交际法在英语语法教学中的应用 39页

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Thismethodfocusesongrammarandvocabulary,however,neglecttheabilityofusingthegrammaticalacknowledges.Consequently,studentcouldn’tsatisfytherequirementoftheknowledgeeconomyageforlackofcommunicativecompetence,emotionalattitude,learningstrategiesandcultureawareness.Inthelightofthis,thetraditionalteachingmodescannotmeettherequirementofmoderntimesanylonger.NowinChinaanewcurriculumreforminSeniorHighSchoolisbeingdeepenedinanall-roundway.Accordingtothenewtrend,greatemphasismustbeplacedonhowtoturnthetendency(i.e.payingattentiontothevocabularyandcorrespondinglyneglectingtodevelopmentthestudents’39 communicativecompetence).Meanwhile,itisimportantinthenewstandardsthatthecurriculumshouldhelpdevelopthestudents’comprehensivecompetenceonthebasisoftheirinterests,experienceandcognitivelevel.Soastomakethelanguagelearningasaprocessforthestudentsofformingapositiveattitude,thinkingactively,practicingbravely,improvingtheirinterculturalawareness,andlearningtostudyontheirowninitiative.Thecommunicativeapproachisamethodofdesigningthesyllabus.It,asastudent-centeredteachingmethod,attachesmuchimportancetodevelopingthestudents’abilitytolearnandusealanguage,aimingattheacquisitionofthecommunicativecompetenceforthestudents.AfteritwasintroducedtoEFL(EnglishasForeignLanguage)teacherinChina,itisgraduallyadoptedanewteachingmethod.Sincetheyearof1993,anewsetoftextbookforallstudentswhoreceivenineyearseducation,SeniorEnglishforChina,beguntobeusedthroughoutthecountry.CommunicativecompetencehasbecomedominantinEnglishteachinginChina’smiddleschools.Nowadays,EnglishteachersaremakingeveryefforttoperformthelearningactivitiesinclasswithCommunicativeApproach.1.TheEnglishGrammarinELT1.1WhatisGrammarChomsky(1991a)claimsthatwhatconstitutesknowledgeoflanguage?Thelinguistsprimedutyistodescribewhatpeopleknowaboutlanguage,whetheritisthattheyhaveintheirmindswhentheyknowEnglishorFrenchoranylanguage,or,asweseelatermoreprecisely,agrammar.Linguists39 definegrammarasasetofcomponents:phonetics(theproductionandperceptionofsounds),phonology(howsoundsarecombined),morphology(thestudyofforms,orhowelementsarecombinedtocreatewords),syntax(howwordsarestrungtogetherintosentences),andsemanticsormeaning.Becausealllanguagesarecharacterizedbythesecomponents,bydefinition,languagedoesnotexistwithoutgrammar.However,grammarhasnotalwaysbeendefinedintheseterms.Originally,thetermgrammar,grammatical,referredtotheartofwriting,ascomparedtorhetoric,rhetorical,theartofspeaking.Asusedtodaybymanyteachersandlearners,grammarislooselyunderstoodtobeasetofrulesthatgovernlanguage,primarilyitsmorphologyandsyntax.Butmorphologyandsyntaxareonlytwocomponentsofgrammar.Communicativelanguageteachinghasbroughtarenewedemphasisontherolethatsemanticsplaysinthedefinitionoflanguage.Communicativelanguageteachingisfundamentallyconcernedwith‘makingmeaning’inthelanguage,whetherbyinterpretingsomeoneelse’smessage,expressingone’sown,ornegotiatingwhenmeaningisunclear.Viewinggrammarwithallofitscomponentshelpsusaslanguageteachersunderstandthecomplexityofwhatitmeanstoknowthegrammarofalanguage.Clearly,thegoaloflanguagelearninginthecommunicativeclassroomisforlearnerstoacquirethegrammarofthesecondlanguageinitsbroadestsense,toenablethemtounderstandandmakemeaning;thatis,tobecomeproficientusersofthesecondlanguage.Researchandexperiencehaveshownthatexplicitteachingofgrammaticalrules,evenifwewereabletoformulatethemall,doesnotproducesuchcompetence.39 1.2TheAimsofEnglishGrammarTeachingThegoalofgrammarinstructionistoenablestudentstocarryouttheircommunicationpurposes.Thisgoalhasthreeimplications:·Studentsneedovertinstructionthatconnectsgrammarpointswithlargercommunicationcontexts.·Studentsdonotneedtomastereveryaspectofeachgrammarpoint,onlythosethatarerelevanttotheimmediatecommunicationtask.·Errorcorrectionisnotalwaystheinstructor’sfirstresponsibility.1.3TheRoleofGrammarTeachinginELTTheroleofgrammarhasbeenamajorconcerninELTinrecentyears.Therehavebeenmanynotedfunctionalists,pioneersandadvocatesofCLT.suchasWilkin(1984)、Widdowson(1978)、Littlewood(1981)、Harmer(1983)、Stern(1983)putthatinlanguageteaching,grammaticalinstructionisnotonlyindispensablebutalsoofaccesstotheteachinggoal.Grammarteaching,ifpositivelylookedat,helpslearnerstobecomeskilledinrecognizing,analyzingandeventuallymasteringtheseelusivestructuralfeatureswhichareanessentialaspectofproficiency.RecentyearshaveseenaresurgenceofinterestintheroleofgrammarinEnglishlanguageteaching.Thatisnottosaythat,formanyteachers,grammarhasevertakenanythingotherthanacentralroleintheirclassroommethodology.Howeverthe1980sexperiencedananti-grammarmovementperhapsinfluencedprimarilybyKristen’s(1982)ideathatgrammarcanbeacquirednaturallyfrommeaningfulinputandopportunitiestointeractintheclassroom:inotherwords,thatgrammaticalcompetencecandevelopina39 fluency-orientedenvironmentwithoutconsciousfocusonlanguageforms.Thecaseagainstamethodologythatpresentedgrammaticalitemsinacontrolledsequencecertainlyledtosomeapproachesthatrelegatedgrammartoapositionoflowpriority.Disenchantmentwiththis,andagrowingconcernaboutaccuracyinlearners’language,hasresultedinareassertionoftheroleofgrammarinsyllabusdesignandthecontentoflessons,andeveningivingexplicitattentiontogrammaticalformsandrules(Ellis1993c).Infact,ithasbecomeapreoccupationamongappliedlinguists,informedteachers,andmaterialsdesignerstofindanapproachtotheteachingofgrammarthatfitswithwhatweknowabouthowlearnerslearnthegrammaticalsystemofEnglish,soteachersneedtoaddressanumberofissuesindesigningcourseandclassroomactivitiesforlearners.Acquisitionofgrammarwillprobablyinvolveexplicitknowledgeofgrammaticalconcept,categories,andrules,andteacherswillneedtodecidewhichdescriptionofthesetochoosefromthoseavailable.Asfarasthesignificanceofthegrammarinusinglanguageisconcernedweshouldtrytointegrategrammarteachingintoacommunicativemethodthatpaysattentiontoallaspectsofcommunicativecompetence.2.TheCommunicativeLanguageTeaching(CLT)CommunicativeLanguageTeachingorCommunicativeApproachhasbegunanddevelopedonthebasisofthistheoryofcommunicativecompetenceandlatercommunicativecompetenceismadetheultimategoalofEnglishLanguageTeaching.Inessence,theCLTapproachistoteachEnglishforthepurposeofcommunication,thatis,togivestudentstheabilitytousethelanguageratherthansimplytoknowitsstructure,grammar,andvocabulary.39 