中国高职英语语法教学的认知研究——一项个案研究 73页

论文题目：中国高职英语语法教学的认知研究——一项个案研究作者姓名：置握握入学时间：2Q!Q生窆旦专业名称：筮国蚤壹堂丞廑届蚤壹堂研究方向：墓受燃指导教师：塞蕊职称：塾二篮论文提交日期：论文答辩日期：授予学位日期：2Q!曼生量旦2Q至三生鱼旦 CognitiveApproachtoEnglishGrammarTeachinginChineseVocationalColleges—ACaseStudyADissertationsubmittedinfulfillmentoftherequirementsofthedegreeofMASTERoFARTSfromShandongUniversityofScienceandTechnologyYueShanshanSupervisor：ProfessorSongYanCollegeofForeignlanguagesMay2013 声明本人呈交给山东科技大学的这篇硕士学位论文，除了所列参考文献和是所公认的文献外，全部是本人在到时指导下的研究成果。该论文资料尚没有呈交给其它任何学术机关做鉴定。硕士生签名：日期：AFFIRMATIONIdeclarethatthisdissertation，submittedinfulfillmentoftherequirementsfortheawardofMasterofPhilosophyinShandongUniversityofScienceandTechnology,iswhollymyownworkunlessreferencedofacknowledge．Thedocumenthasnotbeensubmittedforqualificationatanyotheracademicinstitute．Signature：Date： 山东科技大学硕士学位论文摘要语法作为选词、组词并使之有意义的一套规则，在语言教学中起着重要的作用。没有语法，语言也就形同虚设。而且，学习者若没有学习英语语法，讲好英语是困难的。因此语法教学是语言教学必不可少的部分。根据语言学理论，本篇论文主要探索语言教学中语法的地位、外语教学的特点、认知教学法的理论基础，为的是重新定位语法教学，以获得对教授语法必要性的全面理解。在本篇论文中，以青岛的黄海学院为个案研究，我们将会回顾认知派的历史、讨论它的概念、理论基础及其对外语教学的启示，尤其是对高职英语语法教学的启示。本文共包含四章：引言部分陈述了本文的背景和目标；第一章描述当前的语法教学环境，认知派教学法比其他流派更加适合学院学生，以便他们更准确和流利的与他人交际；介绍了认知教学法的概念、特征和原则，也讨论了语法能力、语言能力和认知能力之间的相互关系；第二章列出了实验设计和研究方法；第三章认真分析了实验结果并提出发现，进行了讨论；第四章讨论如何在认知派教学法的指导下实践语法教学，且提出了可行的方法；结论部分，再次阐述了认知法的优势所在：以其他教学法忽略的认知能力和认知过程作为出发角度，将外语教学的共性问题、学习者个体问的认知差异与母语环境中学习外语的特殊规律考虑进去，完善了外语教学法的科学性。但是，认知法能否成为成熟独立的教学体系，其发展必然经历一段艰难曲折的探索过程。关键词：认知教学法；英语语法教学；认知能力 山东科技大学硕士学位论文AbstractGrammar,asasetofrulesforchoosingwordsandputtingwordstogethertomakesense，playsasignificantroleinlanguageteaching．Withoutgrammar,languagedoesnotexist．Also，itisdifficultforstudentstospeakEnglishwellwithoutEnglishgrammar．Grammarteachingisalsoanessentialpartoflanguageteaching．Intermsofthetheoryoflinguistics，thispaperspecificallyexploresthestatusofgrammarinlanguagelearning，thecharacteristicsofforeignlanguagelearning，andtheoreticalbasisofcognitiveteachingapproachinordertoachieveacomprehensiveunderstandingofnecessityofteachinggrammar,andalsorepositiongrammarteaching．Inthethesis，HuanghaiInstituteinQingdaoasacasestudy,wewillreviewthehistoryofcognitiveapproachanddiscussitsdefinition，theoreticalfoundationandenlightenmenttoforeignlanguageteaching，especiallytoEnglishgrammarteachinginvocationalcolleges．Thisthesisconsistsoffourchapters．Theintroductionstatesthebackgroundandtheobjectiveofthethesis．Chapter1describespresentsituationofgrammarteachinginCognitiveApproachismoresuitableforcollegestudentstocommunicativewithothersaccuratelyandfreelythanotherapproachesandmethods；italsointroducesthedefinitions，featuresandprinciplesofCognitiveTeachingMethod，anddiscussestherelationshipsamongcognitivecompetence，linguisticcompetenceandgrammaticalcompetence．Chapter2givesexperimentdesignandresearchmethod．Chapter3analyzesresultscarefullyandputsforwardfindingsanddiscussions．Chapter4discussesabouthowtoteachgrammarundercognitiveapproachandputsforwardsomefeasiblewaysforteacherstoteachgrammar．Intheconclusionpart，advantagesofCognitiveApproacharestressedagain：ittakesthecognitivecompetenceandcognitiveprocessignoredbyotherteachingmethodologiesasthestartingpoint；itputssomefactorsintoconsideration，suchascommonproblemsofforeignlanguageteaching，cognitivedifferencesbetweenindividuallearnersandthespeciallawofleamingforeignlanguageinthenativelanguageenvironment，andperfectsthescientificnatureofforeignlanguageteachingmethods．However,whetherthecognitiveapproachbecomesmatureandindependentteachingsystemmustgothroughahardandtortuousjourney．ii 山东科技大学硕士学位论文AbstractKeywords：CognitiveApproach；EnglishGrammarTeaching；CognitiveCompetence 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Contents摘要⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯。iAbstract⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯iiIntroduction⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯1Chapter1LiteratureReview⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯41．1GrammarandGrammarTeaching⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．41．1．1Definitionofgrammar⋯⋯⋯⋯．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．，．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．41．1．2Studiesonlanguagegrammarteaching．．⋯．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．51．2GrammarTeachinginLanguageClassesAbroad．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．61．2．1Sometraditionalmethodsingrammar-teaching．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．．．．．．．．．．．．，．．61．2．2Cognitiveapproachingrammarteaching．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．，⋯⋯⋯⋯．．．⋯．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．71．3GrammarTeachinginEnglishClassesatHome．．，．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．，．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．，．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．71．4TheoreticalBasisforCLT⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯81．4．1Psychologicaltheoryfoundation⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．81．4．2Chomsky’Slinguisticcompetence．．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．91．4．3GVico’Sconstructivismlearningtheory⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯101．5Definition，FeaturesandPrinciplesofCognitiveApproach．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．101．5．1Definition⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．101．5．2Features⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯1l1．5．3Principles．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．．．．111．6RelationshipsamongCognitiveCompetence，LinguisticCompetenceandGrammarTeaching131．6．1Cognitivecompetenceandlinguisticcompetence．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．131．6．2Linguisticcompetenceingrammarteaching．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．⋯．．141．6．3Cognitivecompetenceingrammarteaching．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．⋯⋯．．⋯．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．151．7AdvantagesofCognitiveApproach⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．16Chapter2ExperimentDesignandResearchMethod⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯182．1AimoftheExperiment⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．．⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．182．2Subjects．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．182．3Instruments⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯19 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Contents2．3．1Questionnaires．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．⋯．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．192．3．2InterviewofEnglishteachers．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．192．3．3PRETCO—B(June，2005and2006)⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯202．4DataCollectionandAnalysis⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．20Chapter3ResultsandDiscussion⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．223．1ResultsfromQualitativeStudy⋯⋯．．⋯．．．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．223．1．1Analysisofstudentquestionnaires⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．223．1．2Analysisofinterviews⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．：163．2ResultsfromQuantitativeStudy．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．⋯⋯⋯⋯．．．⋯．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．283．2．1ThevalidityandreliabilityofPRETCO—B⋯⋯⋯．．．．．．⋯．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．283．2．2Analysisoftests．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．⋯．．．．．．．．．．283．3Discussions．．．．．．．．．．．⋯⋯⋯．⋯．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．32Chapter4PedagogicalImplications⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．334．1TheUndesirableTendenciesofEnglishGrammarTeachinginChineseVocationalColleges334．2HowtoTeachEnglishGrammarunderCognitiveLanguageTeaching．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．344．2．1Creatingacognitiveenvironment．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．⋯⋯⋯．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．344．2．2Somecognitivefactorsappliedtogrammarteaching．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．354．3TeachersandStudentsasObservers．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．444．4LessonPlanningandClassroomTeaching⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯454．5ASampleLessonPlan．．．．．．．．．．．．．⋯⋯．⋯．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．46Conclusion⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．52Bibliography⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．55Acknowledgments⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．58Publications⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．59AppendixI⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．60AppendixII⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．62AppendixIII⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．64V 山东科技大学硕士学位论文IntroductionInpresentacademia,assoonas“cognition”appears，itoftenbringsboomingimpressiontopeople．Indeed，inpsychology,cognitivepsychologyhasbeenonthedominantposition；inlinguistics，cognitivelinguisticsaswellasotherstudiesoflanguageontologyhasachievedgreatdevelopments．Howeveqinthenarrowestfieldofappliedresearch⋯foreignlanguageteaching，thoughcognitiveapproachhassolidtheoreticalfoundation，itsinfluenceislimited．ThemostimportantcontributiontolanguageteachingisthatcognitiveapproachunderlinesunderstandinglearningmaterialsandmeaningfullearningfromtheprospectofpsychologyAsateachingmethodwhichbeganbasedonotherapproachesandmethods，cognitiveapproachhasalotofadvantages．Thispaperiswrittenforteachers，programadministrators，educationresearchers，andpolicymakerstoprovideinformationonevidence—basedstrategiesforteachinggrammartoadultEnglishlanguagelearners．Fordecades，EnglishlanguageteachinginChinahasbeengreatlyinfluencedbysometraditionalteachingmethods．Grammar,tomanylinguists，isasystemthatlinkssoundswithmeaninginthehumanmind．ManyadultEnglishlanguagelearnersplaceahighvalueonlearninggrammar(Ikpia，2003)．Perceivingalinkbetweengrammaticalaccuracyandeffectivecommunication，theyassociateexcellentgrammarwithopportunitiesforemploymentandpromotion，theattainmentofeducationgoals，andsocialacceptancebynativespeakers．ReflectingthedisagreementthatWasoncecommoninthesecondlanguageacquisitionresearch，teachersofadultEnglishlanguagelearnersvaryintheirviewsonhow：towhatextent,andevenwhethertoteachgrammar．Throughoutthecharacteristicsofcognitiveapproach，itisnotdifficulttofinditsstrugglebetweenconsideredstructureandclearattitude．Encounteringsuchanembarrassingsituation，itneedstobetracedbacktoitsadvancedtheoreticalbackground．Thoughadvancedgenerativelinguisticsoccupiesthemainstreampositioninthelinguisticfield，thetheoriesChomskyputsforwardarestillexperiencingconstantchangesandimprovement．Therearesomeofhistheories，fromlanguageacquisitiondevicetogenerativegrammar；fromtransformationalruletocasetheory；government—bindtheoryandtheminimalistprogrametc．Allofthemhavenotbeenformationoffixedrules．WangJunpointsoutinOnDifficultSituationandOutletofForeign 山东科技大学硕士学位论文IntroductionLanguageTeachinginCognitiveApproach：thegenerativegrammartheoryisleading，butitisalwaysindevelopmentandchange；however,grammarteachingneedsrelativelyfixedrules；therefore，generativelinguisticscannotbeanythingbutoffersupporttocognitiveapproach“mentally”．