新编英语语法教程(第四版)讲义 119页

ContentsOnGrammar1Lecture1Introduction:GrammaticalHierarchy1Lecture2BasicClauseTypes1Lecture3Subject–verbConcord1Lecture4NounandNounPhrase1§1.Gender1§2.Number1§3.UnitNouns1§4.Genitives1Lecture5Determiners1§1.CollocationsofDeterminers1§2.UsageofSomeDeterminers1§3.Articles1Lecture6Pronouns1§1.PronounConcord1§2.Case1§3.ReflexivePronouns1§4.GenericUseofPersonalPronouns1Lecture7VerbandVerbPhrase1§1.ClassificationofVerbs1§2.ASurveyofTense,Aspect,VoiceandMood1Lecture8TenseandAspect1Lecture9FutureTime1Lecture10Voice1Lecture11Mood1Lecture12ModalAuxiliaries1Lecture13Non-finiteVerb1§1.Infinitive1§2.–ingParticiple1§3.–edParticiple1§4.Non-finiteClause1§5.DanglingParticiple1§6.AbsoluteConstruction1Lecture14AdjectiveandAdjectivePhrase1Lecture15AdverbandAdverbPhrase1Lecture16ComparisonandComparativeConstructions1Lecture17PrepositionandPrepositionalPhrase1Lecture18Statement,Question,Command,Exclamation1§1.Statements1Lecture19RelativeClause1Lecture20ConditionalSentence1Lecture21Inversion1Bibliography1118 OnGrammar关于语法课一、外语语法教学的意义1.教育的第一功能是教授已有的知识，运用到外语教学上，就是向学生传授语法知识，使其在实际的语言阅读和理解过程中省去大量的时间；2.教育的第二功能是训练学习者的社会能力，语言教学就意味着教会他们如何正确地使用适当的语言形式来完成一些社会任务，如问路、告别、请求等；3.教育的第三个功能是培养学习者个人的素质和能力。体现在语言教学上，就是遵循个人语言能力的自然发展过程，尽量提供适当的自然环境，使学生的语言习惯和能力在自然过程中形成。二、外语语法学习的目的：外语语法学习的目的不是为了熟记外语语法的条条框框，而是为了更好地进行听、说、读、写，学习外语语法是为培养外语运用能力而服务的，是为了帮助学习者利用语言知识，提高外语的听、说、读、写能力。外语语法起的只是工具作用。三、外语语法教学的目的：外语语法教学的目的就是为了让学生掌握必要的语法规则，为学生言语能力的提高打下基础，为培养听、说、读、写能力服务。四、学习语法的方法和原则1.善于自己发现错误。2.一定要背会、记熟语法规则。3.避免重复错误，尽量弄明白为什么一直犯同类错误。4.多实践，勤复习。5.学语法要耐心，下苦功，但不可操之过急。118 参考阅读：英语语法是英语专业的一门必修课程。语法是语言的组织规律，它是关于词的形态变化和用词造句的规则。学生在综合英语课中虽然已学过一些英语语法的基础知识，但缺乏系统性和完整性，本课程的目的就是帮助学生掌握比较系统和完整的传统英语语法知识，并运用语法规律去指导语言实践，提高运用英语的交际能力，本课程除了介绍英语语法的基本结构规律外，还强调理论联系实际。配合足够的口笔头练习，加强语言的基本训练。基本要求是：　　１．要学求生对传统英语语法的基本结构规律有一个比较完整明确的概念，把已学过的语言知识系统化。　　２．要求学生能较熟练地运用传统英语语法的基本规则去分析讲解各种语法现象，以便在今后的实践中提高自己的业务水平与教学能力。学习英语语法的目的：要回答这个问题，先简要讨论一下要不要学习英语语法的问题。这个问题，答案也许是很清楚的。主张英语语法可以不学的人往往这样说：我们中国人，如果智力正常，从小就会说汉语，能遣词造句，没见过哪个小孩先学语法再学话的。再说，英语讲得多了，有了语感，语法还不是水到渠成的事。这种实践出真知的说法，绝对是正确的。但我仍主张学一点英语语法。本人没受过很好的教育，更不懂高深的语言学理论，但一直有这样的看法：在我们中国，百年都没有营造出正常情况下用正式英语交际的大氛围和小氛围，所以难以在投入产出比符合经济效益的前提下培养出一定的英语语感。语法，实际上就是给你语言整体上的语感（规则），既给你能解释语言现象的鱼，又教你如何用语感去钓语言深层的鱼。何乐而不为呢？说到这，学习英语语法的目的也就清清楚楚了：弥补氛围难以在短期内培养一定语感的缺憾，比较经济地获得英语整体的语感。当然，也为通过我们这个考试大国的众多英语测试提供初级“抱佛脚”的方法。学习英语语法的范围：学习英语语法的范围，指的是学习英语语法需掌握的内容程度。既然我们学习英语语法的目的那么简单实际，到啥山唱啥歌吧。范围不必很大，也就是说面不宜太宽，点也不宜研究太深，毕竟需要用英语说之乎者也的人不多。另外，我认为通过学习英语语法，求得对英语的整体感觉非常重要。有了整体感，可以揭开英语的神秘面纱，知道了对手的模样，就知己知彼了；有了整体感，对语言就有了“君临天下”之气，加之不懈的积累，从掌握语法的必然王国，进而出入语言的自由王国。出于这种考虑，这个讲义编得非常简单，有些方面甚至还不如高中所学的内容，但实用语法的基本脉络比较清晰。学习英语语法的方法：英语语法书很多，学习英语语法的方法也不少。学好一样东西，本没有绝对好的方法。号称包治百病的医生，要么是庸医，要么是骗子。事实上，每个人可以根据自己的实际情况，在不断尝试中摸索出适合自己的方法。依我这个半路出家的人看来，不管用什么方法学英语语法，进而学英语语言，一是要有整体语感，要学会归纳和演绎，由此及彼；三是要借助对母语的了解，琢磨汉语和英语的异同之处，转而进行两种语言之间的由此及彼。比如：学了wish的宾语可以用不定式，可以推理出名词wish的定语、表语也有可能是不定式。是还是不是？一查词典便知。汉语的“讨论”一词用动词短语作宾语，中间一般要加个wh-词，如能说“讨论如何学习英语”，不能说“讨论学习英语”。英语里的discuss用不定式作宾语是否也是如此呢？英语中类似的词是否是同样情况呢？花点时间就解决问题。对语言的分析能力，实际上以对语言的整体语感为基础的，更是以对语言完整的整体语感为目的的。说到底，语言不就是规律和例外的组合吗？！两三年积累下来，你就是语法高手。118 Lecture1Introduction:GrammaticalHierarchyI.Grammar1.Grammaristhestructuralsystemofalanguage.2.Grammaristhepivotcombiningthephoneticsystem(ortheliteralsysteminwriting)andthesemanticsystem.Semanticsystem——grammar——phonetic/literalsystem3.GrammaticalHierarchy:1)Morpheme:thelowestrank2)Word3)Phrase4)Clause5)Sentence:thehighestrankEachrankiscomposedofoneormorethanonegrammaticalunitoftheimmediatelowerrank.II.MorphemesThemorphemeistheminimumorsmallestgrammaticalunit,alsothesmallestmeaningfulelementofspeechMorphemeFreeMorphemeBoundMorphemeAffixInflectionalAffixDerivationalAffixPrefixSuffix:4.Freemorphemes1)Afreemorphemehasacompletemeaningandcanstandbyitselfasasimpleword.e.gboy,girl,desk,chair,kind,cruel,give,take2)Function:a.simplewords:boy,girl,desk,chair,kind,cruel,give,takeb.roots:kindness,unkind,friendship,friendlessc.compoundwords:bookmarkbookshopbookwormgirlfriend5.Boundmorphemes1)Aboundmorphemeitselfdoesn’thaveacompletemeaningandcannotstandbyitself.Itmustbeattachedtosomeotherform.2)Function:affixesa.Inflectionalaffixes:wordendingsthatexpressonlygrammaticalinformationa)pl.:-s/-esb)thegenitive:-’sc)thirdpersonsingular:-s/-esd)pasttime:-ede)participle:-ed/-ingf)comparison:–er/-estb.Derivationalaffixes:prefixandsuffixa)Prefix:attachedbeforearooti.Thefunctionofaprefixtendstobesemanticallyoriented,thatis,itaddsnewmeaningtoaroot.118 i.Thoughthevastmajorityofprefixesdonotchangetheoriginalwordclass,thereareprefixesthatareclass-changing:a-:formsadjectivesfromnounsorverbsablaze,asleep,awashbe-:formsverbsfromadjectivesornounsbecalm,befriendem-/en-:formsverbsfromadjectivesornounsembitter,enlarge,b)Suffix:attachedafterabasei.basicallyclass-changingmorphemesii.Exceptions:-fulspoonful,colorful-shipfriendship-ismidealism-erLondoner,reader-hoodchildhood,2)AllomorphThevariantsofthesamemorphemeindifferentcontextsarecalled“allomorphs”.Theymaytakedifferentphonologicalororthographicalforms.in-/im-/il-/ir-:inactiveimmatureillegalirregular-s/-es:cats/s/dogs/z/horses/iz/WordOpenClassClosedClassMarginalClassNounAdjectiveAdverbMainVerbPrepositionPronounDeterminerConjunctionAuxiliaryVerbCardinalNumeralOrdinalNumeralInterjectionGrammaticalFunctionWordFormationSimpleWordCompoundWordDerivativeII.Words1.classificationintermsofgrammaticalfunction:1)closed-classwords:allthefunctionwordsa.withnocompletelexicalmeaningbutwithgrammaticalmeaningb.limitednumber,fixedmembershipc.preposition,pronoun,determiner,conjunction,auxiliaryverb2)open-classwords:contentwordsa.indefinitelyextendableitems118 a.newitemsareconstantlybeingcreatedb.olditemsareconstantlygivingplacetonewonesc.noun,adjective,adverb,mainverb2)marginalclassa.cardinalnumeralb.ordinalnumeralc.interjection2.classificationintermsofword-formation1)simplewords:a.alsocalledmorphemewords,b.consistofonlyonefreemorphemec.mostlyareshortwords,smallinnumber,butwithhighfrequenciesofappearanceandstrongabilitiesofderivationd.themainpartofEnglishbasicvocabulary2)derivatives:consistofarootandderivationalaffixes3)compounds:consistoftwoormorefreemorphemesa.compoundnoun:deadlinesnowfallhandbookb.compoundadjective:bitter-sweetlight-blueworld-famousc.compoundverb:outlinesightseenicknamed.compoundadverb:moreoverneverthelesse.compoundpronoun:anothersomethinganybodywhateverf.compoundconjunction:wheneverwhereverwhereasg.compoundpreposition:alongsideoutsidethroughoutnotwithstandingII.Phrases1.Thephraseisagroupofwordsorganizedinaspecificwaywithakeywordasitshead.2.Thewordclassoftheheaddeterminestheclassofthephraseandthewayinwhichthewordsareorganized.1)Thenounphrase(determiner)+(premodifier)+noun+(postmodifier)Miltonlivedinthe17thcentury.allthecollegestudentshisnewbookonphonology2)Theverbphrasea.Simpleverbphrase(modifier)+mainverbShelookspale.Theyfullyappreciateourproblems.b.ComplexverbphraseAuxiliary(orauxiliaries)+(modifier)+mainverbItisgettingdark.Sheoughttohavetoldhimaboutit.JoanwillcertainlyobjectandsowillMary.c.Finiteverbphraseinitiatedbyafiniteform,i.e.averbformthatchangesaccordingtotenseorsubjectd.Non-finiteverbphraseInitiatedbyanon-finiteform,i.e.averbformthatdoesnotchangeaccordingto118 tenseorsubjectWewenttheretoseeafilm.Havingseenthefilmwehadadiscussion.Paintedbyafamousartisttheportraitisinvaluable.1)Theadjectivephrase(modifier)+adjective+(postmodifier/complementation)Theweatherisfinetoday.Thecourseisprettydifficult.Thatworkistoodifficultforthatchild.I’llbegladtohelpyourepairthecar.2)Theadverbphrase(modifier)+adverb+(postmodifier)Don’tactsolowly.Shespokeveryclearlyindeed.Hespokeloudly.3)Theprepositionalphrase(modifier)+preposition+complementationDoyouthinkyoucanborrowsomemoneyfromyourfriend?Theyfollowedclosebehindme.II.ClausesAfull-fledgedclauseisstructurallyasequenceofphrasesandlogicallyaconstructionof“subject+predicate”.1.Clauseelements1)Subject+predicatea.subject:a)Thesubjectisthetopicorthemeofthesentence,whichtellsofwhatthesentenceisabout.b)Thesubjectisgenerallyrealizedbyanounphraseoranequivalentofnounphrase.b.predicate:a)Thepredicatesayssomethingaboutthesubjectandbearsthenewinformationwhichthespeakerorwriterwantstotransmittothelistenerorreader.b)ThepredicategenerallyconsistsofaverbphrasewithorwithoutcomplementationSubjectPredicateHenryisthemoststudiousintheclass.Allthemenhavedonetheirbest.MrCarterwillinvestigatefurther.Jennie’spaintingswerejudgedinferiortoWanda’sSmokingcigarettescausestroubleinthelungs2)SentenceAnalysis118 a.Dividethepredicateintopredicateverb,object,complementandadverbial.clauseSubjectPredicatePredicateVerbObjectComplementAdverbialEg:Allthemenhavedonetheirbest.SentenceClauseNPVPSubjectPredicateVerbNPAllthemenhavedonetheirbest.Objectb.Dividethepredicateintotwoparts:theoperatorandthepredicationclauseSubjectPredicateOperatorPredicationa)theoperator:usuallytheauxiliaryorthefirstauxiliaryinacomplexverbphraseb)thepredication:comprisesthemainverbwithitscomplementation(object,complementoradverbial)Eg:Allthemenhavedonetheirbest.SubjectOperatorPredicateAllthemenhaveSentenceClausedonetheirbest.Predication2.Classification:1)independentanddependentclausesa.independentclause:aclausethatcanstandbyitselfandactasacompleteutteranceHeknowseverythingaboutit.Thathatdoesnotfit;tryanother.b.dependentclause:aclausethatformsonlypartofanotherclauseorofaphrase118 Idon’tthinkheknowseverythingaboutit.Ifthathatdoesnotfit,tryanother.1)simpleandcomplexclausesa.simpleclause:aclausethatconsistsofonlyoneconstructionof“subject+predicate”Itisnottrue.b.complexclause:aclausethatcomprisesanotherclauseorotherclausesasitselementorelementsWhatyousaidisnottrue.2)mainandsubordinateclausesa.mainclause:aclausethattakesanotherclauseasitselementb.subordinateclause:aclausethatformspartofthemainclauseTomknowseverything.PredicatePred.VObj.Subj.ClauseSimpleIndependentIthinkTomknowseverything.PredicateObj.Subj.Pred.VPred.VSubj.Clause1Obj.Clause2SimpleDependentSubordinateComplexIndependentPredicateMain3)finiteandnon-finiteclausesa.finiteclause:aclausewithafiniteverbphraseasitspredicateverborpredicatorb.non-finiteclause:aclausewithanon-finiteverbphraseasitspredicatorIsignedthepapertogetthelicense.Leavingtheroom,hetrippedoverthemat.4)verblessclausesaclausethatismarkedbytheabsenceofanyformofverbelementAverblessclauseisjustaconstructionof“subject+predicate”withoutanyformofverbelement.Hungryandexhausted,theclimbersreturned.OneofthemostpopulartouristsitesinItaly,Pompeiiwasviewedbynearlytwo118 millionvisitorslastyear.Christmasthenonlydaysaway,thefamilywaspentupwithexcitement.I.SentencesAsentenceisagrammaticalunitthatcanstandbyitselfandperformacommunicativefunction.1.fullandminorsentences1)fullsentence:asentencewithanexpressedsubjectandpredicate2)minorsentence:asentencefragmentWhendidhearrive?Lastnight.Nosmoking!Help!2.simple,compound,complexandcompound-complexsentences1)simplesentence:asentencethatcomprisesonlyoneindependentclauseThestudentshavemadebettergradesinthepastfewweeks.ThestudentsIteachhavemadebettergradesinthepastfewweeks.2)complexsentence:anindependentclausethatcomprisesoneormoredependentclausesasitselement(s)Thestudentswouldhavemadebettergradesiftheyhadstudiedhard.Tomknowseverything.PredicatePred.VObj.Subj.ClauseSimpleIndependentSentenceSimpleIthinkTomknowseverything.PredicateObj.Subj.Pred.VPred.VSubj.Clause1Obj.Clause2DependentPredicateSentenceComplex3)compoundsentence:asentencethatconsistsoftwoormorecoordinatedindependentclausesMissLindstormcametotheparty,butMrandMrsShermandidnot.118 Iknownothing,butTomknowseverything.PredicatePred.VObj.Subj.Clause2PredicatePred.VObj.Subj.Clause1CompoundSentence1)compound-complexsentence:asentencethatconsistsoftwoormorecoordinatedindependentclauseswithatleastonecomplexclauseTheywatchedtelevisionandenjoyedthemselvesimmensely,butwecouldn’tseetheprogrambecauseourtelevisionwasbroken.IknownothingbutIthinkTomknowseverything.PredicateObj.Subj.Pred.VPred.VSubj.Clause2Obj.Clause3PredicatePredicatePred.VObj.Subj.Clause1SentenceCompound-complex118 Lecture2BasicClauseTypesI.Basicclauseelements:1.Subject:1)thethemorthetopicofaclause2)aNPoranequivalentofNP(pronoun,-ing,infinitive,nominalclause)3)thedoer2.Predicateverb:1)linkingverb:followedbyasubjectcomplementbe,smell,become,turn,sound,etc.Thisdishsmellsdelicious.☻beusedasalinkingverboranauxiliary?Heisateacher.Heisteaching.2)intransitiveverb:donotrequireanobjectDaffodilsbloominearlyspring.Heisrunning.3)transitiveverb:mustbefollowedbyobjectsa.monotransitiveverbb.complextransitiveverbc.ditransitiveverb3.Object:thedoee1)Directobject2)Indirectobject4.Complement:1)Subjectcomplement:followingalinkingverb,relatestothesubject2)Objectcomplement:followinganobject,relatestotheobjectHeisateacher.Wemadehimourteacher.5.Adverbial:1)Adjuncts:denotethetime,place,manner,purpose,cause,result,condition,concession,andaccompanyingcircumstancesconcernedwiththeaction,processorstatedenotedbytheverbRecentlytheyhadanaccident.Healwaysdrivescarefully.Theporterwilltakeyourluggageupstairs.Thoughtheyknewthewarwaslost,theycontinuedfighting.2)Disjuncts:expressesanevaluationof,orcommenton,whatisbeingsaidwithrespecttotheformofthecommunicationortoitsmeaningFrankly,Icandonothingaboutit.Briefly,shedidn’twanttospeaktohim.3)Conjuncts:functionasconnectivesbetweenphrases,clausesorsentencesDoitnow.Otherwise,itwillbetoolate.Tomhasn’tarrivedyet.Hemay,however,comelater.Theyhavetheirumbrellasup;therefore,itmustberaining.☻Strictlyspeaking,itisonlytheadjunctthatcanberightlylabeledanadverbial,whichis118 generallytreatedasoneofthefiveelementsofaclause.I.Basicclausetypes:1.SVC:themainverbisalinkingorcopulaverbwhichmustbefollowedbyasubjectcomplementThemanisateacher.Helooksfine.Dinnerisatsixo’clock.2.SV:themainverbisanintransitiveverbwhichisnottobefollowedbyanyobligatoryelementIronrusts.Everybodylaughed.3.SVO:themainverbisamonotransitivewhichmustbefollowedbyanobject.Iwantaticket.Liverpoolwonthegame.4.SVOC:themainverbisacomplextransitiveverbwhichmustbefollowedbyanobject+objectcomplementWemadehimourspokesman.Theyelectedhimpresident.TheimpliedrelationshipbetweentheobjectandtheobjectcomplementcanbeexpressedbymeansofacorrespondingSVCsentencewithacopularverb“be”iftheobjectcomplementisacurrentattributeand“become”ifitisaresultingattributeWefindthemverypleasant.(Theyareverypleasant.)CarolmadeJoshuaandPeterherassistants.(JoshuaandPeterbecameherassistants.)5.SVoO:themainverbisaditransitiveverbwhichistobefollowedbytwoobjects:indirectanddirectobjectIsenthimatelegram.(Isentatelegramtohim.)Marylentmehercar.(Marylenthercartome.)6.SVA:themainverbisfromalimitednumberofintransitiveverbswhichrequireanobligatoryadverbialIliveinBeijing.Theylivedinahotel.7.SVOA:themainverbisoneofsomemonotransitiveswhichmustbefollowedbyanobjectandanobligatoryadverbialIputthematerialevidenceinfrontofhim.Hetreatedherwidely.☻CompareSVC—SVHeisacleverboy.Heisrunningfast.☻Compare:SV—SVA;SVO—SVOAIronrustsslowly.IliveinBeijing.Iwantaticketverymuch.Iputthematerialevidenceinfrontofhim.Heisrunningfast.118 Herunsfast.☻CompareSVoO—SVOCImadehimacupoftea.(Imadeacupofteaforhim.)Wemadehimourspokesman.(Hebecameourspokesman.)I.TransformationandExpansion1.Transformation1)affirmative→negative2)statement→question3)active→passiveShegavehimsomemoney.→Didshegivehimanymoney?→Shedidn’tgivehimanymoney.→Hewasgivensomemoney.→Somemoneywasgiventohim.2.Expansion:1)addingmodifiers2)coordination3)subordinationWhenreportscameintoLondonZoothatawildpumahadbeenspottedforty-fivemilessouthofLondon,theywerenottakenseriously,but,astheevidencebegantoaccumulate,expertsfromtheZoofeltobligedtoinvestigate,forthedescriptionsgivenbypeoplewhoclaimedtohaveseenthepumawereextraordinarilysimilar.118 Lecture3Subject–verbConcordSubject-verbconcordmeansagreementbetweensubjectandpredicateverbinpersonandnumber,buttheconcordbetweensubjectandverbismainlyfoundinnumber.I.PrinciplesofConcord1.GrammaticalConcord:therulethattheverbmustmatchitssubjectinnumber.2.NotionalConcord:therulethattheverbcansometimesagreewiththesubjectaccordingtothenotionofnumberratherthantheactualpresenceofthegrammaticalmarkerforthatnotion.3.PrincipleofProximity:agreementoftheverbwithacloselyprecedingnounphraseinpreferencetoagreementwiththeheadofthenounphrasethatfunctionsassubject.☻Generallyspeaking,thegrammaticalprincipleappliestoformalEnglishandthereforeisrecommendedforclassroomteaching.Thenotionalprincipleandtheprincipleofproximity,ontheotherhand,playanauxiliaryroleinsupportingthegrammaticalprincipleininformalEnglish.☻Grammaticalconcordisthebasicprinciple,butwhenthesubjectisrealizedbyacollectivenoun,acoordinateformoranexpressionofquantity,theothertwoprincipleswillhavetobeconsidered.II.Nounsendingin-sassubject1.Namesofdiseases,gamesandsubjects,endingin–sDiseases:arthritis,bronchitis,rickets,mumps,diabetes,etc.Games:darts,marbles,cards,draughts,skittles,dominoes,etc.Subjects:physics,mathematics,mechanics,optics,acoustics,politics,statistics,economics,linguistics,athletics,tactics,etc.1)GenerallyandmostlytreatedassingularMumpsisakindofinfectiousdisease.Dartsisessentiallyafreeandeasygame.Physicsisanimportantsubjectinmiddleschools.2)Notes:a.Diseasenames—measles,rickets:canbeusedeitherassingularoraspluralGenerally,measlesoccursinchildren.Measlesaresometimescausedbyatapeworm.Ricketsis/arecausedbymalnutrition.b.Gamenames—cards:usuallytreatedaspluraltoolsusedinthegame,pluralCardsarenotallowedhere.Threedartsarethrownateachother.Marblesvaryinkindandquality.c.Subjectnames—whenusedasothersensesratherthansubjectnames,somesuchnounsaretreatedasplural.Acousticsisthescienceofsound.Theacousticsinthenewconcerthallarefaultless.Economicsisarequiredcourseforallthestudents.118 Theeconomicsoftheprojectarestillbeingconsidered.1.Propernounsendingin–s1)thenamesofcountries,organizations,magazines,newspapers,songs,etc.:singularTheUnitedStatesisacountryofpeoplewithvariedorigins.InearlyJanuary1976theNetherlandswashitbyitsworststormsince1853.His“SelectedPoems”wasfirstpublishedin1985.GreatExpectationswaswrittenbyDickensin1860.TheCanterburyTaleswrittenbyChaucer.A.hasbeenB.wereC.wasD.hadbeen2)thenamesofarchipelagos,mountainranges,straitsandfalls:pluralTheWestIndies,apartfromtheBahamas,arecommonlydividedintotwoparts.TheHimalayashaveamagnificentvarietyofplantandanimallife.TheStraitsofGibraltarhavenotlosttheirstrategicimportance.TheNiagaraFallsareperhapsthemostfamouswaterfallintheworld.TheAlpsareinEurope.ThePhilippinesareinthePacificOcean.☻TheOlympicsareheldeveryfouryears.2.toolsorclothingmadeoftwoparts:scissors,pincers,glasses,shorts,trousers,suspenders,binoculars,calipers,compasses,flares,forceps,jeans,pants,pliers,pajamas,scales,shades,shears,spectacles,tights,tongs,1)usuallyusedasplural2)Whentheyareprecededbysuchunitnounsas“apairof”and“twopairsof”,thenumberformofthefollowingverbisgenerallydeterminedbythenumbermarkeroftheunitnoun.Joe’snewtrousersareblackandwhite.Onepairofscissorsisn’tenough.Twopairsofpliers,onelargeandonesmall,aremissingfrommytoobox.3.Nounsusuallytakingpluralendings:archives,arms,clothes,contents,eaves,fireworks,goods,minutes,morals,remains,stairs,suburbs,thanks,wages,congratulations,looks,pains,greens,spirits1)generallyusedaspluralHighwagesoftenresultinhighprice.Histhinksweremostprofuse.Thecontentsofthisbookaremostfascinating.2)exception:whereabouts,dramatics----eitherpluralorsingularHiswhereaboutswere/wasknownonlytohispersonalstaff.Thedramaticsoftheperformancewere/wasmarvelous.4.Nounsendingin-ings:clippings,diggings,earnings,filings,lodgings,surroundings,sweepings,belongings,savings1)generallyusedaspluralTheclippingsofthehedgesareusuallyburnt.Thesweepingsofthegodownhavebeendisposedof.2)exception:tidings----eitherpluralorsingularGoodtidingshavecheeredthemup.118 Thetidingshascomealittletoolate.1.Nounswhosesingularandpluralnumbersharethesameform:NotionalConcordbarracks,headquarters,means,series,species,works,crossroadsAbarrackswasstormedbytheenemytroops.Twobarracksinthesuburbshavebeensurrounded.