardedwithoutseriousinjurytotheunderstandingofthesentenceasawhole.(限制性关系分句与非限制性关系分句在形式上有很大区别。首先，非限制性关系分句在书写上用逗号隔开，在讲话中，语调上轻微停顿和前后程度明显变化。而限制性关系分句却没有这样的特征，关系词的选择也是两种关系分句的区别。如果分句是用关系词that或者根本不用关系词引导，那么此句肯定是限制性关系分句。然而，如果用which或以wh—开头的词引导，那么此句或者是限制性的或者是非限制性的。注意：that不能用于非限制性关系分句。两种关系分句在功能上也有很大不同。限制性关系分句是名词词组不可分割的一部分并且为确认先行项的所指对象提供了必不可少的信息。相反，非限制性关系分句仅仅提供额外信息，这不是识别我们正在谈论的这个人或物的必要信息。因此，这种信息可以省略，但并不严重地影响对整个句子的理解)2.Illustrateanominalantecedentthatonlyacceptstherestrictiverelativeclauseandonethatonlyacceptsthenon-restrictiverelativeclause.用例子解释只能接受限制性关系分句的名词性先行词和只能接受非限制性关系分句的名词性先行词。Antecedentsthatonlyaccepttherestrictiverelativeclausetypicallyincludenounsorpronounswithunspecifiedreference--indefinitessuchasall,any,some,every,no,etc,andcompounds.e.g1.TheladywholivesnextdoorisnowtravelinginThailand.(nounastheantecedent).2.Allthatglittersisnotgold.(indefinitesasanantecedent)3.Noonewhohasevervisitedthetownwillfailtobeimpressedbyitslocaldelicacies.(compoundasantecedent)Propernounsasantecedentsco-occuralmostexclusivelywithnon-restrictiverelativeclause.e.g4.St.Paul"sCathedral,whichtheguidewasreferringto,wasdesigned40 bySirChristopherWren.(St.Paul"sCathedralisapropernoun)(只接受限制性关系分句，非常典型的先行词包括名词、不定代词以及复合词。例1是名词作先行词，例2是不定代词作先行词，例3是复合词作先行词。专有名词作为先行项可接受非限制性关系分句。例4是专有名词作为先行词)3.Thedoublerelativeclauseandtheembeddedrelativeclause嵌入式关系分句(1)Hemetaladywhohewassurewashisnewteacher.(2)Mr.WangistheonlybusinessmanwhoIknowoffersfairprices(3)Mr.WangistheonlybusinessmanIknowwhooffersfairprices句(3)中有两个关系分句,一个套着一个;句(1)、(2)各只有一个关系分句,其本身嵌在一个分句中.所以（1）、（2）为嵌入式关系分句一、重要概念Therelativeclause:itisdefinedasaclausalmodifier,restrictiveornon-restrictive,usedtomodifyaprecedingconstruction,mostoftenaprecedingnounornounphrase.关系分句，无论是限制性关系分句还是非限制性关系分句，都是用来修饰一个先行结构,而名词或名词词组是最常见的先行结构从句型修饰语。三、典型考题简答题1.Whatkindofrelativeclausedowenormallyusetomodifyanon-nominalantecedent?我们通常使用哪种关系分句去修饰非名词性先行词?Wenormallyusenon-restrictiverelativeclausetomodifyanon-nominalantecedent．(我们通常用非限制性关系分句修饰非名词先行项)2.Listtheconditionsweneedtotakeintoconsiderationwhenwechoosearelativepronoun?当我们选关系词时，需要考虑的条件是什么?Weneedtotakethreeconditionsintoconsideration．(1)therelationoftherelativeclausetoitsantecedent：restrictiveornon-restrictive;(2)thegendertypeoftheantecedent：personalornon-personal;(3)thefunctionoftherelativepronounassubject，object，orcomplement.