2.1WhatisCommunicativeCompetenceN.Chomsky(1965),thefounderoftransformationalgenerativegrammar,definescommunicativecompetenceastheabilityofanidealnativespeakertoconstructandrecognizegrammaticalandonlygrammaticalsentencesinhislanguage.Hiscompetenceislinguisticcompetencereferringtothegrammaticalknowledgeoftheideallanguageuser(idealspeaker)whohasacompleteknowledgeofthewholelanguage,andhasnothingtodowiththeactuallyuseoflanguageinconcretesituations.ToChomesky,competencewastheinternalizedknowledgeofthesystemofsyntacticandphonologicalrulesofthelanguagethattheidealspeakerpossessesinthenativelanguage;andperformancewaslanguageinusebytheindividual(fullofhesitations,falsestarts,andconvolutedsyntax),whichwasnotafaithfulreflectionoftheindividual’scompetence.(Rivers,1986:14).However,thisacquisitionofcompetencedoesnotseemtoguaranteetheconsequentacquisitionofappropriateperformanceinalanguage.Itisoftenthecasethatwhatisgrammaticalmaynotbeacceptable,andwhatisungrammaticalmaynotbeinappropriate.Lookatthefollowingtwosentences:Themousethecatthedotthemanmarriedbeatchasedhadawhitetail.(grammaticalpossiblebutnotfeasible,appropriateandperformed).Howareyoudoing?(notgrammaticalpossiblebutfeasible).Therefore,itisobviousthatapartfromtheformalorgrammaticalfactor,thereareotherfactorsthatcontributetothecompetenceofaskilledlanguageuser.Communicativecompetenceismadeupoffourcompetenceareas:39 grammatical,sociolinguistic,discourse,andstrategic.·Grammaticalcompetenceisknowinghowtousethegrammar,syntax,andvocabularyofalanguage.Linguisticcompetenceasks:WhatwordsdoIuse?HowdoIputthemintophrasesandsentences?·Sociolinguisticcompetenceisknowinghowtouseandrespondtolanguageappropriately,giventhesetting,thetopic,andtherelationshipsamongthepeoplecommunicating.Sociolinguisticcompetenceasks:Whichwordsandphrasesfitthissettingandthistopic?HowcanIexpressaspecificattitude(courtesy,authority,friendliness,respect)whenIneedto?HowdoIknowwhatattitudeanotherpersonisexpressing?·Discoursecompetenceisknowinghowtointerpretthelargercontextandhowtoconstructlongerstretchesoflanguagesothatthepartsmakeupacoherentwhole.Discoursecompetenceasks:Howarewords,phrasesandsentencesputtogethertocreateconversations,speeches,emailmessages,newspaperarticles?39 ·Strategiccompetenceisknowinghowtorecognizeandrepaircommunicationbreakdowns,howtoworkaroundgapsinone’sknowledgeofthelanguage,andhowtolearnmoreaboutthelanguageandinthecontext.Strategiccompetenceasks:HowdoIknowwhenI’vemisunderstoodorwhensomeonehasmisunderstoodme?WhatdoIsaythen?HowcanIexpressmyideasifIdon’tknowthenameofsomethingortherightverbformtouse?Intheearlystagesoflanguagelearning,instructorsandstudentsmaywanttokeepinmindthegoalofcommunicativeefficiency:Thatlearnersshouldbeabletomakethemselvesunderstood,usingtheircurrentproficiencytothefullest.Theyshouldtrytoavoidconfusioninthemessage(duetofaultypronunciation,grammar,orvocabulary);toavoidoffendingcommunicationpartners(duetosociallyinappropriatestyle);andtousestrategiesforrecognizingandmanagingcommunicationbreakdowns2.2WhatisCLTCommunicativelanguageteachingmakesuseofreal-lifesituationsthatnecessitatecommunication.Theteachersetsupasituationthatstudentsarelikelytoencounterinreallife.Unliketheaudiolingualmethodoflanguageteaching,whichreliesonrepetitionanddrills,thecommunicativeapproachcanleavestudentsinsuspenseastotheoutcomeofaclassexercise,whichwillvaryaccordingtotheirreactionsandresponses.Thereal-lifesimulationschangefromdaytoday.Students’motivationtolearncomesfromtheirdesiretocommunicateinmeaningfulwaysaboutmeaningfultopics.MargieS.Berns,anexpertinthefieldofcommunicativelanguage39 teaching,writesinexplainingFirth"sviewthat“languageisinteraction;itisinterpersonalactivityandhasaclearrelationshipwithsociety.Inthislight,languagestudyhastolookattheuse(function)oflanguageincontext,bothitslinguisticcontext(whatisutteredbeforeandafteragivenpieceofdiscourse)anditssocial,orsituational,context(whoisspeaking,whattheirsocialrolesare,whytheyhavecometogethertospeak)”(Berns,1984,p.5).2.2.1TheDevelopmentofCLTCommunicativeLanguageTeachingisbasedonthetheorythat“languageiscommunication”andtheHymes’theoryofcommunicativecompetence.ItbeganwiththeCommunicativeMovement”ofthe1970s(RichardsandRodgers,1986,p.65)inEuropeandhasbeenpromotedbymanytheoriesandproponents,amongthemostnotedoneisHenryWiddowson.InhisbookTeachingLanguageasCommunication(1987),Widdowsonpresentedaviewofrelationshipbetweenlinguisticsystemsandtheircommunicativevalues,focusingonthecommunicativeactsunderlyingtheabilitytouselanguagefordifferentpurposes.Thatis,CommunicativeLanguageTeachingisviewedasacquiringthelinguisticmeanstoperformdifferentkindsoffunctions.CLTemergedinChinafromtheoutsideworldduringthe1980s.ThepresentmethodologytakenbyalargenumberofschoolinChinaisthegrammar-translationapproachwhosemainemphasisisonthemasteryoflanguagestructure.NearlyallChineseEnglishteachersarefamiliarwiththetypeofexerciseinstructionthatasksstudentstoconvertactivesentenceintotheirpassivevoiceequivalent,ortosupplythecorrectverbforagiventenseortodistinguishadjectivesfromadverbs.Thiskindofspoon-feedingteaching39 