☻aircraft,deer,fish,sheep,etc.:notionalconcordAsheepismissing.Manysheepscatteronthehillsideatthesoundofawolf.II.Collectivenounsassubject:1.Collectivenounswhichdenoteinanimateobjects:usuallytakethesingularverbcutlery,foliage,furniture,jewelry,machinery,merchandise,scenery,weaponry,clothing,poetry,millinery,stationery,crockery,hosiery,footwear,underwear,glassware,hardware,Newmachineryisarrivingtomorrow.Jewelryisnolongeramarkofwealth.2.Collectivenounswhichdenotegroupsonanimatebeings:1)afewthatalmostinvariabletakethepluralverb:cattle,poultrymilitia,people,folk,gentry,kindred,clergy,youth,mankind,personnel(全体人员),police,vermin,etc.Themankindlongforpeace.Thecattlearegrazinginthefield.Thepolicehavenotmadeanyarrests.2)thosethatcantakeeitherthesingularverborthepluralverb:NotionalConcordarmy,audience,brood,cast,college,committee,community,company,council,crew,data,department,enemy,family,flock,gang,government,group,herd,jury,majority,media,minority,navy,nobility,opposition,staff,team,etc.a.whentheemphasisisonthenon-personalcollectivityofthegroup,usesingularverbb.whentheemphasisisonthepersonalindividualitywithinthegroup,usepluralverb3.agroup/herd/pack/flock/school/swarm/droveof+n.:1)ifitreferstoagroupofanimalsorpeopleasawhole,usesingularverb2)ifitreferstotheindividualsinthegroup,usepluralverb.Theflockofgeese____flyingthroughtheskyinperfectformationfollowingitsleader.A.wasB.wereC.wasgoingD.weretobeTheflockofsheep____strayinginalldirections.A.isB.areC.wasD.hasbeenIII.CoordinatesubjectBeforewedecidedontheverbform,wemuststartwithacarefullookattheinternalstructureofthecoordinatedsubjectand,moreimportantthemeaningthatitconveys.Anotherimportantthingthatmayaffectourdecisionisthecoordinator.1.Coordinationwith“and”or“both…and”:notionalconcord1)treatedaspluralwhenitreferstotwoormorethantwopersons/things2)treatedassingularwhenitreferstoonlyonepersonorthing.BothPaulineandBobhavegonefishingonMiramarLake.Rain,hailandwindhavecausedanestimated$22,000,000damagetocropsand118 livestock.Thesecretaryandtreasurerwasabsentfromthemeeting.Hamandeggsisagoodbreakfast.☻由and连接的并列修饰语+不可数名词，如指复数概念，与复数形式动词搭配。Goodandbadbutterarethingsquitedifferenttoourtaste.1)Whenevery,each,no,ormanyaisusedwiththecoordinationwith“and”,singularverbformisused.Everyboyandeverygirlinthisroomisentitledtoacopy.Manyamanandwomaninthiscommunityfindshimselforherselfinneed.2.Coordinationwith“or”,“either…or”,“nor”,“neither…nor”,“notonly…butalso”1)generallydealtwithaccordingtotheprincipleofproximityMysisterormybrotherislikelytobeathome.Eithermyfatherormybrothersarecoming.2)ininformalstyle,“neither…nor”,“notonly…butalso”cansometimesberegardedaspluralNeithertheplayersnorthecoachwas/wereoverconfident.Notonlytheswitchesbutalsotheoldwiringhas/havebeenchanged.3.subject+aswellas/nolessthan/ratherthan/morethan/but/except/besides/with/togetherwith/alongwith/accompaniedby/like/including/inadditionto/combinedwith,etc.:theverbformisdeterminedbythesubjectSomeoftheworkersasmuchasthemanagerwereresponsiblefortheloss.Hisbrotherratherhisparentsistoblame.Themanagerwithsomeworkerswasworkingduringtheholidays.Thefather,aswellashissons,isgoingtoenroll.Bill,togetherwithhissisters,washurtintheaccident.I.Expressionsofquantityassubject:NotionalConcord1.Definitequantity1)Whenadefinitequantityisregardedasasingleunit,theverbtakesthesingularformThetreasurerthoughtthatsixty-fivedollarswasnottoomuchtoask.Sixmonthsistooshortatime.2)Whenadefinitequantityisusedinasenseoftheindividualsthatconstitutethequantity,theverbtakesthepluralform.Thereweresixsilverdollarsineachofthestockings.3)Ifthesubjectis“afraction/percentageof-phrase”,theformoftheverbisdeterminedbythenumberofthenounintheof-phrase.Two-thirdsoftheswamplandhasbeenreclaimedforfarming.Oversixtypercentofthecitywasdestroyedinthewar.Thirty-fivepercentofthedoctorswerewomen.4)Inmathematicalquestions,bothnumberalternativesareacceptablewithadditionandmultiplication,butthesingularverbisgenerallyusedwithsubtractionanddivision.Fiveminusfifteenleavestwenty-five.Fortydividedbyeightisfive.Svenplus/andfivemakes/maketwelve.Fivetimeseightis/areforty.5)Ifthesubjectisanounphrasecomposedof“onein/outof+pluralnoun”,theverbtakesthesingularforminformalstyle,butininformalstyleitcanbeplural.118 Oneintenstudentshas/havefailedtheexam.Oneoutoftwentywas/werebadlydamaged.1)oneandahalf+pl.noun:singularverbOneandahalfbananasisleftonthetable.Ayearandahalfhaspassed.☻halfa+singularnoun:theverbtakessingularformHalfadollarwasspentonfood.2.Indefinitequantity1)all/some/none/half/most+of+nounthenumberoftheverbisdeterminedbythenounintheof-phrase.MostofthemoneywasrecoveredbyDeputyPlayer.Mostofthememberswerethere.Allofthecargowaslost.Allofthecrewweresaved.Someofthemoneyhasbeenstolen.Someofthebookswerelost.Halfofthebuildingwasdamagedintheexplosions.Halfofthestudentsaregirls.☻all,some,most:whenusedaspronouns,notionalconcordSome(books)werestolen.Some(money)wasstolen.☻none:normallyincompatiblewiththepluralverbexceptforinformaluses☻neither/either:generallygowiththesingularverbbutmayinvitethepluralverbiffollowedbyaprepositionalphrasewithapluralcomplementNeitherhascomeyet.Neitherstatementistrue.Neitherofthemis/aretrustworthy.Eitherruleworksperfectlywellonyou.Eitheriswelcome.Eitherofthesuggestionsis/aresatisfactory.2)lots/heaps/loads/scadsof/plenty+of+nounthenumberoftheverbisdeterminedbythenounintheof-phrase.Lotsoffoodisgoingtowaste.Lotsofpeoplearewaitingoutside.Loadsofmilkhasbeendistributedamongthechildren.Loadsofappleshavebeenpicked.PlentyofthesugarisimportedfromCuba.Plentyofthemenarealreadyhere.3)aportion/aseries/apile/apanel+of+nountheverbtakesthesingularformwhatevertheformsofthenounAsubstantialportionofthereportsismissing.Aseriesofaccidentshasbeenreported.Apileoflogswassetbesidethehearth.4)a/this+kind/sort/type+of+noun(usu.singularoruncountablenoun),theverbtakesthesingularformThereisakindofrose,whichfillstheairwithfragrancewhenMaycomes.118 Thiskindofmanannoysme.Thissortofpaintisveryuseful.Thattypeofcarisold-fashioned.☻these/those/many/several+kinds/sorts/types+of+noun(singular/plural/uncountablenoun):theverbtakesthepluralformTherearemanydifferentkindsofsnakeinthemountains.ThesetypesofcarareimportedfromJapan.Thereareseveralsortsofcheeseforsaleintheshop.IhavemetallkindsoftouristswhocomefromEurope.Thosekindsofinsectsareharmful.1)manya/morethanone+noun:theverbtakesthesingularformManyamanhasdonehisduty.Morethanonegamewaslost.2)anaverageof/amajorityof+pl.noun:theverbformisdeterminedbythenotionofthenounphrase:a.ifthenounheadistheword“average/majority”,theverbshouldbesingularb.ifthenounheadisthepluralnoun,theverbshouldbepluralAnaverageof25applicationsamonthisnotunusual.Anaverageof25personsapplyeachmonth.3)anumber/totalofcf.thenumber/totalofa.anumber/totalof+pl.noun:theheadisthepl.noun,sotheverbtakesthepluralformb.thenumber/totalof+n.:theheadis“number/total”,sotheverbtakesthesingularformAnumberofstudentswereabsentyesterday.Thenumberofpagesinthisbookisninehundred.Atotaloffiftythousandtreesareplantedthisspring.Thetotaloftreesplantedthisspringisaboutfiftythousand.II.Nominalclausesassubject1.Whenthesubjectisanominalclause,theverbusuallytakesthesingularform.Whatcausedtheaccidentisacompletemystery.2.Whenthesubjectistwoormorenominalclausescoordinatedbyandorboth…and,theverbofthemainclausetakesthesingularformwhenthesubjectreferstoonething,andthepluralformwhenthesubjectreferstoseparatethings.Whatcausedtheaccidentandwhowasresponsibleforitremainamysterytous.3.InSVCconstructionswithawhat-clauseassubject,whenthesubjectcomplementisplural,orwhenthewhat-clauseispluralinmeaning,theverbofthemainclausecanbepluralWhatwasrealtohimwerethedetailsofhislife.Whatareoftenregardedaspoisonousfungiaresometimessafelyedible.III.Non-finiteclausesassubject1.Whenthesubjectisanon-finiteclause,theverbofthemainclauseusuallytakesthesingularform.Toclimbmountainsrequirescourage.Playingtennisisaverygoodexercise.2.Whenthesubjectistwoormorenon-finiteclausescoordinatedbyandorboth…and,the118 verbofthemainclausetakesthesingularformwhenthesubjectreferstoonething,andthepluralformwhenthesubjectreferstoseparatethings.ReadingIbsenandsolvingaquadraticequationareentirelydifferentassignments.I.Concordintherelativeclause1.Inrelativeclauses,concordproblemsmayoftenarisewhenthesubjectisarelativepronoun.Allthat(live,lives)mustdie.2.Generallyspeaking,theverbformintherelativeclauseisdeterminedbyitsantecedent.Heisthemanwholivesnextdoortous.Mycousin,whoisanengineer,wenttoEuropelastweek.Allthatlivemustdie.3.Intheconstructionof“oneof+pluralnoun+relativeclause”,theverbintherelativeclausecantakebothsingularandpluralform.Johnisoneofthosepeoplewhogooutoftheirwaytobehelpful.JasperWhiteisoneoftheserarepeoplewhobelievesinancientmyths.4.Intheconstructionof“the/theonlyoneof+pluralnoun+relativeclause”,theverbintherelativeclauseshouldtakesingularform.Kevesistheonlyoneoftheplayerswhohaslearnedalltherules.II.Concordincleft-sentence1.Incleft-sentences,subject-verbconcordinthat-/who-clauseisgenerallydeterminedbythenumberofthefocalelementfunctioningassubjectintheclause.2.Itis+I+who-clause:theverbforminwho-clauseshouldbedeterminedby“I”3.Itis+me+that-clause:theverbforminthat-clauseshouldbethethirdpersonsingular.ItisIwhoamtoblame.Itismethatistoblame.III.ConcordintheexistentialsentencethePrincipleofProximityThereisanoteleftonthedesk.Therearethreeroutesyoucantake.There’salongspringboard,andthreeraftsatvaryingdistancesfromtheshore.IV.Otherproblemsofsubject-verbconcord1.“the+adj.”assubject:notionalconcord1)whenitreferstoagroupofpeople:pluralverb2)whenitreferstoaparticularperson:singularverb3)whenitreferstoanabstractquality:singularverbThepoorarepoorer;therichricher.Theyoungareproudoftheiryouthfulness.Thedeceasedwashisgrandfather.Thebeautifulonlyhasvalueconfirmedbytheugly.2.nounsendingin-sh,-ch,-ese,denotingpeoplesornationalities:pluralverbTheChinesearehardworking.TheEnglisharealittleconservative.118 Lecture4NounandNounPhraseI.Classification:1.wordformation:1)simplenouns2)compoundnouns3)derivativenouns2.lexicalmeaning4)propernouns5)commonnounsa.individualnounsb.collectivenounsc.materialnounsd.abstractnouns3.grammaticalform6)count/countablenoun7)noncount/uncountablenoun:II.Function4.Thenounphrasecanfunctionasalltheelementinasentenceexceptthepredicateverb.1)SubjectChildrenatplayseldomrememberwhattimeitis.2)SubjectcomplementThatwasanattractivelittleblackchair.3)ObjectInthehallIsawsomeextremelyvaluablepictures.4)ObjectcomplementTheyelectedhimchairmanoftheboard.5)AppositiveMr.Brown,directorofthecoalmine,shouldberesponsiblefortheaccident.6)PrepositionalcomplementationTeachersshouldbeconcernedaboutthestudents’moralculture.7)AdverbialHereturnedlastnight.8)ConjunctionAphotoistakeneachtimethisbuttonispushed.§1.Gender英语名词只有词汇意义上的“性”(gender)，而没有语法形式上的性。（章振邦，1997：144）英语不像其他欧洲语言，它的名词一般不分阴阳性，但随着词义不同，有一部分名词也可以分阴阳性，表示男人或雄性动物的名词属于阳性，表示女人或雌性动物的名词属于阴性。（张道真，2002：61）godgoddessemperorempressprinceprincessactoractress118 waiterwaitresshosthostessheirheiressshepherdshepherdesscountcountessdukeduchessbaronbaronessviscountviscountesspriestpriestesspoetpoetessheroheroinebridegroombridelionlionesstigertigressleopardleopardessgandergoose英语大部分名词都分不出阴阳性，如果要表示一个人的性别，可以在名词前加man,woman,boy,girl,male,female等词，在动物前可加male,female,he,she等词。amanservantawomanworkeraboyfriendamaleguestafemalesingeramalemonkeyafemaleelephantahe-goatashe-wolf§2.NumberNumberisagrammaticaldistinctionwhichdetermineswhetheranounordterminerissingularorplural.I.Forms:1.singularform:sharethesameformasthebaseoftheword2.pluralform1)regular:formedbyadding-s/-esa.most:+-s/s/,/z/,/iz/b.–s/-x/-z/-sh/-ch:+-es/iz/boxes,churchesc.consonant+y/-quy:-y→-iesladies,factories,soliloquiesd.propernounsendingwith–y:+-se.–f/-fe:→-ves/+-s变-f/-fe为-ves的按如下口诀：a)Thethief’swifecaughtthreewolveswithaknifeandsomeleavesinherlife.贼的妻子一生中用刀和树叶抓住了三只狼。b)树叶半数自己黄，妻子拿刀去割粮，架后窜出一只狼，就像强盗逃命亡。leaf,half,self,wife,knife,shelf,wolf,thief,life+-s口诀：海湾边，屋顶上，首领农仆两相望；谁说他们无信仰，证据写在手帕上。gulf,roof,chief,serf,belief,prooff.–o:+-s/-esa)animateword:+-es/inanimateword:+-spotatoes,tomatoes,heroes,Negroeszoos,radios,photos,pianos,zeros,bamboos(竹竿),tobaccosb)口诀：+-s在zoo里，看见一根bamboo,上面挂着一张photo,照的是一架piano，上面放着一台radio.2)irregular:a.bychangingtheinternalvowelfoot---feetgoose---geesetooth---teethman---menb.bychangingtheendingofthenoun118 child---childrenox---oxen1)foreignpluralsa.–a(Latin):→-aealumnaalumnaeantennaantennaeformulaformulaeb.–eau(French):→-eauxbureaubureauxplateauplateauxtableautableauxc.–ex/-ix(Latin):→-icesappendixappendicesd.–is(Greek):→-esanalysisanalysesbasisbasescrisiscrisese.–on(Greek):→-aphenomenonphenomenaf.–um(Latin):→-abacteriumbacteriastratumstratag.–us(Latin):→-istimulusstimulinucleusnuclei☻Someborrowedwordshavetwopluralforms:aforeignpluralusuallyusedintechnicalEnglish,andanEnglishpluralusuallyusedineverydayEnglish:mediummediamediumsindexindicesindexesformulaformulaeformulascurriculumcurriculacurriculums2)zeroplurals:Forsomenouns,theirsingularandpluralnumbersharethesameformdeer,fish,sheep,trout,Japanese,Swiss,Chinese,Portuguese,craft,aircraft,spacecraft,hovercraftbarracks,headquarters,means,works,series,species3)pluralformsofcompoundnouns:a.thelastelementplural:armchairs,babysitters,breakdowns,story-tellers,grown-ups,handsignals,go-betweens,good-for-nothings,forget-me-notsb.thefirstelementplural:esp.whenthelastelementisapostmodifieroraparticlecommanders-in-chief,men-of-war,mothers-in-law,passers-by,lookers-on,brothers-in-law,comrades-in-armsc.bothelementsplural:menfriends,menservants,womendoctorsII.CountandNoncountNouns118 1.Countandnoncountnouns1)Acount/countablenounisanounthathasapluralandwhichcancollocatewithnumbersandwithsuchdeterminersasa(n),many,few,these,those,severaletc.2)Anoncount/uncountablenounisanounthatcannottowiththeabove-mentionedwords.countnounsnoncountnounscommonnounspropernounsindividualnounscollectivenounsmaterialnounsabstractnouns2.NumberofthecollectivenounSomecollectivenounsarecountable,somearenot.1)Collectivenounswhichdenoteinanimateobjects:uncountable,usuallytakethesingularverbIfwewanttocountthenumber,wewillhavetouseakindofindividualnounrelatedsemanticallytothecollective.apieceoffurniture,twoarticlesofequipmentCollectivenounsIndividualnounspoetrypoemmachinerymachineclothinggarment,coat,etc.furnituretable,chair,etc.cutleryknifeequipmenttoolweaponrygun,pistol,etc.foliageleafcorrespondenceletterluggagetrunk,bag,etc.2)afewalmostinvariabletakethepluralverb3)collectivenounwhichcanbeusedeitherinthesingularorinthepluralsensea.Whenviewedasasingleunit,thecollectiveissingularinmeaningandistobefollowedbyasingularverb.b.Whenusedtorefertotheindividualsthatformthecollective,itispluralinmeaningandshouldbefollowedbyapluralverb.c.Sometimescanbeusedasindividualnouns.TherearethreeclassesinGradeOne.3.Numberofthematerialnoun1)Materialnounsaregenerallyuncountableandhavenopluralforms.2)Someitemscanbeusedeitheruncountablyorcountably.d.Whenusedtomeanthematerialitself,theyareuncountable.e.Whenusedmeanindividuals,theyarecountable.rubber,glass,stone,iron,egg,etc.118 1)Somematerialnounscantakepluralendings,butwithchangesinmeanings.a.indicate“largeamountof”,or“largeareaof”sands/waters:largeexpanseofsandorwaterb.indicate“manykindsof”foods/fruits:avarietyoffoodorfruitc.somedrinksusepluralformstotaketheplaceoftheunitnounstwocoffeesabeer1.Numberoftheabstractnoun1)Abstractnounsaremostlyuncountableandcannottakesuchdeterminersasa(n)/oneorpluralforms.2)Thereareafewabstractnounsthatarecountablelikeindividualnounsvictory,conference3)Therearesomeabstractnounsthathavepluralendingsbutwhichareuncountable.difficulty,opinionHeisinfinancialdifficulties.Heisinseveraldifficulties.(×)4)Inthecaseofsomeabstractnouns,themereadditionofapluralendinghastheeffectofchangingthemeaningofthebase.Wemeetonceayeartoexchangeourteachingexperience.(经验)Wetoldeachotherourexperiencesinforeigncountries.（经历）Hehasnosympathyforbeggars.（同情）Heisamanofwidesympathies.(同情心)Isentysympathiestotherelativesofthedead.（慰问）5)Someabstractnoncountnounshavesemanticallyrelatedindividualnounsastheircountableequivalents.abstractindividualabstractindividuallaughterlaughworkjobcorrespondenceletter,note,photographyphotopermissionpermitmusicsongfunjoyhomeworkexperience2.Numberofthepropernoun1)Propernounsareuniqueinreferenceandthereforehavenopluralforms.2)Therearesomepropernameswhicharethemselvespluralinform.theUnitedStates,thePhilipines,theNetherlands3)Whenapropernountakesapluralending,ittakesonsomecharacteristicsofacommonnoun.HaveyouinvitedtheBrowns.TherearetwoMissSmiths/MissesSmithinourclass.3.Countornoncountnouns?glass,rubber,stone,egg,onion,lamb,chicken,etcbeauty,youth,relation,worry,distraction,business,kindness,etctohavetoomuchfamily/winter/mouth,etc.1)materialorindividual?2)abstractorconcrete?3)Asummaryofdifferentmeaningsforthesingularandpluralformsofnouns.118 SingularPluraladvice劝告advices通知air空气airs神气arm手臂arms武器brain脑brains智力authority权威authorities当局cloth布clothes衣服condition情况conditions条件content内容contents目录custom风俗customs海关force力量forces军队glass玻璃glasses眼镜green绿色greens青菜good好事goods货物iron铁irons镣铐look看looks外表manner态度manners礼貌pain疼痛pains努力paper纸papers文件regard尊敬regards问候sand沙子sands沙滩spirit精神spirits心情，情绪time时间times时代water水waters水域wood木头woods森林work工作works作品§3.UnitNounsI.Introduction1.Unitnouns,alsocalledpartitives,arecommonlyusedtodenoteapartofawholeorthequantityofundifferentiatedmass.2.Bothcountandnoncountnounscanenterpartitiveconstructions.II.Unitnounsclassified1.generalpartitivespiece,bit,item,article2.partitivesrelatedtocontainers:abottleofink/oiltwobowlsofriceseveralpailsofwateraglassofbeeracupofcoffee/teaacan/tinofpeasajarofstrawberryjam118 abucketofwater/sandahandful/mouthful/spoonfulofricealorryload/shipload/trainload/truckloadofcoal1.partitivesrelatedtomeasurement:1)length:afoot/meter/yardofcloth2)weightagram/kilo/ounce/pound/tonofflour3)volume:agallon/gill/litre/pint/quartofwine4)area:anacre/hectareofland2.partitivesrelatedtotheshapeofthings:abarofchocolateabunchofflowers/keysabundleofsticks/straw/firewoodacakeofsoapaclusterofflowers/islandsadropofwateranearofcornaflightofstairsagrainofsandtenheadofcabbagealoafofbreadalumpofsugarapacket/packofcigarettesaseriesoffilms/lecturesasliceofmeataspiralofincenseatuftoffeathers/grass/hair3.partitivesrelatedtothestateofactionadisplayofcourage/fireworks/powerafitofcoughing/laughter/temper/feveraflashofhope/light/lightningapealoflaughter/thunder/applausearayofhope/light/sunshinearollofthunder4.partitivesreferringtogroupsofpeople:anarmyofbeggars/soldiersabandofmusiciansabatchofstudents/soldiersabenchofjudges/examinersabevyofyoungladiesaboardofdirectorsabunchofteenagersachoirofsingers118 acongregationofprayersacrewofsailorsacrowdofpeopleagangofhooligans/rascals/thievesagroupofchildrenamobofdemonstratorsapackofthievesapartyofguestsastaffofteachersateamofplayersatroopofsoldiersatroupeofactors1.partitivesreferringtogroupsofanimalsabroodofchickensaclusterofantsaflockofbirds/sheepaherdofcattle/elephantsalitterofpuppies/littlepigsapackofhounds/wolvesashoal/schooloffishaswarmofants/bees/wasps§4.GenitivesI.Introduction:1.Caseisagrammaticalcategory,whichdenotesthechangesintheformofanounorapronounshowingitsrelationshipwithotherwordsinasentence.2.EnglishnounshavenotacomplicatedcasesystemlikethatofLatin,German,ormodernRussian,butthereisarelicoftheoldcasesystem—thegenitivecase,whichwastraditionallylabeledasthe“possessivecase”.II.Formation:1.Thegenitiveisformedinwritingbyadding-’stosingularnounsandtothosepluralnounsthatdonotendin-s.mymother’sarrivalwomen’sclothesawaitress’sjob2.Pluralnounsendingin-stakeanapostropheasgenitivemarker.thegirls’dormitoryateachers’college3.Inpersonalnamesendinginsibilant/z/,thegenitiveendingcaneitherbe-’soranapostropheonly,butitcanonlybe-’swhenpersonalnamesendinothersibilantsounds.Dickens’/Dickens’snovelsJones’/Jones’spoemsMarx’sdoctrineRoss’sdiscoveries4.Incompoundnounsorapostmodifiednounphrase,thegenitiveendingisaddedtotheend118 ofthecompoundortotheendofthenounphrase.mymother-in-law’sdeathanhourandahalf’stalksomebodyelse’sopiniontheUniversityofMinnesota’spresident1.Incoordinatenouns,thegenitiveendingisaddedtoeachofthecoordinateelementswhendenotingrespectivepossession,andonlytothelastcoordinateelementwhendenotingcommonpossession.Mary’sandBob’sbooksMaryandBob’sbooks2.Intheconstructionof“nounphrase+appositive”,thegenitiveendingisaddedtotheendoftheappositive,orbothtotheendofthenounphraseandtotheappositiveBaselthebookseller’sBasel’s,thebookseller’sII.Meanings1.possessivegenitiveMr.Brown’ssuitcasehasbeentakenupstairs.TaiwanispartofChina’sterritory.2.subjectivegenitiveThePrimeMinister’sarrivalwasreportedinthemorningpaper.EverybodywaspleasedatDavid’squickrecoveryfromillness.3.objectivegenitiveTheenemy’sdefeatbroughtthewartoanend.Thecriminal’spunishmentwillbetenyearsinprison.4.genitiveoforiginIhaven’treceivedmysister’sletteryet.Newton’slawwasdevelopinthe17thcentury.5.descriptiongenitiveIfirstmetheronasummer’sday.Thisworkshopmakesmen’sshoes.6.genitiveoftime,distance,measure,value,etc.twohours’delay300kilometers’distancefivedollars’worthofstampsIII.Uses:1.Whengenitivenounsareusedascentraldeterminers,theycan’tcollocatewithothercentraldeterminers,norcantheybeprecededbyapremodifier.2.Whengenitivenounsareusedaspremodifiers,theycancollocatewithotherdeterminers.3.genitiveV.S.of-phraseGenitiveof-phrasepossessionpossession—Sometimesinterchangeable—Thegenitiveiscommonlypreferredwithnounsreferringtopeople,countries,cities,orcelestialbodies.118 —Of-phraseistypicallypreferredwithnounsreferringtoinanimatelifelessobjectssubject-verbsubject-verbverb-objectverb-objectoriginorigindescriptionappositivetime,distance,measure,value,etcMary’sT-shirtJohnSmith’spassportthecolourofthecartheimportanceoftheplanthePrimeMinister’sarrivalthearrivalofthePrimeMinisterDavid’squickrecoverythequickrecoveryofDavidMary’sfailurethefailureofMarythecriminal’spunishmentthepunishmentofthecriminaltheenemy’sdefeatthedefeatoftheenemytheprisoner’sreleasethereleaseoftheprisonerpresident’sassassinationtheassassinationofthepresidentMary’slettertheletterofMaryJohn’sshadowtheshadowofJohnNote:a.Thegenitiveisexclusivelyusediftherelationbetweenthenounsisoneofdefinition,classification,etc,ratherthanpossession.women’sclothingchildren’spictorialb.Thegenitiveisoftenusedinthetitlesofnews.Institute’sRoofCollapsed!China’sFirstUltra-deepOilWellc.Theof-phraseisrequiredwithanounphrasewhoseheadwordisaclassifyingadj.theincomeoftherichthestruggleoftheexploitedd.Theof-phraseisrequirediftherelationbetweenthenounsisappositive.thecityofRomethetownofBremene.Sometimesthechoiceisdeterminedbythestructureorpronunciation,etc.theopinionofthechairmanappointedamonthagothesuggestionsofthosepresentatthemeetingItooktheadviceofacoupleImetattheparty.Thefirsthusbandofmycousin’swifewasamanager.Wemustcloselyfollowthegovernment’spolicyineducation.Wherehaveyouputtheworkers’tools?