Moreover,cognitivepsychologybasedonpsychologytakessomepsychologicalactivitiesasthemainresearchcontent，suchasperception，understanding，memory,reasoningandSOon．Thatmakesitsresearchmethodsmorecomplex．Complextheoriesandmethodsmakeitsapplicationtopracticalteachingdifficult．Assameascognitivelinguistics，thoughthetheoryisinthefrontier,thetheoryitselfstillneedscontinuousdevelopmentandimprovement．Theshoflageofcognitiveapproachisthatitcannotturndeeptheoriesintoeasyandoperablemethodappliedtopracticalteaching．Throughoutthehistoryofforeignlanguageteachingdevelopment，thepositionsofgrammarandgrammarteachinghavebeenexperiencingupsanddowns．IstheEnglishGl"ammarteachingnecessary?DoesitaffecttheimprovementoflanguageabilitiesforEnglishlearners?WhatisthebestmethodofEnglishgrammarteachingandlearning?Foralongtime，thevocationalcollegeteachershavebeenworriedaboutthesequestions．Howtomakestudentsdolanguagecommunicationfluently,atthesametime，keepaccuracyintheirlanguage?Thisisaproblemtobesolved．Inviewofthesituation，thepaperputsforwardthatCognitiveApproachshouldbeappliedtoEnglishgrammarteachinginvocationalcolleges．Itaimstomergegrammarteachingandthecultivationofcommunicativecompetence，makestudentsuseallkindsofgrammarformsflexiblyinlistening，reading，writingandtranslatingetc．1anguageactivities．Intheend，theintegrateduseofEnglishcouldbeimprovedThisthesisconsistsoffourchapters．Theintroductionstatesthebackgroundandtheobjectiveofthethesis．Chapter1describespresentsituationofgrammarteachinginCognitiveApproachismoresuitableforcollegestudentstocommunicativewithothersaccuratelyandfreelythanotherapproachesandmethods；italsointroducesthedefinitions，featuresandprinciplesofCognitiveTeachingMethod，anddiscussestherelationshipsamongcognitivecompetence，linguisticcompetenceandgrammaticalcompetence．Chapter2，experimentdesignandresearchmethodarelistedelaborately．Chapter3analyzesresultscarefullyandputsforwardfindingsanddiscussions．Chapter4discussesabouthowtoteach2 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Introductiongrammarundercognitiveapproachandputsforwardsomefeasiblewaysforteacherstoteachgrammar．Intheconclusionpart，advantagesofCognitiveApproacharestressedagain．3 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter1LiteratureReviewChapter1LiteratureReviewAbetterunderstandingofgrammarteachingCanbeachievedinthischapter．Thischapterpresentsthebasicnotionsrelatedtogrammarinforeignlanguageteaching，andreviewsvariousapproachesandmethodsongrammarteaching．Italsoadvisesarelativenewandoverallapproachtogrammarteaching．Grammarteachingisanessentialpartinlanguagelearninginvolvingmeaningfulcontextandconsciouslearning．Andtheyshouldberealizedbyusinganappropriatetheory．ItisobservedthatCognitiveApproachisbeaerusedtogrammarteachingthanotherapproachesandmethods．ThischaptersketchesoutabriefoutlineofCognitiveApproachandtakesittodiscussionongrammarteaching1．1GrammarandGrammarTeachingForlanguageteachersandlearners，grammarisnotastrangeterm．Linguistshavebeenstudyingitforcenturies．Whatroledoesgrammaticalinstructionplayinlanguageteaching?CanweteachgrammarinourCLT(CommunicativeLanguageTeaching)framework?Orshoulditjustbesomehowabsorbedwithoutdirectteaching?Isthereabetterwaytoteachgrammar?Beforeweproceedtonextchapter,weneedtodrawtogetherwhatweknowaboutgrammarandgrammarteaching1．1．1DefinitionofgrammarGrammarhasbeendefinedindifferentwaysbymanylinguists．Lyonsdefinesgrammaras“branchofthedescriptionoflanguageswhichaccountsforthewayinwhichwordscombinedtoformsentences．”(Stem，1983：131)；Brown(1994)regardsgrammaras“asystemofrulesgoverningtheconventionalarrangementandrelationshipofwordsinasentence”．Generallyspeaking，masteryofalanguagemeansmasteryofthecomponentpartsoflanguagesuchasrules，lexisandphonetics；ofthelinguisticskillssuchasgreeting，apologizingandtransferringinformationtoachieveeffectivesocialcommunicationby4 山东科技大学硕土学位论文Chapter1LiteratureReviewapplyingthelanguageasatoolcorrectly．Theultimateaimoflearningalanguageiscommunication．Iftheyarenotputtogetherinappropriategrammaticalconstruction，thewordsandsouIldswouldbecomenonsense，whichmakescommunicationimpossible．1．1．2StudiesonlanguagegrammarteachingGrammarteachingshouldhaveitsownstatusinELT(EnglishLanguageTeaching)．Therearerulesoflanguageusethatwouldbeuselesswithoutrulesofgrammar．Butintherecentdecades，afewextremistshaveadvocatednoteachingofgrammarwhatsoever．NooneCalltellthatgrammarisirrelevant，orgrammarisnolongerneededinlanguageteaching．MarianneCelceMurcia(1991)offeredsixeasilyidentifiablevariablesthatcanhelpyoutodeterminetheroleofgrammarinlanguageteaching(Table1)Table-1VariablesThatDeterminetheImportanceofGrammar(MarianneCelceMurcia，1991：465)LessImportantFocusOnFon】!卜+MoreImportantLearnerVariablesAgeChildrenAdolescentsAdultsProficiencylevelBeginningIntermediateAdvancedEducationalPreliterateSemiliterateLiteratebackgroundNoformalSomeformalW_e11educatededucationInstructioⅡalVariablesSkillListening&SpeakingWritingReadingRegisterInformalConsultativeFormalNeed门JseSur、rival、，ocational’ProfessionalThesixcategoriesshouldbelookedasgeneralguidelinesforjudgingtheneedforconsciousgrammaticalfocusinthelanguageclassroom．Thecontinuumrunsfromlesstomoreimportant；however,itdoesnotsuggestthatgrammarisnotimportantforanyofthesix 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter1LiteratureReviewvariables．What’Smore，thestudentsinvocationalcollegesarealmostabove18(adultS)，andlistening，speaking，readingandwritingarefourbasicskillsinlanguage，whicheverofthemareintegralpartsoflanguageteachingandlearning．1．2GrammarTeachinginLanguageClassesAbroadGrammarteachingisanargumentwhichiscontinuing．Ingeneral，itspositioninEnglishteachingchangesfromdominationtothestatusofsecondary．ThroughoutthehistoryofEnglishteaching，therearemanyteachingmethodsorapproaches．Manylinguistsandlanguageteachersbelievethatgrammarisallimportantaspectofsecondlanguageacquisition(SLA)；howeveLothersbelievethataforeigngrammarcannotbetaughtexplicitly．1．2．1Sometraditionalmethodsingrammar-teachingBeforeresearchbeganonlanguagelearning，methodsusedtoteachforeignlanguagesintheUnitedStateswerebasedontheClassicalMethod(alsoknownastheGrammar-Translation)previouslyemployedforteachingLatinandGreek．Accordingtothemethod，afundamentalpurposeoflearningaforeignlanguageistobeabletoreadliteraturewritteninthetargetlanguage．Astudyofclassicallanguageswasthoughtof“mentalgymnastics”and“indispensabletoanadequatehighereducation．”(Brown，2000：15)Studentswereforcedtomemorizedeclensionandconjugationpatterns，vocabularylists，andothergrammaticalrules．Theonlyuseoflanguageremainedintranslationanddrills，whilepronunciationandconversationalskillswereignored．OpponentsofthismethodmaintainedthatthereisnotheoreticalbasisorpracticalitytotheClassicalMethod．However，aftertheUnitedStatesbecameinvolvedinWorldWar11，theArmyMethod，laterknownastheAudio—LingualMethod，wasactuallybasedonlinguistictheoryandfocusedonoralandauralskillsincludingconversationpractice，withlittletonoexposuretogrammar(Brown，2000：74)．Thepopularityofthismethodeventuallywaned，butseveralschoolstodayemploytechniquesthatareacombinationoftheGrammar-TranslationandAudio-Lingualmethods．6 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter1LiteratureReview1．2．2CognitiveapproachingrammarteachingThestudyabroadonCognitiveApproachtoEnglishteachingisthepioneer．Almostallthecreativetheoriesbeginthere．HoweveLthereisrarelystudyongrammarteachingincognitiveapproach．Generally,theydoresearchesoncognitiveapproachtoESL／EFLgrammarteaching，butthereishardlystudyonvocationalcolleges．Thereisacreativetheory·----·cognitivegrammar．Theytalkaboutthefoundationsofcognitivegrammar；phonology：acognitivegrammarintroduction；thevalueofcognitivegrammarintypologicalstudies：thecaseofNorwegianandRussianpassive，middleandreflexive；cognitiveandgrammarandlexicography．RonaldW：Langackeriscommittedtocreatingcognitivegrammarfrom1976．1．3GrammarTeachinginEnglishClassesatHomeForoveracentury,EnglishgrammarteachinginChinahasbeendominatedbytraditionalmethods，suchasGrammar-TranslationMethod，DirectMethodorAudio—LingualMethodetc．Inthesemethods，classroomteacher’Sfocusisongrammarandstructureisolation，whichlookeddownonthestudents’abilitytospeakandunderstandEnglish．Withthedevelopmentofthehistoryoflanguageteaching，thepositionofEnglishgrammarinlanguageteachinghasalwaysbeendisputed．ItisjustasPeng(2007)hassummarizedthatfromahistoricalpointofview,peoplebegantoleamEnglishgrammarinthe16thcentury,duringwhichanti-grammarteachingeveroccurred，andsubsequentlyEnglishgrammarinlanguageteachingexperiencedseveralupsanddowns．As‘‘communicativeapproach”wasintroducedtoChinainthe1970s，educationalreformersinChinatendtoemphasizethestudents’communicativeabilitytousetheactuallanguage．InteractiveApproachinteachingEnglishgrammartovocationalcollegesWasoncestudied．ThoughitexploredthenecessityofgrammarinEnglishlearning，itdidnotstartfromstudentstoteachEnglish．Someteacherssimplythinkthatistodilutetheteachingofgrammar,withoutattentiontogrammar．Someteacherstendtoneglectgrammarteachingwhichisregardedasinherently“dull’’or“old—fashioned”．Someareevengoingtoextremes7 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter1LiteratureReviewbyavoidingtalkingaboutgrammarunderthesuppositionthatgrammarteachingdoesnogoodtostudents’communicativecompetence．InChina,therearefewresearchesoncognitiveapproach，especiallyinvocationalcollegeEnglishteaching．Theyonlysummarizethecognitiveapproach，hardlyapplyingittoEnglishgrammarteaching．Studentsinvocationalcollegehavetheirowncharacteristics，andtheyhaveacertaincognitivelevel．Theyprefertofindtheinternallawbythemselves．Inviewofthis，usingthecognitiveapproachinclass，thestudentscanlearnlanguageundertheguidanceofteachers．1．4TheoreticalBasisforCLTTheCognitiveApproachisalsocalledCognitive—codeApproach．ItwasfirstputforwardbyanAmericanpsychologistJ．B．Carrollin1960s(Robert&Frank，2000)．TheideaWasputforwardinviewoftheshortcomingsoftheAudio—lingualmethod．Itemphasizestheadults’learningparticularity．1．4．1PsychologicaltheoryfoundationThepsychologicalbasisisderivedfromcognitive-developmenttheoryofJeanPiagetandthebasicstructureanddiscoverytheorydevelopedbyJ．S．Bruner(Robert，2000)．Piagetcreated“Genetic—epistemology”．Themainpointisthathowtheknowledgeisformedanddevelopedthroughhumans’thinkingandpsychologicalactivities．HethoughtthatmasteringnewknowledgeWasakindofintellectualactivity．However,theactivitycontainssomecertaincognitivestructure．ButtheS-R(stimulus-response)formulathebehaviorismstatescannotachievethestructure．HethoughthumanunderstandingoftheoutsideworldWasdifferentfromanimalswhosecharacteristicwasthathumansareintelligent．Whetherhumansreceivingstimulusorrespondingtostimuluswhoseinternalmotivationisthesourceofknowledge，itissubjecttocognitivestructure．SotheS-(AT)一Rformulaisputforward．Thatistosay，somecertainstimulusisassimilatedintoindividualandplacedinknownstructure，andthensomeresponsetostimuluscanbeachieved．Withouttheprocessofsuchknownstructure，humansneitherdoanysocialpracticeactivity，noradjusttherelationshipbetweennatureandindividualwell．Finally，anyknowledgeorskillsarenotobtmned． 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter1LiteratureReviewBruner’Sbasicstlmctllretheoryanddiscoverymethodhaveagreatimpactonforeignlanguageteaching．Heputsforwardstudents—centeredteachingtheoryinhiswritings，suchasCurriculumTheoryandTeachingandLearningTheoryetc．Intheteachingprocess，weshouldmakestudentsmasterbasicstructuresconsistedofconcept，basicprinciplesandrules；thestudents’initiativeshouldbeencouraged．