generallyproduces“structurallycompetent”studentswhoareoften“communicativelyincompetent”.In1979withChinanewlyemergedformitsisolationfromtheoutsideworld,therewereincreasingpossibilitiesforinternationalprofessionalcooperationandtravel,whetherforbusinessfurtherstudy,orotherpurpose.Formthenon,ELTteachersinChinabecameawareoftheveryweakpointsoftheirtargetlearnersinthesociolinguisticcompetence,discoursecompetenceandstrategiccompetenceadvancedbyCancle(1983).Theyrealizedthatcommunicativecompetencewastheverythingtheyhadignoredintheirlanguageteachingforalongtime.Toacquireknowledgeoffunctionsandstylisticsdoesnotnecessarilymeanthelearnerswillcertainlyacquirethecommunicativecompetence.Whatreallycountsistherealcommunicativematerialsandcommunicativeprocess.Therefore,tomakeourstudentcompetentincommunication.Weshouldcarryoutprinciplesinmaterialcompilationandteaching.2.2.2TheFeaturesofCLTDavidNunan(1991:279)offersfivepointstocharacterizetheCommunicativeApproach:(1)Anemphasisonlearningtocommunicativethroughinteractioninthetargetlanguage.(2)Theintroductionofauthentictextintothelearningsituation.(3)Theprovisionofopportunitiesforlearnerstofocus,notonlyonlanguagebutalsoonthelearningprocessitself.(4)Anenhancementofthelearners’ownpersonalexperiencesasimportant39 contributingelementstoclassroomlearning.(1)Anattempttolinkclassroomlanguagelearningwithactivationoutsidetheclassroom.Themostobviouscharacteristicofcommunicativeapproachisthatalmosteverythingthatisdoneisdonewithacommunicativeintent.Studentsusethelanguageagreatdealthroughcommunicativeactivitiessuchasgamesrole-play,andproblem-solvingtasks.Inthisprocess,thefocusisonmeaning,ratherthanonlanguageform.Theteacherwouldcorrectforcontent.Shehastotakeadvantageofallsituationsinwhichrealcommunicationcoursenaturally.Sheshouldbemoreconcernedwithcreatingmanymoresuitablesituationinwhichstudentcanpracticetheircommunicativeskills.Acommunicativeapproachteacherisconcernedwiththelearnersthemselves,theirfeelingsandideas.Forlearnerswhoarestudyinginanon-Englishspeakingsetting,itisveryimportanttoexperiencerealcommunicativesituationsinwhichtheylearntoexpresstheirownviewsandattitudes,andinwhichtheyaretakenseriouslyaspeople.Meaningfulactivitiesinapersonallevelimproveperformanceandgenerateinterest.Andtalkingaboutsomethingthataffectsthempersonallyiseminentlymotivatingforstudents.Anothercharacteristicoftheteachingandlearningprocessofthecommunicativeapproachistheuseofauthenticmaterials.Thecommunicativeapproachteacheroftenusestextswhicharetakenfromnewspapers,magazines,etc.andrecordingsofnaturalspeechformordinaryradioandTVprogrammes.Thephilosophybehindthisisthestudentsshouldbeexposedtoreallanguageuseintheclassroomsincetheyaretousethelanguageforcommunication39 whentheyleavetheclassroom.Learningismoreeffectivewhenthelearnersareactivelyinvolvedinthelearningprocess.Thedegreeoflearner-centeredactivitydepends,amongotherthings,onthetypeofmaterialtheyareworkingon.3.TeachingGrammarforaCommunicativePurposeFromwhatwediscussedinpreviouschapters,itisveryessentialandvitalthatgrammaticalinstructionisindispensableforlanguageteachinganditshouldbetaughtforthecommunicativepurpose.Communicativelanguageteachingmeanslittlemorethananintegrationofgrammaticalandfunctionalteaching.AsLittlewood(1981:1)thatitpayssystematicattentiontofunctionaswellasstructuralaspectsoflanguage.FortheEnglishlanguageteacherinChina,itisquitesignificanttomakeclearsomeviewsingrammarteachinginmindsoitwillbepossibletodeveloptheprocedureinEnglishlanguageclassroom.Toputtheseclearer,moredetailswillbeofferedinthefollowing.3.1MakingFormsTeachingMoreCommunicative3.1.1FormandMeaningCommunicativelanguageteaching,becauseofitsconcentrationonlanguageasameansofcommunication,isviewedeffectiveinhelpingstudentstogaincommunicativecompetencethroughthestructureaspectsofthelanguage.InadoptingtheapproachtoChineseclassroom,itmustconsideredthatlanguageteachingisdeeplyrootedinthephilosophy,cultureandbasicconceptsofeducation.ThelearninghabitandstyleofChineseclassroom39 learnersshouldbetakenintoaccount.Forexample,Chinesestudentsgenerallyshowgreatinterestinlanguagestructureswhentheyarelearningalanguage,evenifwhentheyarelearningtheirnativelanguage.Therefore,inELTappropriategrammarstudent’sawarenessofthelanguage.Boththeformandthemeaningoflanguagehelplearnergainlinguisticcompetence.Inordertomakeourteachingmorecommunicative,teacherneedtorelatetheteachinggrammarandpatterndrillstomeaninganduse.Inanotherwords,languagestructuralpracticeshouldbecommunicative-orientedandshouldbeusedforacommunicativepurpose.Theyshould“helptobridgethegapbetweenlinguisticandcommunicativecompetence”(Littewood,1981:8).Forexample,whenteachingthepresentperfectiveprogressivetenseinseniorEnglishforChina,Book1AUnit9,theteachercanputitinthefollowingsetting:T:(Drawingpicture)Lookatthegirlstudent.What’sshedoing?Ss:Waitingforabus.T:Yes.Look,it’sfouro’clock.She’sjuststatedwaiting(Drawingthesecondpicture)what’sthetimenow?Ss:Fiveo’clock.T:Yes.Andlook,thebusiscoming.Butthewoman’sbeenwaitingforalong39 time.Howlong?Canyoutellme?Ss:Onehour.T:That’sright.She’sbeenwaitingforanhour.Listen,she’sbeenwaitingforanhour.Let’ssayittogether.Foranhour.Ss:Foranhour.T:She’sbeenwaitingforanhour.Ss:She’sbeenwaitingforanhour.T:Now.Let’swriteit.(Writes“she’s”)She’s…whatcomesnext?Ss:Waiting.T:Notyet,beforethat.Ss:Been.T:Good.(Writes“been”)Now,what’snext?Ss:Waiting.T:That’sright.(Writes“waiting”)Andthen?Ss:Foranhour.T:Good.