(workers’orworker’s?)Wherehaveyouputthetoolsoftheworkers?(better)f.Idiomaticcombinationatone’swits’endatswords’pointsatone’sfinger’sends/tipsatdeath’sdoor118 atastone’sthrowabird’s-eyeviewahair’sbreathawolfinsheep’sclothingtoone’sheart’scontentI.Independentgenitive1.Agenitivenouncansometimesbeusedindependently,thatis,withoutafollowingnoun.Thisuseofthegenitivemaybetermedastheindependentgenitive.2.Independentgenitiveisused:1)Whenthemissingnounhasoccurredsomewhereinthecontextandcanbeeasilyretrieved:Mary’sisthelargestapartmentinthebuilding.Hermemoryislikeanelephant’s.2)Whenthemissingnounreferstosomebody’shouseorresidence.I’mgoingtodineatmybrother’s.Thedoctor’sisontheothersideofthestreet.3)Whenthemissingnounreferstochurch,school,orotherpublicbuildings.JoelivesnearSt.Paul’sinLondon.HewaseducatedatMerchantTaylor’s.4)Whenthemissingnounreferstocommercialfirms.Pickledvegetablesareavailableatthegrocer’s.ChinesetoysaresoldbothatSmith’sandatBrown’s.II.Doublegenitive3.Anindependentgenitivecansometimesbeusedasprepositionalcomplementation.Theprepositionalphrasethattakesanindependentgenitiveascomplementationiscalleda“doublegenitive”.4.structuralfeatures:1)Theindependentgenitiveintheof-phrasemustbedefinitespecificpersonalreference.2)Thenounphrasewithadoublegenitiveaspostmodifierusuallytakesanindefinitedeterminer,orademonstrativedeterminertoconveyemotionalfeelings.adaughterofMrsGreen’sany/somedaughtersofMrsGreen’stwodaughtersofMrsGreen’swhichdaughterofMrsGreen’sthatdaughterofMrsGreen’s5.Doublegenitivevs.of-phraseSemantically,adoublegenitiveisdifferentfromanordinaryof-phraseHeisafriendofmyfather’s.(Heisoneofmyfather’sfriends.说明he的身份)Heisafriendofmyfather.(Heisfriendlytomyfather.说明he对myfather的关系)A:Whotoldyouthat?B:Afriendofyourfather’sA:Ifhesayssuchthings,heisnotafriendofmyfather,whoeverhemaybe.aportraitofMrBrown’s(oneoftheportraitsownedorcollectedbyMrBrown)aportraitofMrBrown(apictureofMrBrownhimself)118 acriticismofMrHamilton’s(oneofthecriticismsmadebyMrHamilton)acriticismofMrHamilton(MrHamiltoniscritcised.)aboneofthedog’s一根狗吃的骨头aboneofthedog一根狗骨头118 Lecture5DeterminersWordsthatprecededanypremodifyingadjectivesinanounphraseandwhichdenotesuchreferentialmeaningsasspecificreference,genericreference,definitequantityorindefinitequantityarereferredtoasdeterminers,including:1.articles:1)definitearticle2)indefinitearticle3)zeroarticle2.possessivedeterminers3.genitivenouns4.demonstrativedeterminers5.relativedeterminers6.interrogativedeterminers7.indefinitedeterminers8.cardinalandordinalnumerals9.fractionalandmultiplicativenumerals10.quantifiers§1.CollocationsofDeterminersI.CollocationsbetweendeterminersandnounsThechoiceofdeterminersiscloselyrelatedtowhatmightbecalledthethreeclassesofnouns:singularcountnouns,pluralcountnounsandnoncountnouns.1.Determinerswiththreeclassesofnounspossessivedeterminers,genitivenounsdefinitearticlesome,any,no,theother,whose2.Determinerswithsingularcountnounsonlya(n),one,another,each,every,either,neither,manya,sucha3.Determinerswithpluralcountnounsonlycardinalnumerals:two,three,etc.both,anothertwo/three,many,(a)few,several,these,those,a(great)numberof4.Determinerswithnoncountnounsonlya(little)bitof,agreatamountof,agreatdealof,(a)little,much,less,least5.determinerswithsingularandpluralcountnounsonlyordinalnumerals:thefirst,thesecond,etcthelast,thenext6.determinerswithsingularandnoncountnounsonlythis,that7.Determinerswithpluralandnoncountnounsonlyalotof,lotsof,plentyof,enough,most,such,other118 I.CollocationsbetweendeterminersPredeterminersCentraldeterminersPostdeterminersmultiplicativenumeralsarticlescardinalnumeralsfractionalnumeralsdemonstrativesordinalnumeralswhat,such(a/an)possessives:suchgenitivesnext,lastindefinites:all,both,halfindefinites:some,any,no,every,each,either,neither,enoughindefinites:other,another,many,much,few,little,severalInterrogatives1.whenanounphrasecontainsallthreesubclassesofdetermines,theirnormalorderis:predeterminer+centraldeterminer+postdeterminer2.centraldeterminersaremutuallyexclusive,i.e.notwomembersofthecentraldeterminerseveroccurtogetherinanounphrase3.predeterminersarealsomutuallyexclusive4.postdeterminers1)基数词与其他后位限定词的搭配位置往往取决于上下文或者说话人的语义意图Twogirlsspokeoneafteranother;therewerethreeothergirlsatthemeeting.ThreegirlsspeakingoneafteranotherwerefromtheEnglishdepartment.Therewereotherthreegirlsatthemeeting.2)作为限定词，当一个基数词和一个序数词同时出现在名词中心词之前时，序数词一般位于基数词之前。Thefirstthreechaptersneedtoberewritten.ThesecondfivepupilsarefromClassThree.☻如果序数词用作表示类别的修饰语时，应放在更接近中心词的位置。Hewonthreefirstprizes.(三个一等奖)They’vebookedfivesecondcabins.(5个二等舱位)3)作为后位限定词，通用序数词last,next,other与后位限定词few搭配时,位置通常在few之前。Heoftentellsusabouthislastfewmonthsincollege.Tombrokehisleg.Ittookhimthenextfewweekstogetoverit.4)作为后位限定词，several可与基数词以及other等后位限定词搭配，位于其前。IsawJohnsonandhiswifewithseveralothermembersofhisfamilyattheFriendshipStore.Severalhundredforeigntouristsvisitedthefactorylastmonth.5)Some作为中位限定词，可与other,more,such等后位限定词搭配。Hedidn’taskChrisbutsomeotherstudentstoattendthemeeting.Pleasegivemesomemorepaper.Somesuchalloymaybeusedtoreplacecopper.☻some用在基数词和few之前，是副词，表示“大概”或“大约”的意思。Thereweresome40or50peoplethere.Ittookussomefewdaystodismantlethemachine.118 §2.UsageofSomeDeterminersI.many,much,alotof,lotsof,plentyof1.collocationwithnounsPluralnounsUncountablenounsmanymuchagood/greatmanyagreatdealofagreat/large/good/numberofalargeamount/ofalotof,lotsof,plentyof,alargequantityof2.ininformalstyle,esp.whentheydonottakeanymodifiersanddonotappearinthesubjectarea,many/mucharenormallyusedinnegativeandinterrogativesentences,whilealotof,lotsof,plentyofarecommonlyusedinaffirmativesentence.Hehasn’tgotmuchmoney,buthehasalotoffriends.Aretheremanyanimalsinthepark?No,notmany.Yes,quitealot.3.Justasmany/muchsometimescarryanon-assertivetone,theyarecommonlyusedintheobjectclauseintroducedbywhether/if.Idoubtwhether/ifthere’llbemanypeopleattheshowonthisrainyday.Iwonderwhether/ifhehasmuchinformationonthissubject.II.(a)few,(a)little,abit1.collocationwithnounsPluralnounsUncountablenounsfewlittleafewalittleabit(of)2.afew/alittle:positivefew/little:negative3.quiteafew,notafew,agoodfew:afairnumberof,aconsiderablenumberof4.less/least:commonlygowithmassnouns,butinpresent-dayEnglish,occasionallyusedwithpluralnounsininformalstyle.III.some,any1.someisgenerallyusedinaffirmativesentence,andanyisgenerallyusedinnegativeorinterrogativesentence,inconditionalsentencesorinsentenceswithnegativeimplications.2.Whensomeoccursinquestions,itisimpliedthatthespeakerexpectsanaffirmativeanswer.3.Whensomeisfollowedbyasingularcountnoun,itmeans“acertain”;whenanyisfollowedbyasingularcountnoun,itdenotestheideaof“nomatterwhich”.IV.all,both,none,neither,any,either,every,each范围意义三者或以上两者全体都allboth全体都不noneneither118 任一个anyeither每一个everyeachNote:1.thescopeofeachistwoormorethantwo.2.Whentalkingofawholegroup,weuseevery,andwhentalkingofoneatatime,weuseeach.☻Note:1.all,both,half+of?1)“of”mustbeaddedwhenfollowedbyapronounallofyou,bothofus,halfofthem2)half+centraldeterminer+nounAbouthalfthestudentsaregirls.Joespenthalfhisleisurehoursreadingnovels.Heinsistsonworkinghalfashifteverydayinspiteofillness.3)When“half”isdirectlybeforeanoun,itisusedasanadjective,notadeterminer,withspecialmeaningsinsomefixedcollocationshalfblood半血亲关系halfbrother同母异父或同父异母兄弟halfdollar半元银币halfholiday半日休假halfhose半长筒袜halfmeasure姑息手段，权宜办法halftime半日工作，半场halfnote半音符4)both+(of)+centraldeterminer+noun;both+nounBoth(of)thecarsbrokedownsoonaftertheystarted.Both(of)ourcountriesbelongtotheThirdWorld.Both(of)thesestudentsmajorinEnglish.I’vegotblistersonbothfeet.BothchildrenhavebeentoGreece.2.all+the?1)“the”after“all”canoftenbeomitted.Checkall(the)measurements,please.Ofall(the)Englishwritersthen,Dickenshadthemostreaders.2)When“all”isusedwithsomenounsoftime,“the”iseitherusedornot,andisusuallynotusedinnegativesentence.Hehasbeenworkingall(the)day/morning/evening.Icouldn’tsleepallnight.Ihaven’tseenMaryallmorning/day/evening.3.most+of?1)“Most”meaning“nearlyall”isfolloweddirectlybyanounwhenyouarespeakinggenerally.Mostcheesecontainsalotoffat.MostAmericansowncars.2)Youuse“mostofthe”whenyouaretalkingaboutpartofaparticularthing,group,etc.Greghaseatenmostofthecheesethatwasinthefridge.118 MostoftheAmericansweaskedownedcars.1)“themost”canbefolloweddirectlybyapluraloruncountablenoun,whenitmeans“morethananyother(s)Themostdamagewasdonetothehousesnearestthecliff.§3.ArticlesEnglishhasthreearticles:thedefinite,theindefinite,andthezeroarticle.I.GenericReference1.Whenwesaythereferenceisgeneric,wearetalkingaboutanymemberrepresentativeofaclassofpeopleorthings.2.Allthethreeformsofarticlecanbeusedgenericallytorefertothemembersofaclassasawhole.Galileoclaimedthathehadinventedthetelescope.Anoxisausefulanimal.Carrotsaremyfavouritevegetables.Knowledgeispower.thea(n)zerothe+单数可数名词：表示一类人或物，用于正式语体，如科学描述中ThecompasswasfirstinventedinChina.+单数可数名词：泛指一类人或物，常用于下定义Atractorisapowerfulmotorvehicleusedinagriculture.+物质名词:泛指一类物质Snowmeltswhenheated.Ironandsteelplayanimportantroleinindustry.the+adj./participle:表示一类人或事或概念Thesickarehereverywellcaredfor.Theunexpectedalwayshappens.Therewillalwaysbesuchoppositesastherightandthewrong,thegoodandtheevil,thebeautifulandtheugly.补语：泛指人的职业、宗教、身份等Hisfatherisacarpenter.IsthevisitoraChristianoraMuslem.TheKingmadehimalord.+抽象名词:表示一般的抽象概念Sciencemeanshonest,solidknowledge.the+表示民族或国籍的形容词：表示整个民族或国人TheChinesehavecompletelyexplodedthemyththatChinaispoorisoilresources.+pl.C.nouns:表示一类人或物Thoseyoungmenareteachers,notstudents.☻三类类指方法的比较：Asawisatoolforcuttingwood.Thesawisatoolforcuttingwood.Sawsaretoolsforcuttingwood.Ø语体：a)定冠词的类指用法常用于正式语体，如科学描述中，。b)一般的下定义，常用“不定冠词+单数可数名词”或“零冠词+不可数名词”。c)口语中笼统地泛指一类人或无多用“零冠词+复数可数名词”118 Ø词汇意义：a)定冠词类指表示一类属区别于另一类属，相当于allb)不定冠词作类指常指一类中的任何一个，相当于everyc)复数可数名词做类指可表示同一类属中的不同种类或个体。Thetigerisindangerofbecomingextinct.Thetelephonewasinventedin1876.*Atelephonewasinventedin1876.Theair-conditionerhasbecomeverypopular.*Anair-conditionerhasbecomeverypopular.Soldierswearuniforms.Flowersarenotsoldthere.Atrianglehasthreeangles.Asquarehasfoursides.☻民族Ø如表示民族（国籍）的形容词与相应的名词不同形，作类指时，用“the+形容词”或“zero+复数名词”，特指时用“the+名词”TheWelsharewellknownfortheirsinging.Welshmenarewellknownfortheirsinging.TheWelshmenIknowsingwell.I.Specificreference1.Specificreferencereferstoaparticularspecimenoftheclass.2.Specificreferencefallsintotwokinds:1)Definitespecificreference:impliesthatapersonoranobjectcanbeidentifieduniquelyinthecontextoraccordingtothecommonknowledgesharedbyspeakerandhearer.Thedefinitearticleismostfrequentlyusedinthissense.a.Anaphoricreference:Whenwhatisreferredtooccursinapreviouscontextandthedefinitearticlehastopointbackwardforitsmeaning,thisknownas“anaphoricreference”.Heorderedabooksometimeago.Thebookhasnowarrived.Hiscarstruckatree;youcanstillseethemarkonthetree.b.CataphoricreferenceWhenthereferentialmeaningofthedefinitearticleisdeterminedbywhatfollowsthearticleandthehead,andthearticlehastopointforwardforitsowninterpretation,thatis“cataphoricreference”.IsthisthetrainforShanghai?ThisistheplacewhereIfirstmether.HereisthestudentItoldyouabout.c.SituationalreferenceSituationalreferenceisakindofdefinitespecificreferencethatdependssolelyonthecommonknowledgesharedbyspeakerandheareroronaspecificsituationinwhichthereferenceismadeclear.What’sontheradio?How’sthecoughtoday?Shutthedoor,please.Sheasked,“WhyisFatheroutofwork?”118 Hewaselectedchairmanofthestudents’union.1)Indefinitespecificreference:thepersonorthingreferredtoisalsoaspecificobject,butisnotdefinitelyidentified.Thiskindofreferentialmeaningismostcommonlyexpressedbytheindefinitearticle.Incertaincontextsandsituationsthezeroarticlecanperformthesamefunction.Here’saletterforyou.Thestreetsarecleanandareshadedwithtrees.thea(n)zero前照应特指IsthisthetrainforShanghai?HereisthestudentItoldyouabout.非确定特指，由不定冠词构成的名词词组往往带有不确定的含义。Imetafriendofyoursyesterday.HehasjustbeenbackfromafactoryinLiverpool.AcertainmanwhoeveryonecallsBlackiecaughtthethief.AchickenTomboughtwasmissing.+U./pl.nouns:非确定特指Ionlyhadmilkthismorning.Hebroughtusinformationabouttheincident.后照应特指Ihavetwochildren:aboyandagirl.Theboy’snameisJohn.Thegirl’snameisMary.+职位名称:用于表示某时期内由一人担任的职位，特别是出现在补语位置时，确定特指Asmayorofthiscity,itismyprivilegetowelcomeyou.We’veelectedMr.Whitechairmanofthecommittee.语境特指Shutthedoor,please.How’sthecoughtoday?theuniverse,thesun,themoon等独一无二的自然现象+表示家庭成员的单数可数名词:确定特指Mothersaysthatweshouldhelphim.Auntistakingsisteroutforawalk.对人体部位的特指v.+sb.+prep.+the+人体部位Thestonestruckhimintheeye.Hetouchedmeontheshoulder.Igrabbedhimbythearm.☻人体部位ØIcaughthimbythearm.ØIcaughthisarm.ØIcaughttheballwithmyhands.☻如这些独一无二的自然现象的名词前有形容词加以描述时可用不定冠词。Themoonishanginginthesky.Anewmoonishanginginthesky.118 I.OtherUseswithCommonNouns1．the1)用在乐器名称前Tomislearningtheflute.Canyouplaythepiano?2)艺术、文娱活动前Theygoveryoftentothecinema,buttheyveryseldomgotothetheatre.3)aparticularsystemorserviceThetelephoneisdevelopingfastinthatarea.Ringforthetaxiifit’sraining.Howlongdoesittakeonthebus?Youmaydial0fortheoperator.4)用在某些与动词同形的名词前Thenumberofstudentsinourinstitutehasbeenconstantlyontheincrease.5)与表示计算单位的名词连用：含有每、每一的意思Johnispaidbythehour.Itsellsattwodollarsthepound.6)用于逢“十”的复数数词前：指几十年代或大约岁数the1770s,the1770’sHewasnotinChinaintheseventies.Thatmandoesn’tlookhisage.Ithinkhe’ssomewhereinthethirties.7)方位、左右Thesunrisesintheeastandsetsinthewest.ontheleft/right8)用于ear,eye,saddle,bottle,stage等单数名词前，表示其属性、功能或有关的抽象概念Thecoloursofthecottonprintsarepleasingtotheeye.(悦目)Don’tplaythefool.（装傻）Whendidyoudoonthestage?（当演员）Peteristoofondofthebottle.（贪杯）Thechildisbroughtuponthebottle.（喂牛奶长大）9)阶级、阶层thebourgeoisietheintellectualstheupperclass10)表示强调，“恰恰是，最理想的”Thisisthedrinkforhotweather.Heisthemanforthejob.2．a/an1)weak“one”Heneedsanassistant.Romewasnotbuiltinaday.Notawordwassaid.Waitamoment.2)一种，一类,通常用于抽象名词前Wehadaterriblyhotsummerthisyear.Physicsisascience.118 Hereisalifeofstruggle.Hespokewithanenthusiasmwhichinspiredusall.1)同一，相同beofa+n.Yourhatandmineareofasize.Theseswardsareofalength.2)“每一（个）”，常和表示时间或度量衡的名词连用Takethemedicinethreetimesaday.1．zero1)球类运动、棋类游戏等名词前Weplayedbasketballyesterday.Wedon’tplaybridge.Hetakesnointerestinskiing.2)季节前:WinterinSouthChinaisnotsocold.IlastsawtheBlakesinspring.☻表示特定的某一个季节，用定冠词theautumnof19113)用在某些时间名词前atdawn,daybreak,dusk,night,noon,sunrise,sunset,twilight,byday,bynight☻Generally,thedefinitearticleisusedwithreferencetoperiods,notpointsoftime:atdawn,atdaybreak,atsunrise,inthemorningatnoon,intheafternoonatsunset,atdusk,atnight,atmidnightintheeveningInsuchcircumstances,“the”and“at”aremutuallyexclusivebecause“at”isnormallyconceivedasreferringtoapointoftime,whereas“in”(alsootherprepositionssuchas“during,for”,whichindicatesaperiodoftime,usu.needsthearticle.Someanimalssleepduringthedayandworkduringthenight.4)餐食名称前:Haveyouhadbreakfast?Afterlunchthestudentsusuallytakeanap.☻特指某一次餐食，用定冠词或不定冠词。Howdidyouenjoythedinnerlastnight?IamtogiveadinnerfortheguestsfromTaiwan.餐食名称前带前置修饰语通常用不定冠词。arelaxedbreakfastarichdinneralatesupper5)用在表示使用何种交通工具的by-词组中bybus,bike,car,train,etc.6)大部分疾病名称前Motherislaidupwithhighbloodpressure.7)“普通名词+as”的让步状语从句ChildasTomis,youcan’tfoolhim.8)系动词turn/go（变成）后作补语，表示职业、职位、身份Hehasturnedscientist.118 Hehasturnedchairmanofthecommittee.HehasgoneDemocrat.1)单数可数名词用作紧密联系的并列结构或做列举之用时Hewascoveredwithsnowfromheadtofoot.Wearebrotherandsister/husbandandwife.I.UseswithProperNounsthea/anzero人名/品牌—人名的复数：一家人theJohnsons,theSmiths,—worksofanauthor,productsofabrandWhydon’tyouhangthePicassoonthatwall?TheKodakandtheFujiwouldmakenodifferencetome.—人名前带有表示职业的词语thepoetGraythepublisherCollins—转义为普通名词HelooksforwardtoowningaBenz.—转义为与其相仿的某人、某地或某事You’llneverbeaMozart.—用在姓名前或Mr/Mrs/Miss/Ms+姓氏前，表示“某一个，某位”，又不肯定的意味；也可表示“一位”，指某家庭成员AMr.Thomsonwantedtoseeyou.ShewasaStuart.她是斯图亚特家的人。AProfessorZhouappliedforthepost.Thedoor-keeperisaChen.ImetaJohnSmiththere.大多数人名带零冠词AdamSmithAbrahamLincoln地名/国名江、河、海洋、运河、山脉、群岛、海峡、海湾、半岛、沙漠用在地名或国名前，表示某时的情况或某种样子。HewouldneverthinkofsuchaNewYork.YouwillseeanevenstrongerChina.洲名、城市名、区名、路名、桥名、公园名、广场名寺院、宫殿、学校、车站、机场普通名词和形容词构成的专有名词118 theRoyalOperaHousetheBritishMuseumtheNationalGalleries专有名词带有限制性修饰语时the21st-centuryChinatheLondoninDickens’noveltheyoungShakespeareI.Compare:Haveyouseentheredandthewhiterosesinthegarden?Haveyouseentheredandwhiterosesoverthere?Mysonhasgonetoschool.Iamgoingtotheschooltoseetheheadmaster.Thepatienthasbeensenttohospital.He’sgoingtothehospitaltoseehisgirlfriend.Mydaughterusuallygoestobedatnineo’clock.Liedownonthebed.Theyareinchurchjustnow.Wewalkedasfarasthechurch.Hisfatherwassenttoprison.Wedrovepasttheprison.Isthereanybodyathome?XingjiangisthehomeofthefamousIlihorse.Canyoufinishreadingthebookinamonth?Yes,it’soutofquestion.No,it’soutofthequestion.Youcanaskhimforhelpincaseofneed.Thisisthecasewithme.Nobodywasallowedtoeatout.InthecaseofJonesanexceptionwasmade.Thosegarmentsarenolongerinfashion.HecanspeakFrenchinafashion.118 Thechildrenhavetakenquiteafancytotheirteacher.Theexhibitstookthefancyofthevisitors.Myoldhouseisnowinthepossessionofanoldlady.Hewasfoundinpossessionofexplosives.Pleasebepunctualinfuture.Whoknowswhatwillhappeninthefuture.Thereisachurchatthetopofthehill.Putthisrecordontopoftheothers.Abirdinthehandisworthtwointhebush.Therearerestaurantscloseathand.Wehavegotsomenewgoodsonhand.EverytimeIwasintrouble,myhusbandwouldnotlendahand.ThereisabigdeskinthefrontoftheclassroomThereisabigtreeinfrontoftheclassroom.Heisservingatthefront.118 Lecture6PronounsClassification:1.PersonalPronoun2.PossessivePronoun3.ReflexivePronoun4.ReciprocalPronoun5.DemonstrativePronoun6.InterrogativePronoun7.RelativePronoun8.IndefinitePronoun☻并列人称代词的排列顺序1.单数人称代词并列作主语时，其顺序为：第二人称→第三人称→第一人称,即you→he/she→it→I　　　You,heandIshouldreturnontime.2.复数人称代词作主语时，其顺序为：第一人称→第二人称→第三人称，即we→you→they☻在下列情况中，第一人称放在前面。