Therulesandprinciplesshouldnotbeimpartedtostudentsbyteachers．Studentsshoulddologicalthoughtactivitybythemselves，observe，analyzeandconcludewhattheyhavelearned．ThisiswhatBruneradvocatesDiscoveryLearning．ItCaniIlsp№thestudents’interestinleamingandstronglearningmotivation，inordertodeveloptheircapacitiesofindependentanalysisandproblem-solving1．4．2Chomsky’SlinguisticcompetenceThetheoreticalbasisinlinguisticsisfromChomsky’Stransformational—generativegrammar．Learnersareviewedasthecenterandthedevelopmentoftheirlanguageabilityisemphasized．Basedonthegrammaticalrule，somemeaningfultrainingisfollowed．Hethinksoflanguageasacompletesystemsubjecttoitself．Theprocessoflearninglanguageisnotonlydependantoneasyimitationandmemory,butacreativeuse．Becauseofit，thelinguistictheoryofbehaviorismlinguisticsisfundamentallyshaken．Heconsideredhumans，evenbabies，learninglanguagewasnotimitation，buttopracticebylanguage．Grammarrulesshouldbefound．TherulesCanderive，transformandgenerateinnumerablesentences．Withthehelpoftherules，humanscanunderstandthesentencestheynevercontactwithandtheycansaythelanguageneverlearned．Thecreativeactivitycannotbeobtainedonlybyrepeatedimitationandmechanicalmemorizing．Sincespeecheventisacreativelanguageactivitysubjecttolanguagerule，howtorealizetheaimisanotherquestion．Therearetwowaystomaserrules：oneistofindrules，theotheristouserulesinacreativeway．Guidingstudentstofindlanguagerulesisthefoundationofcognitiveteachingmethod．Butthefinalaimistotrainanddevelopstudentshowtouserulestodocreativelanguageactivities，andobtain1anguagecompetence．9 山东科技大学硕士学位论文ChapterILiteratureReview1．4．3GVico’SconstructivismlearningtheoryGVico．an18thphilosopher,putsforwardConstructivism．ItistheeducationaltheorybasisofCognitiveApproach．Differentfromtraditionaleducationviews，constructivismbelievesthatknowledgeisnotpassivereflectionsofoutsideobjectiveworld．Noralestudentstaughttogetreflectionsofoutsideworld．Itunderlinesthatteachersshouldmaketheoutsiderealstructuremappedontothestudents．Thestudentsshouldexplainthereceivedreflectionsbytheirownexperienceandknowledgebackground．Learningisnotpassiveacceptanceofknowledge，butaprocessofactivelyconstructingknowledge(Nie，2000)．Therefore，intheteachingdesignandclassroomteachinginstructedbyConstructivism，thesubjectivityofstudentsandtheguidanceofteachersshouldbeemphasized．Knowledgeisnotonlytaughtbyteachers，butobtainedbystudentswiththehelpofenvironment，teachers，partnersandlearningmaterials，inthewayofconstructingmeaning．1．5Definition，FeaturesandPrinciplesofCognitiveApproach1．5．1DefinitionCognitiveApproachisalsocalledasCognitiveCodeApproach．CognitionistracedbacktotheLatinwordcogn#iomeaningactionandpsychologicalactivityofgainingknowledgeandlearning．Inphilosophyarea，cognitivemeanscognition．Usedinpsychology,itmeansknowbasedonmentalactivitiesconsistofperception，imagery,memory,imagination，conception，judgmentandreasoning．Thenatureofknowledge，acquisitionofknowledgeandusingwayofitalesubjectsofpsychologystudy．Therefore，cognitiveapproachtheoristspayattentiontoseekingaseriesofpsychologicalactivities，suchasperception，understanding，memory,choice，reasoning，thinkingetc．whoserolesarepositiveduringtheprocessofobtainingknowledge．CognitiveApproachisaforeignlanguageteachingsystemwhichclaimstousethestudents’intellectualrole，attachgreatimportancetounderstandingoflanguagerules，anddevelopintegratedusinglanguagecompetenceinpractice(Zhang，1983)Thefocusofcognitiveapproachisthefeaturesofadultlearning．Itsviewisthattheaim 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter1LiteratureReviewofforeignlanguageteachingistodevelopstudents’abilitiesofpracticeandunderstanding，especiallyabilityofunderstandingandself-learning．Learningactionsshouldbestudent—centeredandstudentsshouldbeencouragedtolearnpositivelyandcreateinlearningprocess；teachersshouldplaytheroleoforganizerorinstructor．1．5．2FeaturesItcarlbeseenfromthesummaryofdefinitionthattherearethreemainfeatures：Firstly,cognitiveapproachstressesunderstanding，notreaction．Cognitivepsychologists’focusisonfindingscientificresearchwaysofthoughtprocessinvolvedinacquisitionandusingofknowledge．Itmeansthattheirmainconcernisnottherelationbetweenstimulationandresponse，butthoughtactivity．Suchfocusonthoughtisequaltotuition；wedefiniteourselvesthrough01．11"thoughtandactioninthesameway．Secondly,itstressesthoughtstructureorthoughtorganization．Cognitiveapproachadvocatesthatanindividualknowledgeisorganized；basedontheknowledge，understandingofnewstimulationwillbeachieved．JeanPiagetstronglyagreessuchorganization；headvocatesthatallcreatureshaveinbornabilitytoorganizetheirexperiences；itissuchtrendthatprovidespowerfulmotivatorfordevelopmentsofcognitiveapproach．Thirdly,itconsidersanindividualaspositiveandconstructive．Butbehaviorists’viewshowsthatorganismispassive．Cognitivetheoristsconsidereachindividualasapositiveparticipantinacquisitionandusingofknowledge；theythinkthatanindividualisformingatrueideapositively,paysgreatattentiontosomeexperienceselectivelyandtriestostoresomeinformationinmemory．Theyalsoadvocatethatanytheoryabouthumancognitionmustanalyzeplansandstrategiesonthinking，memorizingandunderstandinglanguage．1．5．3PrinciplesRichardsandRogers(1986)addressthatinpracticetherearesomeelementstobetakenintoaccount：thecommunicationprinciple(i．e．activitiesthatinvolverealcommunicationpromotelearning)，thetaskprinciple(i．e．activitiesinwhichlanguageisusedforcarryingoutll 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter1LiteratureReviewmeaningfultaskspromotelearning)andthemeaningfulprinciple(i．e．1anguagethatismeaningfultotheleamersupportsthelearningprocess)Therealesomesummarizedprinciplesasfollows1)Teachingisstudent—centeredandteacher-as—guideinclassroom．Theteachershouldmakestudentsasindividualswhoparticipateinmeaningconstruction；inteachingprocess，studentsshouldbehelpedandencouragedtoparticipateinlanguageactivities；his／herintelligentfactorsshouldbemadefulluseof,notasapassiverecipient．Theteachershouldnotonlyteachthemtomasterlanguageandskills，butalsodeveloptheirabilitytolearnforeignlanguagesbythemselves．2)Theacquisitionoflanguageisacreativethoughtactivity．Thecognitiveapproachadoptscognition—codetheory,abandoningmechanicaldrillsandrote-learning．FollowingChomsky’Slinguistics，itconsidersthatlanguagelearningisacreativethoughtprocessgovernedbylaws．Humanlearningaforeignlanguageisnotlikeanimal—typelearning，butaprocessofunderstandingandusingrules．Theteacheroffersappropriatematerials；studentsfindthelawandmakeflexibleuseofitinforeignlanguagecommunication．Thecoreofcognitiveapproachcanbeexplmnedthatunderstandingispremise，drillsalemeans，andmemoryandusingarethefinalaim．3)Thefourbasicskills(speaking，listening，readingandwriting)oflanguageshouldbepromotedcomprehensivedevelopments．Thefourbasicskillsarethewayofusinglanguage；theyalealsothemeansoflearninglanguage．Theinputandoutputofknowledgeneedavarietyofsenseorgansinvolvement．Theprocessoflisteningandreadingisactuallythatoflearnersobtainingtheinputoflanguage；writingandspeakingareaprocessofoutputofwhatlearnershavelearned．Ifwehaveabiastowardsanyone，students’languageabilityisdifficulttoachievea11．rotmddevelopments．Weknowthatlisteningistheveryfirstlanguageskilltodevelop，followedinorderbyspeaking，readingandwriting．Forwhatitisworth，asurveyofAmericanacademiafoundthatreadingWasconsideredthemostimportant，atleastinacademicworks，followedbylistening，thenwriting，withspeakinglaggingsomewaybehind(Robert，2001：230)4)Themothertongueisofassistance，notresistance． 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter1LiteratureReviewCognitionisbasedonmothertonguethinking．Forstudents，alreadyacquiredmothertongueexperienceshouldbeofassistancetolearnaforeignlanguage．TeachingpracticetellsUSthatalltheadultlearningactivitiesareachievedwiththehelpofmothertongue．Learningaforeignlanguageisnoexception．Adultshaveaccumulatedalargenumberofknowledgethroughtheirnativelanguage；theknowledgehasbeentransformedtoallkindsofconceptsandknowledgestructurewhichwillbetransferredtoforeignlanguagelearning．UsingpositivetransferofmothertongueCanmakeactiveeffectonforeignlanguagelearning．5)Theteachershouldforgivethemistakesthestudentmade．Makingmistakesisaprocessoflanguageacquisition．Chomsky(2006)describesthattheprocessoflanguageleamingisfinishedfollowingtheorder：hypothesisAtestingAcorrection．Thisshowsthatmistakingisinevitableinlearningprocess．Itisimportanttoanalyzethereasonofmistakesandsolvetheproblemsaccordingly．Thepositivemeaningofmistakesisthatleamerscanaccumulateexperienceandimprovetheirresolutionandjudgmentstepbystep．ThisviewisequaltoaChineseproverb“afallintothepit，againinyourwit"’．6)Theteachershouldmakegooduseofmodemizedteachingmeans．Modemelectronictechnologyhasadvancedconsiderably．Itoffersmanykindsofvisualaidsandmodemteachingmeans；theyhelpforeignlanguageteachingwithsituatedlearningandcommunication．Modemmeansinspirestudents’visualandauditoryabilities；theyalsobuildforeignlanguageenvironmentclosertonature．Themodemteachingmeansaregoodtocombineaudiowithvisual，aswellaslanguageandimpression，inpracticalteachingStudents’autonomyisgreatlypromoted．1．6RelationshipsamongCognitiveCompetence，LinguisticCompetenceandGrammarTeaching1．6．1CognitivecompetenceandlinguisticcompetenceChomsky(1986)proposestheterm“linguisticcompetence”，accordingtotheviewthatlinguisticcompetenceisossificationoflinguistichabitsfrombehaviorism．Theterms仃esses 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter1LiteratureReviewgenerativeandcreativity；itsoriginalmeaningisinternalgl"amrnarcompetenceorasetoflimitedrules．Hethinkscognitivecompetenceandlinguisticcompetencearerealizedfinallybyhumanbrain(innatefactors)；meanwhile，acquiredexperienceisveryimportant．Thereisaschematicdiagraminthefollowing：UniversalGrammarParticularGrammar．ThetransitionfromUGtoPGneedsexperiencetodenotebycontact．Theexactmeaningoflinguisticcompetenceisnotclear,butitstermpositionchanges，affiliatedtocommunicativecompetence．Tosomeextent，cognitivecompetenceisthefoundationoflinguisticcompetence．Manycognitivefactorsareinnate；thefactorsplayaroledirectlyinpostnatallanguagelearning．Theyareindependent．Afterdayafterdayrepetition，theyareprogressingwitheachother；theyreinforceeachotheeHumans’brainhascategoryabilitywhichcanmakealltheexperienceandknowledgeintegrated，hierarchicalandnetworked；itwillproduceautomaticresponseafterbeingactivated．Traditionalviewoflanguagethoughtthattherelationshipbetweenlinguisticsymbolandobjectiveworldwasconnectedbyconceptsinthebrain，ignoringapartofcognitionactingonformationofconcept．Accordingtocognitivelinguistics，languagestructurereflectshumancognitionoftheworld(Zhao，2003)．1．6．2LinguisticcompetenceingrammarteachingWhethergrammarshouldbetaughtandwhatextentgrammarshouldbetaughtdependoncertainvariablesinthelanguageteachingorlearningcontext，suchaslearnervariablesandinstructionalvariables，aswellasthevariableapplicationoflanguage．Itisbelievedthatteachinggrammarislessimportantforchildrenthanforadults，anditismoreimportantinlisteningandreadingthaninwriting(Celce—Murcia，1988)．Inpresentsocialmarketeconomy,therearegoodandevilpeoplemixedup；theyhavedifferentdeclarationsofboasting．Inmostcases，grammarisstillbeingtaught，especiallyinformalclassroomlanguageteaching．SomeexamplesarechosentoshowtheimportanceofgrammarteachingfromabooknamedHow 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter1LiteratureReviewtoTeachGrammar?(Scott，2000)asfollows：“Thereisnodoubtthatabndofknowledge⋯implicitorexplicit⋯ofgrammaticalrulesisessentialforthemasteryofalanguage!”