(Writes“foranhour”,andunderlinethestructure)Now,let’sdomorepracticewithit.Inthisway,wesetaquitefamiliarandcommunicativesituationfocusingonitsmeaningandformtohelpthestudentsunderstandthenewlanguage.Inshort,teachersshoulddesignsuchpracticeinclassroomthatmayencouragelearnerstofocuson(a)linguisticformtobepracticeand(b)meaningstobeconveyed.3.1.2AccuracyandFluencyInEnglishteaching,thereisnodenyingthefactthatbothaccuracyand39 fluencyareessential.Thatistosay,classroomteachingshouldfocusonbothaccuracyandfluency,andformandmeaningalike.AccordingtoLightbownandSpada(1993:105),someclassroomdataformanumberstudiesofferssupportsfortheview:Form-focusedinstructionandcorrectivefeedbackwithinthecontextofacommunicativeprogramaremoreeffectiveinpromotingsecondlanguagelearningoronemphasisonfluencyontheother.ItistrueforChina’steachingsituation.WhenEnglishteachingisdominatedbythegrammar–translationmethod,accuracyisemphasized.Studentsinsuchclassroomareextremelyparticularaboutlinguisticdetails.Theyhavefeltsatisfiedwiththeirlanguageproductionuntilthecorrectanswersareprovided.Ontheconcernraisedinrecentyearsthatfluencyistheteacher’sachievementandwhatstudentsareexpectedtohaveaftertheylearntEnglishforyears.Consequently,Englishteaching,viewedasaprocessingtostudents’abilityoflanguageuse,shouldfocusonbothaccuracyandfluency.Theyneedrigorouslanguagetrainingintheirclassesinordertobegivenintensivefluencypractice.Itshouldbenotedthataccuracyandfluencyarenotmutuallyexclusive,butareinterdependent,asWiddowson(1990:173)discusescommunicativegrammaractivitieswhichaimtoreconcileandcombine“linguisticrepetition,withitsnecessaryfocusonform,andnon-linguisticpurpose,withitsnecessaryfocusonmeaning.”InseniorEnglishforChina,Book1AUnit7,thegrammarpointisThePassivevoice-----presentperfecttense.Astothisitem,theteachercandesignacommunicativeactivityforstudenttousethisgrammarpointinreallife.Step1Teacherdrawsthestickfiguresontheblackboard.39 Step2Askstudentstolookatthetwopictures:TwoyearsagoNowNouns:roofchimneywallsnewglassanewdoorgrassflowerspathVerbs:repairrebuildpaint/cleanputincutplantcreateStep3ReviewthewordsofthepicturesStep4Describethehouseasitwas2yearsago.Step5DiscussthesecondpictureinpairsStep6Asksomestudentstowriteontheblackboard.Step7GettheclasstocheckforaccuracyInthispractice,theroleoftheteacheristoguidethestudenttousethesentencepattern:have/hasbeendonecorrectly.Studentsmaygetmorefamiliarwiththeknowledge,andknowhowtouseitinrealsituation.3.2TeachingGrammarinContextInEnglishclassroom,teachersnotonlyhavetoshowstudentswhatlanguagemeans,butalsotoshowthemhowlanguageisused,Inanother39 words,studentsneedtogetanideaofhowlanguageisusedbynativespeakers.Manylinguistsandappliedlinguists(AllenandValette1997,Ellis1984,Widdowson1978,Harmer1992,Stern1992)havedoneresearchonthisissueandsuggestedthatthebestwayofdoingthisistopresentlanguageincontext.Asforgrammar,itissometimesusedwidelysoastoconcludetheentireanalysisofalanguageincludingphonology,morphology,syntax,lexicology,semanticsanddiscourseanalysis(Stern1992).ButforEnglishlanguageteaching,grammarismoreusedtorefertotheformsandpatternsthatteachersaregoingtoteachitisoftentermed“formalinstruction”.3.2.1PresentationofGrammarPresentationreferstothestageoflessonwhenthenewlanguageistobeintroduced.Themainshortcomingoftraditionalgrammarteachingisalackofcontext,andeveryruleispresentedbymeansofageneralexplanationwhichisfollowedbysomeexercisesthissentenceneglectingthediscourse-relatedconsideration.Whiletheresultisstructurallycorrect,thestudentsaremisledinlanguageuse.Forexample;theformationofthepassiveisoftenpracticedinthemanner:(1)Thechambermaidhasn’tcleanedmyroom.(2)Myroomhasn’tbeencleanedbythechambermaid.Itisclearthatthetransformationofthesetwosentencesisdonecorrectly,butthepositionoftheagentisquitedifferentaboutwhetheritisincludedinapassivesentence.Fortheinclusionofanagentinapassivesentencesuggeststhattheagentisespeciallysignificantandisfocusedon.Inrecentyears,researcherssuggestthatmoreattentionshouldbepaidby39 teacherstoformalfeaturesofthetargetlanguage(Stern,1992:129).Ithasbeenconsideredthatcontextualizationismoreimportantforsomegrammaticalitemsthanforothers.AsAllenandVallettesuggest:Theteacherwhobeingsthelessonbysaying“Todaywearegoingtostudyinterrogatives”maylosemanyofthestudents.Ifhowever,thestudentsareconversingandneedtoaskquestionsoftheirteacherorclassmates,theywillwanttolearntheinterrogativeforms.(InStern,1992:144)Hereisanexampleonhowtopresentthesentencepatternhavesomethingdone.T:LiPing,closethedoor,please.(WhileLiPingisclosingthedoor,asktheclass)WhatisLiPingdoing?Ss:Heisclosingthedoor.T:HasLiPingclosedthedoor?Ss:Yes,hehasclosedthedoor.T:Whoclosedthedoor?Ss:LiPing.T:Yes.LiPingclosedthedoor.Ihavethedoorclosed.(WriteitontheBb)T:WangFang,drawacatontheblackboard,please.(WhileWangFangisdrawingthecat,askSs)WhatisWangFangdoing?Ss:Sheisdrawingacatontheblackboard.T:HasWangFangdrawnacatontheblackboard?Ss:Yes,shehas.39 T:Right.Welldone.WangFangdrewacat.Ihavehadacatdrawnontheblackboard.Inthisway,wecansay:Ihavehadtheblackboardcleaned;IhavehadabookpassedtoLiPing.Acontext,apieceofextendedlanguage,hastheadvantageofshowingthegrammaticalfeaturesinuse,whichmaymotivatestudentstolearnit.Thecasementionedaboveshowstheoverlookofpresentationgrammarinthecontextofthegrammaticalsystem.Besidesthis,sometimesitmaybenecessaryforagrammaticalitemtobeencounteredseveraltimesindifferentsituationbeforeawareofitsfunctionandform.3.3FocusingonStudent-centeredMethodAswehavediscussedabovetraditionalteachingmethodsoftenoverlookthefosteringstudents’communicativecompetenceinEFLteaching.Whereascommunicativecompetenceisaimedattheestimateobjectiveofforeignlanguageteachingwhichisbecomingmoreandmoreimportantatpresentsociety.Communicativelanguageteachingcatersfortheneedoflanguageteachinganditsmilt-considerationscallsforteacherstochangetheirmethodsinclassroom.OneofthemajorfeaturesofCLTabouttheroleofteachersisto“helplearnersinanywaythatmotivatesthemtoworkwithlanguage”(FinocchiaroandBrumfit1983:93).Thus,learner-centeredteachingshouldbefocusedbyteachersinordertoplayaproperroleinteachingposition.3.3.1Student-centeredTask-basedModelInChina,thereadvocatesstudent-centeredtask-basedapproach,inwhichdifferentkindsoftopicareforstudentstotalkanddiscuss,however,thisisnotsufficient.AsforFLL,itleadstosomepenalties,too.Thesehottopicswhich39 