1)在承认错误，承担责任时ItwasIandJohnthatmadeherangry.是我和约翰惹她生气了。IandTomaretoblame.2)在长辈对晚辈，长官对下属说话时，如长官/长辈为第一人称，Iandyoutrytofinishit.我和你去弄好它。4)当其他人称代词或名词被定语从句修饰时。Iandtheoldmanlivingnextdoorweandthechildrenspoiledtheplan☻人称代词与表示人的名词并列时，顺序为：名词→人称代词，但you常位于名词前。You,MaryandImustattendthemeeting.Myfriendandhewenttothestationtoseemeoff.☻与其他代词并列时，人称代词在前。She,Iandsomeothersdon’tliketogotothecinema.§1.PronounConcordNumber,gender,andpersonPersonalPossessiveReflexiveSing.Pl.Sing.Pl.Sing.Pl.FirstIwemy,mineour,oursmyselfourselvesSecondyouyouyour,yoursyour,yoursyourselfyourselvesThirdM.hetheyhistheir,theirshimselfthemselvesF.sheher,hersherself118 N.ititsitselfI.Pronounconcordinnumber1.Thechoiceofpronounnumberformsisgenerallydeterminedbythenumberofitsantecedent.ProfessorSmithandIwenttotheStatestogether.Westayedthereforthreeweeks.Irecognizedoneofthegirls,butIdidn’tspeaktoher.2.Fewpointsthatmeritattention:1)every-,some-,any-,no-compoundsasantecedent:grammaticalconcord,singular☻Ininformalstyle,whentheantecedentiseveryone,everybody,someone,somebody,anyone,anybody,onone,nobody,especiallyeverybodyoreveryone,theycanfollowtheprincipleofnotionalconcordandtakethepluralform.☻Witheverything,something,anythingandnothing,thepronounandcorrespondingdeterminercanonlytakethesingularform.Anybodycanattendthemeetingifheisinterested.Everybodytalkedatthetopofhisvoice.Everyonewasclappingtheirhands.Anythingonthetablecanbethrownaway,can’tit?2)coordinateconstructionasantecedent:notionalconcordMyfriendandroommatehasagreedtolendmehiscar.Myfriendandmyroommatehaveagreedtolendmetheircars.3)collectivenounasantecedent:notionalconcordTheteamhaswonitsfirstgame.Theteamarenowonthefloortakingtheirpracticeshotsatthebasket.4)“pluralnoun/pronoun+each”asantecedent:dependsonthepositionof“each”a.beforetheverb:pluralb.aftertheverb:singularTheyeachhadtheirproblems.Theyhadeachhisownproblem.II.Pronounconcordingenderagreewiththeantecedent1.male/femalenounasantecedentWhentheantecedentisapersonalmale/femalenoun,thepronounandcorrespondingdeterminershouldbemasculineorfemininerespectively.2.commongendernounasantecedent1)usedinthesingularforgenericreference:he,heorshe,his,hisorher2)baby,infant,child:it,he,she3)usedforspecificreference:accordingtotheactualsex3.neutralgendernounasantecedent:1)nonpersonal:it2)withemotion,orpersonified:he,she3)namesofcountries:a.geographicalunits:neutral,it/itsb.political/economicunits:feminine,she/herIII.Pronounconcordinperson118 Personisagrammaticalcategory.Itisagrammaticalformthatshowsthereferentialmeaningofpronouns.Intheuseofpronouns,wemustseetoitthattheyagreewiththeirantecedentsinperson.Thespeaker:firstpersonTheonespokento:secondpersonThehumanbeingorthingspokenabout:thirdperson1.onsententiallevelInasentenceorinasequenceofsentences,thepersonofapronounisdeterminedbythepersonofitsantecedent.JaneandImaymovetoOklahoma.Wehearthattheweatherthereishealthful.YouandLucycangotherebycar.Youdon’thavetowalkalongwithus.Tomspoketohismother,butshedidn’therehim.Ican’tfindanythingwrongwiththiscar;itrunswellandsoundssmooth.Thechildrennextdoorstoleatoyfrommyson.Theirmothertoldthemtoreturnthetoy.2.ontextuallevelInatext,pronounsshouldbeconsistentinpersonfrombeginningtoend.Thisisamatterofspeakingorwritingfromwhatpointofview,fromthespeaker’sorwriter’spointofvieworfromthatofathirdparty.Aconsistentpointofviewisaguaranteeofclarityinwriting.§2.CaseI.Choiceofpronouncaseforms:Subj.Obj.PossessiveImemy,mineweusour,oursyouyouyour,yourshehimhissheherher,hersititjtstheythemtheir,theirs1.Generallyspeaking,whenapersonalpronounisusedasthesubjectofasentence,ittakesthesubjectivecase;whenusedastheobject,theobjectivecase;whenusedtoshowpossession,thegenitivecase;Thetwinswerebored.Theyfoundnothingwhichinterestedthem.Theirvacationwasfastbecomingadisaster.2.Choicebetweensubjectiveandobjectivecase:1)Thechoicebetweensubjectiveandobjectivecasegenerallydependsonwhetherapronounfunctionsassubjectorobjectinasentence.HehelpsTomalot,nother.HehelpsTomalot,notshe.2)Ininformalstyle,whenapersonalpronounfunctionsasthesubjectofaminorsentencethatstandswithoutapredicateorwithonlyanonfiniteverbasthepredicator,the118 pronounusuallyoccursintheobjectiveratherthansubjectivecase.----AnyoneknowsTom’saddress?----Me.----IlikeEnglish.　　　----Metoo.　　　　　　　----Havemorewine?　　　--再来点酒喝吗?----Notme.　　　　　　　--我可不要了。What!Meangry!Surely,it’shimwiththerednoseyoumean,notme!What!Me(to)playhimatchess?No.1)Incomparativeclauses,thechoicebetweensubjectiveandobjectivecasefollowsthegeneralrule.Butininformalstyle,apersonalpronounmayappearintheobjectivecaseevenifactingasthesubjectofacomparativeclause,esp.whenthepronounisfollowedbysuchitemsasall/bothasappositive.Heisn’tassmartashewas.Itrustyouasmuchasher.Youaremuchclevererthanher(she).Heisclevererthanusall.Sheistallerthanthemboth.在表示比较的非正式的文体中，常用宾格代替主格。但如果比较状语的谓语保留，则主语只能用主格。HeistallerthanI/me.HeistallerthanIam.☻Compare:HehelpshermorethanI.Hehelpshermorethanme.2)InanSVCconstructionwherethesubjectcomplementisapersonalpronoun,theobjectivecasesoundsmuchmorenaturalthanthesubjectivecaseasrequiredbyaprescriptiverule.Who’sknockingatthedoor?It’sme.IfIwereher,Iwouldtaketheadvice.有时，在动词be或tobe后的人称代词视其前面的名词或代词而定。Ithoughtitwasshe.　　我以为是她。　　　　　　（主格----主格）Ithoughtittobeher.　　　　　　　　　　　　　（宾格----宾格）Iwastakentobeshe.　　我被当成了她。　　　　（主格----主格）Theytookmetobeher.　他们把我当成了她。　　（宾格----宾格）3)Inacleft-sentencewherethefocalelementisapersonalpronoun,thesubjectivecaseismuchmorecommonthantheobjectivecasethoughitispermissibletousetheobjectivecaseininformalstyle.Itishewhodidit.Itwashimwhosavedthedrowninggirl.4)Whenthesubjectofasentenceistheconstructionof“everybody/nobody+but/except+personalpronoun”,thepronounshouldoccurintheobjectivecaseaccordingtoaprescriptiverule,butusagerequiresthatthesubjectivecasebeusedsolongasitappearsinthesubjectarea.Iftheprepositionalphraseisshiftedtotheendofthesentence,thepronounusuallyoccursintheobjectivecaseeventhoughitremains118 partofthesubject.Nobodybutshecansolveourproposal.Everybodyexceptheagreedtoourproposal.Nobodycansolveourproblemsbuther.Everybodyagreedtoourproposalbuthim1)在电话用语中常用主格。　　　----IwishtospeaktoMary.--我想和玛丽通话。----Thisisshe.　　　　　　--我就是玛丽。2)Inawho-question,thecaseformoftheinterrogativepronounisdeterminedbyitsfunctioninthesentence.Informalstyle,thepronounshouldbeinthesubjectivecasewhenitfunctionsassubject,andintheobjectivecasewhenitfunctionsasobject.Whocansolveourproblems?Whomcanwetrustatsuchamomentinhistory?Ininformalstyle,however,solongasthepronoun(usedasobject)appearsinthesubjectslot,ittakesthesubjectiveformexceptwhendirectlyprecededbyapreposition.Whodidyouwanttonominate?Whoareyoutalkingabout?Towhomdidyouspeakonthecampus?3)Inarelativeclauseintroducedbywho,wheretherelativepronounfunctionsasthesubjectoftheclauseandisfollowedbyaninsertionsuchas“Ibelieve”,“Ithink”,thepronoungenerallyoccursinthesubjectiveratherthanobjectivecase,thoughitispossibletousetheobjectivecaseinveryinformalspokenlanguageSheisawomanwhopeoplebelievemaybethepresidentofthecompanysomeday.Shehasanadoptedchildwhoshesayswasanorphan.ImetamanwhomIthoughtwasalunatic.4)Inanominalclauseintroducedbywhoever,thechoiceofthecaseformfollowsthegeneralrule.Ifthiskindofrelativepronounactsasthesubjectcomplementafteraverbphrasecontainingtobe,itusuallyoccursintheobjectivecase.Theyalwayselectwhoeverispopular.Iwilltrustwhomevertheywillelect.Mysympathyiswiththispoorman,whomeverhemightthoughttobe.2.Choicebetweenobjectiveandgenitivecase1)an–ingparticipleclausewithapersonalpronounasitsownsubjecta.thepronounusu.takesthegenitivecase.Herdrivingoffsoabruptlywasmostunfortunate.Herrefusingtoaccepttheinvitationisreallysurprising.Idon’tmindtheirchangingtheirminds.Itoldthemaboutyourresigningfromoffice.b.Whenusedastheobjectorprepositionalcomplementation,thepronouncantaketheobjectivecaseininformalstyle.Idon’tmindtheir/themchangingtheirminds.Itoldthemaboutyour/youresigningfromoffice.☻iftheabovementioned–ingparticipleclauseisusedastheobjectofverbsasdefer,deny,postpone,etc.thepronouncanonlyappearinthegenitivecase.Hedoesn’tdenyhisbreakingtheagreement.118 Myfailuretocompletethetaskdeferredmygoingonaholiday.1)InanSVOCconstruction,wheretheobjectisrealizedbyapersonalpronoun,andtheobjectcomplementbyan–ingparticipleoraninfinitiveclause,thepronounonlytakestheobjectiveform.Isawhimfallingdownintotheriver.Theycaughthercheatingontheexam.Everyonewantedhimtobetheleaderofthemovement.Theyadvisedmetoreconsidermydecision.§3.ReflexivePronouns做宾语　a.有些动词需有反身代词，如absent,bathe,amuse,blame,dry,cut,enjoy,hurt,introduce,behave等。例如：　　　Weenjoyedourselvesverymuchlastnight.　我们昨晚玩得很开心。　　Pleasehelpyourselftosomefish.　请你随便吃点鱼。　b.用于及物动词+宾语+介词，如takepridein,beannoyedwith,helponeselftosth等。例如：Icouldnotdress（myself）upatthattime.　那个时候我不能打扮我自己。注：有些动词后不跟反身代词，如：getup,sit-down,standup,wakeup等。例如：　　Pleasesitdown.　请坐。　3）用作表语，如结构beoneself。例如：Iamnotmyselftoday.　我今天不舒服。4）用作同位语　　　Thethingitselfisnotimportant.　　事情本身并不重要。　5）在不强调的情况下，but,except,for等介词后宾语用反身代词或人称代词宾格均可。如：Noonebutmyself（me）ishurt.注意：　　a.反身代词本身不能单独作主语。　　　（错）Myselfdrovethecar.　　　（对）Imyselfdrovethecar.　我自己开车。118 　　b.但在and,or,nor连接的并列主语中，第二个主语可用反身代词，特别是myself作主语。例如：Charlesandmyselfsawit.查尔斯和我看见了这件事。相互代词1）相互代词只有eachother和oneanother两个词组。他们表示句中动词所叙述的动作或感觉在涉及的各个对象之间是相互存在的。例如：　　Itiseasytoseethatthepeopleofdifferentcultureshavealwayscopiedeachother.显而易见，不同文化的人总是相互借鉴的。2）相互代词的句法功能：　　a.作动词宾语；　　　Peopleshouldloveoneanother.人们应当彼此相爱。　　b.可作介词宾语；　　　Doesbark,cockscrow,frogscroaktoeachother.　吠、鸡鸣、蛙儿对唱。说明：传统语法认为，相互关系存在于两个人或物之间用eachother，存在于两个以上人和物之间用oneanother。现代英语中，两组词交替使用的实例也很多。例如：　　　Heputallthebooksbesideeachother/oneanother.他把所有书并列摆放起来。　　　Usuallythesesmallgroupswereindependentofeachother.这些小团体通常是相互独立的。　　c.相互代词可加-"s构成所有格。例如：　　　Thestudentsborrowedeachother"snotes.学生们互借笔记。one/another/theotherone…theother　只有两个　　　　　　　　　some…theothers　有三个以上　one…another，another…118 　some…others，others…　others=otherpeople/things　theothers=therest　剩余的全部　1）泛指另一个用another。　2）一定范围内两人（物），一个用one，另一个用theother。　3）一定范围内三者，一个用one，另一个用one（another），第三个可用theother，athird。　4）一定范围内，除去一部分人/物，剩余的全部用theothers。　5）泛指别的人或物时，用others当在一定范围内，除去一部分后，剩余部分但不是全部时，也用others。noone和none　a）none后跟of短语，既可指人又可指物，而noone只单独使用，只指人。　b）none作主语，谓语动词用单，复数均可，而noone作主语谓语动词只能是单数。例如：　　Noneofyoucouldliftit.你们中没有人可举起它。　----Didanyonecallmeupjustnow?　--刚才有人打电话给我吗?　----Noone.　　　　　　　　　　　--没有。§4.GenericUseofPersonalPronouns118 Lecture7VerbandVerbPhrase§1.ClassificationofVerbsI.MainverbsandauxiliariesAccordingtothedifferentrolesplayedintheformationofverbphrases,verbsaredividedintotwomajorclasses:mainverbsandauxiliaries.1.Mainverbs:alsocallednotionalverbsfunctioningastheheadandindicatingthebasicmeaningofaverbphrase1)Complementationa.Transitiveverbs:SVO,SVoO,SVOCb.Intransitiveverbs:SVc.Linkingverbs:SVC2)Lexicalmeaninga.Dynamicverbs:action,progressive,non-progressivea)Durativeverbsb)Transitionalverbsc)Momentaryverbsb.Stativeverbs:state,non-progressivea)be,haveb)thenotionofbeingandhavingc)asenseofperceptiond)feeling,mind,opinion2.auxiliaries:helpmainverbstoexpressvariousgrammaticalandmodalmeanings1)primaryauxiliaries:withnolexicalmeaningsoftheirown,haveonlygrammaticalfunctionsorgrammaticalmeaningsbe:helpthemainverbtoformtheprogressiveaspectorthepassivevoicedo:helpthemainverbtoexpressnegativemeaningsortoformquestions,ortohelpexpresstheemphaticaffirmativehave:helpthemainverbtoformtheperfectiveortheperfectiveprogressiveaspect2)modalauxiliaries:expressmodelmeaningscan/could,may/might,will/would,shall/should,must,oughtto,dare,need,usedto3)semi-auxiliaries:canhelpthemainverbtoformthecomplexverbphraseandexpressthemodalmeaningontheonehand,andcan,whenprecededbyotherauxiliaries,functionasmainverbsontheotherhandhaveto,seemtoII.Single-wordverbsandPhrasalverbs1.single-wordverbs:consistsofonlyoneword2.phrasalverbs:composedoftwoormorewords1)verb+preposition:2)verb+adverbparticle3)verb+noun+preposition4)verb+noun118 I.FiniteandNon-finiteverbs1.finiteverbs:havethetense,thepresent,thepast2.non-finiteverbs:notense,buthaveaspectII.RegularverbsandIrregularverbs1.regularverbs:pasttenseand–edparticipleformsarepredictable2.irregularverbs:withunpredictablepastand/or–edparticiple§2.ASurveyofTense,Aspect,VoiceandMoodI.TenseandAspect1.tense:agrammaticalformassociatedwithverbsthattellingthedistinctionsoftime1)thepresenttense2)thepasttense2.aspect:agrammaticaltermindicateswhetheranactionorstateatagiventimeisviewedascompleteorincomplete.1)theprogressiveaspect:bedoing2)theperfectiveaspect:havedone3.Acombinationofthetwotensesandthetwoaspectsmakesitpossibleforafiniteverbphrasetotakethefollowingeightformssimpleprogressiveperfectiveperfectiveprogressivepresentdo/doesam/is/aredoinghave/hasdonehave/hasbeendoingpastdidwas/weredoinghaddonehadbeendoingII.Voicevoice:agrammaticalcategory,aformoftheverbwhichshowswhetherthesubjectofasentenceactsorisactedon1.activevoice:thesubjectistheagentordoerofanaction2.passivevoice:thesubjectistherecipientoftheactionbedonesimpleprogressiveperfectiveperfectiveprogressivepresentam/is/aredoneam/is/arebeingdonehave/hasbeendonehave/hasbeenbeingdonepastwas/weredonewas/werebeingdonehadbeendonehadbeenbeingdoneIII.Moodmood:agrammaticalcategory,afiniteverbformthatindicateswhetheranutteranceexpressesafact,acommandorrequest,oranon-factandhypothesis1.indicativemood:afact2.imperativemood:acommandorrequest,occursinanimperativesentence3.subjunctivemood:anon-factandhypothesis118 Lecture8TenseandAspectI.Simplepresent1.presenttime1)Timelesspresent:expressionofeternaltruthsandproverbs2)Habitualpresent:habitualorrecurrentuse3)Momentarypresent4)Instantaneouspresenta.Declarationswherethespeechandtheactionarethesamethingb.Sportscommentariesdescribinganeventoflittleornodurationbegunandcompletedapproximatelyatthemomentofspeechc.Demonstrationsofhowtodosth.2.Pasttime1)with“communicationverbs”toexpressthepresenteffectofinformationreceivedinthepast2)historicpresent:adeviceofstory-tellingandnewsreportingtoaddvividnessa.newspaperheadlinesb.photographiccaptionsc.stagedirections3.Futuretime1)animmutablefutureeventpredeterminedbyatimetableoraschedulewhichisverydefiniteandunalterable2)conditional/temporalclausesintroducedbyif/when3)Ihope/betthat…4)seetoit/makesure/makecertainthat…II.Simplepast1.Pasttime:1)Pastevent2)Paststate3)Pasthabit2.Futureandpresenttime1)attitudinalpast:inindependentclausesexpressingaquestion,requestorsuggestionwiththeeffectofbeinglessdirectandmorepolite2)hypotheticalpast:independentclauses,expressanon-factIII.Presentprogressive:1.Presenttime1)anactioninprogressatthemomentofspeaking2)anactioninprogressataperiodoftimeincludingthepresent2.Futuretime:3)anearfuturehappeningaccordingtoadefiniteplanorarrangement4)intemporalandconditionalclauses,onconditionthatthereisfuturereferenceinthemainclause3.Pasttime:anactionintheimmediatepast,generallyexpressedbycommunicationverbs4.Politerrequest:wonder,want,hope,etc.IV.Presentperfective(progressive)118 1.finisheduse:thepresentresultofapasteventstilloperativeatthepresentmoment.He’sturnedoffthelight.（Thelightisstilloffnow.）Ihavewrittentheseletters.2.unfinisheduse:anactionorstateextendsoveraperiodlastinguptothepresentmoment,possiblyextendingintothefutureaswell,commonlyaccompaniedbyanadverbialexpressingdurationHe’slivedheresince1960.(Theperiodofresidenceextendseithertothepresentortosomespecifieddateinthepast.)I’vebeenwritinglettersforanhour.☻Unfinisheduseisnotappliedtomomentaryverbsandtransitionalverbs.open,buy,break,go,come,arrive,die,leave,etc.Ihaveboughtthisbook.Ihaveboughtthisbookfortwodays.(X)Iboughtthisbooktowdaysago.HeBeijingforfiveyears.A.hascometoB.hasbeeninC.hasarrivedD.hasgoneto☻ContrastbetweenpresentperfectiveandsimplepastPresentperfective:referstosomeindefinitehappeninginthepast;hassomeconnectionwiththepresentSimplepast:anactionorstatehappenedatadefinitepasttimehasnoconnectionwiththepresentHelivedinEnglandin1988.HehaslivedinEnglandfortenyears.☻在由“until(till/upto)now,uptothepresent,sofar,in(for/over/during)thepast(last/resent)few(several/two,etc.)months(days,…)等作状语的句型中，谓语动词用现在完成时。Wehaveseeneachotherthreetimesinthepastthreeweeks.Sofarwehaveonlydiscussedthefirstfivechapters.Heperhapshasmadesomefriendsbynow.☻Itis/hasbeen+aperiodoftime+sinceItis/hasbeenabout7yearssinceIcamehere.Itis/hasbeenalongtimesinceIlastcametothetown.☻This/Itis(was)thefirst(second,…)timethat+perfectiveItisthesecondtimehehasbeenoutwithheralone.ThatwasthethirdtimethatIhadvisitedtheplace.☻perfective+since1.Perfectiveaspectisoftenaccompaniedbyasince-phraseorasince-clausetodenoteacontinuousstateoractivityfromapointinpasttimeuntilnow.2.Theverbinthesince-clauseiscommonlythesimplepastofadynamicverbdenotingnon-continuousactivity.MrHelfandhastaughtEnglishatthisinstitutesince1979.Ihaven’tseenhimsincehisweddingday.HehasbeenstudyinglinguisticssincehewenttotheUnitedStates.3.Sometimes,theverbinthesince-clausemaybethesimplepastofadynamicverbofcontinuousactivityorthatofastativeverb,inwhichcasethetimespanreferstotheendorcompletionofthatcontinuousactivityorstate.4.Ifweusethiskindofverbinthesince-clauseandmeantosaythatthecontinuousactivity118 orstateextendsupthepresentmoment,wewillhavetousethepresentperfectiveinsteadofthesimplepast.HehaswrittentomefrequentlysinceIwasill.HehaswrittentomefrequentlysinceIhavebeenill.☻havebeentovs.havegonetohavebeento:到过某地，说话时很可能不在那里，已经回来，侧重指经历havegoneto:已经去了某地，说话时已不在这，可能到达那里，也可能在路上。Summary:1.Politeness:hope,wonder,want,a)attitudinalpastb)presentprogressivec)pastprogressive2.hypotheticalmeaning:it’stime,Iwish,I’drather,asif,onlyif,ifa)simplepastb)pastprogressivec)pastperfective118 Lecture9FutureTimeInEnglish,futuretimeisexpressedbymeansofmodalauxiliaries,bysemi-auxiliaries,orbythesimplepresentandpresentprogressiveforms.MeansofexpressingfuturetimeMeaningwill/shalldocolouredbymodalmeaningsfrompredictiontointentionandvolitionYouwillfeelbetteraftertakingthismedicine.I’msureIshan’tlosemywayinthewoods.Ipromisetopayhimbackintime,buthewon’tlendittome.will/shallbedoingpurefuture,1.anactionwhichwilloccurinthenormalcourseofeventswithoutbeingcolouredbyvolitionorintentionThetrainwillbearrivingattwoo’clock.Willbegoinghomenextweekend?2.anactionthatisstillgoingonatagivenfuturetimeI’llbeworkinginGenevaduringMay.will/shallhavedoneanactionthathasjustfinishedbeforeagivenfuturetimeI’llhavefinishedmyworkbyfivethisafternoon.BytheendofnextmonthIshallhavebeenworkingherefor20yearsexactly.begoingtodo1.intentionofdoingsth.inthenearfutureI’mgoingtorepairmyradio.2.prediction:therearesignsthatsth.willhappenthepresentprogressiveanactionthatwillhappeninthenearfutureaccordingtoapresentarrangement,plan,orprogramme:go,come,leave,start,arrive,etc.We’releavingonFriday.We’removingtoadifferenthotelthedayaftertomorrow.Wearegoingtoaconcerttonight.betodoafuturehappeningbasedonapresentplanorarrangement,verymuchusedinnewspapersTheQueenistovisitJapannextyear.simplepresent1.inconditionalandtemporalclausesIfshecomes,I’lltellheraboutit.Itwon’tbelongbeforetherainstops.2.animmutablefutureeventpredeterminedbyatimetableoraschedulewhichisverydefiniteandunalterable:transitionalverbsSheretiresnextmonth.TomorrowisSaturday.118 NextChristmasfallsonThursday.FuturetimePastfuturewill/shalldoWoulddowill/shallbedoingwill/shallhavedonebegoingtodowas/weregoingtodothepresentprogressiveThepastprogressivebetodowas/weretodo,was/wereabouttodosimplepresent118 Lecture10VoiceI.Transformation1.1.不及物动词或不及物动词短语，如appear,diedisappear,end（vi.结束）,fail,happen,last,lie,remain,sit,spread,stand,breakout,cometrue,fallasleep,keepsilence,loseheart,takeplace等没有无被动语态。例如：　Afterthefire,verylittleremainedofmyhouse.大火过后，我家烧得所剩无几。　比较：rise,fall,happen是不及物动词；raise,seat是及物动词。　（错）Thepricehasbeenrisen.　（对）Thepricehasrisen.　（错）Theaccidentwashappenedlastweek.　　　　（对）Theaccidenthappenedlastweek.　（错）Thepricehasraised.　　　　　　　　　　　（对）Thepricehasbeenraised.　（错）Pleaseseat.　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　（对）Pleasebeseated.2.不能用于被动语态的及物动词或动词短语，如fit,have,hold,marry,own,wish,cost,notice,watchagreewith,arriveat/in,shakehandswith,succeedin,sufferfrom,happento,takepartin,walkinto,belongto等。例如：　Thiskeyjustfitsthelock.这把钥匙只配这把锁。　Yourstoryagreeswithwhathadalreadybeenheard.你说的与我们听说的一致。3.系动词无被动语态，如appear,bebecome,fall,feel,get,grow,keep,look,remain,seem,smell,sound,stay,taste,turn等。