(当我们选择关系词时,需要考虑以下三个条件条件(1)关系分句与先行词的关系,即限制性的或非限制性的;(2)先行项的所指意义,即指人还是指物;(3)关系词在分句中的成分，即主语,宾语,补语等)3.Explainthedifferencebetweenadoublerelativeclauseandanembeddedrelativeclause?解释双重关系分句与嵌入式关系分句的不同点。Doublerelativeclausecanbeeasilyconfusedwithembeddedrelativeclausebecauseoftheirseeminglyidenticalstructure．However，thereisadifferencebetweenthem．Indoublerelativeclause，therearetworelativeclauses，oneenclosingtheother，whereasinembeddedrelativeclausethereisonlyonerelativeclausewhichitselfisembeddedina40 clause．(双重关系分句与嵌入式关系分句在结构上颇为相似，很容易混淆。但它们之间也有区别。双重关系分句中有两个(或两个以上)关系分句，而嵌入式关系分句只含有一个分句)Chapter13Adverbials(第十三章状语)一、难点、重点1.Adverbialscantakeavarietyofformsondifferentgrammaticallevels:theycanbeadverbs,adjectivesornouns;theycanbeprepositionalphrases,adverbphrases,adjectivephrasesornounphrases,ortheycantakeclauses,finiteornon-finite.状语的形式多种多样：副词、形容词或名词；介词词组、副词词组、形容词词组或名词词组；限定分句或非限定分句皆可作状语。2.Explainthedifferencesbetweenadjuncts,disjunctsandconjunctsinstructureandinfunction.Adjunctstypicallymodifyverbs,disjunctsconveyacommentonthecontentoftheclausetowhichtheyareperipherallyattached;conjuncts,ontheotherhand,arelogicaladhesives,functioningtoconnectanewsentencewiththecontext.修饰性状语，又叫结合性状语，是谓语的一个组成部分。它不仅修饰动词(词组)还可修饰形容词、副词、介词或连词；它是状语的主体。评注性状语，又叫分离性状语，是对全句进行说明或解释，表示说话人对话语的看法或态度；评注性状语不与它所评注的句子在结构上紧密结合，通常位于句首，常用逗号与句子隔开。连接性状语通常由某些副词词组和介词词组等表示，在句子或分句之间起连接作用。它不同于修饰性状语和评注性状语，因为它对句子不起修饰或评注作用。3.有时表示较大地点的状语可以置于句首，但表示较小地点的状语不可移至句首：Intherestaurantshesatonatable．*Onthetableshesatintherestaurant．4.will表示将来时间，不能用在订分句中；当will用在条件分句时，通常表示“意愿、打算”。Ifyouwillcomeandhelpusout,wewillfinishthetaskahead.5.还有一种条件句，其分句谓语动词不管主语的人称和数如何，一律用“推定should+不定式”，而主句的动词可以根据意思需要，采用不同形式。Ifheshouldbefoundguilty,hewillbedeprivedoftheguardianshipofhischildren.6.Style-disjunctsandcontent-disjuncts40 文体评注性状语表示说话者对话语的看法、态度：Frankly，heisn’tworkinghardenough．Honestly，fewpeopletellthetruthwhentheysaythattheyhavenevertoldalie.内容评注性状语表示说话人对话语内容的评述：Obviously，shecouldn’tdealwiththeseproblems．Luckily，theymanagedtoescapebeingfined．有一条标准可用来识别到底是文体评注性状语还是内容评注性状语：可否插入speaking一词，比较：Franklyspeaking，heisn’tworkinghardenough.(frankly后面可以插入speaking，是文体评注性状语)．Obviouslyspeaking，shecouldn’tdealwiththeseproblems．(因为obviously后面不可以插入speaking，所以是内容评注性状语)二、典型考题简答题1.Bothresult-adjunctsandpurpose-adjunctscanbeintroducedby‘sothat’.Howcanwetellthedifference?sothat既可引导结果状语又可引导目的状语,其区别方法是:1)分句前有无逗号:有逗号的是结果状语分句,否则为目的状语分句.2)分句中有无情态动词:分句中有can,may,could,might等情态助动词时,多为目的状语分句,否则多为结果状语分句.3)分句可否移至句首:目的状语分句可以移至句首,而结果状语分句则不可以,只能位于句末.2.Discussvariousgrammaticalformsthatdisjunctsmaytake.