usedascommunicationstressonfamiliarity,fluencyandmemory,namely,itismeaning-biasedandmemory-biased.Whenitcomestooriginalityandprecision,itisagreatobstacle.JustasLado(1975)arguesthat,farfromconfiningthelearnertomechanisticperformance,emphasisonstructurecreatesconditionsforeffectivecommunicativeuse.Itleadstotheinternalizationofpatternsatsubconsciouslevel,andtherebyleavesthemind“freetowellonthemessageconveyedoutthroughthelanguage”Readingthefactthatstructureisoftenmovedoutoffocusinrealcommunication,formneedtobestressedintheimplementationofSeniorEnglishinChina.Ifenoughattentionispaidtostructure,itwillengenderclearerunderstanding,strongermemoryandbettermasteryofaforeignlanguage.Task-basedapproachprovideslearnerswithadietoftasks.Incompletingthesetasks,students,makeuseoftheircognitiontorecalltheirpastexperienceandexchangetheirpersonalviewpointorsimplydetectandpresentsalientlanguagechunks,whiletheteacherguidesthemtofaceplatetheirlearningprocess.Theinputprovidedtothemincombinationwithformandmeaning-focusinstructionhasamajorimpactontheirperformancesacrossalltasks.Thisapproachfullyconsiderstherelationshipbetweenthelanguage,thelearningprocessandlearner.Itsuggeststhatavarietyoftasksshouldbecarefullyselectedsothatthebenefitsofthisapproachcanbereachedwhileitsdangerscanbeminimized.Fluencycanalsobeensuredwithoutsacrificingaccuracyandcomplexity,butratherpromoteaccuracyorcomplexity,andpotentiallyinfluencelanguagedevelopment.TheroleoftheinstructorinCLTisquitedifferentfromtraditionalteachingmethods.Inthetraditionalclassroom,theteacherisinchargeand39 “controls”thelearning.InCLTtheteacherservesasmoreofafacilitator,allowingstudentstobeinchargeoftheirownlearning.Theteacherstillsetsupexercisesandgivesdirectiontotheclass,butthestudentsdomuchmorespeakingthaninatraditionalclassroom.Thisresponsibilitytoparticipatecanoftenleadtoanincreasedsenseofconfidenceinusingthelanguage.PuttingtheteacherinchargeofeverythinginthetraditionalclassroomhasbeencomparedtotheAtlasComplex(LeeandVanpatten,1995).CLTrelievesAtlasofhis“burden.”3.3.2TheRolesofTeacherandStudentChangeinCLTTeachersincommunicativeclassroomswillfindthemselvestalkinglessandlisteningmore,becomingactivefacilitatorsoftheirstudents’learning(Larsen-Freeman,1986).Theteachersetsuptheexercise,butbecausethestudents’performanceisthegoal,theteachermuststepbackandobserve,sometimesactingasrefereeormonitor.Aclassroomduringacommunicativeactivityisfarfromquiet,however.Thestudentsdomostofthespeaking,andfrequentlythesceneofaclassroomduringacommunicativeexerciseisactive,withstudentsleavingtheirseatstocompleteatask.Becauseoftheincreasedresponsibilitytoparticipate,studentsmayfindtheygainconfidenceinusingthetargetlanguageingeneral.Studentsaremoreresponsiblemanagersoftheirownlearning(Larsen-Freeman,1986).Teachersoughttoknowtheirlearners’needsandinterestsandimaginativeenoughtousetheirknowledge,foratleastpartofthetime,asthebasisbothforchoosinginputandforcreatemoreorlessrealisticL2practiceactivities.Theycannotassumethatthetextbookalonewillprovidesufficientappropriateinput,and39 soneedtoactivelyconsiderothersources.Teachersneedtobeflexible,abletoorganizeeffectivelybothteacher-centercontrolledteachingoftheL2formsandfreer,lesscontrolledfluencypractice.SuchflexibilityrequiresteacherswhohaveverygoodteachingandL2skills,andareabletocreateagoodcooperativeclassroomatmosphere.Learnersshouldbeactiveparticipantsintheirownlearning.TheyshouldlettheteacherknowwhattheirinterestsandpurposeforlearningtheL2are.Theywillunderstandthatitisnecessarytolearnvocabularyandlanguagestructureinordertobeabletouseitachievestheirpurpose.Theywillcooperatewiththeteachersinmakingfreerpracticesessionsasuccess,byconsciouslytryingtousetheirL2knowledgetoperformthetaskset,eveniftheyarenotcompletelysurethattheyknowallthenecessaryofagoodclassroomatmospherebyencouraging,andbeingwillingtolearnformeachother.3.3.3DiscoveryTechniquesinCLTThediscoverytechniquesinlanguageteachingaredefinedbyHamer(1983)toaimtogivestudentsachancetotakechargeearlier.Heclaims:givestudentsalisteningorreadingtext,orsomeexampleofEnglishsentences,andaskthemtodiscoverhowthelanguageworks.Evidentlywhatisbeingsuggestedisthatthereisarangeoftechniquewheretheteachergetsthestudentstodomostofthework.Therearegoodpedagogicalandmethodologicalreasonsfordoingthis.Thesearesummarizedbelow:(1)Discoveryworkismoreeffective.(2)Forstudents,discoveryworkispersonallyrewarding.39 (1)Discoveryinteachinggrammarpromotesinductivemethodsinbothcontentandprocess.Fromthesethreeitems,itisclearthatthegeneraltheoryinusingdiscoveryteachingliesinthatitcanmakestudentsmoreinvolvedsincethiskindofactivityinvitesthemtousetheirreasoningprocesses(Harmer,1983:71).Ithasbeenalsobelievedthatinteachingintermediateoradvancedstudents,discoveryactivitiesaremoreeffectivethanlearningbybeingtold.ThereasonisofferedbyStern(1992:150)thatlanguagelearnersisprefertheinductivebecauseitencouragesthemtostarttheirownobservationsanddiscovertheprincipleorruleforthemselvesratherthanbeingtoldinadvancewhattheruleis.Insteadoftellingstudentsdirectly“SusanwenttoNewZealandyesterday”.Theteachergetsthemtolookatthematerial,workingindividuallyorinpairs,andletsthemfindexamplesofthegrammarweareinterestedin.Inrecentyears,classroom,materialshaveplacedamuchgreateremphasisoninductinglearning,thoughdeductiveonestillstands.ManyscholarsassumethatinductiveactivitiesinunderstandingEnglishgrammarengageinbrainrathermorethanmanyfamiliar,mechanicaldeductiveactivities,andthattheextrachallengemotivatessomanylearners.Harmer(1987:39)statesthat:“Encouragingstudentstodiscovergrammarforthemselvesisonevalueswayofhelpingthemtogettogripewithlanguage.”Significantly,itismoresuitableforhigherlevelstudents,sincetheknowledgeacquiredandinformationstoredthatgrammarchoiceswillbedeterminedbyconsiderationsofcontextandpurpose.Forexample:learnersaretodeterminewhethertocombinetwopiecesofinformationusingcoordinationorsubordination.Suchtaskshelplearnertoexplorethe39 