例如：Itsoundsgood.听上去不错。4.带同源宾语的及物动词如die/death,dream/dream，live/life等，以及反身代词，相互代词，不能用于被动语态。例如：Shedreamedabaddreamlastnight.她昨晚做了个恶梦。II.Application1.Thechoicebetweentheactiveorpassivevoiceofanyparticularverbisusuallyamatteroftaste,notofcorrectness.However,itisimportanttorememberthatapassiveverbisusuallylessforcefulthananactiveoneandthatalongsuccessionofpassiveverbsusuallyproducesanawkwardandunpleasanteffect.Awkwardpassive:Atthebeginningofhisschoolyear,asecond-handedcomputerwasboughtbyTim,andacomputercoursewassignedupforbyhim.Weakpassive:Anexcitinggamewasexpectedbyeveryone,butavictorywaspredictedbynoone.Successionofpassives:WewereinvitedbyDr.Rowlandtoseehisfamouscollectionofpreciousstones.Alargetablehadbeenplacedinthecenterofhisstudy.ThegreenclothbywhichthetablewascoveredwasremovedbyDr.Rowland,andglitteringcollectionofexquisitejewelswasrevealedbeneaththeglasstopofthetable.Althoughweweredelightedbythedisplay,thereweresomanyprecious118 stonesthattheycouldnotbefullyappreciatedbyus.Itwasconcludedbyallofusthatwewouldbemoreimpressedbyonebeautifulrubythanbyadozen.Thepassiveisparticularlyusefulintwocommonsituations.1.Weusethepassivetoexpressanactioninwhichtheagentisunknown.Thegatehadbeenclosedbeforewegotthere.2.Weusethepassivetoexpressanactioninwhichitisdesirablenottodisclosetheagent.Amistakehasbeenmadeinissuingthisnews.I.ActiveorPassiveMeaning:1.主动形式表示被动意义　1）wash,clean,cook,iron,look,cut,sell,read,wear,feel,draw,write,sell等。例如：　　Thebooksellswell.　　这本书销路好。　　Thisknifecutseasily.　这刀子很好用。　2）blame,let（出租）,remain,keep,rent,build等。例如：　　Iwastoblamefortheaccident.事故发生了，我该受指责。　　Muchworkremains.还有许多活要干。　3）在need,require,want,worth（形容词）,deserve后的动名词必须用主动形式。例如：　　Thedoorneedsrepairing.=Thedoorneedstoberepaired.门该修了。　　Thisbookisworthreading.　这本书值得一读。被动形式表示主动意义，如bedetermined,bepleased,begraduated（from）,beprepared（for）,beoccupied（in）,getmarried等。例如：　　Heisgraduatedfromafamousuniversity.他毕业于一所有名的大学。　　注意：表示同某人结婚，用marrysb.或getmarriedtosb.均可。例如：　　Hemarriedarichgirl.他与一个富妞结婚了。　　Hegotmarriedtoarichgirl.118 Lecture11Mood118 Lecture12ModalAuxiliariesI.Useingeneral:ModalsNon-epistemicuseEpistemicusecan/couldability,permissionpossibilitymay/mightpermissionpossibilitywill/wouldVolitionpredictabilityshould/oughttoobligationlogicalnecessitymustobligationlogicalnecessityII.Non-epistemicuse1.Ability:can,could,beabletoAbilitycanpresentability:1.asingleinstanceofability;2.generalabilityfutureabilitycouldpastability:generalabilityinpositivestatementsbeabletopresentability;futureability;pastabilityIcanclimbcliffs.Icanclimbthiscliff.Ican’tdoitnow,butIcandoitlater.AsIhavegotenoughmoney,Ican/ambeabletohelpher.I’llbeabletospeakGermaninanothertwomonths.Shecouldplaythepianowhenshewasonlysix.Hewasabletotranslatethearticlewithoutadictionary.Icouldn’t/wasn’tabletoplaythepianowhenIwasatschool.Hegotsodrunkthathecouldn’t/wasn’tabletofindthefrontdoor.2.Permission:can,could,may,mightPermissionProhibitioncancolloquial;givepermissioncannotcouldmorepolite;possiblyusedtogivepermissioninpasttimecontextsmaymoreformal;givepermissionmaynotmightmoreformal;morepolite;possiblyusedtogivepermissioninpasttimecontextsmustnotbenottoNote:1.“mightnot”isnotthepastformof“maynot”2.Thenotionofrefusingtogivepermissioninthepastisusuallyexpressedbyotherforms:eg.allow,permitHewasnotallowedtogo.Ididn’tpermithimtogo3.Volition:will,would,shall118 4.Obligation:should,oughtto,must,have(got)toObligationNoteshouldadvise,urge;subjectiveopinionshould/oughttohavedone:talkaboutthingswhichdidnothappenthoughtheyweresupposedtooughttoadvise,urge;moreobjectiveforcemusturge,order;Authority;subjectiveopinion;presentneedn’t:thenegativeformof“must”denotingabsenceofobligationhave(got)toobjectiveforce;past,present,futureIV.Epistemicuse:1.Scale:UncertainmightmaycouldcanshouldoughttowouldwillmustCertainThatmightbeGeorge.ThatmustbeGeorge.2.Syntacticfeatures:1)cancombinewithaperfectiveinfinitive2)cancombinewithaprogressiveinfinitive3)canbeusedinexistentialsentences4)cancombinewithstativeverbs5)canbeusedwithaninanimatesubject3.Timereference1)Indirectspeech,themodalstatementisinvariablymadewithpresenttimereference,becausejudgementsordeductionsareusuallymadeatthemomentofspeaking2)Thetimereferenceofthecontentsofthejudgementordeductionisdeterminedbytheformoftheinfinitivethatfollowsthemodal.a.infinitiveinthesimpleorprogressiveform:presentorfuturetimeb.infinitiveintheperfectiveform:pasttimea)speculateaboutpastevents:may/might/can/could/musthavedoneHemay/mighthavebeenhurt.Hecan’t/couldhavebeenhurt.b)unrealizedpossibility:might/couldhavedone118 Youmighthavekilledyourself.Youmighthavefinishedtheworklastweek.Icouldhavereportedyou.Icouldhavepassedtheexamination,butIfailed.Note:1)“can”inepistemicuseisusuallyusedinnegativestatementsandquestions.Shecan’thavemissedthetrain.Canthenewsbetrue?2)“may”inepistemicuseoccursonlyinstatements,notinquestions.Inwrittenlanguage,“can’t”isoftenpreferableto“maynot”.3)“must”inepistemicuseisgenerallyusedinpositivestatements.4)will;would:a.specificpredictability:concernedwiththeforecastonthepartofthespeakeraboutapresenteventnotdirectlyobservable.b.habitualpredictability:predictiononthehappeningofanhabitualaction,likethesimplepresentandthesimplepastinhabitualusec.timelesspredictability:predictionontheappearanceofaphenomenoninanobjectiveprocess,thesameasthe“timelesspresent”V.Othermodals1.need,dare2.usedto118 Lecture13Non-finiteVerbThenon-finiteverbsaresocalledbecausetheyarenotmarkedfortenseorforsubject-verbconcord.Werecognizethreetypesofnon-finiteverbs:infinitive,-ingparticipleand-edparticiple.Allthethreenon-finiteverbsmaybeusedindifferentfunctions.Theycarrydifferentimplications,eveninthesameenvironment:thebookstobepublished(future)thebooksbeingpublished(present)thebookspublished(past)Butthemostdifficultpartofthejobofhandlingnon-finiteverbsiswhethertousetheinfinitiveorthe-ingparticipleaftercertainverbs.Grammarrules,ifthereareany,arenotveryhelpfulatthat.§1.InfinitiveI.Forms:VoiceAspectActivePassiveSimpletodotobedonePerfectivetohavedonetohavebeendoneProgressivetobedoing/PerfectiveProgressivetohavebeendoing/1.Aspect:TheAspectoftheinfinitiveindicatesthesequenceoftheactionsoftheinfinitiveandtheverbofthemainclause.1）thesimpleinfinitive:theactionoftheinfinitivehappensatthesametimewithoraftertheverbofthemainclauseIhadtopretendtobeamaninordertogetajob.Reportersaresenttocovertheevent.2）theperfectiveinfinitive:theactionoftheinfinitivehappensbeforetheactionoftheverbofthemainclauseTheyaresaidtohavediscussedtheproblem.☻be,wish,hope,mean,intend,plan等动词的过去式以及wouldlike,shouldlike与动词不定式的完成体连用，表示过去想做而未做的事Iwishedtohavehelpedyou,butIhadnomoneythen.Iintendedtohaveseenyoulastweek,butIwasverybusy.Hewouldliketohaveattendedthemeeting,buthewasill.3）theprogressiveinfinitive:theactionoftheinfinitiveandtheactionoftheverbofthemainclausehappenatthesametimeThepolicearereportedtobesearchingforthemanwhorobbedthebank.2.Voice:Thevoiceoftheinfinitiveindicatestherelationshipbetweentheinfinitiveanditslogical118 subject.1)generalrule:activevoiceisusedwhenthelogicalsubjectistheagentoftheactionoftheinfinitive,whilepassivevoiceisusedwhenthelogicalsubjectistherecipientoftheactionoftheinfinitive.Hedoesn’tliketobetreatedlikeaguest.Thesebooksarenotallowedtobetakenoutofthereading-room.Itisverydangerousforchildrentoplaywithfire.2)Aspostmodifiersofnouns:a.Usually,whenaninfinitiveisusedtomodifyanoun,thelogicalsubjectoftheinfinitiveisthenounitmodifies,sothevoiceisusuallydeterminedbytherelationshipbetweentheinfinitiveandthenounitmodifies.Thequestiontobediscussedatthenextmeetingwillbeahardnuttocrack.Hewasthelastguesttoarrive.Haveyougotakeytounlockthedoor?Thisisthebestbookonthesubjecttoappearthisyear.b.Insomecontexts,bothactiveandpassiveformsarepossiblewithoutdifferenceinmeaning.Givemealistofpeopletoinvite/tobeinvited.Theproceduretofollow/tobefollowedisthis.Themantoconsult/tobeconsultedisMrJohnson.c.Iftheagentoftheactionoftheinfinitiveisthesubjectofthemainclause,theinfinitivetakestheactiveformeventhoughitindicatesapassivemeaning.Ihavegotalotofletterstowrite.We’vegotalotofcasestoinvestigate.Compare:Secretary:Ihavegotalotofletterstotype.(“I”istheagentof“type”)Boss:Ihavegotalotofletterstobetyped.(“I”isnottheagentof“type”)3)Therebe+n.+to-infinitivea.Insomecontexts,bothactiveandpassiveformsarepossiblewithoutdifferenceinmeaning.Thereisnotimetolose/tobelost.b.Inothercases,anactiveformseemsmorenaturalthanthepassive.Thereisalotofworktodo.c.Insomeothercases,theactiveinfinitiveandthepassivemeandifferently.Therewasnothingtosee.(Therewasnothingforonetosee)Therewasnothingtobeseen.(Thethingbeinglookedforwasnotthere.)Thereisnothingtodo.(Wehavenothingtodo.Wecangonow.)Thereisnothingtobedone.(Wecandonothing.)Thereisonlyonethingtodo.(Wehaveonlyonethingtodo.)Thereisonlyonethingtobedone.(Wehavenootherways.)4)Sometimesusagerequirestheactiveinfinitiveratherthanthepassive,eventhoughthelogicalsubjectofheinfinitiveistherecipientoftheaction.Thishouseistolet.Youarenottoblameforwhathappened.Alotremainstodo.118 1)Infinitivesafteradj.susuallytakestheactiveforms.Thequestionisdifficulttoanswer.Theroadisbusytocross.I.Notesontheuseoftheinfinitivesign1.to-infinitive&bareinfinitiveoccasionsonwhichbareinfinitivesareused1）followthemodals2）followsemi-auxiliaries3）followmodalidioms:wouldrather,wouldsooner,would(just)assoon,may/might(just)aswell,cannotbut,cannothelpbut,etc.4）followrather/soonerthan,esp.whenrather/soonerthantakestheinitialposition.5）oftencombinedwithamainverbtoformsomefixedcombinations6）usuallyappearsafter“causativeverb+object”let,make,have7）usuallyoccursafter“senseverb+object”see,hear,observe,notice,feel,watch8）after“haveknown+object”,9）oftenappearsafter“help”or“help+object”10）usuallyappearsafterthepreposition“except/but”whenthereisaformofthemainverb“do”beforethepreposition,whichisotherwisefollowedbyato-infinitive11）usuallyappearsinthecomplementwhenthesubjectoftheSVCpatterncontainsaformofthemainverb“do”12）appearsafter“why/whynot”13）otheridiomaticusage☻WhenStructures6),7)and8)areusedinpassivevoice,to-infinitiveshouldbeused.1.Infinitivesignusedalong1）Toavoidrepetition,theinfinitivesigncansometimesbeusedalone,thatistosay,thebaseintheto-infinitivecanbeomitted,sometimestogetherwithitscomplementation.Thiskindofomissionisquitecommonininformalstyle.GeorgesaysthatheisgoingtoleaveShanghai,butIdon’tthinkhereallywantsto.Youmaygoifyouwishto.2）Ifthebaseoftheinfinitiveistheverbbeorhave,itshouldberetained,eventhoughitscomplementationisomitted.A:Aren’tyouthemanager?B:No,Idon’twanttobe.A:Hehasn’tfinishedyet.B:Well,heoughttohave.3）Insomecontexts,boththeto-infinitiveanditscomplementationcanbeomittedsothatnotraceremainsoftheinfinitive.Youwillmakeitifyoutry(to).I’dliketodoitnow,butIhaven’tgotthetime(to)2.Ellipsisoftheinfinitivesign1）Whentwoto-infinitivesarecoordinatedbyandoror,thesecondtoisusuallyomittedunlessthereisacontrastivemeaning.118 Iintendtocallonhimanddiscussthisquestionagain.1）Whenthereisacontrastivemeaning,thesecondtomustberetained.Tobeornottobe,thatisthequestion.2）Theinfinitivesigncannotbeomittedifthereisnocoordinatorbetweenthecoordinateinfinitives.Pleasegototheseasidetoswim,togetsuntanned.3）Theinfinitivesigncannotbeomittedifasequenceofinfinitivesoccurinaparallelconstruction.Thestudentmustlearntoreadextensively,toanalyzewhathereadsandtosummarizethemainpointspresented.1.infinitivetoorprepositionto1)Verb+prepositiontoaddto,agreeto,adhereto,admitto,alludeto,amountto,attendto,attestto,bowto,clingto,cometo,correspondto,confessto,consent,contributeto,getto,objectto,pertainto,reactto,resortto,revertto,referto,relateto,submitto,stickto,taketo,witnessto,yieldto☻agree,swear,come,get+to+do/doing:agreetodo:听从别人而同意agreetodoing:同意，答应，允诺Weagreedtodoit.Mary’sfatherhasagreedtohermarryingJohn.sweartodo:发誓做某事sweartodoing:强调地说Hesworetotellthetruth.Hesworetohavingpaidforthegoods.cometodo:终于…cometodoing:到达，涉及到Hecametorealizethathewasmistaken.Whenitcomestohelpinghiswifewiththehousework,Johnnevergrumbles.gettodo:达到某一阶段gettodoing:开始做某事Whenyougettoknowhim,you’lllikehim.Lyinginbed,unabletosleep,Igottothinkinghowniceitwouldbetogoawayandstartanewlifesomewhereelse.2)Verb+noun/pronoun+prepositiontoascribe…to,apply…to,attribute…to,abbreviate…to,accustom…to,commit…to,devote…to,dedicate…to,owe…to,prefer…to,reconcile…to,reduce…to,resign…to3)Verb+-edparticiple+prepositiontobeaccustomedto,beabbreviatedto,bereducedto,beresignedto,bereconciledto,bedevotedto,begivento,beusedto4)Verb+adverbparticle+prepositiontogetroundto,getdownto,getnearto,lookforwardto,faceupto,feelupto5)Adjective+prepositiontoadjacentto,averseto,deafto,equalto,loyalto,preferableto,similarto,superiorto,118 sensitiveto,tantamountto1)Noun+prepositiontoobstacleto,limitto,aidto,objectionto,indifferenceto,keyto,answerto,hinderanceto2)Complexprepositionsendingintoaccordingto,asto,owingto,preliminaryto,preparatoryto,previousto,priorto,thanksto,inadditionto,inrelationto,withaviewto,withaneyetoI.Adjective+infinitive1.TypeIThistypeofSVCpatternischaracterizedbythefactthatthesubjectofthemainclauseisalsothelogicalsubjectoftheinfinitive.Theadjectivesoccurringinthispatternarealldynamicadjectives.1)adj.sshowingemotionalfeelings.Heisgladetohelpothers.Hewasverypleasedtobegiventhejob.I’msorrytobelate.Iwassurprisedtoseehowangryhewas.2)adj.sshowinggoodorbadluckHewasluckytobeabletofindajob.Hewasfortunatetoescapebeinginjureintheaccident.Shewasunluckynototwinthegame.3)adj.sshowingmentalstateorpersonalattitudeHeisanxioustoseeher.I’mdeterminedtofinishtheworktonight.Wearereadytomaketheattempt.Ifthesubjectofthemainclauseisnotthelogicalsubjectoftheinfinitive,thelogicalsubjectshouldbeexpressedwithanintroductoryforI’mquitewillingforyourbrothertocomewithme.I’mafraidforhertogoswimmingalone.4)adj.sshowingcharacterorbehavioraltraitHeisfoolishtomeetheragain.Shewascarelesstobreadthecup.Youarekindtosayso.Theywerethoughtfultocomehomeearly.☻ThesesentencescanbetransformedintoacorrespondingIT-pattern.Itisfoolishforhimtomeetheragain.Itwasthoughtfulofthemtocomehomeearly.2.TypeIIInthistypeofSVCpattern,thesubjectofthemainclauseisthelogicalobjectoftheinfinitive.Theadjectivesaregenerallystativeadjectives.Thatquestionisdifficulttoanswer.Thiscarisexpensivetooverhaul.Dirtywaterisnastytodrink.Sheispleasanttotalkto.☻ThesesentencescanbetransformedintoananticipatoryIT-construction:Itisdifficulttoanswerthatquestion.118 Itisnastytodrinkdirtywater.☻Butthereareconstructionsofthesametypethatcannotbesotransformed:Thecoffeeisbittertotaste.Theyareattractivetolookat.Theboxisheavytomove.Theriverisnarrowtosailup.1.TypeIIIInthistype,thesubjectofthemainclausemaybethelogicalsubjectorlogicalobjectoftheinfinitive.Theadjectivesusedinthisstructureareusuallytheonesshowingdifficultyoreasiness,quicknessorslowness.Inmostcases,theadjectivecanbeturnedintoacorrespondingadverbindeepstructure.Thesebooksareeasytosell.=Itiseasytosellthesebooks.=Thesebooksselleasily.Hewashesitanttotakeaction.=Hetookactionhesitantly.Heisquicktotakeoffence.=Hetakesoffencequickly.☻forv.sofItwasgoodofyoutogojoggingwithme.(Youwerekindtodothat.)Itwasgoodforyoutogojoggingwithme.(Itwasagood,healthyexperienceforyou.)I.Noun(phrase)+infinitive2.Heretheinfinitiveisusedaspostmodification.3.Semanticrelations1)subject-verbrelation:thenoun(phrase)isthelogicalsubjectoftheinfinitive:Jimwasthelastguesttoarrive.Haveyougotakeytounlockthedoor.2)verb-objectrelation:thenoun(phrase)isthelogicalobjectoftheinfinitive.Hehasalargefamilytosupport.Thisisthebestbooktoread.Inthecaseofanintransitiveinfinitive,anappropriateprepositionshouldbeadded.Theboyneedsafriendtoplaywith.Thereisnothingtotalkabout.3)thenounphraseisinappositiontotheinfinitiveTheboyhadanimpulsetojumpoverthefence.Ihavenowishtoquarrelwithyou.4.noun+infinitivev.s.noun+preposition+-ingparticiple1)noun+infinitive/+preposition+-ingparticipleattempt,chance,effort,freedom,intention,necessity,opportunity,reason,time,wayThedoctormadeaboldattempttosave/atsavingthechild’slife.Theymadeanefforttofinish/atfinishingtheworkinoneday,buttheyfailed.Theliberatedpeoplewillhavethefreedomtochoose/ofchoosingtheirownsocialsystem.2)noun+infinitiveability,agreement,ambition,anxiety,curiosity,disposition,mind,obligation,permission,refusal,reluctance,temptation,tendency,wish,etc118 Theyhavetheabilitytoproducenuclearweapons.Theysignedanagreementtorentthehouse.Heisundernoobligationtodothat.Herrefusaltoaccepthisofferofhelpisreallydisappointing.Woodhasatendencytoswellifitgetswet.1)noun+preposition+-ingparticiplehope,method,aptitude,delay,difficulty,excuse,experience,interest,genius,habit,idea,motive,objection,passion,plan,possibility,skill,successEdisonhadagreataptitudeforinventingnewthings.HaveyouhadmuchexperienceinteachingEnglish?Thereisnohopeofwinningthegame.Wemustimproveourmethodofteachingforeignlanguages.Ahundredyearsago,fewpeoplebelievedinthepossibilityofflying.1.theonly/ordinal/adj.-est+n.+infinitiveColumbuswasbelievedtobethefirstpersontosetfootontheAmericancontinentI’mafraidheistheonlypersontoconsultaboutyourillness.Thebestwaytodealwithhimisnottogiveaninch.Ifyoudo,he’lltaleafood.Thiswasthelastplaytobeperformedthatyear.I.theCollocationofInfinitivewithVerbs2.verb+infinitiveagree,aim,apply,arrange,choose,claim,decide,demand,desire,determine,endeavour,expect,hope,learn,manage,offer,pledge,prepare,pretend,profess,promise,refuse,resolve,seek,swear,threaten,undertake,venture,volunteer,vowWemustagreetodiffer.Iaimtofinishittomorrow.Lastyearheappliedtoretire.lSomeoftheseverbssuchasagree,arrange,promise,resolve,claim,decide,demand,determine,hope,pretend,profess,swear,threaten,etccanalsobefollowedbyacorrespondingthat-clause.Weagreedtostartearly.=Weagreedthatwewouldstartearly.Ihopetobeabletocome.=IhopethatI’llbeabletocome.3.verb+object+infinitive1）Verbsofperceptionorsenseverbssee,hear,watch,feel,etc.Didyouseehimenterthebuilding?2）causativeverbshave,let,make,etc.Don’tforgettohaveyourchildrencomewithyou.3）somephrasalverbsarrangefor,askfor,relyon,etc.I’llarrangeforyoutomeetthemanager.4）verbsshowingmentalstateconsider,declare,find(=consider),prove,think,believe,discover,feel(=think),imagine,judge,suppose,understand,etc.118 Ibelievehimtobereliable.☻Inthiscase,theinfinitiveafterverbsisinvariably“tobe”.Weknowhimtobereliable.Hedeclaredhimselftobeinnocent.☻Aftersuchverbsasconsider,declare,find,prove,think,theinfinitive“tobe”canbeomitted.Heprovedhimself(tobe)innocent.☻Iftheinfinitive“tobe”isintheperfectiveform,thenitcannotbeomitted.Weconsideredhimtohavebeenfoolish.☻Inviewofthefactthatthenounorpronouninthiscontextmaybeviewedastheobjectofthefiniteverbthatgoesbeforeorasthelogicalsubjectoftheinfinitivethatfollows,analternativeconstructionwithathat-clauseisavailableforinterpretation,Theybelievedhimtobeinsane.=Theybelievedthathewasinsane.1）verbshavingtheforceof“advice”,“permission”,“forbiddance”,advise,allow,forbid,permit,recommend,require,urge,etc.Iadvisedhimtogiveupsmoking.☻Someverbssuchasrecommend,require,urgemayalsobefollowedbybyathat-clause.Theyrequiredustogiveupsmoking.Theyrequiredthatwe(should)gettherebeforenine.