论述评注性状语可能采用的语法形式。Themajorityofdisjunctstaketheformoftheadverbandoccurintheinitialpositionofthesentence.However,disjunctscanalsotakeotherforms,suchasprepositionalphrase,infinitiveclause,-ingparticipleclause,-edparticipleclauseandfiniteclause.Forexample,inallfrankness,tobefrank,franklyspeaking,putfrankly,ifIcanspeakfrankly.评注性状语通常由副词表示，也可由介词词组、不定式分句、-ing分词分句、-ed分词分句和限定分句表示。Chapter14Concord(第十四章一致)一、难点、重点1.Concord,alsotermed‘agreement’,canbedefinedas‘therelationshipbetweentwogrammaticalunitssuchthatoneoftemdisplaysaparticularfeaturethataccordswithadisplayedfeatureintheother.40 一致，顾名思义指一句英文句子里各部分之间的协调、合符语法的现象。2.Concordcouldbeformedonthebasisofseveralgrammaticalfeaturessuchasperson,genderandnumber.一致,通常包含人称、性别及数的一致。3.Thesubject-verbconcordisgovernedbythreecomplementaryprinciples:thegrammaticalprinciple,thenotionalprincipleandtheprincipleofproximity.主语——动词一致通常为三个互为补充的原则所支配，即语法一致原则、意义一致原则和就近一致原则。a.Everybodywashappywiththedecision．(语法一致)b.Theaudiencewerebroughttotheirfeetatthesightofsupermaninhiswheelchair．(意义一致)c.EitheryouorIamresponsibleforthemistake．(就近一致)4.记住教材337上的常用集合名词所涉及的‘一致’Thepublicholdsaverynegativeattitudetowardsthisnewspaper.Thearistocracydoesnotenjoyasmuchprivilegeasitusedto.TheBritishpolicehaveverylimitedpowers.Poultryarelessexpensiveintheruralareas.Iliketoknowwhattheenemyisthinkingabout.Theenemyweregoingtoattacksoon.5．Inmathematicalequation,bothnumberalternativesareacceptablewithadditionbutthesingularverbisgenerallyusedwithsubtraction,multiplicationanddivision:在数学公式中，仅两数相加，动词谓语可以用单数，也可以用复数；两数相减、相乘和相除，动词谓语通常用单数。Twoplustwois/arefour.Eightminusfouris/leavesfour.6.关系分句的先行项为“oneof+复数名词”时,根据就近一致的原则,动词与靠近它的复数名词(而不是one)一致:Sheisoneofthesegirlswhohavetroublemakinguptheirminds.Thisisoneofthemanyhousesherewhichweredestroyedintheearthquake.当one的前面被theonly修饰时,关系分句的先行项是one而不是复数名词,依据语法一致的原则,动词应用单数形式:Sheistheonlyoneofherfamilywhohastroublemakinguptheirminds.二、重要概念Thegrammaticalprinciple:itstipulatesthattheverbmatchesitssubjectbothinpersonandinnumber.Chapter15InformationStructureandEmphasis40 (第十五章信息结构和强调)一、难点、重点1.Languageisacommunicationsystem.Ourcommunicationusuallyinvolvestwoparties:oneproducingthemessageandtheotherreceivingthemessage.Theproducerwouldtrytoguidethereceivertotheproperunderstandingofhismessage;thereceiver,inthemeantime,wouldtrytoavailhimselfofthemessageinamostdirectway.