(PennyUr,ateachertrainer,andauthorofGrammarPracticeactivities)‘‘Asoundknowle吨eofgrammarisessentialifpupilsaregoingtouseEnglishcreatively．”(TomHutchinson，acoursebookwriter)Therefore，itisnecessarytoteachgrammar．EspeciallyChinesestudents，theywillnotexplainwhetherthefollowingsentencesalerightorwrongunlesstheyknowsomegrammaticalrules：IlikeEnglishverymuch．Butwhythisoneisnotaccepted：IverylikeEnglish．Theabilitytorecognizeandtoproduceappropriatesentencesisanessentialpartoflearningaforeignlanguage．Tosumup，grammaristhegroundofusingthelanguagecreatively,andmostlanguagestudywithouteffectivegrammarknowledgewilldefinitelycausenegativeeffectsonthedevelopmentofthelearner’Slinguisticcompetence．1．6．3CognitivecompetenceingrammarteachingCognitiveprocessisverycomplicatedandcognitivecompetenceinvolvedisvarious，notbeensummarizedonebyone．TherewillbeanoverviewofthecognitivefactorsinChapter4Cognitivecompetenceisanessentialfactorofgrammaticalconstruction；wordingandphrasingiscontrolledbycognitivefactors．Studyoncognitivecompetencehelpstointerpretgrammarpreferably．Moreover,purposeofstudyoncognitivecompetenceistouseitandgrammartoservelanguageexpression．Forexample，wecanconsciouslyusefocusadjustmentability,chooseandorganizelanguagewithavarietyofways，highlightthepointofview,transformsentences．Cognitivegrammarconsidersthatbecauseofcognitivecompetence，humansusesubjectiveconsciousness，imagineandseparatethemselvesfromtherealityoftheobjectiveworldinlanguageperformance．Thatistosay,therearedifferentgeneralsolutionstothesameobjectiveworld，SOsemanticsorgrammarisnotequaltotrue 山东科技大学硕士学位论文ChapterILiteratureReviewconditions．TherelationshipbetweencognitivecompetenceandgrammarpromptslanguageusersthattheyCanusecognitivecompetencetoperfectlanguageexpressionineffect，semanticsandaesthetics．Infact，cognitivecompetenceistherepresentationofcognitivelinguistics．Oneoftheapproachestocognitivelinguisticsiscognitivegrammarwhichtriestomakeaunifiedexplanationofgrammar；itsconstructionwayonparsingandinterpretationoflanguagephenomenonisunique，whichisworthstudyingandusingforreference．Therefore，cognitivecompetenceingrammarteachinghasbeenfoundincognitivegrammar．1．7AdvantagesofCognitiveApproachIndifferentstagesofforeignlanguageteaching，therearemanyteachingmethodsorapproaches，suchasGrammar-TranslationMethod，Audio-LingualMethod，DirectMethod，andCommunicativeTeachingApproachandSOon．Amongthem，thegrammar-translationmethodandcommunicativeapproachhavedeepinfluenceonourforeignlanguageteaching．Nevertheless，therearemanyshortagesingrammarteachingusingthetwomethods．Thegrammar-translationoverlystressesthestructureoflanguage，separatestheformoflanguagefromthemeaningandthefunctionofthat．Atthesametimeofunderlininglanguageaccuracy,itignoresthedevelopmentofcommunicativecompetence，forexample，listeningandspeaking．Thecommunicativeapproachclaimsthatforeignlanguageteachingshouldbeinstructedbylanguageexpressivefunctionandpayattentiontothestudent’Sabilitytochooseappropriatelanguagetoexpressindifferentsituations．However,itopposesthattheteacherfrequentlyanddirectlycorrectslearner’Smistakes．Thiswillcauseerrorsolidification．Basedonpsychologyandlinguisticsisagreatadvantageofcognitiveapproach．CognitiveApproachthinksthatlearningisnotnaturalacquisition，butaprocesscontainingmanypositivementalactivities．Thediscoverylearningmethoditadoptscallmakethestudentmoreinterestedinlearningandparticipatemorepositivelyinclass．Boringimitationandtranslationpracticearereplacedbymeaningfuldrills，andthenthestudentCanmasterwhattheyhavelearnedaccurately．Theteachermakesconstantfeedbacktolearner’Slanguageoutputandcallmakethemcorrectmistakesintime．Thekindofmethodcanbeeffectivein16 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter1LiteratureReviewtheclassroomwithahighnumber．17 Chapter2ExperimentDesignandResearchMethodThischapterdiscussespurposeoftheexperiment，questionnaires，subjects，instrumentsandproceduresofdatacollectionandanalysisbasedonquantitativeandqualitativeresearch．ThequantitativestudyisusedtocollectdatawhichwillbeanalyzedbyapplyingSPSSl1．0．Theaimoftheexperimentistosupplyinformationfordataanalysis．2．1AimoftheExperimentWhatisthestatusofgrammarinEFLclassroomsofvocationalcolleges?IsitnecessarytoteachEnglishgrammar?WhatisthebestmethodofEnglishgrammarteachingandlearning?HowdoteachersandstudentsviewtheEnglishgrammarteaching?Whatarethemainproblemsintheprocessofgrammarteaching?Inordertoknowallofthem，asurveyviaquestionnaireandinterviewwasconductedSOastogetthefirst-handdataonthequestion．TheexperimentiscarriedouttoprovethatgrammarteachingthroughCognitiveApproachismuchmoresuitableforChinesestudentsthanotherapproachesandmethods．TheresultisthatstudentscannotonlygethighmarksintheEnglishexaminationbutalsogaininterestinlearningEnglishandcommunicatewithothersmoresuccessfully．Becausetheultimategoalofleaminggrammaristohelplearnerscommunicatewithotherssuccessfully．WangZongyan，afamousChineselinguistoncepointedoutthattheacquisitionofgrammarknowledgeisgreatnecessarytograspEnglish，andwithoutgrammarknowledge，thestudentdonotknowhowtospeakandwriteEnglish(ascitedinDong&Wang：2001)．2．2SubjectsInthepresentresearch，atotalof101freshmenofnon—EnglishmajorstudentsareselectedrandomlyfromHuanghaiInstituteofQingdao．Amongthem．thereare80malesand21females．TheyarefromSciencemajors．TheyhavelearnedEnglishmorethan6years． 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter2TheExperiment2．3InstrumentsThepresentstudyconsistsofthreeparts．(1)Questionnairesinvolveleaningbackgroundandcognitivepsychology；inordertoavoidmisreadingmeaningsofquestionnaire，alltheitemsaretranslatedintoChinese．(2)InterviewofEnglishteachersand(3)PRETCO—B(June，2005andJune，2006)．2．3．1QuestionnairesQuestionnaires(seeAppendixI)weredistributedto162non—EnglishmajorstudentsfromHuanghaiInstituteofQingdao．TheactivitywascarriedoutfromOctober,2012toDecember，2012．Thesubjectswerechosenrandomlyfromthefirst—yearcollegestudents．TheywereinvitedtoanswertenquestionsincludingtheirmotivationsandopinionstowardsEnglishgrammarleamingandtheirviewsonthepresentgrammarteachinginEnglishclass．Amongthe162copiesofquestionnaires，160weresuccessfullycollectedand147werevalid．2．3．2InterviewofEnglishteachersInthisinterview,therearealtogether18Englishteachers(allofthemteachnon—Englishmajorstudents)．TheywerechosenrandomlyfromHuanghaiInstituteinShandongProvince，regardlessoftheirages，teachingexperience，academiccredentials．Whentheteacherswereinterviewed，usuallythefollowingquestionswereinvolved：Question1：DoyouthinkitisimportanttoteachEnglishgrammartostudentsinvocationalcolleges?Question2：whatmethodsorapproachesdoyouusuallyapplyinteachingprocessofEnglishgrammar?Question3：whatdoyout11i11l(aboutcontemporaryEnglishgrammarteaching?Whatislearningandwhatisteachingandhowdotheyinteract?Consideragainsometraditionaldefinitions(detailsarenotelaboratedhere)．Teachingcannotbedefinedapartfromlearning．Teachingisguidingandfacilitatinglearning，enablingthelearnertolearn，settingtheconditionsforlearning(Brown,2001：7)．Therefore，interviewofteachersisvital．19 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter2TheExperiment2．3．3PRETCO-B(June，2005and2006)Ateacheroncesaidthatitwasunfairtoseparatestudentsintotheexperimentalandcontrolgroup．Theauthoragreescompletely．Therefore，therewereonlytwotests：mid-termtestandpost—test．Beforemid—term，cognitiveteachingmethodwasnotcarriedout；itWasdemarcationofadoptionofcognitivegrammarteachingmethod．(1)Themid—termtestThemid—termtestWasappliedinmid-Novembertoexaminethestudents’grammarabilityandlanguageabilityaftertwo—monthcollegeEnglishlearning．ThetestpaperWasPRETCO—B(June，2005)．ThesecondpartofPRETCO—B(seeAppendixII)whichfocusedonthediscretegrammaticalruleswouldbechosenandanalyzedtocheckthestudents’knowledgeofgrammaticalrules．WecalleditGrammarTest1whichWascomposedofSectionAandSectionB．Theresultsofthestudents’mid—termtestandGrammarTest1wouldbecomparedtoshowthechangesanddifferenceswithpost—testandGrammarTest2．(2)Thepost-testAttheendofthesemester,aposttest(thefinaltest)Wassetforthestudents．ThetestpaperwasPRETCO—B(June，2006)．Thesecondpart(seeAppendixIII)Wasalsochosenandanalyzedseparately．WecalleditGrammarTest2．Theanalysisoftheresultwastoexaminetheeffectivenessofcognitivegrammarexercisesontheirknowledgeofgrammaticalrulesafterfour-monthlearning．Theresultoftheposttestshouldalsobecollectedandcomparedtoexaminethedevelopmentofstudents’languageproficiency．2．4DataCollectionandAnaly7sisWecarriedoutquestionnairesandtestsfromSeptember2012toJanuary2013．Thenumberofallthesubjectsis162whoparticipatedinquestionnaires．TheyarefromHuanghaiCollege．Withthehelpofteachersinthecollege，thequestionnaireswerecarriedoutintheclassroomonOctober,2012．Inordertoobtainvalidanswers，subjectswereinformedinadvancethatthesurveyWasonlyusedforaresearchonEnglishgrammarteachingandtheiranswerswouldnotaffecttheircourseachievement．Thequestionnaireswereimmediately2n 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter2TheExperimentcollectedafterabouttenminutes．Wimrespecttotheinterview,18subjectswereselectedtoanswertheinterviewquestionsfromOctober20thtoNovember10th，2012．Inordertoensureintervieweestoexpressfreely，eachteacherwasgivenmorethan20minutestoanswerthreequestions．Basically,eachsubjectWasinterviewedinoneday．Thentheauthorrecordedtheirmainideasaccordingtotheiranswers．Thetwotestswerecarriedoutinmid-November,2012andJanuary,2013respectively．Thenumberofallthesubjectsis101．DatawerecollectedaftersubjectsfinishedtheiranswersAllthedataweremarkedandtransmittedintoacomputer．StatisticalPackagefortheSocialSciences(SPSS，version11．0)isemployedtoanalyzethestatisticaldatafromthequantitativestudy．Paired—SamplesTTestisemployedtocomparetwosamples：forexample，Grammar1andGrammar2，mid—testandpost—test；here，itisusedtocompareresultsbeforetheexperimentandthataftertheexperimentforthesamesubjects．Astothequestionnairesandinterviewquestions，anInductiveMethodisusedtocollecttheinformation．21 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter3ResultsandDiscussionChapter3ResultsandDiscussionThroughdatacollectedfrombothquestionnairesandinterviewquestions，aswellastwotests，thischapternotonlyshowsresultsandfindingsofthepresentstudy,butalsogivesadetaildiscussionaboutresearchquestionsmentionedabove．3．1ResultsfromQualitativeStudyInthispart，thesubjects’answerstotenquestionsandinterviewsofteachersareanalyzed．Questionnairesandinterviewsaretwowaysofsurveymethod．Questionnairesgenerallyaredividedintounstructuredquestionnaireandstructuredquestionnaire．Theformerappliestocollectingqualitativedataortheearlystageofaresearch．3．1．1AnalysisofstudentquestionnairesTable一2ReliabilityofStudentQuestionnairesRELIABILITYANALYSIS—SCALE(ALPHA)Item—totalStatisticsScaleMearlifItemDeletedANllO．5034AN410．4490AN610．4422AN811．0544ANl010．9116ReliabilityCoefficientsNofCases=147．0Alpha=．9702ScaleV撕anceifItemDeleted13．991415．084716．015515．339517．2729CorrectedItem—TotalCon"elation．9664．9580．9373．9060．8328NofItems=5AlphaifItemDeleted．9562．9558．9602．9643．9760Thequestionnaireconsistedoftenquestions；somequestionsconcludedfouroptions； 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter3ResultsandDiscussionothershadfiveoptions．Itwasinevitabletoanalyzethemrespectively．Theresultsaboveareonlyanexample．Otherresultsarenotwrittenhere．Alpha(0．9702)Wasverycloseto1，meaningreliabilityofthefivequestionsWashigh．Theywerereliable．FactoranalysisofSPSSgeneratedmanyformresults；therearenoenoughpagesinathesistoreportalltheresults．