functioningofgrammarcompetenceinthecreationofcoherentdiscourse(Nunan1998)Thefollowingarefourpiecesofinformationaboutnursing:Thenursingprocessisasystematicmethod.Thenursingprocessisrationalmethod.Themethodinvolvesplanningnursingcare.Themethodinvolvesprovidingnursingcare.Bygrammaticalresourcesofvariouskindsthesecanbe“packaged”intoasinglesentencelikethis:Thenursingprocessissystematicandrationalmethodofmethodplanningandprovidingnursingcare.4.TeachingEnglishGrammarinCAinSeniorHighSchoolAswehavediscussedintheprecedingchapter,thegoalofforeignlanguageteachingistofacilitatelearnerstoachievecommunicativecompetence.Andwehavealsobeenassumedthatcommunicativelanguageteachingdoesnotrejectthegrammaticalinstruction,butCLTmeanslittlemorethananintegrationofgrammaticalandfunctionalteaching.Whatiscrucialinteachingistobeleanedbyheartforteachersthatshouldpreparemanyactivitiesandappropriateoutsidetheclassroomlater.TakingsomeprinciplesofCLTastheguidelinesinEFLclassroominChina,theapplicationofthisapproachhasvariationaccordingtodifferentteachingsituationsstudents’learningstyle,andtheirlearningexperienceetc.Thatis,anydevicesthathelpthelearnerisaccepted.39 4.1CreatingaCommunicativeEnvironmentThecommunicativelanguageteachingaimsattrainingstudents’communicativecompetencethroughusingthelanguage.Sotheteacher’smajorresponsibilityistocreateacommunicativeenvironmentinwhichapositiveatmosphereislikelytomakestudentsmotivatedandcooperated.4.1.1IntegratingGrammarwiththeWholeMaterialTheoretically,Englishteachingisanaction.Discourselearnedbystudentscannotbeseparatedbycomprehensionandexpression.Sostudentsareexpectedtofocusonthewholematerialratherthanseparatedforms.Thecommunicativeapproachimpliesthatlearnersshouldbeofferedmeaningfocusedactivities.Inordertograsprulesofdiscoursestudentsareledtomakesomeanalysis,whichincludesdrillsofmaterialbeinglearnt.Thesedrillsembodysomerulesandusages,commonlyusedexpressionsandlexicalmeanings.Insuchway,learningEnglishisintegratedwithanalysisthroughformsthatbelongtothewholediscourse.Consequently,theteachingconcentratesonbothformandmeaning.Asamatteroffact,earlycommunicativeapproachtoELTistoensurelearnerscomprehendwhattheyarelearningintwomainways:(1)Agradualprogressionfromform-focusedactivitiestomeaningfocusedactivities,formaccuracytofluency(Littlewood1981).(2)Whilelearnerscarryoutmeaning-focusedactivities,theteachernotesdownerrorsandusethemassubsequentinputforform-focusedactivities(BrumfitandJohnson,1979:183).Fromthesetwoways,wenoticethatbothoftheapproachescoverfromand39 meaning,accuracyandfluency.Forexample,thefollowingstepsofteachingastoryarehowtointegrategrammarwiththewholematerial:Step1Theteachertellstheclassorletthemreadthefollowingstory:“AseriesofCoincidences”QuitebychanceMarthawentintoacoffeebaroneSaturdaymorningwhereshehappenedtomeetanoldfriendofherswhowasgoingtotheraces.Hisgirl-friendwasillandhedidnotfancygoingalone,soheaskedMarthatocome.Shehadneverbefore.Shedecidedtobet10millionsonahorsecalled“DublinBoy”simplybecauseshehadoncespentaverypleasantholidayinthatcity.However,whenshegottothebettingwindow,allshehadinherpursewasa$10note.Shedidnotrealizeshecouldaskforchangeandhesitated.Themanbehindhershouted“Hurryup”,Marthabecamenervousandconfusedandbetthewhole$10note.Theoddsonthehorsewere$100.Atthelastfenceitwasrunningsecond.Theleadinghorsesuddenlystumbledandfell,and“DublinBoy”won.WhenMarthawenttocollecther$1,000,atelevision-reporterhappenedtohearwhathadhappenedbefore.Thateveningshewasinterviewedonanewsprogramme.TheregularinterviewerwasillandhisplacewastakenbyayoungmanwhofellinlovewithMartha.Theygotmarriedshortlyafterwardsandnowhavethreechildren.Step2theteacherchecksthecomprehensionbyaskingthequestionlike:(1)DidMarthaplantomeetheroldfriends?(2)Washeroldfriend’sgirl-friendatthecoffee-bar?(3)HadMarthabeentoDublinonholiday?Step3basedontheteacherpromptslearnersarerequiredtomakesentenceslike:39 IfMarthahadn’tgonetothecoffeebar,shewouldn’thavemetheroldfriend.Thus,thelanguageformsinthiscaseareintegratedwiththeentirematerialbeinglearnt.4.1.2IncreasingStudentsInvolvementsIthasbeenbelievedthatlearnerswhoarehighly-motivatedcanlearnsuccessfully.Inlanguageclassroom,thestudentswithhighmotivationaremoreinvolvedinwhataretaughtandwhataregoingtobedone.Whenstudentsareengaged,theylearnbetterthanwhentheyarepartlyorwhollydisengaged.Sooneofthemaintasksforteachersistoprovokeinterestandinvolvementinthesubject.Eventhoughtheyarenotultimatelyresponsiblefortheirstudents’motivation,teacherscanencourageorincreasethembywordanddeed(Harmer,1998:8).Inordertoincreasestudentsinvolvedinwhattheyaretaught,firstofall,itisnecessarytoproduceapleasantandrelaxedclassroomatmosphere.Insuchanenvironment,studentmayhavelowanxiety,goodself-confidenceandhighmotivation.Fromapointofviewofphysiology,emotionisthebrain’sfilteringonoutsidestimulusthroughsenseorgans.AsJ.S.Krashen(1987)believedthatthreecomponentsofdrive,self-confidenceandworryconstituteemotion,littledriveandweakself-confidencewillproducealargenumberofworries,andthusemotionhasahighresentmentwhichrefusestoacceptalotofinputofinformation.Thisresultsininefficientlearning.TheAffectiveFilterHypothesesbyKrashen(1987)impliesthattheteachershouldincreaseasituationthatencouragesstudents’interment.Theeffectivelanguageteacherissomeonewhocanprovideinputandmakeitcomprehensibleinlowanxiety39 