☻Verbssuchasadvise,allow,forbid,permit,recommendcanalsobefolloweddirectlybyan–ingparticipleasobject.Sheadvisedustogiveupsmoking.Sheadvisedgivingupsmoking.2.verb+(object)+infinitive1）Someverbssuchasask,can’tbear,hate,intend,like,prefer,want,etc,theobjectisoptional,thatis,theseverbscanoccureitherinthe“verb+infinitive”constructionorinthe“verb+object+infinitive”pattern.Doyouintendtomakealongstayhere?Wedidn’tintendthemtoactlikethat.Doyouliketoplaychess?Ilikepeopletotellthetruth.2）Mostoftheseverbscanalsobefollowedbyathat-clause.Sheaskedtodomorework.Sheaskedthemtogivehermoreworktodo.Sheaskedthatshebegivenmoreworktodo.3）Somemayalsobedirectlyfollowedbyan–ingform.Ihatetroublingyouabouttrifles.Shepreferreddressingformallytowearingsportclothes.I.Infinitiveclauses1.Types1）withoutanexpressedsubjecta.Thelogicalsubjectoftheinfinitiveclauseisonlyimpliedbutcanbeinferredfromthecontext.Ihopetobeabletocome.118 Thebestthingwouldbetotelleverybody.Hehasalargefamilytosupport.Allsheseemstodois(to)gossipwithherneighbours.a.Attitudinalinfinitiveclause(Disjunct):thelogicalsubjectmaybeunderstoodtobethespeakerhimself.Tobefrank,youneedagreatdealofcourage.Tobeginwith,Ithinkyouarewrong.Totellthetruth,Iforgotallaboutyourrequest.Toputitbluntly,thatstudentissuretofail.Feorgeisaverygoodboy,tobesure.2）withanexpressedsubjecta.Generallyintroducedbyfor,of,with,ratherthan,etc.Thebestthingwouldbeforyoutotelleverybody.It’sverykindofyoutohelpme.Heknewthatwithhimtohelp,shecouldandwouldsucceed.Ratherthanyoudothejob,Iprefertofinishitmyself.b.Absoluteconstruction:thelogicalsubjectappearswithoutanyintroductorywordWeshallassembleat10:45,theprocessiontostartmovingatpreciselyeleven.3）introducedbyawh-wordorsubordinatora.thestructureofwh-word+infinitiveistheequivalenceofanominalclause,whichcanbeusedasthesubject,theobject,thecomplementandtheapposition.Whenandwheretoholdthemeetinghasnotbeendecided.Thatisarealproblem.Idon’tknowwhattodo.WewerediscussinghowtoimproveourEnglishteaching.Thetourguidedidn’ttellthetouristswhentobebackatthecoach.Ourdifficultyiswheretogetenoughfood.ThereistheproblemofhowtokeepintouchwitheachotherbyE-mail.IhadnoideawheretobuyfoodintheDisneyParks.b.Withasubordinator:Heopenedhislipsasiftosaysomething.1.Syntacticfunctions1）SubjectTocompromiseappearsadvisable.Toleanoutofthewindowisdangerous.Tostoptheworknowseemsimpossible.Mostoften,theanticipatoryIT-constructionisused,inwhich“it”isusedatthebeginningofthesentenceasananticipatorysubjectwhiletherealsubjectwhichistheinfinitiveisplacedattheend.It’shard/difficulttosaywhichisbetter.It’sanhonourtomeetyou.Itcostalotofmoneytobuildthismuseum.It’sagainstmyprinciplestocollaboratewiththem.2）ObjectHeagreedtopayforthecar.Theyfailedtofulfilltheplan.Thesoldiersrefusedtosurrender.118 Occasionally,theinfinitivewhichisusedastheobjectcanbeputattheendofthesentencewhile“it”canbeusedastheformalobject.Ihavelonghaditinmindtoansweryourletter.Shetookitonherselftoapologizetome.IfinditeasytogetonwithJim.Hethoughtitbesttobeonhisguard.1）ComplementHerambitionwastobeafilmstar.Mary’staskistosetthetable.Smokersarepersuadedtogiveupsmoking.Didyouseeanyoneenterthehouse?Mybosstoldmetotypeouttwoletters.2）Postmodifier3）Adverbiala.Adverbialofpurposea)Asanadverbialofpurpose,theinfinitiveisusuallywithtoShestooduptobeseenbetter.b)Ifwewanttostrengthenornegateapurpose,useinordertoorsoastoHeopenedthewindowinorderto/soastogetsomefreshair.Heleftearlyinordernotto/soasnottomissthetrain.☻“inorderto”canbeplacedbothatthebeginningandattheendofthesentence,while“soasto”isusuallyusedattheendb.Adverbialofresult:to-infinitive,so…asto,such…asto,enoughto,too…to,onlytoIn1935helefthomenevertoreturn.Hisworkwassogoodastomakehimwell-knowninthecity.Hisindifferencewassuchastomakealldespair.Itwascoldenoughtofreezeourfingers.Thiscoffeeistoohottodrink.Theyhurriedtothestationonlytofindthetrainhadalreadyleft.☻Onlyto,denotingadisappointingsequel,isusuallyfoundwithverbssuchas“find,hear,betold”☻“too…to…”usuallyhasanegativemeaning,butitmaytakeapositivemeaninginthefollowingcases:—too+easy/eager/anxious/glad/kind/pleased/willing/ready/apt,etc.+to…Heistooreadytocome.Sheistooeasytogetalongwith.Theyaretooanxioustoknowthenews.—only/all/but+too…to…:veryWeareonlytoowillingtodoitforyou.我们非常愿意为你去做那事。I"monlytoopleasedtobeabletohelpyou.能帮助你我非常高兴Hewasbuttooeagertogethome.他非常想回家。—too…notto…Heistoowisenottosolvetheproblem.他非常聪明必能解决这个问题。—如在too前有否定词，则整个句子用否定词表达肯定，too118 后那个词表达一种委婉含义，意为"不太"。It"snevertoolatetomend.　改过不嫌晚。（谚语）a.Adverbialofcause:Asanadverbialofcause,infinitiveclausesgenerallycollocatewithadjectivesorverbsdenotingemotionorfortuneIamdelightedtoknowthatyouhavegotajob.Shewepttoseehiminsuchaterriblestate.b.Adverbialofcondition:(if…)Asanadverbialofcondition,theinfinitiveclauseisusuallyfoundatthebeginningofasentence,butthenegativeoneisusuallyattheend.Thepredicateverbofthemainclauseusuallycontainsauxiliarieslikecan,must,would,should,will,shall,etc.Youwillnotsucceednottogethersupport.Tohearhimtalk,youwouldthinkhewasacelebrity.§2.–ingParticipleI.Forms:VoiceAspectActivesimpledoingPerfecthavingdoneII.verb+-ing1.Thefollowingsareverbsthatcanonlyfollowedbyan–ingformratherthananinfinitiveasobject:Admit,acknowledge,anticipate,advocate,appreciate,avoid,can’thelp,can’tresist,can’tstand,consider,contemplate,defer,delay,deny,detest,dislike,don’tmind,ensure,enjoy,escape,excuse,evade,facilitate,fancy,favour,finish,giveup,imagine,include,keep(on),mind,miss,pardon,postpone,practice,putoff,resent,report,risk,stop,suggest☻Someoftheverbslistedabovesuchasacknowledge,admit,advocate,anticipate,appreciate,deny,fancy,imagine,suggest,mean,mention,propose,recall,recollect,understand,etc.canalsotakeacorrespondingthat-clauseasobject.Thewatchmanreportedfindingthedooropen.=Thewatchmanreportedthathehadfoundthedooropen.Heanticipatedgettingmuchpleasurefromthereadingofthatbook.=Heanticipatedthathewouldgetmuchpleasurefromthereadingofthatbook.2.verb+infinitivevs.verb+-ingSomeverbscanbefollowedeitherbean–ingformorbyaninfinitive1）nomuchdifferenceinmeaninga.emotiveverbs:dread,like,love,prefer,dislike,hate,etc-ing:generalactinfinitive:specificact118 ☻prefertodo/doingpreferdoingtodoingprefertodoratherthando☻like/love/hate/prefer+todo/doingwouldlike/love/hate/prefer+todofeellikedoinga.processverbsbegin,start,cease,continue-ingparticiple:有意识的开始或停止做某事todo:情况发生变化onlyfollowedby“infinitive”when:nfollowedbystativeverbs:see,believe,think,understand,etc.n“begin,start,cease,continue”in–ingformb.need,want,require,deservepassiveinfinitive=active–ingparticiple2）differentmeaningverbs-ingParticipleinfinitveforget,remember,regretfinishedearlieractactafter“forget,remember,regret”,shouldbedone,yetnothavebeendonestop,leaveoffobjectadverbialofpurposegoonthesameactbeforeapauseanotherdifferentactdifferentverbmeaningtryexperimentattemptmeanrepresentameaningintendregretrepentancesympathy1.Afterverbssuchasadvise,allow,authorize,encourage,forbid,permit,recommend,eitherthe–ingparticipleortheinfinitivewithanexpressedlogicalsubjectcanbeusedShedoesn’tallowsmokinghere./Shedoesn’tallowustosmokehere.Sheadvisedgivingupsmoking./Sheadvisedustogiveupsmoking.I.verb+obj.+-ing2.perceptiveverbsee,observe,notice,watch,hear,smell,listento,lookat,feel,find,etc.3.causativeverbs:catch,get,keep,leave,set,start,haveII.verb+obj.+prep.+-ing4.verb+obj.+into+-ing:causesb.todotalk…into…,shame…into…,mislead…into…,cheat…into…,blackmail…into…,fool…into…,deceive…into…,trap…into…,surprise…into…,trick…into…,cajole…into…,coerce…into…,beguile…into…5.verb+obj.+from/outof+-ing:causesbnottodostop…from…,prevent…from…,keep…from…,hinder…from…,restrain…from…,save…from..,.118 Theprepositionfromcansometimesbeomitted,exceptthatthefiniteverboccursinthepassive.Wemustpreventthetrouble(from)spreading.Ishallstopyou(from)destroyingyourself.Itcan"tbestoppedfromhappeninghere.1.verb+obj.+for+-ing:thank…for…punish…for…2.otherprep.:of,with,on,etc.congratulate…on...charge…with…accuse…of…I.Someexpressionsusedwith–ingparticiple:1.It’snouse/gooddoing:It’snogoodfeelingsorryforyourself.It’sallyourownfault.It’snogoodtryingtopersuademe.Youwon’tsucceed.There’snothingyoucandoaboutthesituation,soit’snouse/goodworryingaboutit.2.it’suseless/senselessdoing3.There’sno/notmuch/littlepointindoing:nogoodreason,littlereasonfordoingitThere’sverylittlepointinprotectingthepoorconditionoflightintheclassroom.4.Thereis/wasno+doingThereisnodenyingthatsheisveryefficient.她效率高是不容否认的。Therewasnoknowingwhenhewouldbeback.不知道他什么时候回来。5.beworthdoingIsitworthrunningsucharisk?TheStoneForestisworthseeing.6.havetrouble/difficultydoingDidyouhaveanydifficultygettingavisa?I’msureyou’llhavenotroublepassingheoralexam.7.It’sawasteofmoney/timedoingItwasawasteoftimereadingthatnovel.Itwasrubbish.It’sawasteofmoneybuyingthingsyoudon’treallyneed.8.spend/wastetimedoingIspenthourstryingtofixthemachine.Shewastesalotoftimedaydreaming.9.bebusydoingI’vebeenbusytranslatingabookintoChinese.10.goshopping/dancing/sailing/skating/riding/swimming/walking/hiking/jogging/cycling/skiing/fishing/camping,etc.11.dothe(some,any,alotof,much,alittle,abitof,more,less,this,that)shopping/typing/cleaning/washing/digging/ironing/tidying/cookingII.–ingparticipleclauses3.Types:1）Withoutexpressedsubjectorsubordinatora.Itslogicalsubjectcanbeinferredfromthecontextorfromthesituationinwhich118 theclauseoccurs.Oneofmybadhabitsisbitingnails.Hedeniedhavingbeenthere.IhaveafriendlivinginLondon.Iheardhimsinginginthenextroom.Beatingachildwilldomoreharmthangood.a.Attitudinal–ingparticipleclauses(Disjunct):thelogicalsubjectmaybeidentifiedasthespeakerhimselforpeopleingeneral.Judgingfromwhatyousay,hehasdonehisbest.Generallyspeaking,thisbookisnotverydifficult.Consideringeverything,itwasn’tabadholiday.Supposingtherewasawar,whatwouldyoudo?Takingeverythingintoaccount,theyoughttobegivenanotherchance.2）Withsubordinator:An–ingparticipleclausemaysometimesbeintroducedbyasubordinator.Thelogicalsubjectofthistypeof–ingparticipleclauseisgenerallyidenticalwiththesubjectofthemainclause.Whensleeping,Ineverhearathing.Hewrotehisgreatestnovelwhileworkingasanordinaryseaman.Whetherwakingorsleeping,thesubjectisalwaysinhismind.ThoughunderstandingnoGreek,Charleswasabletocommunicatewiththem.3）Withexpressedsubjecta.An–ingparticipleclausemaybewithanexpressedsubject.Thistypeof–ingparticipleclausecommonlyfunctionsassubject,objectorprepositionalcomplementation.Doyoumindmy/memakingasuggestion?Myparentsobjecttome/mygoingoutalone.I’mannoyedaboutJohn/John’sforgettingtopay.Johndoesn’tliketheideaofmy/mebeingmixedupinthisaffair.Your/Youfallingintotheriverwastheclimaxofthewholetrip.Ithelpedthemtomakefriendsquickly,hisbeingtheonlydoctorinthevillage.It’snouseyourpretendingtobedeaf.☻thecaseofthelogicalsubjectØWhenthelogicalsubjectisalifenoun,usegenitivenounorpossessivedeterminer.(whenthe–ingparticipleisusedassubj.,onlygenitivecanbeusedasitslogicalsubj.,whenusedasobj.,commoncasecanalsobeused.)Yourcomingtohelpisagreatencouragementtome.Jane’snothavingreceivedpropertrainingwastoherdisadvantage.Istronglyobjectatyoursayingthat.They’relookingforwardtoMary’scoming.ØIncolloquialspeech,acommoncasenounoranobjectivepronounisfrequentlyfavouredwhenthe–ingparticipleisusedasobj.Idon’tmindFloraleavinghome.Idon’tremembermymothercomplainingaboutit.ØWhenthelogicalsubjectisalifelessnoun,onlythecommoncasenouncanbeused.118 Iwasafraidofthetentfallingdownduringthenight.Thereisnecessityformorehousesbeingbuilt.ØWhenthelogicalsubjectistheindefiniteordemonstrativepronoun(不定代词或指示代词),onlytheobjectiveformcanbeused.Shewasawakenedbysomeoneknockingatthedoor.Isthereanylikelihoodofthisbeingtrue?这可能是真的吗?ØWhenthelogicalsubjectisalongnounphrase,thecommoncaseisgenerallyused.TheleaderinsistedonLiMing,WangHaiandZhangFanattendingthemeeting.Isthereanychanceofthepeopleinthebackoftheroomtalkingalittlelouder?屋子后边的人讲话声能大一点吗？ØNotethatinSVOCstructure,when–ingparticipleisusedasthecomplement,itslogicalsubjectistheobjectofthemainclause,sothelogicalsubjectofcourseisintheobjectiveorcommoncase.Theteachercaughtthestudentssmokingintheclassroom.Wesawhimwalkinginthestreet.a.Absoluteconstruction:Thelastbushavinggone,wehadtowalkhome.Thereporthavingbeenread,alivelydiscussionbegan.Somanymembersbeingabsent,themeetingadjourned.1.Syntacticfunctions:1）SubjectReadingFrenchiseasierthanspeakingit.Seeingisbelieving.☻不定式与-ing分词作主语一般来说差别不大，有时两者可以互换，但按照传统语法来说，-ing分词表示一般性的习惯、爱好或抽象动作，动词不定式表示具体的、一次性的动作。Smokingisprohibitedhere.It’snotverygoodforyoutosmokesomuch.Apostman’sdutyisdeliveringmails.YourtaskthismorningistodeliverthepaperstoProfessorSmith.2）ObjectHeadmittedtakingthemoney.Idon’tanticipatemeetinganyopposition.3）ComplementTheonlythingthatinterestshimisdancing.Isawflamesrisingandheardpeopleshouting.4）ModifierDon’tdisturbthesleepingchild.Youmayasktheladysittingatthedesk.5）AdverbialHearingtheknockonthedoor,theystoppedtalking.(time)Havingworkedhardallday,Iwasreadyforbedbyeighto’clock.(cause)Thehuntersfired,woundingoneofthewolves.(result)Studyinghard,youwillpasstheexam.(condition)118 Knowingallthis,theystillinsistedonmypayingforthedamage.(concession)Theystoodtherewaitingforthebus.(accompanyingcircumstances)§3.–edParticipleI.Forms:VoiceAspectPassiveSimpledoneProgressivebeingdonePerfecthavingbeendoneII.PremodifierintheNP1.–edparticiplederivedfromtransitiveverbs:denote:1)apassivemeaning/passiveness2)asenseofcompletion/completenessfrozenfood,aboredtraveler,alostcause2.–edparticiplederivedfromintransitiveverbs(onlyafew)retired,escaped,faded,withered,fallen,expired,risen,returned,vanished,growndenote:thesenseofcompletion/completenessaretiredworkeranescapedprisoner3.compoundparticiplesSome–edparticiplescannotbeusedaloneaspremodifiersunlesstheyarecombinedwith“un-“orwhentheyarecombinedwithanadverbtoformacompound.1）un-+-edparticipleuninvited,untold,unheard-of,undetermined,unedited,unexpected,2）adv.+-edparticiplebadly-built,far-fetched,,highly-developed,newly-born,half-baked,properly-started,well-behaved,widely-travelled,newly-arrived4.–ingparticiplevs.–edparticiple-ing-edactivenesspassivenessincompletenesscompletenessIII.Complement5.SubjectcomplementSVC:vi.+-edparticipleappear,be,become,feel,get,go,grow,keep,look6.objectcomplementSVOC:vt.+obj.+-edparticiple1）causativeverb:have,get,keep,leave,make118 Ihavemyhaircuteverytendays.Hewastryingtomakehimselfunderstood.1）perceptiveverb:see,hear,feel,fink,think,etc.Isawthestudentsassembledinthehall.Hefelthiseyesdazzledbythebrightlight.2）order,like,want,wishIdon’twantanyofyou(tobe)involvedinthescandal.Hewon’tlikesuchquestions(tobe)discussedatthemeeting.I.DifferentformsaspremodifierandcomplementOriginalform-edparticiplepremodifiercomplementbendbentbent,bendedbentblessblessed/blest/blessed/blesid/blessed,blestbindboundboundenbounddrinkdrunkdrunkendrunklightlitlightedlitmeltmeltedmoltenmeltedrotrottedrottenrottenshaveshavedshavenshavedshrinkshrunkshrunkenshrunksinksunksunkensunkbelovedbeloved§4.Non-finiteClauseI.Types:1.withoutanexpressedsubj.orasubordinator1）ThelogicalsubjectisonlyimpliedbutcanbeinferredfromthecontextIhopetobeabletocome.Oneofmybadhabitsisbitingnails.Beatingachildwilldomoreharmthangood.Thecastle,burntdownin1485,wasneverrebuilt.2）Disjunct:Attitudinalparticipleclauseshavebecomesetexpressions,whoselogicalsubjectmaybeidentifiedasthespeakerhimselforpeopleingeneral.tobefrank,tobeginwith,totellthetruth,toputitbluntly,tobesurejudgingfrom,generallyspeaking3）Participle+that:introduceanadverbialclause,indicatingcause,concession,condition,etc.consideringthat因为，考虑到seeingthat因为，既然notwithstandingthat尽管admitting/allowing/assuming/grantingthat即使，尽管grantedthat即使118 providedthat如果，只要Theystartedtheirtripnotwithstandingthatitrainedheavily.尽管天下了大雨，他们还是动身去旅行了。Heknowsmuchoftheworldseeingthatheisonlytwelveyearsold.他对人生世事知道得相当多了，因为他才12岁。Admittingthatshehasmadeamistake,youshouldforgiveher.即使她犯了错误，你也应原谅她。Grantedthatheisdrunk,thatisnoexcuse.即使他醉酒了，那也不是借口。Providedthatoneisdiligentandpatient,onecanachievesomething.一个人只要勤奋有耐心，就能干成一番事业。1.withanexpressedsubj.1）Ininfinitiveclauses,thelogicalsubj.maybeintroducedby“for”,“with”,or“ratherthan”,etc.Thebestthingwouldbeforyoutotelleverybody.Heknewthatwithhimtohelp,shecouldandwouldsucceed.Ratherthanyoudothejob,I’dprefertofinishitmyself.2）In–ingparticipleclauses,commoncaseorgenitivenounanpronouncanbeusedaslogicalsubj.3）AbsoluteConstruction:whenusedasadverbial,thesubj.appearsbeforethenon-finiteclausewithoutanyintroductorywordWeshallassembleattenforty-five,theprocessiontostartmovingatpreciselyeleven.Thelastbushavinggone,wehadtowalkhome.Thejobfinished,wewenthomestraightaway.2.withasubordinatorIdon’tknowwhattodo?Heopenedhislipsasiftosaysomething.Whensleeping,Ineverhearathing.Evenifinvited,Iwon’tgo.II.Syntacticfunctionsinfinitive-ingparticiple-edparticiplesubjectspecificactgeneral,abstractact/object/complementcompletenessnonrecurringactprogressiverepeatedactactivecompletenesspassivemodifieronlypostmodifierfutureactprogressiveactivecompletenesspassiveadverbialfutureactpurposeresultcauseactivetimeresultcauseaccompanyingpassivetimecauseaccompanying1.Ascomplements118 Isawasoldiergettingonthetrain.我看见士兵在上火车。Isawasoldiergetonthetrainanddisappeared.我看见士兵登上了火车，消失了。Doyouheardoorbellringing?门铃在响你听见了吗？Yes,Idid.Ihearditringthreetimes.是的，我听见门铃响了三下。Sheheardthedoorslamming.她听见门在砰砰作响。Sheheardthedoorslam.她听见门砰的一声关上了。2.Asmodifiersthehousetobebuiltthehousebeingbuiltthehousebuiltlastyear3.Asadverbials不定式v.s.分词作状语：一般来说，不定式分句作状语表示目的或结果，而分词分句却很少有这种用法。Ihavetocomebackbeforefivetodrivehertotheairport.HewenttotheUnitedStatestofurtherhisstudyofeconomicmanagement.Sheriskedherlifetofindnothing.Iwaitedfortwohoursonlytobetoldtocomethenextday.在表示心情和运气好坏的动词和形容词之后，一般用不定时分句作表示原因的状语；而分词短语表示原因时，常常位于句首，并用逗号与句子隔开。Iamverysorrytohearthebadnews.Weweresurprisedtofindherstillhere.Bornandbredacountryman,heisnotusedtothecitylife.HavingnointerestingAmericanliterature,hedidn’tgotothelecture.一般用分词分句做状语表示时间、让步、方式、条件等意义，不定式作状语不能表示这些意义。-ingv.s.-ed作状语：Seenfromthetopofthehill,thelakeisverybeautiful.Seeingthispicture,hefeltveryhappy.§5.DanglingParticipleI.AttachmentRuleWhenan–ingor–edparticipleconstructionisusedasarelativeoradverbialclause,itslogicalsubjectisusuallyidentifiablewiththesubjectorotherelementofthemainclause.Itisthroughthisrelationshipthattheparticipleconstructionis“attached”tothemainclause.☻Whenan–ingor–edparticipleconstructionisusedasanadverbial,thelogicalsubj.isusuallythesubj.ofthemainclause,andthelogicalsubj.andtheverbinparticiplemustbeinacorrectrelationshipofeitheractivenessorpassiveness.Climbingtothetopofthetower,wesawamagnificentview.Coveredwithconfusion,shehurriedlylefttheroom.II.DanglingParticipleViolationofthe“attachmentrule”willresultina“danglingparticiple”.Openingthecupboard,askeletonfellout.Grilledoncharcoal,welikedthefishmuchbetter.118 I.Theacceptabilityof“danglingparticiples”1.Theseconstructionsarefrequentlyfoundinformalscientificwriting,inwhichitisgeneralpracticetoavoidusingpersonalsubjects.2.Whenthesubjectisvaguelyunderstoodtobe“one”,“we”,“you”,peopleingeneral,itisacceptable.Lookingaheadtotheweekend,temperaturewillbewarmer.Standingonthechurchtower,thewholevillagecouldbeseen.Caughtinatrafficjam,itiseasytolosepatience.3.Ininformalstyle,solongastheydonotcauseambiguityorconfusioninmeaning,“dangling”constructionsshouldalsobeviewedasnormalandacceptable.4.Onlythose“dangling”constructionsareobjectionableorunacceptablethatcauseambiguityorsuggestabsurdinterpretations.5.Frompedagogicalpointofview,however,beginnersinEnglishshouldnotbeencouragedtouse“dangling”constructionsunlessinscientificwriting§6.AbsoluteConstruction1.Whatistraditionallycalled“absoluteconstruction”isessentiallyanon-finiteorverblessclausewithanexpressedsubjectofitsown.Anumberofofficialsfollowedtheemperor,sometoholdhisrobe,otherstoadjusthisgirdle,andsoon.Thetruckfinallyloaded,theysaidgoodbyetotheirneighborsanddroveoff.Hebeingabsent,wecoulddonothing.Thepaintnowdry,webroughtthefurnitureoutonthedeck.Hewentoff,guninhand.2.An“absoluteconstruction”iscommonlyseparatedfromthemainclausebyacomma,oroccasionallybyadash,andthedeterminerinthesubjectnounphrasemaysometimesbeellipted.Themanagersatquietlyintheoffice,(his)eyesclosed.3.Thepositionofan“absoluteconstruction”ismobile;itmaytakeaninitial,mediumorendposition.Theboyranintotheroom,hisfaceandhandscoveredwithmud.Hisfaceandhandscoveredwithmud,theboyranintotheroom.4.“Absoluteconstructions”areusuallyusedasadverbialsoftime,cause,condition,manner,aswellasaccompanyingcircumstances.Hishomeworkdone,Jimdecidedtogoandseetheplay.Hershirtcaughtonanail,shecouldnotmove.Weatherpermitting,thecricketmatchwilltakeplaceonWednesday.Heputonhissocks,wrongsideout.5.“Absoluteconstructions”arecommonlyusedinformalliterarylanguageasasortofrhetoricaldevicewhichhelpstoachieveconcisioninwordingandvividnessindescription.6.Thereare,however,manyfixedabsoluteconstructionsthatoccurfrequentlyinspeech:ThepicnicisscheduledforSaturday,weatherpermitting.Allthingsconsidered,it’snotabadidea.7.with(without)+absoluteconstruction118 Hefellasleepwiththewindow(being)open.Theytraveledawholeday,withoutanyfoodeaten.Specializedknowledgeinone’sfieldisthesecondmostcommontrait,withthree-fourthsgivingthemselvesanAforthistrait.