Theeigenvalueofallthefactorswasabove2，muchmorethan1．0．LoadingcapacityofitemsineachfactorwasfarmorethanO．30．Therefore，thequestionnairehadahighvalidity．Table-3ResultsofStudentQuestionnaires(n=147)QuestchoicesNumberofPercentagelOnSstudents1A2416．3％B3020．4％C5638．1％D2013．6％E1711．2％2A13088．4％B11274．8％C106．8％D5638．1％E7953．8％3A4429．9％B7148．3％C2013．6％D128．2％4A1610．9％B3020．4％C6846．3％D2013．6％E138．8％5A8054．4％B4l27．8％C64．1％D2013．6％6A138．8％B3020．4％C6946．9％D3020．4％E53．4％7A3523．8％ 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter3ResultsandDiscussionB2517．0％C7047．6％D1711．6％8A3523．8％B6242．2％C3020．4％D138．8％E74．8％9A5034．O％B4329．3％C106．8％D3221．8％E85．4％F42．7％10A2617．7％B4228．6％C6544．2％D128．1％E21．4％Fromtheabovechaa，wecanseesomeworryingproblems．First，Question1showsthatthepresentstudents’attitudestowardsEnglishlearninginvocationalcollegesarenotveryoptimistic．Foronly36．7％ofthemhaveinterestinlearningEnglishand38．1％takeanindifferentattitude．Tomakemattersworse，24．8％dislikeEnglish．ThisdirectlyleadstotheresultofQuestion3：themajorityofstudents(around78％)spendlessthantwohoursaweeklearningEnglish．TheseresultstellUStheEnglishperformanceofSOmanystudentsinvocationalcollegeisnotsatisfactoryfrankly．ItisalsopossibletogivetheteacherareflectionthatthesestudentshavelostalltheirinterestinlearningEnglishbecauseoftheirlong—termunsatisfactoryperformance．However,asanEnglishteacher,suchapessimisticsituationshouldbetakenintoseriousconsideration，andaboveall，effectivemeasuresshouldbetakenemergentlytoimproveit．Thelovelystudentsarewaitingforitwiththedesiretoknowledge．FromthebeginningofEnglishlearningfromtheirchildhood，allkindsofEnglishexaminationsarefollowing．Therefore，itisreasonabletosaythattheaimoflearningEnglishistopassEnglishexamssuccessfully．Question2showstheveryresult．Thepurposeandmotivationoflearninglanguageexertgreatinfluence．AfamousresearchcardedoutinthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcenturybyGardnerandLambtersuggestedthatstudentswho24 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter3ResultsandDiscussionwantedtointegrateintothecultureofitsspeakersweremorehi吐lymotivatedthanthosewhowereonlylearninglanguageasameanstopassacertainexam．Theyaredefinedintegrativemotivationandinstrumentalmotivationrespectively．Inotherwords，theformerWasmorepowerfulthanthelatter．Theyarealsocalledlongmotivationandshortmotivation．Fromtheresult，wefindanothercausefactorofstudents’unsatisfactoryEnglishperformance．TheresultofQuestion4givesUSenlightenmentthatwemustdrawsomeeffectivemeasureswhichshouldbesponsoredandpracticedinEnglishclassroomofvocationalcollegestoimprovethesituation．ThequestionshowsthattheEnglishgrammarteachinginChinesemiddleschoolisthefocus，buttheresultisnotoptimistic．Question5showsthatalargeproportionofstudentsconsideritimportantintheirEnglishleaming，SOgrammarteachingcannotbeneglectedinvocationalcolleges．TheresultofitleadstoQuestion6．TheresultofQuestion6reflectsthatgrammarlearningstillplaysanimportantroleinsparetimeforstudents．Question7showsthatamajorityofstudentsprefertosolvetheproblemsthroughdiscussingwiththeirclassmates．Askingfortheteacher’Shelpmaycausetheiranxiety．Itispossiblethatacooperativestudyleadstoacomparativelyrelaxedleamingenvironment．Thesituationshouldalsoattracttheteacher’Sattentionandurgeteacherstomakefulluseofit．thatistosay,tosolveproblemsbystudentsthemselvesinEnglishclass．Students，afterall，areweak．Theyneedthegreathelpfromtheteacherandtheirclassmates．Question8showsthatmoststudentsarewillingtoparticipateintheclassroomactivities．Infact，thereisseldomactivityinclass．Theclassroomatmosphereislikeapoolofstagnantwater．Hence，Englishteachersneedtodesignawiderangeofappropriateclassroomactivitiestowardscharacteristicsofstudentsinvocationalcollege，insteadofcopyingtheboringmodel．Theteachermustchangetheirteachingwaysinclasstobreaktheice．Question9showssomefactorscausingnon—English—majorstudents’difficultiesingrammarlearning．Moststudents(34．O％)arevotedforlackofEnglishlearningenvironment；thesecondvotedfactor(29．3％)isthatEnglishlearningisbecauseofmother-tongueinterference．26．8％ofstudentsarenotsatisfactorywiththepresent(boringandold)teachingmethods．Theoldandsamemethodshavebeenusedfromthejuniorhighschooltothecollege．25 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter3ResultsandDiscussionThestudentsareboredwiththem．Meanwhile．21．8％studentst11i11l(theylackenoughgrammarexplanationsandexercises．Studentsofthiskindneedtomakeupafterclasstokeepupwithothers．Thelastquestionshowsthatthestudents(over44％)invocationalcollegeloseheartandconfidenceinEnglishleaming．Theresultissad．Theyhavebeenwaitingforcomecreativeandinterestingteachingmethods．Butmanyyearspast，thereisnoata11．Fortunately,about46％ofstudentsarewillingtolearnEnglishinanewway．ItprovesthatthereishopeinEnglishteachinginvocationalcollege．3．1．2AnalysisofinterviewsLouisGAlexander,theauthorofNewConceptEnglish，oncesaid：“Wehavetohavedifferentmethodsfordifferentactivities．”Itisreasonable．Anymethodorapproachisgenerallywhethergoodorbad；itmainlyliesinproperuseofthem．Grammarteachingisvitalinlanguagelearning．Inforeignlanguageclasses，grammarteachingoccupiesalargeproportion．Inthefollowing，someopinionsfromteachersincollegesareshared．Question1：DoyouthinkitisimportanttoteachEnglishgrammartostudentsinvocationalcolleges?Opinionsoftheteacherswerealmostsalne．Thereasonswereconcludedasfollows：AllofthembelievedthatitWasimportant．(a)MostofthestudentsinvocationalcollegeshavelowEnglishproficiency．Inaclass，onlyseveralstudents’scoresofNMET(NationalMatriculationEnglishTest)areabove90Evenworse，somestudents’scoresareunder50andthesestudents’Englishlevelsaresimilartobeginners(b)Therequirementofbandtests：allthestudentsinvocationalcollegesarerequiredtoattendcertainbandtests．Andmostnon—EnglishstudentswillgettheirdiplomassuccessfullyonlywhentheypassCET-3．FromtheformatofCET-3，wecanseethatitconsistsofListeningComprehension(15points)，ReadingComprehension(35points)，Translation(20)，andWriting(15points)，VocabularyandStructure(15points)．Fromthearrangementoftheexalrlpaper,wecanseeEnglishgrammarplaysanimportantpart．26 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter3ResultsandDiscussion(c)ThepracticalneedofthegraduatesfromvocationalcollegesdeterminestheEnglishteaching．Theyarenotrequiredtodoscientificresearchandtoreadacademicessays．However,intheenvironmentofmarketeconomy,itisinevitabletouseEnglishproperlyindailylife，forexample，tocommunicatewithforeignersappropriately,andtowriteabusinessletter．Itdemandsthatstudentsshouldmasternecessarygrammaticalknowledgeandrules．Question2：whatmethodsorapproachesdoyouusuallyapplytoteachingprocessofEnglishgrammar?VariousanswerswereobtainedfromtheseEnglishteachers．Threeteachersusedthegrammar-translationtechniquesonlyinclass．Becausetheythoughtbothteachersandstudentswereusedtothisapproach．Othereightteachersshowedthattheyappliedgrammar-translationmethodandothermethods(usuallyCommunicativeLanguageTeaching)together,forexample，dialogues，discussion，games．Bothsimilaritiesanddifferenceswerefoundamongtheiranswers．Allofthemagreedthatgrammar-translationmethodWashelpfulforstudents’Englishlearningbutitseemedalittleboring．Theywantedtoadoptothertechniqueswithinlimitedperiodstocompensateforthedisadvantage．What’Sdifferentwasthattheiropinionsontheeffectofthesetechniques：somebelievedthatthesemethodswouldgaingoodresults．NotonlyCanthesuccessesarousestudents’interestbutalsotheyCarlhelpthemgraspthegrammaticalknowledgeandputitintopractice．However,themethodsseemedabittime—consuming；theothersthoughtthattheeffectwasnotideal，andthestudentsbecameinactive．Anotherthreeteachersstatedthattheyspentmosttimeonexplanationsinclassandgavevariousexercises，usuallyinwrittenform，suchasmultiplechoices，cloze，translationetc．Anotherteacherindicatedthatsheonlygaveasummaryattheendoftheclass，leavingstudentstodiscussandfinishexercisesinthetextbookstogetherQuestion3：whatdoyouthinkaboutcontemporaryEnglishgrammarteaching?Alltheteachersalsoexpresseddifferentopinions．OnlyfewteachersweresatisfiedwiththepresentmethodstheyappliedinEnglishgrammarteaching．Halfofthemthoughttheyhadacquiredsomeachievements，butsomedeficienciesexisted，forexample，whentheteacherWasgivingalessonsomestudentsweredaydreaming．Thisisaparadoxbetweenlearningandpassion．TheyhadgreatdifficultiesinunderstandingandusingEnglish，withoutfoundationon27 ．些查型垫查兰堡主兰篁堡苎里!竺竺!塑竺坚!型旦!!!竺!!!竺!thewayofEnglishlearning．Sotheteacherthoughtthatitwasnecessarytomakefurtherexplorations．Mostteachersstatedthatthoughstudent-teacherlovewasgood，theatmosphereinEnglishclassWasnotgoodenough．Thereisnodoubtthatthephenomenonwillbeforalongtime．Itstillneedstoberesearched．3．2ResultsfromQuantitativeStudyThispartisthemaincomponentofexperiment．TheaimofexperimentistofindcauseandeffectrelationshipbetweengrammarandEnglishlearning．AdvantagesofexperimentarethatitCanestablishcausality,natureandlaw；resultsareobjective，accurateandreliable；itCanalsocontrolvariablesandimprovereliability．3．2．1ThevalidityandreliabilityofPRETCO-BInordertomakesuremoreaccurateresult，thevalidityandreliabilityshouldbeclarifledprimarily．PRETCOistheabbrevimionformofPracticalEnglishTestforColleges．ItisastandardizedEnglishproficiencytestforacademicstudents，usingapercentagescoringsystem．Thetestisawrittenexaminationwhichtestslanguageknowledgeandfourlanguageskills．Itadoptssubjectiveandobjectivemixedtypes：theobjectivetesthassomeadvantages，forexamplehighreliability,widecourage；thesubjectiveonefavorsimprovingvalidity．TwomixedtypesCanensuregoodreliabilityandvalidity．3．2．2AnalysisoftestsTable-4：ResultsoftheGrammarTbstCorrelationsGRAMHARlGRAHHAR2GRAMMARlPearsonCorrelationl．843*：Sig．(2-tailed)．000N101GRAMMAR2PearsonCo"elaUon．843"_1Sig．(2-tailed)．000N101i01料．Co．damonissignificantatthe0．Ollevel(2一ⅧIed)28 坐壅型垫奎学硕士学位论文Chapter3ResultsandDiscussionThetableaboveshowsthatpearsoncorrelationisO．843betweengrammar1andgrammar2whichmeansthereispositivelinearcorrelationbetweenthem．Thesignificantlevelis0．000whichshowsthatstatisticalsignificanceisachievedandmeansirrelevantprobabilitybetweenthetwovariablesisalmostzero．Therearetwosymbols木，meaningsignificantlevelreaches0．01．Moreover,wecanseecorrelationsinthemaindiagonalarealways1，meaningthatthereisapositivelinearrelationshipbetweenthevariableanditself．Thereissignificantcorrelationbetweengrammar1and2．Theresultisthefoundationofthefollowingresearch．Table-5PairedSamplesCorrelationsMeanNStd．Std．EITorDeviationMearlPairlGRAMMAR7．3310l2．052．2041GRAMMARlO．2110l2．226．222二PairedSamplesTestPairedtdfSig．DifferencesStd．95％Confidence(2-tailed)McanDeviationErrorIntervalofthePairlMearlDifferenceLowerUpperG删MAR．2．891．212．121—3．13．2．65—23．928100．0001一GRAMMAR7二AccordingtoTable一5，thecorrelationindexbetweenthetwovariablesinthisexampleishigher(O．843)，butsignificantlevelisverylow(O．000)．Thisshowsthatthereexistsalinerrelationshipbetweenthetwovariables．Inthecolumnof95％ConfidenceIntervaloftheDifference，thereisnot“zero”betweenthelower(一3．13)andtheupper(-2．65)．Itshowsthattherearesignificantdifferencesbetweenthetwovariables．Thevalueoftis-2．7：disagreeoffreedomis101—1=100；significantprobabilityof2一tailedtis0．000，muchlessthanO．05．Allof29 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter3ResultsandDiscussionthemshowthatsignificantdifferencesexistbetweenthetwovariables．ThegapofgrammarabilitybetweenthetwohalvesofthetermbecamelargerandmoreobviousastothemeanSCOreS．AllthesubjectsinthesecondhalfofthesemesterhavehighergrammarscoresthanthatinthefirsthaleThisshowstheirprogressisobvious．