语言是一种交际体系，交际通常涉及发出信息的说话人或文章作者和接收信息的听话人或读者这两个方面。发出者想方设法引导接收者正确理解其信息，而与此同时接收者也在竭力用最直接的方法利用这信息。2.Tomakestressoncertainitems,wecanpostponethem.Themostcommonandusefulwaystodosoare:passivevoice,extrapositionanddiscontinuity.要强调的重要信息的后移可有许多方式，最常见、最有用的方式有被动态(passivevoice)、外位(extraposition)和分隔(discontinuity)Forexample:a.Mydogsentthemail．---Themailwassentbymydog．(被动态)b.Tomakefunofadisabledmanisnotfunnyata11．-一Itisnotfunnyatalltomakefunnyofadisabledman.(外位)c.Thetimewhenanyonecanaffordacarwillcome．---Thetimewillcomewhenanyonecanaffordacar．(分隔)3.FrontingFrontingisatermwhichreferstotheremovalofanitemfromitsunmarkedpost-subjectpositiontothemarkedpre-subjectposition.Thus,theremovalisfocused.前置指把原来位于句中或句末的成分一即无标记主题的位置至句首，给人一种出其不意的感觉，从而受到特殊强调。a.Intoalargecrowdofspectatorstheplanedived．b.Anhonestmanbeusedtobe.上述情况下，前置的成分传递新的信息，特别引人注目。4.Inversion倒装Thedifferencebetweeninversionandfrontingistwofold:first,inversioninvolvesthereversalofsubject-verborderwhilefrontingusuallydoesnot;second,whereasfrontingusuallytransferstheinformationfocusfromthefinalpositiontothefront,inversionmaycomplywitheitherfrontingorpostponementdependingonitsstructure.40 人们常常认为倒装类似于前置，错误地以为两者都是把一个成分移到句首。倒装和前置的区别有两个方面：一是倒装包含主、谓语词序的颠倒而前置通常则不然。二是前置通常把信息中心从句末移至句首而倒装则根据其语法结构，或遵守前置原则或遵守后移原则。5.Cleaving分裂语法向我们提供了一种更为复杂的、实际上和前置相一致的、突出重要信息的句子结构：分裂句和准分裂句，如：Itistraitorthatweshallcallhim.(分裂句)Whatweshallcallhimistraitor.(准分裂句)6.Existentialsentence存在句人们完全可以认为存在句是一种后移手段。通常，一个句子以已知信息开始——主语，然而继续进行到新信息——谓语。从交际的观点来看，一个句子若是以非确定特指的主语开始，是不常见的，甚至是不可接受的，如：?Agroceryisacrossthestreet．有一家杂货店在马路对过。?Abigchinavasewasonamarble—toppedtable．为了不致使听者和读者一看见句首便产生唐突的感觉，可以将双方已知的信息，比如说一个代词，放到句首位置而把新信息移到句尾，作为句尾焦点：Wehaveagroceryacrossthestreet．Ifoundabigchinavaseonamarble—toppedtable．Chapter16Cohesion(第十六章连接纽带)一、难点、重点1.Cohesioncanbeestablishedwiththehelpofanumberofdevices.Weshalldividethemintothreemajortypes:reference,substitutionandellipsis.句子之间的粘着力(即衔接手段)主要有照应(reference)、替代(substitution)和省略(ellipsis)三大类.Examples:A：IsJohntryingtoenterHarvardLawSchool?B：No，Idon’tbelieveheis．Hehateslawyers．(照应：he=John)A：IsJohntryingtoenterHarvardLawSchool?B：No，Idon’tthinkso.Hehateslawyers．(替代：so=thatheistryingtoenter…)A：IsJohntryingtoenterHarvardLawSchool?B：No，heisn’t．Hehateslawyers．(省略：not=nottryingtoenter…)40 2.Reference照应有语外照应(exophoricreference)和语内照应(endophoricreference)；语外照应的所指对象在语外上下文中，语内照应的所指对象在语内上下文中。