☻VerblessclausesAverblessclauseisaclausewithoutanyformofverbelementaspredicator.ItisjustanSVCconstructionwithitssubjectandpredicatorellipted.Rightorwrong,Ihavegivenhimapieceofmind.Anexcellentspeaker,hewasneveratalossforaword.Whateverthereason,hiscordialityhaswonhimafriend.Althoughveryhelpful,hewasnotmuchlikedbypeople.WheninRome,doastheRomansdo.Hespokeungraciously,ifnotrudely.Twohundredpeoplediedintheaccident,manyofthemchildren.Therehestood,atryinhand.Breakfastover,hewenttohiscountinghouse.MiriamlookedatHarry,hiseyesfullofdoubtanddiscomfort.Verblessclausescanbeusedaspostmodifiersinanounphraseandasadverbials.Hishands,numbfromthecold,couldnotfindthekey.Youmusteatitwhenfresh.Thecardboardislight-proofwherethick.118 Lecture14AdjectiveandAdjectivePhraseAnadjectiveisawordthatmodifies/describesanounorapronoun.I.Classification:1.Wordformation:1）One-wordadjectives:a.consistofonlyonefreemorpheme:big,small,bad,good,hot,coldb.consistofafreemorphemeasrootplusaprefixorasuffixorbothunkind,impossible,lovely,voiceless,monolingual,unthinkable2）Compoundadjectives:a.adjective+adjective:bitter-sweet,deaf-muteb.adjective/adverb+-ingparticiple:good-looking,hard-workingc.adjective/adverb+-edparticiple:new-fangled,well-meantd.noun+adjective:grass-green,duty-free,e.noun+-ingparticiple:ocean-going,law-abidingf.noun+-edparticiple:hand-made,sun-tannedg.adjective+noun+-ed:kind-hearted,absent-minded2.Syntacticfunction1）Centraladjectives:canbeusedbothasmodifierinanounphraseandascomplement2）Peripheraladjectives:canbeusedonlyasmodifierinanounphraseoronlyascomplementa.Predicativeadjective:cannotbeplacedbeforeanounaspremodifiera)adjectivesdenotinghealthconditions:well,ill,poorly,faint,sickb)adjectivesexpressingfeelings:pleased,glad,content,upset,fondc)adjectiveswitha-asprefix:alike,alone,alive,afraid,ablaze,asleep,aware,awake,akin,adrift,afire,aflame,afloat,afoot,aground,ajar,askew,athirst,abloom,agape,aghast,aglow,agog,alone,amiss,ashamed,aslant,alight,akimbo,astir,astray,averse,awry,awash,alert☻Theycanbeusedaspremodifierswhentheyarethemselvesmodifiedbyadverbs.afastasleepchildb.attributiveadjectives:a)adjectivesendingin–erwhichdenoterelationshipselder,former,inner,latter,outer,upperb)intensifyingadjectivesincludingemphasizers,amplifiers,anddowntonerscertain,definite,plain,pure,sheer,absolute,entire,extreme,perfect,totalfeeble,slightc)adjectivesthatlimitthescopeofreferencechief,joint,lone,main,only,principle,sole,veryd)technicaladjectiveschemical,coastal,earthen,hydroelectric,maritime,nuclear,solar,wooden,woolen,118 a)adjectiveswith–lydenotingtime:weeklymagazine,dailypaper,dailylifeb)adjectivesrelatedtoadverbswhichdenotelocations:downstairs,downtown,indoor,inside,outdoor,outside,upstairs,b.Someadjectivescanbeusedasbothpredicativeandattributivebutwithdifferentmeaning:Themedicinehasilleffectonchildren.Hewassoillthathecouldnotwork.Iknowtheteacherdidthatforacertainreason.He’scertaintodowellintheexamination.Theybuiltthemonumentinmemoryofthelateexplorer.Theplanewaslateandmymotherwaswaitingattheairportallmorning.Heisreadytogo.Thatwasareadyanswer.1.Semantically:1）Dynamicadjectives:describethedynamicpropertiesofpeopleorthingsAmbitious,careful,generous,helpful,patient,witty2）Stativeadjectives:describethestaticcharacteristicsofanimateorinanimateobjectstall,short,big,small3）Usage:a.Dynamicadjectivescangowiththeprogressiveaspectoftheverbbe,whilestativeadjectivescannot.b.Dynamicadjectivescanco-occurwithimperativebe,whilestativeadjectivescannot.c.Dynamicadjectivescanoccurincausativeconstructionsinwhichitisimpossibletousestativeadjectives.Sheisbeingwitty.Bepatient/careful.Ipersuadedhertobegenerous.2.Morphologically:1)Gradableadjectives:a.thegradabilityismanifestedthroughtheformsofcomparisonandthroughmodificationbyintensifiersb.Alldynamicandmoststativeadjectivesaregradableadjectives2)Non-gradableadjectives:a.Denomialadjectivesthatdenoteclassificationorprovenanceatomic,Chineseb.Someadjectiveswhoselexicalmeaningshavealreadydenotedahighorextremedegree.perfect,excellent,extreme,I.AdjectiveswithactiveorpassivemeaningActivePassive-ing-ed-ous-ible-ful-able-ory118 -someexcitingexcitedsurprisingsurprisedrespectfulrespectabletiresometiredcredulouscrediblesatisfactorysatisfiedI.ModifierinNP1.Place:post-orpre-?1）Asmodifiersinthenounphrase,adjectivesusu.appearafterthedeterminerandbeforetheheadword.2）Someadjectivescanbeusedbeforeorafteranounwithoutanychangeinmeaning.affected,available,required,suggestedavailableinformation/informationavailablesuggestedimprovements/improvementssuggestedtheaffectedpopulation/thepopulationaffected3）Someadjectiveshavedifferentmeaningsinpremodificationandpostmodificationthemotherconcerned(mentioned)theconcernedmother(anxious)thememberspresent(beingintheplaceunderstood)thepresentmembers(existingnow)theissuresinvolved(concerned)aninvolvedstyle(complicated)themanresponsible(holdingtheresponsibility)theresponsibleman(withasenseofresponsibility)thedictionaryproper字典正文theproperorder适当的顺序4）Premodification:a.–most:utmost,foremost,innermostb.–er:elder,inner,other,upper,lower,latter,former,outer,hinder,utter,lesser,c.–en:wooden,leaden,golden,silken,earthen,woolen,brazen,ashen,flaxend.daily,weekly5）Postmodification:a.Whentheheadwordisasome-/any-/no-compoundI’dlikesomethingcheaper.b.WhentheadjectiveiswithaprepositionalphraseoraninfinitiveascomplementationItwasaconferencefruitfulofresults.Studentsbraveenoughtotakethiscoursedeservetosucceed.☻Itiscommonthatanadjectiveisseparatedfromitscomplementationbythenounitmodifies,thatis,theadjectiveprecedestheheadword,whilethecomplementationfollowsit:difficult,different,similar,easy,impossible,adj.-er/-est118 Itisadifferentbookfromthatone.Thatisadifficultproblemtosolve.a.Adjectiveswitha-b.在一些头衔和固定词组中形容词须跟在名词之后theministerdesignate未到任的部长thepresidentelect当选总统AttorneyGeneral检察总长heirapparent法定继承人SergeantMajor军士长PostmasterGeneral邮政总局局长PoetLaureate桂冠诗人governorgeneral总督courtmartial军事法庭hopeeternal永恒的希望sumtotal总计timeimmemorial史前时期bodypolitic政治统一体c.broad,deep,high,long,old,tall,thick,wide,etc.usedimmediatelyaftermeasurementnounswhengivingthesize,duration,orageofathingorpersonthreemetreswide,sixfeettall,twentyfiveyearsold2.Order1）Whentwoormorepremodifyingadjectivesappearondifferentlevels,theirnormalorderis:(determiner)---evaluation---size,shape,age---colour---nationality,origin,material---usepurpose,classifier---(nounhead)2）Whentwoormorepremodifyingadjectivesco-occuronthesamelevel,theyareusuallycoordinatedinthenormalorderofshortermembersprecedingthelonger.II.Complementofadjective1.adjective+prepositionalphrase1）Adjectivescanhavedifferentprepositionalcomplement.Usuallyaparticularadjectiverequiresaparticularpreposition.2）Someadjective+prepositioncombinationsabsentfrom,accustomedto,afraidof,amazedat/by,annoyedat,ashamedof,astonishedat,awareof,blindto,boredwith,busywith,capableof,closeto,confidentof,contentwith,dearto,dependenton,differentfrom,disappointedwith/about,eagerfor,equalto,excitedabout,experiencedin,faithfulto,famousfor,fedupwith,fitfor,fondof,fullof,guiltyof,happywith/about,inferiorto,interestedin,keenon,keenon,latefor,nervousof,pleasedwith/about,proudof,readyfor,responsiblefor,satisfiedwith,surprisedat/by,shockedat/by,sickof,superiorto,surerof,tiredof,trueto,usedto,weakin,worthyof,worriedabout,3）Someadjectivesmeaning“good”or“bad”:a.goodat,badat,brilliantat,cleverat,quickat:talkaboutaperson’sabilityHeisverygoodattennis.She’sawfullybadatmathematics.Susanusedtobebrilliantatcrosswords.b.goodfor,badfor:talkaboutwhethersomethingmakesyouhealthyorill118 Smokinganddrinkingisbadforyou.Applesaregoodforyou.a.goodto,niceto,kindto,politeto,rudeto,cruelto:talkabouthowwebehavetowardsanotherperson.ChrisandStephaniehavebeengoodtomesincewecametoknoweachother.Don’tbecrueltoanimals.2.adjective+to-infinitive3.adjective+that-clausealarmed,amazed,annoyed,astonished,certain,confident,disappointed,glad,pleased,proud,sad,shocked,sure,surprised,I’msurethatyou’llsucceed.I’mgladthatyoulikeit.Shewasamazedthatheshouldarrivesosoon.Heisconfidentthathewillbeabletopasstheexam.Thiskindofthat-clausecansometimesbereplacedbyacorrespondingprepositionalphraseorato-infinitive.I’msurethatyouwillgetsuccess.=Youaresureofsuccess.=Youaresuretogetsuccess.I’mcertainthathewillcome.=Heiscertaintocome.II.Usesofsomeadjectives1.differentmeaningofadjectives1)childish孩子气的、幼稚的(贬)childlike天真的，诚实的Themanisratherchildish.Shehasachildlikeloveforadoll.2)comparable可比较的，比得上的comparative比较的Ourcollegeisnotcomparablewithyours.Heisanexpertoncomparativeliterature.3)contemptible可鄙视的，可轻视的，contemptuous轻视的，蔑视的Thecontemptiblemanisselfishandvain.Thereisacontemptuouslookonhisface.4)considerate体贴人的，体谅的；considerable应考虑的；相当大的5)continuous不间断的，连续的continual频繁的，不时的Thebrainneedsacontinuoussupplyofblood.Thiscontinuoushotweatherisoppressive.Acontinuousbeachisexposedtothecontinualbeatingofthewaves.Continualinterruptionsimpedecontinuouswork.6)dead死的deadly致命的deathly死一般的deadanimaldeadlypoison/weapondeathlysilence7)desirable称心合意的desirous渴望的，希望的Heisthedesirablemanfortheposition.Sheisdesirousofseeinghimagain.118 1)economic经济学的，经济上的economical节俭的，节省的Theyarediscussingeconomicproblems.Weshouldbeeconomicalofourmoneyandtime.2)efficient效率高的；能干的effective有作用的3)hard艰苦的,困难的hardy能吃苦耐劳的Shefoundithardtodecide.她感到难以决定.It"shardworkshiftingsnow.清除积雪是很吃力的工作.Afewhardypeopleswamintheicywater.有几个不怕冷的人在冰冷的水里游泳.4)healthy健康的healthful有益于健康的Thechildrenarehealthythoughtheyallhaveslightcoldsatthemoment.Theairatseasideishealthfultous.5)imaginative富于想象力的imaginary想象中的，虚构的imaginable可以想象得到的Sheisanimaginativemusician.Thatisanimaginarycharacterinatale.Thisisthebestmeansimaginable.6)immortal不朽的immoral不道德的7)industrial工业的industrious勤劳的8)ingenious灵巧的，机敏的ingenuous坦率的，天真的Aningeniousmindcanworkwonders.Aningenuoussmilebrightenedherlovelyface.9)intelligent聪明的，有才智的intelligible可被理解的，易被领悟的Humanbeingsaremuchmoreintelligentthananimals.Thebookishardlyintelligibletobeginners.10)intense强烈的intensive集中的，加强的intensepain剧痛Theheatwasintense.天气酷热。Aone-weekintensivecourseinEnglish为期一周的英语强化课11)later较迟的latter后面的last最后的alateredition较近的版本thelatterpartofthebook书的后半部分thelasttrain末班火车12)practical实用的，实际的practicable可实行的，可用的Thisisaverypracticaltool.Doyouthinktheplanpracticable?13)regretful后悔的，抱歉的regrettable可后悔的，不幸的IamregretfulforwhatIhavesaid.Hisdecisiontomarryherismostregrettable.14)respectable令人尊敬的，高尚的respectful表示尊敬的，有礼貌的respective各个的，个别的Therespectableoldgentlemanhascontributedalottothebuildingofhishometown.Arespectablemanisrespectfultowardothers.Thedelegateswentbacktotheirrespectiveroomsafterthemeeting.15)successful成功的，successive连续的118 1)sensible明智的，可觉察的，知道的sensitive敏感的，易受影响的sensual肉体上的Itissensibleofhimtoseizetheopportunity.Asensitivewomanisquickatunderstanding.Myskinissensitivetocold.Don’tindulgeyourselfinsensualpleasure.2)uninterested不感兴趣的disinterested无私的3)valueless无价值的worthlessvaluable有价值的invaluable无法估价的priceless4)historical历史的historic有历史意义的It"sahistoricalfact.这是历史事实Thisisahistoricoccasion,iewillberegardedasasignificanteventinhistory.这是具有重大历史意义的5)like相像的(attributiveadj.)likely可能的alike相像的(predicativeadj.)Theyunderstandeachotherbecausetheyareoflikemind.Snowshowersarelikelyinthenext24hours.MymotherandIarealikeinmanyways.6)distinct清晰的distinctive有特色的7)popular流行的populous人口稠密的8)honorary名誉上的honourable可尊敬的1.too…to…：1）否定意义，太……不能，太……不会Sheistoocarelesstohavenoticedit.Themanistooselfishtohelpothers.2）nottoo…to;too…notto…肯定意义Thebookisnottoodifficulttoread.这本书并不太难读懂。Sheisnottooangrytospeakup.她不太生气，能够说出话来。Themanistooambitiousnottomakeanothertry.那人雄心勃勃，不会不再作努力。Sheistoocarefulnottohavenoticedit.她那么细心，不会没注意到那个。3）too前面有only,all,not,but,never,simply,just等词，too后面是eager,anxious,pleased,kind,willing,apt,ready,inclined,glad,quick等词，too…to句型表示肯定概念。Heistooreadytopromise.他总是轻易许诺。Sheisonlytoogladtohelpyou.她非常乐意帮助你。Youknowbuttoowelltoholdyourtongue.你深知少说为妙。Oneistooapttooverlookone’sownmistakes.人们总是很容易忽视自己的缺点。2.worth,worthy,worthwhile1）worth:predicateadj.,+n./pron./-ingItwasworthtendollars.They’reexpensive,buttheyareworthit.Thebookisworthreading.118 Thebookisworthbeingread.(X)Thebookisworthreadingit.(X)1）worthy:attributiveadj.,有价值的，可敬的predicateadj.,beworthyof+n./beingdone;beworthytobedoneThebookisworthyofcarefulstudy.Thebookisworthyofbeingstudiedcarefully.Thebookisworthytobestudiedcarefully.2）worthwhile:+-ing/todoItisworthwhilereadingthenovel.Itisworthwhiletoconsidertheplan.Readingthenovelisworthwhile.Toconsidertheplanisworthwhile.Thenovelisworthwhilereading.(X)Theplanisworthwhiletobeconsidered.(X)2.alive,live,living1）alive:predicateadj./postmodifier,living;notdead“活的，在世的”,多用于人，与dead相对Whoisthegreatestwriteralive?Theoldmanisstillverymuchalive.2）live:attributiveadj.修饰物，不修饰人，“活的，现场的”Hecaughtalivefishbare-handed.Itwasalivebroadcast,notarecording.3）living:predicate/attributive,alive,espnow“活着的，现世的，现存的”可指人或物Isyourfatherstillliving?Isyourfatherstillalive?(X)Nomanlivingcanwritebetterpoetrythanhedid.3.alone,lonely1）alone:predicateadj.独自一人的2）lonely:predicate/attributive,寂寞的，孤独的，荒凉的，无人居住的IamanxiousaboutleavingJimaloneinthehouse.Shewasreallyaloneintheworldexceptforaninvalidaunt.Atheart,heisalonelyman.Hefeltextremelylonelyinthoselonelyyears.Thatisalonelymountainvillage.Theshipsailedbyalonelyisland.118 Lecture15AdverbandAdverbPhraseI.Classification1.Wordformation1）Simpleadverbs:consistofonlyonefreemorpheme2）Derivativeadverbs:derivedfromadjectivesbyaddingasuffix–ly2.Semantically:1）Adverbsofmanner2）Adverbsofdegree3）Adverbsoftime4）Adverbsoffrequency5）Adverbsofplace6）Conjunctiveadverbs7）ExplanatoryadverbsII.Function1.modifierinphrases1）modifierofverbs2）modifierofadjectives3）modifierofadverbs4）modifierofprepositionsorconjunctions5）modifierofdeterminers6）modifierofnounsorwholenounphrases:2.adverbialinclausesorsentences1）adjunts:a.describethetime,place,ormannerconcernedwiththeaction,processorstatedenotedbytheverbb.place:mobile,initial,medial,endposision2）disjuncts3）conjuncts3.Positionofadverbs1)Adverbsoftimeandplace表示时间和地点的副词一般放在句末。如果这两种副词同时出现，通常地点副词放在时间副词的前面。如果有两个以上表示时间、地点的副词时，按先小后大的顺序排列。Iplayedbowlingyesterday.Iplayedbowlinginaclubatthreeo’clockyesterdayafternoon.要强调时间或地点时，时间、地点副词可放在句首。YesterdayafternoonIsawsomeboysswimmingintheriver.Indoorsitwasniceandwarm.Recently,IwenttoChongqing.2)Adverbsofmanner修饰不及物动词时，方式副词放在动词的后面。有时由于修饰的需要，也可放在句首。Thiscardriveswell.Shespokeangrily.118 Quietlyshewalkedonandon.修饰及物动词的方式副词可放在动词之前或宾语之后，如果宾语较长，也可放在动词和宾语之间。Heslowlydrovethecar.Hedrovethecarslowly.1)Adverbsofdegree程度副词通常放在所修饰的形容词或副词前面。Sheisquitepretty,butunhealthy-looking.ShespeaksSpanishfairlywell.☻enough：放在所修饰的形容词、副词或动词的后面。It’swarmenoughtoswim.Hedidn’trunfastenoughtocatchthetrain.Themeatisnotcookedenough.Youdon’tpracticeenoughatthepiano.2)Adverbsoffrequencyalways,often,usually,sometimes,ever,seldom,occasionally,rarely,hardly,never,just,etc.一般位于行为动词之前，be动词、助动词和情态动词之后。Healwaystakesmypenbymistake.Myfatherusuallygoestoworkbybike.Iwillneverforgetyou.Youarealwayslateforwork.HaveyoueverbeentoShanghai.I.Adverbswithorwithout–ly1.twoformswithnodifferenceinbasicmeaning1）slow/slowly2）quick/quickly3）right/rightly4）loud/loudly5）high/highly6）fair/fairly7）easy/easily8）clear/clearly9）firm/firmly10）direct/directly11）sure/surely2.twoformsdifferentorslightlydifferentinmeaning1）dead/deadly2）close/closely3）clean/cleanly4）pretty/prettily5）sharp/sharply3.twoformsentirelydifferentinmeaning1）hard/hardly2）just/justly3）late/lately118 1）most/mostlyNote:形容词与副词误用1)系动词及半系动词之后应接形容词作补语，切勿误用副词。Theflowersmellswell.(X)Theflowersmellsgood.2)–ly是常见的副词词尾，但有些形容词也以-ly结尾，应避免误用。lovely,fatherly,costly,cowardly,earthly,lonely,ugly,silly,friendlyHetreatsmefriendly.(X)Hetreatsmeinafriendlyway.3)有些形容词加-ly构成的副词与原形容词意义大相径庭。hard坚硬的hardly几乎不like相像的likely很可能的bare赤裸的barely仅仅，勉强bad坏的badly非常，很practical实际的practically事实上，几乎scarce稀少scarcely几乎不118 Lecture16ComparisonandComparativeConstructions§1.ComparisonWithgradableadjectivesandadverbs,therearethreedegreesofcomparison:Positive/absolutedegreeComparativedegreeSuperlativedegreeI.RegularComparison1.syntheticform:adj./adv.+-er,-esta)mono-syllabicadjectives/adverbsexceptparticiples(eg.bored,drunk)b)disyllabicadjectivesendingin–yand–oweasy,happy,lucky,pretty,heavy,dirty,tidy,funny,narrow,shallow2.analyticform:more,most+adj./adv.a)disyllabicadjectivesendingin–ful,-less,-ing,-eduseful,boring,annoyed,b)disyllabicadverbsendingin–lywhicharederivedfromcorrespondingadjectivesquickly,clearly,wiselyc)three-syllableorlongeradjectives/adverbsII.IrregularComparisonbadworseworstgood/wellbetterbestoldolder/elderoldest/eldestfarfarther/furtherfarthest/furthestmuch/manymoremostbadlyworseworstwellbetterbestlittlelessleastUsagenotes:1)olderandeldera)older/oldestareusedforreferencetobothpeopleandthings.b)elder/eldestareusedonlyintheattributiveposition,andforreferencetofamilyrelationships.Sheismyeldersister.TheyliveinanolderhousethananyotherIhaveeverseen.Sheisolderthanherhusband.MycarisevenolderthanIam.☻elderly:adj.(ofpeople)usedasapolitewordforoldanelderlycouple,elderlyrelatives2)fartherandfurthera)Eitherfarther/farthestorfurther/furthestcanbeusedtorefertophysicaldistance.b)further/furthestarenormallyusedtorefertoanabstractsenseI’mtired.Ican’twalkanyfarther/further.Iftherearenofurtherquestions,Ideclarethemeetingclosed.3)little表示“大小”时，没有比较级和最高级118 1)poor表示“差”时，其比较级最高级变化形式是不规则的：poor,worse,worst;作其他含义讲时，变化形式是规则的。2)英语中并不是所有的形容词和副词都有比较级和最高级，只有表示等级关系的形容词和副词才有比较级和最高级，表示绝对意义的形容词和副词只有原级。right,wrong,left,hourlydaily,weekly,round,square,dead,perfect,excellent,infinite,extreme,average,equal,identical,false,unique,complete,sheer,mere,only,empty,favorite,full,super,etc.§2.ComparativeConstructionPositiveComparativeSuperlativeBasicformas+adj./adv.+ascomparativeadj./adv.+thanthe+superlativeadj./adv.+scopeNegativeform1.notso/as…as2.less…than…1.notmore/-erthan2.less…than…3.notso/as…as4.antonymousadj./adv.–er+than-clause1.notmost/-er2.theleast…3.thesuperlativedegreeofantonymousadjectivesoradverbsIntensifiersjustabout,verymuch,much,many,far,even,still,alittle,no,byfar,rather,hardly,slightly,(quite)alot,(just)abit,agreatdeal,etc.（example）much,byfar,easily,nearly,almost,yet,ever,farandaway,outandaway,thevery（example）Variantform1.as+adj.+NP+as2.asmuch/many+noun+as1.comparativedegree+n.+than-clause2.the+comparativedegree+of–phrase3.more/lessofa+noun+than-clause4.more/less/fewer+n.+than-clause1)more…than…2)as…as…3)negativeword+comparativedegreeI.Positivedegree:as…as…1.as+adjective/adverb+as1）type:a.differentsubjectsbutidenticalcomparativeelements:sth.omittedinas-clauseJohnisasbrightasBob.b.identicalsubjectsbutdifferentcomparativeelementsThegirlwasasbrilliantasshewasbeautiful.c.differentsubjectsandcomparativeelementsHisunclewasasbaseandunworthyashisfatherhadbeenuprightandhonourable.2）negative:a.notas/so…as…Johnisnotas/sobrightasBob.118 a.less…than…JohnislessbrightthanBob.2.asmuch/many+noun+asYoucantakeasmuchbutterasyouneed.Shewroteasmanyessaysasherbrother.Hedidn’tdrinkas/somuchwineashisroommate.3.as+adjective+NP+as=NP+as…as…GeorgeisasefficientaworkerasJack.=GeorgeisaworkerasefficientasJack.Ican’tdrinkassweetcoffeeasthis.=Icant’drinkcoffeeassweetasthis.☻Inthisvariantpatterntheembeddednounphraseisusually“a/an+singularcountnoun”or“zero+non-countnoun”Idon’tsmokeasexpensivecigarettesasthese.(?)Idon’tsmokecigarettesasexpensiveasthese.I.Comparativedegree:more…than…1.comparativedegree+than-clauseTheparcelisheavierthanthatone.Negative:1）less…thanThisparcelislessheavythanthatone.2）notso/as…asThisparcelisnotso/asheavyasthatone.3）antonymousadj./adv.–er+than-clauseThisparcelislighterthanthatone.☻compare:BillspeaksFrenchlesswellthanhewritesit.(Billwriteswell,butdoesn’tspeakaswellashewrites.)BillspeaksFrenchworsethanhewritesit.(Billwritesbad,andspeaksevenworse.)2.more/less/fewer+n.+than-clauseIhavedonemoreworkthanhe.YouhavemadefewermistakesthanIhave.3.comparativedegree+n.+than-clause=n.+comparativedegree+than-clauseJohnisamoreefficientworkerthanJack.=JohnisaworkermoreefficientthanJack.4.the+comparativedegree+of–phraseJohnisthebrighterofthetwoboys.=Johnisbrighterthantheotherboy.5.more/lessofa+noun+than-clauseHeismore/lessofasportsmanthanhisbrother.