Tosumup，thecognitivegrammarteachinginvocationalcollegeiseffective．Table．6：ResuitsofMid．testandPost-testMearlNStd．Std．ErrorDeviationMcanPairlMIDTEST61．0010l9．829．978POSl门?EST68．55lOl9．070．903NCorrelationSig．Pair1MIDTEST&101．939．000POSTTESTPairedSamplesTestPairedtdfSig．DifferencesStd．95％Confidencef2-tailed)MeanDeviationErrorIntervalofthePairlMIDTESTMearlDifferencePOSTTESLowerUpperT一7．553．375．336—8．22—6．88-22．484100．000FromTable一6，wecanseethatmeallscoreofthepost—testwashigherthanthatoftherood—termtest．Inthecolumnof95％ConfidenceIntervaloftheDifference，thereisnot“zero’’betweenthelower(-8．22)andtheupper(-6．88)either．Itshowsthatthereissignificantdifferencebetweenmid-termtestandpost-test；italsoshowsthatthesubjectsmadeprogressafterfour-monthEnglishgrammarlearning．Itreflectsthatafteralong-termexperimentcognitivegrammarteachingWasprovedtobeeffectiveforimprovingstudents’Englishproficiencyandtestachievements．30 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter3ResultsandDiscussionThemid—termtestshowedlowermeanscoresthanthepost-test．Maybe，therewereseveralfactorstobesummarized：①Afterall，itwasonlytwomonthsaftertheexperimentwasconducted．Thecognitivegrammarteachingdidfunction，buteffectivenesswasnotobviousenough．Weneedalong-termobservationandinvestigation．@What’Smore，studentswerenotfamiliarwiththetypeoftest．Accordingtotheiropinions，mostofthemwerelackofpractice．Theyhadnotdonethetestpaper(PRETCO—B)．Table。7：ResuitsofGrammar2andPost．testANoVATableSumofdfMeanFSig．SquaresSquarePOSTTEBetween(Combined)3631．47216226．9673．791．000ST木GroupsLinearity1910．919l1910．91931．918．000GRAMMDeviationAR2fromWithinLinearity1720．55315114．7041．916．063Groups5029．0828459．870Total8660．554100MeasuresofAssoeiationRSquaredEtaSquaredpOSTTEST*GRAMMAR2．470．221．648．419ThistableshowstherelationshipbetweengrammarandEnglish，withGrammar2andpost-testasanexample．Grammar2isapartofthepost-test．Inthetable，wecanseethatsignificantlevelofLinearityis0．000<0．05，showingthatlinearrelationexistsbetweenindependentvariable(Grammar2)anddependantvariable(Post-test)．InthecolumnofDeviationfromLinearity,significantlevelisO．063>0．05．showingthelinearrelationasmentionedbefore．InthecolumnofMeasuresofAssociation，theclosertooneR-valueis，thestrongerindependentvariablewillforecastdependantvariable．Tosumup，Englishgrammaraffectsthewholelanguagelearning．Generally,grammarisgoodandotherpartsoflanguagearegood，too．Grammaristhestructureoflanguageskills．Itinfluencescommunicationandlanguagecreationetc． 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter3ResultsandDiscussion3．3DiseussionsFromthequestionnairesandinterviews，wecanseethatpresentstudentsinvocationalcollegestakenoactiveattitudetowardsEnglishlearning．MostofthemhavegreatdifficultiesinlearningEnglishandinordertopassteststheyhavetoleamEnglish．ButthegoodnewsisthatthereareagreatproportionofstudentsviewinggrammarimportantinEnglishlearning．ManyadultEnglishlanguagelearnersplaceahighvalueonlearninggrammar(Ikpia,2003)．Perceivingalinkbetweengrammaticalaccuracyandeffectivecommunication，theyassociateexcellentgrammarwithopportunitiesforemploymentandpromotionere．Infact，moststudentsarestilldependantontheteacher’SinstructioninEnglishclass．Therefore，teachers’effectcannotbeignored．Inthesecondlanguageacquisitionresearch，teachersofadultEnglishlanguagelearnersvaryintheirviewsonhow,towhatextent，andevenwhethertoteachgrammar．Indeed，themostteachersbelievethatEnglishgrammarisimportantforstudents．Mostresearchnowsupportssomeattentiontogrammarinameaningful，cognitivecontext．Itthenexploresthereasonsandresearch—basedevidencefordrawinglearners’attentiontolanguagestructure．Fromtheexperiment，wecanseethatgrammarisimportantinlanguagelearning．GrammarisvitaltoEnglishlearning．Theexperimentshowsthatcognitiveapproachtogrammarteachingiseffective．Inpracticalteaching，howtoteachgrammarundercognitiveteachingmethodwillbediscussedinnextchapter．Traditionalteachingmethodsalesometimesnecessary；someofthemareessentialinteachingprocess．However,anyexperimentcannotbeperfect；theresearcher’Sisnotanexception．Duetothelimitationofknowledgeandsuitableconditions，thereismuchroomtobeperfectedinthisexperiment．PRETCO-Bisdifficultforsomestudents；theyhadbeeninthecollegeforhalfayearwithoutenoughEnglish．32 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter4PedagogicalImplicationsChapter4PedagogicalImplicationsFromwhatwedidtheexperimentinthepreviouschapter,wecanseethatitisveryessentialandvitalthatgrammaticalinstructionisindispensableforlanguageteachinganditshouldbetaughtinacognitivemodel．ForEnglishteachersinChina,itisquitesignificanttomakeclearsomeviewsongrammarteachinginmindSOastodevelopproceduresinEnglishlanguageclassroom．Tomakethenclearer,moredetailswillbeofferedinthefollowing．4．1TheUndesirableTendenciesofEnglishGrammarTeachinginChineseVocationalCollegesOnthequestionofthepositionandroleofgrammarteachinginvocationalcollegeEnglishteaching，therearetwomainundesirabletendencies：Thefirstisthattheteachersoverweightthegrammarteachingandoverlookthestudents’learninginterest．Presentation—basedapproachmakingteachingprimary,thereisaconsiderabledegreeofpresenceinvocationalcollege．SkehanoncesummarizedthiskindofteachingintothreeP：presentation，practiceandproduction．Theteachingmodecentersonlanguageformandpullstoofineintermsofgrammar．Theconsequenceofitisthattheteachersspendtoomuchtimeandenergyongrammarteaching，buttheyignorestudents’practicaluseoflanguageandleaminginterest．ThestudentsgetdumbEnglish．Thecrammingmethodmakesmultiplelanguagesbecomeboringanddamagesthestudents’enthusiasmoflearningEnglishbadly．Thestudentsenteringthevocationalcollegehavepoorfoundation，andagreatpartofthemhasunclearabouttheircareergoals．Theyarearrangedbytheirparentstogotosch001．Mostofthemneverachievesuccessintheirstudies，SOitiseasytoloseconfidenceandbeinemotionalweaknesses．TheystartedearlylearningEnglish，butmanyofthemdonotknowthephoneticsymbolsandhavegreatpoorvocabulary．Iftheteachersignoretheircharacteristicsandusetraditionalteachingmodessimply,thelanguageteachingmustbeboringandtheyhavenothinginterest．Atpresent，thepoorqualityofEnglishteachinginvocationalcollegeisperhapsoneofmainreasons．Learningneeds33 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter4PedagogicalImplicationsinterest．Inacertainsense，thestudentsinvocationalcollegeneedmoreinterest．Howtostimulateinterestinlearning，keepitandmakeitlearningmotivationisstartingpointofEnglishteachinginsuchcolleges．Thesecondoneisthatthepresentteachingtakesaone—sidedapproachtoplaydowngrammarteachingandneglecttheroleofgrammarteachinginEnglishteaching．Inrecentyears，themainstreaminourforeignlanguageteachingisCommunicativeTeachingmethod．Itadvocatesfluencysuperiortoaccuracy,andteachinglanguagenotteachingknowledgeaboutlanguageetc．Initsimpactonteachingthoughtandmethod，‘‘grammardesalination"’becomesthemostpopularandthemaintopicathomeandabroad．Therefore，peopleproclaim“grammardesalination”toshowtheiravant-gardeandfashion．Tobesure．spokenEnglishandcommunicativecompetenceareveryimportantforvocationalcollegestudents．Thebasicdirectionisnotwrong，butthereisstillaproblemonourunderstandingandoperationofit．Someteachersgotoanotherextreme：ovedystressingcommunicativecompetenceinEnglishteachingandtheimportanceoforalEnglishteaching，thenoverlookinggrammarteaching．TheEnglishSyllabusofcollegesanduniversitiesdividesEnglishteachingintotwostages：BasicEnglishstageandAdvancedEnglishstage．Facedwiththevocationalcollegestudentswhohavepoorvocabulary,someevencannotclarifythepartofspeechandtense，weshouldbeginfromthebasicEnglishstage．ThestageisbasedongeneralEnglishwhichconsistsmainlyoflearningofbasicEnglishknowledgeandtrainingoflanguageskills4．2HowtoTeachEnglishGrammarunderCognitiveLanguageTeaching4．2．1CreatingacognitiveenvironmentLearnersadoptdifferentmethodstolearnforeignlanguagewithdifferentpurposesindifferentenvironmentsandconditions，butthefinalaimistomasterit(Zhu，2000)．First，atthestageofunderstandingEnglishgrammar,newgrammarknowledgeisdrawnforthbyreviewingandpracticingthelearnedlanguageknowledge，andcomparingthenewknowledgewiththeoldcanhelpstudentsdeepentheunderstandingandmemory．Thestudent34 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter4PedagogicalImplicationsshouldinitiativelyfind，thiIlkandtalkaboutthematerialsorgrammarphenomenonintextinstructedbytheteacher．Then，theteachersgivespecificandclearexplanationofgrammarrulestostudents，bycomparison，examplesanddemonstration．Consideringthepresentstudents’Englishlevel，theteacherscanuseChineseproperlytomakestudentsabetterunderstandingofwhattheyhavelearned．Butthetimeofteachingshouldbewithin25％ofclasshour．Second，atthestageoftheconsolidationofEnglishgrammarknowledgeandlanguageskillstraining，themaintaskistocheckoutthelearningoutcomesinthefirststageandtodevelopfurthertheirabilitiestofind，analyzeandtrytounderstandnewknowledge．Thisisinrelationtowhetherthestudentsputwhattheylearnedintouseaccuratelyornot．Inordertoconsolidatetheirunderstandingofnewgrammaticalconcepts，theteachersshouldmakestudentsdomeaningfulpractice，forexample，imageselectionandvocabularyselection：theformeristhatthestudentscanselectcorrectpicturesaccordingtotheteacher’Sdescriptionandthelatteristochoosecorrespondingwordsonthebasisofdefinitions．Atlast，atthestageoftheintegrateduseoflanguage，thefourskills—listening，reading，speakingandwritingaredeveloped．Therealsituationsasbackground，thestudentswillabsorbtheknowledgetoexpressinsentenceandshowtheircommunicativecompetence．Therealcontextprovidedbytheteachershouldbeoutsideofteachingmaterialsandrepresentedintheformsoffree-discussion，composition，performance，translation，storysolitaireorrepetitionbythestudents．Intheprocessofcognitiveteaching，weshouldbedominatedbystudents，fullybelievethemandgivemorechancestoread，thiIll(independently,discusstogetherandreport．Theteachershouldcreatearelaxedandcheerfulclassroomatmospheretodeveloptheirinterestinlearningandinitiateactiverolesinparticipatingclassroomactivities．4．2．2SomecognitivefactorsappliedtogrammarteachingSomeappliedlinguists(suchasCook，1993；Ellis，1991；Skehan，1999；Towell，1994eta1．)putforwardthatinthesecondlanguageclassroomteaching，especiallylanguageform，namelygrammarteaching，cognitivecodemethod(cognitiveapproach)Canbeputintoeffect，35 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter4PedagogicalImplicationsthatistosay,thestudentscanusegeneralcognitivefactorstodistinguish，analyze，storeandgivebirthtonewlanguage(Towell，1994)．Inclass，theteachersshouldencouragelearnerstoanalyzelanguageformconsciously,andusecognitiveskillstogetgrammarstructure．Cognitivefactorsaretheessentialelementsofthehumanbrainfunction．Thesefactorsareglobalfeatures，concepts，images，chunks，meanings，interestandreasoningetc．Howtoteachgrammaraccordingtothestudents’cognitivelawandhowtousethefactorstoutilizematerialsareelaboratedinthefollowing：(a)GlobalfeaturesThefactorisfromphilosophicalideathatthewholeisgreaterthanthesumofitspartsandtheformerdeterminesthelatter．Thepsychologists，suchasHoffrnan(1980)，Kinchla&Wolfe(1979)，andNavon(1977，1981)eta1．，didtheexperimentandprovedthattheglobalfeaturesweresuperiortolocalcharacteristicsandknowingthewholebenefitsperceptionaboutpart(citedbyWang&Wang，1992)．UsingtheregularthinkingtendencyreflectsourEnglishgrammarteaching，thereareatleasttwoexistingproblems：individualteachingandabsolutestandard．Theformerfavorssingleexplanation：grammarteachinggenerallyisarrangedaccordingtothematerials，onebyoneaccordingtotheorderofrepresentationinthetextbook．