situation.InclassroomofEFL,whetherthemainfocusofthelessonisapieceofgrammarorwhetherthefocusisonreading,studentsalwaysneedtobeengaged.Anditistrueforanystagesofteachingsequence.Asindoingexciseandactivities,theteacherpresentinterestinganddifferentmaterials,offersvariousactivitiestostudentstopracticethelanguageformaswellaslanguageuse.Inshort,theteachermakeshislessonamused,moved,stimulateevenchallenged,sothatstudentsaresuretobeengagedinforthewholelessonduration.4.2CommunicativeActivitiesInthepreciouspartsofthischapter,wehavediscussedthecommunicativeapproachingrammarclassroomwhichneedrelevantteachingtechniquesfororganizingthesecontrolledpractices.Andmeanwhilewehaveneedtoconsiderhowthesetechniquecanbeextendedintothestageofcommunicativeactivities,inotherwords,weshouldconsiderhowtomakeformalinstructionservethepurposeofEnglishteachingtohelpstudentsusethelanguage.4.2.1TheNatureofCommunicativeActivitiesCommunicativeLanguageTeachingisbestconsideredanapproachratherthanamethod(RichardsandRodegers,1986).Althoughatthelevelofdesignandprocedurethereisgreaterroomforindividualinterpretationandvariationthanothermethodspermit,generallycommunicativeactivitiesinclassroomwillhavesomecharacteristicsasfollows:(1)Theyinvolveusinglanguageforpurpose(2)Theycreateadesiretocommunicate.39 (1)Theyencouragestudentstobecreativeandcontributetheirideas.(2)Theyfocusonthemessageandstudentson“what”aresayingratherthan“how”theyaresayingit.(3)Thestudentsdeterminewhattheywanttosayorwrite.Wehavediscussedtheseinthechapterfourandviewasanextremeendoflanguageteachingcontinuum.Soingrammarteaching,evenwhenweadoptcommunicativeapproachintoourclassroomweoftenstarttheactivitiesinatraditionalway.Ingeneral,wedealwithitasthefollowingpoints:(1)Weintroducestudentstonewpatternsofclassroominteraction.(2)Wegraduallyintroducequasi-communicativeactivities.(3)Weintegratenewwaysofworkingintheclassroomwithcommunicativetasks.4.2.2InteractiveOralGrammarExerciseAninteractiveoralgrammarexercisestressestheteachingofgrammarthroughmutualparticipation,usuallyinsmallgroups.Itisactiveratherthanpassive,student-centeredratherthanlanguage-centered,indirectratherthandirect,personalratherthanmanipulativecorrectness.Aninteractivegrammarexerciseputscommunicationonaparwithcorrectness,turningthestudyofgrammarintoasocialactivity.AccordingtoRymondF.Comeau,therearefivequalitiesofinteractiveoralgrammarexercise:(1)Theyshouldbecommunicative.Theyshouldbeintegratedintoactivities,suchasinterviews,groupgames,dialogues,pantomimes,andotherformsofroleplaythatencouragecommunicationbetweenstudentsortheinstructorandstudents.39 (1)Theyshouldbemeaningful.(2)Theyshouldprovidealimitedchoice,inordertoallthestudentstofocustheirattentiononthemeaningoftheactivities.Inmostcasesthismeansmakingachoicebetweenonlytwoforms(e.g.whoorwhom,masculineorfeminine,thesimple-pastorpast-progressivetense).(3)Theyshouldbeexpressive.(4)Theyshouldbeintegratedwithotherkindsofexercises.Theyshouldcomplementratherthanreplacetraditionalexercises.Repetition,substitution,andpattern-practiceexercises,forexampleareeffectivetoolsforlanguagelearningatthemanipulativelevelandtheycanoftenbeusedinconjunctionwithinteractiveexercisesforthesakeofvariety.Ifcommunicativeabilityistobedeveloped,theremustbepracticeinusinglanguagetocommunicatemeaningfulmessages,eveninlimitedcontexts.(Paulson1970andRivers1983a,chaps.3and4.)Theinteractiveapproachfreestheinstructoraswellasthestudent.Theinstructor’sroleistoactasacoachwhoorganizes,encourages,andhandsoutgroupassignment,thencirculatesformgrouptogroup,listeningencouragingandcorrecting;whenthegroupshavefinishedpreparingtheiractivities,heorshedofinalperformances.Attimesinstructorwillalsoparticipateinaplayfulgive-and-takewithstudents,thusinsertingintotheinteractiveprocess.4.2.2.1Instructor-to-studentInteractionTheinstructor-to-studentinteractionunlikethestudent-to-studentoneisbasedonsuperiorknowledgeandauthority.Theinstructor,asthelanguageteacher,knowsmorethanthestudentandisthusinasuperiorposition.39 Superiority,however,doesnotprohibiteffectiveinteraction(RaymondF.Comeau).Instructors,whowishtointeractnaturallywithstudents,mustdemonstrateclearlythatdespitetheirpositionofauthority,theyarewillingtominglefreely,adoptanopenandplayfulattitudetowardthestudents,andacceptallkindsofopinions.Theymustalsoallowroomforstudentstointeractwiththem.4.2.2.2Student-to-studentInteractionStudent-to-studentinteractionisbasedonpeerrelationships,whichallowthemaximumdegreeofcommunication.Itcanbedividedintothreeforms:dialogues,poetryanddrama;andinformation-gatheringactivities(RaymondF.Comeau).4.2.2.2.1DialoguesDialoguesisthemostcommonformoforalcommunication,itisnotsurprisingthatthedialogueformatlendsitselfwelltointeractivegrammaractivities.Hereisoneexampleofdialogues：Fillintheblankwith“do,”“does,”or“did.”A:___youwanttogoshoppingthisafternoon?B:I___,butIcannotbecauseIamgoingforawalkwithBarbara.A:But___n’tyoutakeawalkwithBarbarayesterday?B:I___.A:IhavenevermetBarbara.