=Heismore/lesssportsmanlikethanhisbrother.II.Superlativedegree:the+superlativeadjective/adverb+scopeofcomparison1.usedwhenthreeormorethanthreepeopleorthingsarecompared.2.thereisusuallyascopeofcomparisonwhichmaybeexpressedbyaprepositionalphrase,a118 relativeclause,oranon-finiteclause.Sometimesthescopeofcomparisonisunderstoodinthecontextandneednotbeexpressed,andsometimesunnecessaryinsomesetexpressionsTheSaharaisthelargestdesertintheworld.ThisisthemostinterestingbookIhaveeverread.Shakespearewasthegreatestdramatisteverknown.Iwilldoitwiththegreatestpleasure.1.negative:1）theleast…2）thesuperlativedegreeofantonymousadjectivesoradverbsThisistheleastdifficultbookIhaveeverread.ThisistheeasiestbookIhaveeverread.2.otherconstructionexpressingthesuperlativedegree1)more…than…Georgedidmoreworkthananyoneelse.=Georgedidthemostwork.2)as…as…NothinginmylifeshookmesodeeplyasmyfirstvisittoChina.=MyfirstvisittoChinashookmethemostdeeply3)negativeword+comparativedegreeIlikenothingbetter.=It’sthebestthingIlike.Itcan’tbeworse.=It’stheworstthingI’veeverknow.Notes:☻FiveUnacceptableStructures:1.n.+as+much/many+as2.as+a+adj.+n.(可数名词单数)+as3.as+adj.+n(pl.)+as…4.n．+more/less/fewer+than…5.more/fewer+adj．+a+n.☻Commonmistakes:1.比较级的重叠Itislesscoldertodaythanthedaybefore.(X)Itislesscoldtodaythanthedaybefore.2.比较对象的重叠Maryismorebeautifulthananygirlintheclass.(X)Maryismorebeautifulthananyothergirlintheclass.3.不合逻辑的比较TheclimateofJapanismilderthanCanada.(X)TheclimateofJapanismilderthanthatofCanada.☻Ellipsisandsubstitutionincomparativesentences:Ellipsisandsubstitutionoftenoccurwhenthereisarepetitionoftwoparallelitems,whichisalsotrueofcomparativesentences.TomteachesbetterthanJackteaches.TomteachesbetterthanJackdoes.TomteachesbetterthanJack.118 一般来说，可用one(s),that,those,do来代替重复的名词或动词。Thisnovelisasinterestingastheoneswehaveread.TVsetsmadethisyearareofbetterqualitythanthoselastyear.HereadsbetterthanIdo.IspeakEnglishmorefluentlythanIdidinthepast.that可用来代替可数或不可数名词，其复数形式为those.one(s)只代替单个名词，that/those可替代一个词组。Thesteeloutputofthisyearwillbebiggerthanthatoflastyear.Thewhitedressesgowiththehatbetterthantheblueones.Ourrulesarequitedifferentfrom/thanthoseofotherorganizations.Butwhenthereisanobjectaftertheverb,theellipsismaycauseambiguity.Tomlikespopmusicmorethanhis18-year-olddaughterlikespopmusic.(clumsiness)Tomlikespopmusicmorethanhis18-year-olddaughterlikesit.Tomlikespopmusicmorethanhis18-year-olddaughterdoes.Tomlikespopmusicmorethanhis18-year-olddaughter.(ambiguity)☻senior,junior,superior,inferior,prior,previous,subsequent,posterior,anterior,+toWeareinferiortoothersinmanyrespects.Theengineissuperiortothatone.Herarrivalatthetownisposteriortothatofothers.Thatwasaneventanteriortotheoutbreakofthewar.☻形容词最高级不表示和其他事物相比较时不用定冠词1）用作补语强调事物品质：Compare:Thisiswheretheriverisdeepest.Putthepicturewherelightisbest.Heisthebusiestworkerinthefactory.HeisbusiestinDecember.2）用作前置修饰语表示veryThisbookisthemostdifficultthatIhaveeverread.Itisamostusefulbook.(very)☻倍数表达Aistimesthesize(height,width,depth,etc)ofBAistimesasbig(large,high,wide,deep,etc.)asBAistimesbigger(larger,higher,wider,deeper,etc.)thanBCottonoutputwas2percenthigherthaninthepreviousyear.TheballoonLiMing’sfatherhasjustboughthimisthreetimesthesizeofmine.☻intensifiers例句Ironishard,butsteelisstillharder.Hiscarrunsalittlefaster.ThejobissomuchharderthanmylastonethatI’vedecidedtoquit.Milkisalotmorenutritiousthanbeer.Weneedmanymorebooksthanyouhaveboughtusthese.Theyhavemuchmoremilkthanwe.Honeyisjustaboutassweetassugar.Heisbyfarthebiggestwrestler.118 ProfessorSmithiseasilythemostinterestinglecturerofall.ThiscityisnearlythemostbeautifulcityIhaveeverbeento.I.Otherusagesofcomparativeconstructions1.more/less…than…与其说…，不如说…Heismoregoodthanbad.=Heisgoodratherthanbad.Thepresentcrisisismuchmoreapoliticalthananeconomiccrisis.2.notsomuch…as…与其说…,不如说…Itwasn’tsomuchhisappearanceIlikedashispersonality.=Ilikedhispersonalityratherthanhisappearance.Compare:notso…as…3.nomore/-erthan=botharenot…JohnisnobetterthanTom.Compare:notmore/-erthanJohnisnotbetterthanTom.☻nomore…than=not…anymorethanAwhaleisntmoreafishthanahorseis.Awhaleisnotafishanymorethanahorseis.noless…than:bothare…HespeaksFrenchnolessclearlythanMrChen.(HespeaksFrenchasclearlyasMrChen.)nomorethan+数字:only仅仅，只不过，强调“少”notmorethan+数字：atmost,最多，至多，不超过Shereadnomorethanfivebooksthisweek.她这个星期才读了5本书。Shereadnotmorethanfivebooksthisweek.她这个星期最多读了5本书。nolessthan+数字：有…之多，多大…强调“多”notlessthan+数字：不少于，至少Shespentnolessthan1000dollarsforthecoat.她花了多达1000美元买了这件外套。Shespentnotlessthan1000dollarsforthecoat.她花了至少1000美元买了这件外套。4.morethan:1)notonlyMytriptoBeijingismorethansightseeing.2)超过，否定意义Theterribleheatwasmorethantheoldpeoplecouldbear.IloveyoumorethanIcansay.3)veryTheyweremorethansatisfiedwithourgift.5.themore/-er…themore/-er:越…,越…TheolderIget,thehappierIam.6.more/-erandmore/-er越来越Thecarwasrunningfasterandfaster.Hishealthisgettingbetterandbetter.118 118 Lecture17PrepositionandPrepositionalPhraseEnglishhasalargenumberofprepositionsascomparedwithpronouns,conjunctions,anddeterminers;yettheyarestillaclosedwordclass.Theirmajorfunctionistoconnectnouns,verbsandadjectivestootherpartsofthesentence.Aprepositionistypicallyfollowedbyanounoranounequivalenttointroduceaprepositionalphrase.Aprepositionalphrasecanperformthefollowingsyntacticfunctions:apostmodifierinthenounphrase,anadverbial,andacomplement.awomaninwhiteIgetupearlyinthemorning.I’mverygratefulforyourhelp.I.Forms:1.simpleprepositions:a.Prep.only:against,amid,among,at,bar,barring,concerning,considering,despite,during,except,excepting,failing,following,from,including,into,like,minus,of,pending,per,plus,regarding,respecting,to,times,toward,towards,unlike,upon,via,with,worthb.Prep./Conj.:after,as,but,for,save,than,till,untilc.Prep./Adv.:aboard,about,above,across,along,alongside,around,behind,below,beneath,besides,between,beyond,by,down,in,inside,less,near,off,on,opposite,over,outside,past,round,through,throughout,under,underneath,up,within,withoutd.Prep./Conj./Adv.:before,since2.complexprepositionsa.two-wordprep.:asfor,butfor,exceptfor,apartfrom,awayfrom,aheadof,becauseof,insteadof,outof,outsideof,regardlessof,accordingto,asto,dueto,nearto,nextto,onto,owingto,priorto,upto,alongwith,togetherwith,b.three-wordprep.:incaseof,inchargeof,inconsequenceof,infavourof,infrontof,inlieuof,inneedof,inplaceof,inquestof,inrespectof,insearchof,intermsof,inspiteof,inviewof,inaccordancewith,incommonwith,incomparisonwith,incompliancewith,inconformitywith,inconnectionwith,incontactwith,inlinewith,bymeansof,byvirtueof,bywayof,onaccountof,onbehalfof,ontopof,asfaras,atvariancewith,inexchangefor,inreturnfor,inadditionto,inrelationto,with/inregardto,with/inreferenceto,with/inrespectto,c.four-wordprep:in(the)faceof,in(the)lightof,onthepartof,onthestrengthof,asa/theresultof,attheexpenseof,atthehandsof,for(the)sakeof,withtheexceptionof,II.Uses1.Prepositionsofspatialrelationsthestativeuse:indicatesastaticlocationthedynamicuse:indicatesthedirectionofamovement118 MeaningPrepositionsLocation(stative)aboard,about,across,against,along,alongside,around,at,awayfrom,beside,down,near,off,on,outof,past,round,through,up,uponabove,aheadof,amid(st),among,before,behind,below,beneath,between,beyond,by,in,infrontof,inside,ontopof,opposite,under,underneath,with,withinDirection(dynamic)from,into,onto,to,toward(s)a.at,on,ina)at:associatedwithapointb)on:associatedwithalineorthesurfaceofsth.c)in:associatedwithanareaorthevolumeofsth.OurtrainarrivedatNewYorkatmidnight.(aspotonamap)ShehaslivedinNewYorkfortwentyyears.(acitywithhouses,streets,etc.)LondonissituatedontheRiverThames.(aline)Youmayhangthepictureonthiswall.(surface)Thereisaholeinthewall.inChina/Europe/theworldI’dprefertoputmydeskatthewindow.(similartoby,beside,near,etc.indicatetheintentiontousethewindowforpurpose)Afaceappearedinthewindow.(aframedarea)Theboypressedhisfaceonthewindow(theglasssurface)Hecameinacar.(closedvehicles)Didyoucomeonfootoronahorse?Hewasinthehouseyesterdayafternoon.他昨天下午在屋内。Hewasatthehouseyesterdayafternoon.他昨天下午在家。☻Whenusedwiththefollowingnouns:bank,church,cinema,hotel,office,school,theatre,university,etc.,atshowssomekindofconnectionwithaninstitutioninitsfunctionalaspect,whileinindicatesameregeographicalposition.PeterisatCambridge.(asastudent)PeterisinCambridge.(asaresident,avisitor,etc.)☻road,way之前用on,street之前用in或on.ontheroad,onmywayhome,(比较：intheway:挡路，妨碍交通)in/onthestreet☻inthefieldsonthefarmonthegroundontheplayground☻atthetop/ontopThereisachurchatthetopofthehill.Putthisrecordontopoftheothers.把这张唱片放在其他唱片的上面。☻inthedistance:farawaybutstillabletobeseenorheardatadistance:fromaplaceortimethatisnotnear;fromfaraway118 Wesawalightinthedistance.我们看到远处有灯光。Thepicturelooksbetteratadistance.这幅画远看更好一些。☻at/in/onthecorneratthecornerinthecorneronthecornera.over,above,under,belowa)above/below:ahigher/lowerpositionorlevelb)over/under:averticalrelationship,“directlyabove”and“directlybelow”introducesth.thatcoverssth.elseThelamphungover/abovethetable.Sheleantovertherivertoseeherreflectioninthewater.Thecatislyingunderthetable.Hewaitedbelowthewindowuntilsheopeneditandspoketohim.Hekepthiscoatoverhisshoulders.Hehidhisgununderthepillow.b.in/on/totheeastintheeastontheeasttotheeastChinaliesinteheastofAsia.AnhuiliesontheeastofHenan.TaiwanliestotheeastofFujian.☻Thesunrisesintheeast.（从东方）Thesunsetsinthewest.c.to/on/attheleft(right)a)on/attheleft(right)某一物体左（右）边较近的位置。b)totheleft(right)某一物体左（右）边较远的位置，有一段距离Hesaton/attheleftofme.Thereisatowertotherightofthehouse.d.infrontof/inthefrontofinfrontofinthefrontofe.around,round,about围绕，周围a)around在“周围”围着的静止位置b)round在“周围”旋转的运动位置c)about笼统地表示在某一物的附近或旁边118 Childrensataroundthefire.孩子们围坐在火的周围。Theearthgoesroundthesun.地球围绕太阳转。Herhairhangaboutherneck.她的头发垂在脖子的左右。a.between,amonga)between:twoobjects;clearandexactlocativepositionsb)among:threeormoreobjects;indefinitepositions,surroundedby,mixedupwithShesatbetweenthetwochildren.Shesatamongthethreechildren.Ourhousestandsbetweenaschoolandasupermarket.EcuadorliesbetweenColombia,Peru,andthePacificOcean.Itispleasanttowalkamongthetreesintheevening.Helosthissonwhenthefilmwasoverandfoundhimamongthepeopleoutsidethecinema.Agoodteachermustneithertoostrictnortooweak;hismannermustliebetweenthesetwo.Amonghismanygoodqualities,punctualityisthemost6impressiveone.HemadeacomparisonbetweenthemajorEnglishspeakingcountries.IlikeNewZealandbestamongalltheEnglishspeakingcountries.b.aboardusuallyusedwithanounreferringtoaformoftransportorwiththenameofaparticularvehicle:bike,boat,bus,coach,ferry,jet,plane,rocket,ship,sledge,spaceshuttle,train,truck,yacht,etc.Therearetoomanypassengersaboardthetrain.Fortunately,shewasnotaboardtheTitanic.c.from:a)followedbyanounphraseb)followedbyanotherprepositionoranadverbtoindicateastartingpointofamovement:above,abroad,behind,below,beneath,downstairs,here,inside,outside,overseas,there,under,underneath,upstairs,etc.Leaveskeptfallingfromaboveourheadswhenwewerewalkingamongthetrees.NewscamefromabroadthattheJapanesestartedattackingtheAmericanwarships.Ithinkthenoisecomesfrombelowthewindow.Ithinkthenoisecomesfrombelow.d.across,through,overa)across:relatedto“on”,theactiontakesplaceonthesurfaceofsth.fromoneend/sidetotheother.横过b)through:relatedto“in”,theactiontakesplaceinsideacertainspacewiththingsaround.穿过c)over:越过，在…之上越过acrossthedesertthroughthewoodsHeswamacrosstheriver.Thetrainwentthroughatunnel.118 Theplaneflewoverthecity.a.across,over,beyond在…那边，在…对过a)across:一般的“对过”b)over:“障碍物”的“对过”c)beyond:较远的“对过”Helivesacrossthestreet.townandvillagesoverthemountainsThereisalakebeyondthismountain.b.v.+sb.+prep.+the+apartofthebodyon:solidpartin:softpartby:sidepart2.Prepositionsrelatingtotimea.at,on,ina)at:non-durative,pointsoftimeb)on:daysorperiodsofaspecificdayc)in:periodslongerorshorterthanadaysixo’clockatmidnighthisuncle’sdeathSundayTuesdaysandFridaysonMay23,1988SaturdayafternoonsChristmasDaythemorning/theafternoon/theeveningtheday/thenightthedays/weeks/months/yearsthatfollowedinspring/summer/autumn/winter1996the21stcenturytheStoneAge☻Notethat“at”canalsobeusedfordays,inwhichcasetheperiodsarestillconceivedaspointsoftime.WelookforwardtoherarrivalatChristmas.Hewasmurderedatthebankholiday.b.for,sincea)for+lengthoftime:howlongsth.hascontinued(perfective)b)since+apointoftime:whensth.began.(perfective)Wehavebeenwaitingforhalfanhour.Wehavebeenwaitingsince6o’clock.Wehaven’tbeentothetheatresincemonthsago.Ihaven’tseenJamesforalmostoneyear.c.ago,beforea)ago:apasttimemeasuredfromthepresent(simplepast)b)before:apasttimemeasuredfromthemoreresentpast(pastperfecitve)118 IpassedmyGREtestsixmonthsago.Theymovedtoanewhousesometimeago.Tomleftthecompanylastyear.He’dstartedworktheretenyearsbefore.IfinallyreceivedareplytotheapplicationIhadappliedforthescholarshipweeksbefore.a.in,aftera)in+lengthoftime:thetimeittakestocompletesth.(durativeverb)afuturetimemeasuredfromthepresent(non-durativeverb)b)after+apointoftime/aneventColumbuscrossedtheAtlanticinseventydays.SurelyyoucanchangeawheelinfifteenminutesYourphotoswillbereadyinhalfanhour.Theexhibitionhallwillopeninsixweeks.Thetrainwillbeleavinginafewminutes.b.during,in:thetimeinwhichsth.happened☻Witha“timeword”,wecanuseeitherinorduring:Itmusthaverainedin/duringthenight.I’llphoneyousometimeduring/intheafternoon.☻during后的名词前必须有限定词，in后的名词前有限定词表示特指，无限定词表示泛指Shedidalotforthearmyduring/inthewar.Whatdidhesayduring/inmyabsence?Somebirdsflytothesouthinsummer.☻during，强调动作的连续性，指“在整个过程中”如表示的是习惯性或持续性的动作，或指的是一项活动，如：visit,meal,concert,service,voyage,stay,etc.只能用during;in指一时性的动作或短暂动作，强调某事具体发生的时间。Shewasintheheadquartersduringthewar.Heworkedinachemicalplantduring1988.TheshopwasclosedduringthewholeofAugust.Itwasoverinthetwinklingofaneye.HeleftEnglandin1988.c.by,till,untila)by:notlaterthanb)till/until:howlongasituationcontinuesIpostedthelettertoday,sotheyshouldreceiveitbyMonday.CanyoupaymebackbyFriday?Wesatinthepubuntil/tillclosingtime.Therewillbetraffichold-upsuntilnextsummer.☻Tillismoreinformalthanuntil.☻Bothtillanduntilcanbeconjunctions.Wewalkedonandonuntil/tillwecametothecave.☻Wecanusenot…until/tillwhensth.islaterthanexpectedSuziedidn’tgetupuntil/tillhalfpastten.Iwon’ttakeanotherjobuntil/tillthisoneisdone.☻Wecanalsousebythetimeinsteadofuntil:Therewasnofoodleftbythetimewearrived.118 Hurryup!Bythetimewegettothecinema,thefilmwillalreadyhavestarted.1.Prepositionsrelatingtotools,means,materials,etc.a.with“用工具”，可用于主动和被动语态中，其后的名词是可数名词；也可表示用某种材料，特别是材料和工具都使用时。Hewrotealetterwithafountain-pen.Youmustwritethecompositionwithpenandink.b.in用某种材料和方式He’swritingaletterinink.paintinwater-colorsCanyoudotheexperimentinanotherway?c.by手段，多用于主动语态或不及物动词之后，相当于through,bymeansof交通工具，泛指意义Byyourhelp,Imaysucceed.Youhavetoexpressthethoughtbyaction.Chooseawiferatherbyyourearthanyoureye.Weshallgobycar/train/bus/ship.Compare:Thecockwaskilledwithaknife.Thecockdiedbytheknife.bycar/aeroplane/taxi/bikeinmycar,inhisownaeroplane,inataxionhisbike2.Prepositionsrelatingtoreasonsa.becauseof/owingto/dueto/thanksto因为，由于，不能接句子a)becauseof作状语b)owingto多做状语，有时也可作补语c)dueto一般只作补语或后置修饰语d)thanksto作状语，表达“感激，感谢”，有时也用于讽刺的口吻Shecannotgotoschoolbecauseofsickness.Becauseofhercarelessnessshefailedintheexamination.Theydecidedtocallofftheparty,owingtothebadweather.Hisdeathwasowingtoanaccident.Herabsenceisduetoillness.Thelatenessoftheshipwasduetothestorm.Mistakesduetocarelessnessmayhaveseriousconsequences.ThankstoTom’skindhelp,wefinishedearly.Thankstothebadweather,ourjourneywasveryuncomfortable.3.除了a.besides:相当于inadditionto，除…以外，还有…（包括在内）BesidesChinese,healsostudiesMaths,Physics,andChemistry.b.but/except:除…之外，没有…（除去，不包括在内）Iknowallthestudentsbutsix.Ilookedeverywhereexceptinthebedroom.Compare:Ihaveafewdictionariesbesidesthisone.Ihavefewdictionariesexceptthisone.118 a.exceptfor:引述一个相反的原因或细节，部分的修正了句中的主要意思Yourcompositionisgoodexceptforafewspellingmistakes.Inourschoolmostoftheteacherswerefairlyyoungexceptforafewolderteachers.b.exceptthat:后接从句IknewnothingexceptthatXiaoLiwasthere.Yourcompositionisgoodexceptthatthereareafewspellingmistakes.c.apartfrom:besides,except,exceptforApartfromthem,Ihadnoonetotalkto.Apartfromsport,myotherinterestoutsideclassismusic.Apartfromsomespellingmistakes,thecompositionisfairlygood.118 Lecture18Statement,Question,Command,ExclamationThesentenceisthehighestrankofgrammaticalconstruction.Intermsoftheircommunicativefunctions,sentencesmaybedividedintofourtypes:1.statement2.question3.command4.exclamation§1.StatementsIncommunication,statementsarechieflyusedtostateafactornon-fact,thatis,toaffirmornegatesomething.Thus,statementsmaybedividedintopositivestatementsandnegativestatements.PositivestatementsInapositivestatement,theremightbedifferentdegreesofcertaintyaboutthetruthoftheinformationimparted.1.tosoftenthetone:Ithink,Iguess,Isuppose,Isuspect,I’mafraid,ifI’mnotmistaken,ifImightsayso,ifyouplease,ifyoudon’tmindEg.Teaching16hoursaweek,I’mafraid,istoomuchforme.Wehavemetbefore,ifI’mnotmistaken.2.toreinforcethestatement1)emphasizersindeed,really,definitely,certainly,forsure,withoutanyquestion,withoutdoubt,undoubtedly,virtually,surely,actuallyeg.Manypeoplewillcertainlylosetheirjobs.Withoutanyquestion,hisnewnovelwillbethebestsellerfor2010.2)reinforcementtagseg.Thatwasatrap,thatwas.You’vegonemad,youhave.3)doublenegativeseg.Thatkindofresultisnotimpossibly.Shewenttothatplacenotinfrequently4)rhetoricalquestions:questionsinformbutstatementsinmeaningAnegativerhetoricalquestionisequivalenttoareinforcedpositivestatement,whileapositiverhetoricalquestiontoareinforcednegation.Eg.Isn’titlovelyweathertoday?Whodoesn’tknowthat?Whocareswhereyouslept?Cananyonedoubtthetruthofhisstatement?5)theuseofastressedoperator(inspokenlanguage)eg.I`amtellingyouthetruth.Youneednotlietome.You`didgotothatplaceandmanypeoplesawyouthere.118 I.Negativestatements118 Lecture19RelativeClauseI.RestrictiveRelativeClause&Non-restrictiveRelativeClauseII.Relativewords1.Relativewordsandtheirfunctions关系代词who代替人，作从句的主语whom代替人，作从句的宾语which代替物，作从句的主语、宾语that代替人、物，作从句的主语、宾语，只能引导限制性从句whose代替人或物，从句中作名词的修饰语as代替物，常与same,such连用，引导限制性定语从句单独使用时引导非限制性从句，在从句中作主语、宾语或宾补but表示否定意义，代替人、物，从句中作主语than有比较意义，修饰带有形容词比较级的名词关系副词when先行词是表示时间的词，从句中作时间状语where先行词是表示地点的词，从句中作地点状语why先行词是reason，从句中作原因状语as先行词是作状语的词组，从句中作方式状语Thepupilswho/thathadbeenwatchingstartedtoapplaud.Thisisthebookthat/whichIlikebest.Peoplewhosedogsbiteotherpeopleshouldkeepthemtiedup.Sheknewhefeltjustthesameasshedid.Suchpeopleasyoudescribearerarenowadays.Thecarwhich/thatwasstolenhasbeenfound.Thehousewhosewindowsarebrokenisunoccupied.2.Choiceofrelativepronounsinrestrictiveclause1)Asthesubjectinrelativeclause2)Astheobjectinrelativeclause3)Asthecomplementofthepronounintherelativeclause4)Thecaseinwhichonly“that”canbeused:3.Choiceofrelativepronounsinnon-restrictiveclause4.but表示否定意义的关系代词，相当于“that/which/who…not”用于no之后Thereisnooneofusbutwishestohelpyou.我们当中没有人不想帮你。Thereisnomanbutknows(whodoesn’tknow)thesunislargerthanthemoon.没有人不知道太阳比月亮大.Thereisnothingbornbuthastodie.一切事物有生有灭5.than:有比较意义,修饰带有形容词比较级的名词HesmokedmoreexpensivecigarettesthanIcouldafford.Thereweremorecasualtiesthanwerereported.6.as1)可指人也可指物,通常与thesame,such,so等连用:thesame…as,such…as,so…asTheyneedsuchmaterialsascanbearhightemperatureandpressure.118 Massisnotthesamethingasweightis.Wehavearrivedatthesameconclusionastheyhave.Fromthislibrarywecanborrowasmanybooksaswewanttoread.Hereissobigastoneasnomancanlift.Ishallusetheinstrumentinsuchawayasheusedityesterday.1)thesame…asvs.thesame…thatas引导的定语从句表示其内容与主句所讲的事物相似,指同类事物;that引导的定语从句表示其内容与主句所讲的事物是同一个,指同一事物.Wehopetogetsuchabookthat/asheisreading.Thisisthesame(kindof)penasIlostyesterday.Thisisthesamepen(theverypen)thatlostyesterday.2)as还可引导非限制性定语从句,同which一样,既可指代整个主句,也可指代主句中的部分内容.Hemarriedher,aswasnatural.Asyoucansee,we’vegotaproblemwiththeengine.Hewasnotsick,assomeoftheotherpassengerswere.Which引导的非限制性定语从句不能位于句首,而as引导的非限制性定语从句的位置比较灵活,可在句首、句末或句中。Aswasusualattheweekend,theclubwasalmostempty.Herperformancewaswonderful,aswehadexpected.3)As在起引导得从句中充当主语时，其谓语动词通常是be其他系动词以及被动语态，此时，如果as引导的定语从句不在句首，as和which可以互换。Shewasabsent,which/asisoftenthecase.Aswasexpected,heperformedthetaskwithsuccess.Shehasremarried,whichdelightedus.118 Lecture20ConditionalSentence118 Lecture21InversionI.StatementsII.QuestionsIII.Commands,IV.ExclamationBibliography章振邦.新编英语语法（第三版）.上海：上海外语教育出版社，1997.张道真.实用英语语法.北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2002.汤海平.英语常用同义词辨析300例.西安：西安交通大学出版社，2006.118