Themethodseemstofollowtheprinciplesofsystematicandprogressivegrammarteaching，butthecontactbetweenlanguagepointsisnotenough．Fromtheviewoflanguageexpression，certainlanguagepointsarecloselyrelated．Weshouldputthemtogethertoteach，thoughthearrangementofmaterialsscattersthem．Thisviolates“globalfeatures”．Anotherproblemisabsolutestandard．Languageissocial，anditsrepresentationformsaredifferentbecauseofdifferentcountries，peopleandregisters．EvenStandardEnglishhasdifferencebetweenEnglandandAmerica，andthatbetweenwritingandspokentexts．Therefore，absolutelysayingsomeformswrongisusuallyinconsistentwiththepracticallanguagephenomenon．Speechgenerationfundamentallyresultsintheinteractionofhumanbrainneuralnetworksandlanguageinformationprocessing．Whileinformationprocessingwasveryorderly,fromsimpletocomplex，generatedbyconstantabstractionandcomprehensionofcorrespondingorinterrelatedinformation，whichwasprovedthroughaseriesofexperiments36 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter4PedagogicalImplicationsbyAmericanneurophysiologistD．H．Hubel&T．N．Wiesel(citedbyLiueta1．，1987)．Therefore，weshouldconsiderthesemattersasawholeasfaraspossible，whileatthesanletimeofunderstandingandanalyzingspeech．Soweshouldpayattentiont0：(1)Thedeterminationofcertainlanguageformshouldconsidertheneedsofstyle，context,discourseandsentence．Forexample，whenyouregrettablytelltheothersomething；either“I"msorrytotellyouthat⋯”or“Iregrettotellyouthat⋯”?(Theformerisusedininformalandthelatterusedinformal)isright．Whentherearetwoanswers“She’Snothere．Whatdoyouwant?’’and‘‘I"msorry,she’Snothere．She’11bebackthisaftemoon．’’tothequestion“Where’Syourboss?”；whichthenativepeoplewillchoose．Certainlytheansweristhelatter．Suchformal，informal，normalandill-formedrepresentationsarenecessarytointroduceelaborately．Thiswillhelpstudentswiththeirhorizonbroadenedandopenthinking．Atthesametime，italsoCanhelpthemunderstandsomesynonymystructure．Normalformsareourmaincontentofgrammarteaching，butknowingsomeirregularformsarebeneficial．Italsoneedsstudentstoknowthedifferencesbetweenformalandinformalforms．ThisiSwhatglobalfeaturesneed，alsotheneedofpracticalEnglish．(2)Themeaningofcertainlanguageformdependsonthecontext．Thisespeciallyrefersto：①Avarietyofreferencesofapronoun，forexample，JohnmightshowHarrypicturesofhimsele“himself’inthissentencereferstonotonlyJohnbutalsoHarry．(主)Multipleidentitiesofaverb，forexample，IhatethatmanwatchingMary,“hate’’inthissentenceistheverbfollowedbytheobject‘"thatman”andtheobjectcomplement，alsoaverbonlyfollowedbytheobject("watchingMary”isanadjunctto“thatmall。’’．)．@Thevariousfunctionsofmodifierslikeadjectives，participles，adverbsandprepositionalphrases，forexample，awoman、viththreechildrenwithgingerhair,inthisphrase，“withgingerhair”notonlymodifies“children"’，butalsomodifies“woman”．@Varietiesofanalysisofstructure，forexample，“It’Sthewomanwhocleansthehouse．”，theclauseguidedby“who’’canbeunderstoodasrelativeclause，italsoCanbeapartofcleftsentence，answeringtheinterrogativesentence“Whocleansthehouse，themanorthewoman?”(3)Theexplanationofcertainlanguageformshouldbeconsideredfromthehighlevelofoverall．Forexample，intherespectoftheteachingofnon—finiteverbs，onebyonetostart37 些奎型垫查兰堡主兰堡笙苎竺!翌竺!!!!!翌璺!竺!塑型堡竺!!!!istheteachingwayongrammarbookandintheclassroom．Itisfeasibleonthebeginningstage，butincollege，itisnotenough．Itisfoundthattherearethreemainproblemsontheunderstandingandusing：①Intheconcretestructure，whichisactuallyused，V-ingorV-ed?@Therearesixformsofaninfinitive(takingdoasanexample)，andtherearefiveformsofV-ing(doingasanexample)．Whichischosentobeused?③Insomecases，eithernon—finiteverborotherstructureCanbeused，whichisactuallychosen?Inordertosolvetheseproblems，weshouldlookfromtheoverallfocus．Thespecificmethodistoputthemtogetherandcompareinseveralaspects，suchasfunction，meaning，structure，place，time，relationandstyle．Thisfavorstheidentificationonmeaningandfunctionofthreenon-finiteverbsandtheirdifferentforms．Theiraccurateuseanddifferencebetweenthemandotherstructuresinsomecaseswillalsobebenefit．Thus，thestudents’perceptionabout‘"part’’from‘‘whole”isachieved．Thiscorrespondswiththecognitiveneedsofhumanbrain．Itrealizesthatstudentshavegoodunderstandingofindividualeventorcertainparticularform．(b)ConceptsConceptsarepsychologicalobjectsconsideredatafairlyabstractlevel(Dan&Deirdre，2001：86)．Conceptisaformofthinkingreflectingtheobject’Sessentialattribute；itstoresinformationconsistofallkindsofobjectsandtheircharacteristicsandrelationsinaconcentratedform．IthasagreatcognitivefunctionwhichhelpsUSwithdistinguishingwhatisimportantorlessimportant，whatisrightorwrong．Itreflectsingrammarlearning：ifhavingclearconcepts，theyareeasytousegrammaraccurately；otherwise，theyfailed．Therefore，theworldfamousEnglishgrammarianJespersensaid：“Thereshouldbelessspeciousandambiguousconcepts．”whengrammarteachingisreferred．Inordertohelpstudentswithclearconcepts，thefollowingthreecognitiveconceptScanbeused：(1)Prototype：acognitivesciencethought，theconceptisrepresentedbasedontheprototype；theprototypereflectsthetendencyofsomekeypointsincertainconceptmember,SOitrepresentstheconceptbest．Ingrammarteaching，using‘‘prototype’’istoexpoundcoremeaningofcertainconcept．Forexample，thesimplepresenttenseoffiniteverbsCanexpressseveralmeaning，buttherearetwocoremeanings：presentcondition(stateverb)andhabitual38 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter4PedagogicalImplicationsbehavior(actionverb)，butthe“habitual”frequencyisnotsanleaccordingtocontextandsemantics．Thestudentsarenotusuallyclearabouttheprototype．Whenaskedwhatmeaningofsomesentencesare，suchas“Ihavebreakfast．’，／“Hespendsalotofmoney．”theygenerallycannotanswerappropriately．Therefore，itisnecessarytoteachsimplepresenttenseinthemethodofprototypethroughlivingexamples．ThecorecharacteristicofprototypeisrepresentedinmanykindsofEnglishgrammar．Forexample：(fromLongmanGrammarofSpokenandWrittenEnglish)①Someverbs，suchasbet，doubt，know,maaer，mean,mind，reckon,suppose，thanketc．，areusedinsimplepresenttense．Theirusefrequencyismorethan80％．②Themodalauxiliaryverb“may”typicallyshows“possible”，not“permission”ininformalconversation．③Someadjectives(endingwith-al，suchasgeneral，local，nationaletc．)areplacedinattribute．Theirfrequencyofoccu盯encesismorethan98％．Otheradjectives，suchaseasier,global，ill，impossible，ready,sureetc．，andtheirfrequencyofoccurrencesincomplementismorethan95％．④Alternativeclause“SO”occurrencesaftersomeverbssometimes，forexample，guess，hope，say,supposeandthink．Butaltemativenegativeclause‘‘not’’isonlyaftertwotypicalverbs，‘‘guessandhope”．⑤SomesentencepatternCanbetransformed，forexample，sentencepatternSVOiOdistransformedtoSVOdOp(givesb．sth．／givesth．tosb．)．TherearethreetypicalverbswhichCanbetransformed，give，offerandsell⑥Inpassivevoicesentence，about90％phrasesassociatedwith“by”indicatenewinformation．(2)Feature：featureanalysisisameansintheformationoftheconceptandperception．Ingrammarteaching，strengtheningfeatureanalysisCanreinforcestudents’perceptionaboutcertaingrammarphenomenon；meanwhile，italsocancrystallizetheirconcepts．Inanalyzinggrammarfeatures，someaspectsinthefollowingshouldbelaidstresson．①Someformulariesoffeatureexist．Forexample，inthestructure“hardly／scarcely／39 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter4PedagogicalImplicationsbarely／⋯when"’aswellas‘"nosooner⋯than⋯”．thepastperfectiveverbisusedinmainclauseandsimplepasttenseofaverbisusedinsubordinateclause；insimilarsentencelike“It’Sthefirsttimethat⋯(thedeterminerbefore‘time’istheordinalnumber)”．theverbinthat—clauseisusedinitspresentperfective；thenon—finiteverbshowingthemeaningofresultsmustbeparticiplefollowingafterthereby／thus／so；thenon-finiteverbofthatmustbeinfinitiveafteronly／enough／too．．．／such．．．as／SO．．．as．②Discriminationofsimilarcharacteristics：Inreferencetothetransformationofsomecompoundsfromsingulartoplural，therearefourcircumstances：(i)somecompoundsendingwithcountablenouns；(ii)someareformedbycountablenouns+particle(orothers)；(iii)verb／adjective／participle+particle(orothers)；(iv)“woman／man+countablenoun”．What’Smore，inrespectofdistinguishing“do"(itshowsinfinitiveoftheword‘do’)，suchas“Canbutdo／cannotbutdo／cannothelpbutdo／cannothelp(to)do”．③Itisnecessarytoaddinsufficientorvacancyfeatures．Somegrammarbookscannotexplaingrammarphenomenonclearly．Onlysomeexamplesaregiven，thereisnoexplanation．Thisaffectsstudents’formationofconceptandalsotheirunderstandinganduse．④Itneedsrevisionofimpropercharacter．Somegrammarpointsareignoredinpracticalteaching．Forexample，“maynot”means可能不，not不可能．Somesentenceswhichconsistofthreerelativeclauses，thoughtheyaregrammatical，arenotnativeEnglish．ThereiSnosuchasentence(3)Contrast：thisisalsoameansofformingconcepts；itstressesthatconceptisformedthroughexamplecollectionandcontrastofcertainobjectandcomparisonbetweensimilaritiesanddifferences．Thecomparisonofnon—finiteverbsasmentionedaboveisjustwhatanexampleofcontrast．Anotherexample，comparisonofmeaningsoftheverbsbetween“Ihave／hadbreakfast．’’and“Hespends／spentalotofmoney．”．‘haveandspend’showsthepresenthabitualbehavioLbut‘hadandspent’showsthepastone-offbehaviororthepasthabitualbehavior．Thecomparisonisabeneficialresulttounderstandingthetwoconcepts，simplepresenttenseandsimplepasttense(c)Image．Here，weonlyuseitsmeaning⋯picture．Itiseasytobeperceivedandmemorizedby 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter4PedagogicalImplicationslearnersbecauseofitsvividfigurative．Ingrammarteaching，wecanuseittodeepenthestudents’understandingcertaingrammarphenomenon．Forexample，inteachingverbtenseandaspect，theteacherCalldrawupadraft(thereallineshowstherelation淅thsometimes，indicatingactionorstatehasbeendone；thebrokenoneshowsstateorhabit．)，forexample：noW卜————————————————l—_⋯⋯⋯⋯·+卜-一⋯一+k7⋯⋯⋯⋯·—■卜_一⋯一+。，(presentperfective)(pastperfective)(d)ChunksChunkingistheinformationrecoding．Itusespre—existingknowledgetoorganize；itreducesstimulateunitsinmemoryandmakesthemformthefamiliarmoduleseasytobememorized．Forexample，theorderofmultipleobjectiveadjectivesbeforethenounissize—length—high—shape-age-color-origin—material-category．Suchnarrationisdifficulttoberemembered，butforourChinesestudentsthereisagreatformulatohelpthemmemorizetheordenWithoutdoubt，theformulaisChinesewords：限定描绘大长高，形状年龄和新老，颜色国籍出材料⋯⋯Here，thestudentscanlearnthegrammarpointswiththehelpofanativelanguage．Thedifferentchunksareeasytounderstandandinteresting．Afteryearsofpractice，suchchunksarepracticalandhardlymistakenfromthereflectionofthestudents．(e)MeaningThecognitiveviewisthatmemorymeaningistoconnectmemory,paroleandthoughttightlytogether；perceptiondependenceonmeaning(grammatical)issuperiortothatongrammar(regardlessofmeaning)；foradultlearners，meaningisprimary；meaningfulthingsareeasytoberemembered，andthisisthelawofcognitionofhumanbrain．Therefore，weshouldtrytousemeaning．Theelaborationasmentionedabovehasbeenreferredtothe 些查型垫奎堂堡兰兰垡堡茎里!!坐!兰!!!鲨!墨堡!!!竺里!垄塑竺竺functionofmeaning．Moreover,therearedozensoftransitiveverbsfollowedbyinfinitiveorV-ingastheobject．Itisdifficulttorememberthemonebyone．However,itiseasytoremembertheminaspectofmeaning：infinitiveusuallyindicatesthatactionorstatehasbeenorisbeing，laterthanthedefiniteverbaheadintime；V-ingusuallyindicatesthatsomethinghasbeenorisbeing．Forexample，“Shepreparedtoseehimatthestation．／Sherecalledseeinghimatthestation．’’Thentherearesomeexceptions：manage／pretend／fail／seem／appeartodo，andcontemplate／consider／discuss／dread／imagine／recommend／suggestdoing，whosemeaningsaredifferentfromtheothers．