____youthinkshemightliketogoshopping?B:I___n’tthinkso.She___n’tdomuchshopping.A:That’sstrange.Whynot?B:Barbara’smydog!Dogs____n’tgoshoppingveryoften,____they?39 Inaninterestingvariationifafill-in-the-blankexercise,studentarefirstgivenamodeldialogueandaskedtodoafill-in-the-blankexercisebasedonit.Thiskindofexerciseallowsstudentsgreaterflexibilityandfreedomthanthetraditionalfill-in-the-blankmodel.Studentsworkinginapairsareaskedtofillintheblanks,practicethedialogue,andthenperformitfortheclass.4.2.2.2.2PoetryanddramaManylanguageinstructorswhohaveafondnessforliteratureenjoyconductingvariousliteraryactivitiesassociatedwithpoetry,songs,plays,soapoperas,orshortstories.Forexample,belowissuitablemodelpoemthatcarefullyreinforcesgrammar(theprepositionsin,behind,andonandpartsofthebody)：(Inthepark)AmalestudentintheclassAfemalestudentbehindthemalestudentAmessageinthehandAsmileontheface…AwalkintheparkAhandinahandAkissonthecheekAmouthonamouthAheartinaheartALoveintheair(MonlinskyandWinston,1982:13.)Afterstudyingthepoemathoneandreadingitintheclass,studentsareaskedtowritetheirownpoemsusingasamodel.Theoriginalityofthe39 students’poetryandtheexcitementthisactivitygeneratesneverfailtodelighttheteacher.4.2.2.2.3Information-gatheringActivitiesGatheringinformationformpeoplethroughinterviews,talkshows,questionnaires,orguessinggamesprovidesacontextforgrammarpractice.Here,taketheguessinggamesforexample:guessingaperson’snameoroccupation,orevenwhatthepersonisthinkingabout,canprovidestudentswithagreatdealofenjoyment.Aspartofthenormalsemesterroutinestudentsmaybeaskedtochoosearatherwell-knownpersonanddescribehisorherphysicalattributesandaccomplishmentsinfrontoftheclass,whichthentriestoidentifytheperson.Thisexerciseisaparticularlyusefulforworkingwithadjectives.Inthischapterwehaveseenanumberofactivitiesthroughwhichtheteacherrelateslanguageformtolanguageuse,emphasizingthegrammarteachingcannotbeseparatefromEnglishlanguageteaching.Anditisworthwhiletopointoutthatgrammarteachingshouldnotbetaughtinisolation,butintenttobeameanstocommunicativecompetence.Inconsideringwhatkindsofactivities,teachersshouldbearitinmindthatintroducingcommunicativeapproachesintoourclassroomdoesnotmeantherejectionofpreviouspracticetotally.Someaspectssuchasvocabularystillremainimportant,althoughourapproachtothosemaybecomemoreconcernedwithhowthelanguageisusedthanwithteachingofrulesonlyfortheirsake.Ithasbeenseenthattheessenceofthecommunicativeapproachisachangeofemphasisinteachingmethodologythatis,makingashiftfrom39 form-focusedteachingtomeaning-focusedone.4.3SuggestionsonCLTAccordingtowhatwehavediscussedabove,CLTshouldbeaeffectiveapproachforEFLteachersandlearnersinChina,however,theimplementationofCLT,inChina,maybehinderedbymanypracticalproblems.InordertocarryontheCLTeffectively,weshouldpaymoreattentiontothefollowings:(1)ACLTsyllabusshouldbebasedonlearners’need.Howtoidentifythoseneedquicklyandcheaply,andtheextenttowhichalllearnerscanbesaidtohaveacommonneedtobetaughtthestructureoflanguage,isstillamatterofdisagreement.(Martinwedell,1996,)(2)Theactivitiesshouldprovideopportunitiesforlearnerstousethelanguage.Thebalancethatshouldexistbetweenafocusonaccuracyandfluencyshouldvaryaccordingtolearners’needs.(3)Teachers’andlearners’rolesintheclassroompresupposeagoodclassroomatmosphere.Theteachertriestomatchatleastsomeactivitiestolearners’interests,therebymaintaininglearner’smotivation.Teachersandlearnerscooperatetoallowtheswitchbetweenmoreandlesscontrolledactivitiestotakeplacesmoothly.(4)Materialsshouldbedesignedtoprovideteachersandlearnerswithabalanceofaccuracyandfluencybasedwork.Atleastsomeinputshouldbe“authentic”topreparefortherealityofthesecondlanguageinuseoutsidetheclassroom.39 ConclusionToimprovethecurrentsituationofEnglishlanguageteachinginChinaandto,maketheteachingandlearningofELTmoreeffective.ItisnecessaryevenimperativetochangesomenotionsaboutCLT,andtoadaptCLTintoChineseEnglishclassroom.Thispapermakesthestudybylayingtheemphasisonthegrammaticalinstructionincommunicativeapproaches,basedonthepremisethatoneofthemostcharacteristicfeaturesofcommunicativelanguageteachingisthatitpayssystematicattentiontofunctionalaswellasstructuralaspectsoflanguage,combiningtheseintoamorecommunicativeview(Littlewood1981).Atpresent,takingtherealityandenvironmentoftheELTinChinaintoconsiderations,itisreasonabletomaketheconclusionthatforthegeneralEnglishlearnersatseniorhighschool“learningtouseEnglish”ismoresuitable.BesidesEnglishlanguageteachinginChinaismainlycarriedoutintheclassroomandcommunicativelanguageteaching,toalargedegree,highlightstheimportanceoftheteacher’sroleasamanagerandfacilitatorofthelearning.Toteachgrammarstructuresasameanstolanguageuse,theteacher,ontheonehand,istocreateacommunicativeenvironment,relatingthelanguageformtolanguagemeaning.Ontheotherhand,theteachershouldmakeanyeffortstoletthelearnersinvolvedandmotivatedinwhattheyarelearning.Inaddition,effectiveandsuccessfullanguageteachingorlearningliesnotonlyincommunicativeandproductiveclassroomsettings,butalsointherealizationofcommunicativeactivities.ItisthroughvariousactivitiesthatlearnerslearntouseEnglishcorrectlyandappropriately.39 Asisknowntoall，languageisforcommunication.So，communicativeapproachmaybeabetterwaytoachievethispurpose.Perhapsitmayneedagreatdealofeffortsandmayneedtosolvemanydifficulties,however,nowmoreandmoreteachersofEnglishhaverealizedtheimportanceofthecommunicativeapproachandtrieditintheclassroom.Besides,theeducationalpolicyinChinaandmanycountriescalledforthenecessityandimprovementofteachingforeignlanguageforcommunicativepurposehasbeenmade.WecanbelievethattheultimategoalofCommunicativeLanguageTeachingwillbeachievedsomeday.39 AcknowledgementsThepresentdissertationowestoMissWangCaiying,mysupervisorwhohasexertedsomuchtimeandtoleranceinhisgenerousprovisionofconstructiveandelaboraterevisionsforthemakingofthepaper.Ifeelobligedtoexpressmygratitudetoalltheteachersfortheirhelpandenlighteningteaching,amongwhom,particularly,areAssociateProfessorXie,Chuansheng,AssociateProfessorHuangHuaifei,AssociateProfessorHuang,Fengyiandallmyotherteachersintheuniversity.Cordialtanksareaswellextendedtomyfellowclassmatesandfriendsfortheircare,assistanceandencouragement.39 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