语内照应又有前照应(anaphoricreference)和后照应(cataphoricreference)之分。a.Theyarealwaysraisingtheprices．(语外照应)b.Wow，you’vegotahugehouse．Ididn’texpectittobesobig．(前照应)c.Listen．ThisiswhatIwantyoutodonow．Gobacktoyourroom，putawaythetoys，washyourhandsandcomebacktothetableintenminutes．(后照应)3.Substitution替代比较：Ilikethiscar，butIcan’taffordit.(照应)Iwantacar，butIcan’taffordone.(替代)照应和替代的区别在：照应是意义上的指代一个对象，而替代则是结构上的替代一个词语或分句。因此照应项和照应对象在意义上是相等的，也就是说，指的是同一个东西。而替代则是用词上而不是意义上的替代。正是由于替代的结果而产生的这种结构上的相同，形成了替代项和被替代项之间上下文衔接关系。4.名词性替代词one和数词one有区别：A．替代词one可以带修饰语而数词one则不可，B．替代词one从不重读而数词one则要重读，C．替代词one可有复数形式(ones)而数词one永远没有复数形式(其相应的复数形式为some)，D．替代词one是名词词组的中心词而数词one却是个限定词：A：Canlhavetheseapples，Mum?B：Youjusthadabigone．(one是替代词)A：Canlhavetheseapples，Mum?B：Yes，butyoueatone(apple)andgivetheresttoyourlittlebrother．(one是数词)5.Ellipsis省略Thebasicprincipleisleavingoutsomethingunderstood.Fromthestructuralpointofview,ellipsisproducesincompletesentences.Ellipsiscanbedividedintothreetypeswithregardtothegrammaticalconfinesofellipsis:nominalellipsis,verbalellipsisandcausalellipsis.省略的基本原则是只要不损害语法结构或不造成理解上的困难，能省略的尽量省略。从结构的观点来看，省略的结果出现了不完整的句子，但省略的部分都是明确的，而且可以在上(下)文中找到。由于上下文语境被省略成分的可恢复性，省略和替代一样，是句子之间的承接纽带。省略有三种：名词性省略、动词性省略和分句性省略。a.TherearefourflightstoNewYorktoday．Let’staketheearliest(flight)．b.----Whoelseiscomingtotheparty?40 ----Paul(iscomingtotheparty)．(省略整个动词词组)c.----Willitraintomorrow?------Perhaps(itwillraintomorrow．)(省略整个分句)6．Othercohesivedevices其他衔接手段Otherdevicesare:transition,repletionandparallelism.除了上述提及的三种衔接手段外，语篇中的句子还可以通过其他许多手段使我们的句子结构粘着、意思连贯地衔接起来，例如：用过渡词语、重复有关词语、用排比结构。一、重要概念1.Theunifiedtext:theunifiedtextisonethatisnotonlystructurallywell-integratedbutalsosemanticallycoherent.unifiedtext，是从结构和语义的角度来研究text，结构要很好衔接而语义要连贯。2.语外照应exophoricreferencemeansreferencetothenonlinguisticorsituationalcontext.三、典型考题1.Rewritethefollowingsentenceusingwhatevercohesivedeviceisappropriate:MywifeandIaregoingtodineoutthisevening,Infact,wedineouteveryweekend.　(2001)2.Rewritethefollowingsentenceusingwhatevercohesivedeviceisappropriate:Ifyoutraveloften,keepacollectionofnecessitiespre-packed.Keepingacollectionofnecessitiespre-packedwillgiveyoutimetoparethenonessentials.　(EX.II,P396)Key:1.(...Infact,wedoit/soeveryweekend.)2.(...Thatwillgiveyoutimetoparethenonessentials.)最后祝大家:学业有成，万事如意！Wishyougreatprogressandgoodluck!40