④InterestHuman’SthirstforknowledgemainlybehavesincuriositywhichreferstoaRentionandinterestinunknownorknownbutnewthings．SomeChineseancientfamousaphorismelaboratesthephenomenon．Thus，ingrammarteaching，theteachermustselectappropriateperceptualmaterialsandlockstudentsincuriosityasmuchaspossible．Theabove．mentionedmethodscanarousetheinterestofstudents．What’Smore，theteacheralsocanarousetheirinterestthroughteachingpragmaticdifferences，stylisticdifferences，newcharacteristics，newchange，AmericanEnglishandtheroleofintonation．Conservatismisanotherrepresentationofhuman’Sthirstforknowledgewhichreferstothetendencyofusingknownknowledgetoperceive．Thisisalsoanaspectofarousingstudents’interest．Forexample，intheexplanationofchildren’Sbigtoysandbigchildren’Stoys，somefactorsshouldbeconsidered(somenouns’possessivecase，suchaschild，children；man，men；woman，women；girl，girls；lady,ladiesetc．，Canbenotonlydeterminer,butalsoadjectivesofcategorymeaning．Asdeterminers，itisshouldbebeforeadjiective；asadjectivesofcategorymeaning，itisaftertheadjective．)．Therefore，the“children⋯Sintheformeristhedeterminermeaning(i)atoyforachild”；thatinthelattershowsnotonlycategorymeaning(ii)(abigtoyforachild)，butalsothedeterminer(iii)(atoyforabigchild)．TheresultcanbeobtainedbyBloomfield’SICanalysistorevealambiguitiesclearly．Thethreemeaningscanberevealedbytreediagramsasfollows：(i)chil2 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter4PedagogicalImplications(ii)biysThestudentsaregenerallyclearaboutdifferentplacesofdeterminerandadjectiveinnounphrase，buttheyarenotclearaboutdoublemeaningsofthepossessivecaseofnounsanditsdifferentplacesinaphrase．Weusewhattheyhaveknowntoexplainsuchawordgroupandstudentsareeasytograspandinterestedinthem．Inrespectofconservatism，wecanmakeuseofChinesetotransfer．ItisnoharmtousesomeChineseproperlyandnecessadlyingrammarteaching．Thecombinationofcuriosityandconservatismmakesstudentsfeelfresh，excitedandfindthemselvesmuchprogress．(g)ReasoningReasoningcomestoaconclusionthroughknownortheassumedfacts；byreasoning，informationCanbeadded，andrelationsbetweentheobjectscanbegrasped．Weshouldfindtherelationsamongtheword，phrase，andclauseinparole，aswellastherelationsbetweenthemandthecontext，themandobjectiveworld．ThereasoningCanhelpUSfollowthelawofthinkingandconcludeunknownnewinformationfromthespeech．Itisveryimportanttoinstructstudentstoreasoningrammarteaching．Forexample，theoptionoftheverbin“Ifhe(know)heraddress，he(write)toher．”Needsdeductivereasoning：ifitistruecondition，theformoftheverbCanbeknows／writes，knows／willwrite，knew／wrote，knew／wouldwrite；onthecontrary,theformofthatcanbeknew／wouldwrite，knew／wouldhavewritten，orhadknown／wouldhavewritten．Moreoverwhydowesay“darkblue’’not“bluedark”?Whythequestionsentence“Howharddidyouboiltheeggs?”isfightbut“Howred43 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter4PedagogicalImplicationsdidyouboilthelobster?”iswrong?Thisneedspragmaticreasoning：thereasonwhytheyarewrongisthattheyarenon—existentinpracticallifeorobjectiveworld．ThegrammarianLvShuxiang(2002)says，“Grammarteachingshouldtrainstudentstoobserveandanalyzelanguagephenomenon⋯helpthemwiththeirdevelopmentofintelligence”．Amongthem，reasoningcanberegardedasbestofa11．Humansareinbornlogichandlers，hardlymakingmistakes．Duringimmediateinference，peoplearealwaysdoingeffectivereasoning．Onlywhenthereisadditionalinformationaffectingunderstandingofthepremiseorhumanprocessingcapacityofworkingmemoryislimited，canhumansdoinvalidreasoning(Eysenck&Keane．2010)．4．3TeachersandStudentsas0bserversInthecontextofthisstudy,theprotocolanalysisisgoingtobe，firstandforemost．Theteacher’Sanalysisofhisownlessonprotocol，respectivelytheteacher’Spainstakingofhisownproblem—solvingbehavior，isnecessary．Inotherwords，theteacherhastoanalyzehimself,hiscognitiveprocessingbefore，duringandafterhisgrammarlesson．However,analyticalawarenessautomaticallyincludesthestudentsbefore，dunngandaftertheparticulargrammarlesson．Asfarasthestudentsareconcerned．theyhaven’tbeenaskedtowriteindividuallessonprotocols．Subsequently,thereisnotprotocolexistinginwhich，fromunderthelearners’cognitiveperspective，studentsmighthavewrittentheirOWl／observationsaboutthemselvesaswellasaboutthelessoninthecourseofthisgrammarinstruction．Finally,therearenotanydetaileddescriptionofhowthestudentsthemselveshaverememberedandrevisedtheirgrammarknowledgeofaparticulartopic，orofhowtheyhavemadeuseoftheirknowledge，previouslyacquired，respectivelywhethertheyhaveappliedtheirknowledgetotheproblem·solvingprocessthattheyareinvolvedinbymeansofthevariousgrammarexercisesandclassroomtasksduringthislesson． 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter4PedagogicalImplications4．4LessonPlanningandClassroomTeachingUptonow,manylinguistsathomeandabroadhaveputforwardtheirrespectivegrammarteachingmodels，forexample，Brumfit’s(2000)communication-一grammarrepresentation⋯sentencepatterndrill⋯communication；Harmer’sgrammarintroduction一--grammarexercise(controlled)·一-practice(communication)；ourdomesticscholarWang’s(20021grammarrepresentation⋯practice—evaluation．Basedonthestudyandunderstandingthosemodels，five—stepteachingmethodincognitiveapproachisconcluded，thatis，therepresentationoflanguageknowledge-···--interpretation·-···-controlleddrill·-·-·-freecommunication—··—·-evaluationofoutputStepone：therepresentationandobservationoflanguageknowledge．Therearelisteningorreadingmaterialsintheformsofconversationorpassage．Theteachermakesthestudentsthinkaboutordiscussthedesignedquestionsbeforeclassandinstructsthemtousetheacquiredgrammarknowledgeandtheirownlanguagestructuretoobservenewgrammarrulesrepresentedinthematerials．Atthesainetime，studentsshouldbeclearaboutteachinggoal，theemphasisanddifficultlanguagepointsinthisclass．Thematerialsprovidedbytheteachershouldberealistic，livelyandinteresting．Steptwo：interpretationoflanguageknowledge．InconsiderationofthecharacteristicthatthevocationalcollegestudentshavepoorEnglishlanguagecompetence，itisnecessaryfortheteacherstoexplainthegrammarknowledgeclearlyandensuretheircompletecomprehensionofthegrammarconceptthroughmoreexamples．Theusedvocabularyandsentencepatterninteachingprocessshouldbefamiliartostudents；what’Smore，theteachershouldrevealthathowthesegrammarrulesareusedinpracticaluseStepthree：thedrillsoflanguageknowledge．Aftercomprehensiveunderstandingofgrammarrules，theteachershouldpreparevariousformsofexercisesforstudents，suchastranslationpracticeinwrittenforms，problemsolvingmodelofcorrectionexerciseorsimple；theteachershouldalsostrengthentheleamedknowledgeandhelpthestudentsfurtherclarifytheusageofthegrammarruleswhichtheyarelearningStepfour：freecommunication．Aftertheconsolidationofpractice，thestudentsneedthe45 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter4Pedagogicallmplicationscommunicativeactivities．Theteachersetsupsomescenarioswhicharecompletelytrueorclosetotherealityandasksthestudentstocombinethegrammarknowledgetheylearned晰ththeircommunication．Forexample，inteachingthemodalverbs(inay,can，must，haveto，should)，theteachercanchoosemallshoppingasthesituationandperformanceastheclassroomactivities．Thestudentscanusethemodalverbsinconversations．Suchtheactivitiescanarousetheirenthusiasmforlearningandencouragethemtoimagine，accomplishingthetaskactively．Onlywhenthelearnerscanuselanguagetocommunicate，dotheyreallymasterthelanguageknowledgeStepfive：evaluationoflanguageoutput．Theprocedureisessentialingrammarteaching；itplaysavitalroleinacquisitionofnewknowledge．Forstudentsgetfeedbackinformationfromtheteacheraftercommunicativegrammaractivities，theycanarrangeorcorrecttheoutputintime．HoweveLtheteachershouldnotinterruptthestudentsduringtheircommunication．Otherwise，itcanweakentheirenthusiasmandconfidenceofusingthelanguage．Transforminggrammarknowledgeintolinguisticcompetenceispracticaluseofthegrammarwhichisanessentialpartofcommunication．Therefore，grammarteachingisnotisolate，butcloselylinkedwithcultivationofcommunicativecompetence．Cognitiveapproachdevelopsthelearners’cognitiveabilityfromtwoaspects，psychologyandlinguistics；itchangestraditionalgrammarteachingmodelsandsetsupanewmodelwithstudent—centeredandmeaningfuldrills4．5ASampleLessonPlan(A)Thefollowingisthesamplelessonplanofteachingpassivevoice：Targetgroup：thefirst-yearstudentsinHuanghaiVocationalCollegeNumberofstudents：about60inaclassLengthoflesson：45minutesTextbookandtheeditor：NewCenturyEnglishCourse；ChinaUniversityofPetroleumInstructionalObjective(s)：Studentswilllearnhowtousethepassivevoice．46 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter4PedagogicalImplicationsStudentswillimprovegrammarcompetence，communicativeandlinguisticcompetenceinstructedbyCognitiveApproach．Warm—upactivity：SupposeanemployeeisalwayslateforworkinMcDonald’Sandheisalsolazy,thebossknowsitandwantstofirehim．Theteacherasksstudentstomakeadialoguewiththeirpartners．Duringlisteningtothedialoguemadebyotherstudents，therestcantakenotesandwritedownthesentences、析mpassivevoicePresentationactivities：I．Writedowntheseveralsentenceswithpassivevoiceontheblackboard．ThefloorhasbeencleanedbysomebodyThechickenhasbeencookedbysomebody．Theformofpassivevoice(be+P．P)isthusobservedandintroduced．Next,theteacherexplainstheusageandpurposeofpassivevoice．Inordertochecktheircomprehension，theteachercallshowstudentspicturesandscenes，askingthemtomakesentencesbypassiveV01Ce．Toclarifythedifferencesbetweenactiveandpassivevoice，studentsaregivenashortstory：Tomsawaprettygirl．Hewenttotalktoherandaskedforhertelephonenumber．Thegirldidnotagree．HerhusbandhitJohnonthenose．Thentheteacherasksstudentswhatwouldhappennext．Classroomatmosphereisimproved．Afterthestoryisfinished，theteacheraskstwoquestions：whatdidthehusbanddo?(Activevoiceisused)andwhathappenedtoJohn?(Passivevoiceisused)II．Afterthepreviousstep，studentsknowhowtoformpassivevoice．Theteacherwillexplainthereasonswhypassivevoiceisusedinsteadofactivevoice．Theteacherstressesthatstudentshavebeenusedtouseactivevoice，notfamiliarwithpassivevoice，especiallythepastparticipleoftheverb．Reasonsforusingthepassivevoice：OPassivevoiceisusedwhentheagentisknown，thespeakerorwriterdoesnotwanttomentionit．Forexample1)SheWasgivenbadpoortreatment．47 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter4PedagogicalImplications21Anewmobilephonehasbeenmade．OPassivevoiceisusedwhentheagentisobviousandgenerai，itisunnecessarytomention．Forexample：1)ChairmanMaoisrespectedinChina．2)Tensofdialectsarespokenhere．31Thedoorshouldbelockedatalltimes．OPassivevoiceisusedwhenthespeakerorwriterwantstoemphasizearesultorthereceiveroftheactioninsteadoftheperformer．1)AlmostthousandsofpeoplewerekilledbytheearthquakeofSichuanProvincein2008．2)Thewindowglassofacalwashitbrokenbythehail．III．PracticeordrillactivitiesActiveandPassiveVoiceExerciseDirections：Thefollowingsentencesarewritteninpassivevoice．Writethereasonwhythepassivevoiceisusedforeachsentence．Ifyouthinkthesentenceshouldbewrittenintheactivevoice,re—writethesentenceintheactivevoice(1—5)．TranslatesentencesintoEnglishinpassivevoice6-l011)TheterroristshavebeenseizedbytheAmericanpolice．2)Nobodyknowswhenthethiefbrokeintothestore．31IWasraisedinChina．4)ThemobilephoneWasmanufacturedinTaiwan5)Atpresent，informationresourcesaresharedaroundtheworld．6)地震过后，这个地方急需要救援物资。 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter4PedagogicalImplications7)我们的电脑程序似乎已被黑客侵入。8)我国政府官员的公款吃喝现象有望被严密监督。9)到2014年，我国的研究生和博士生将实行白筹经费制度。10)我校的文艺表演招募演员和歌手。IV．Freecommunication：theteachergivesstudentsatopicaboutmoneyproblems—··-··howtospendthemoneywhenyouhavetoomuchmoney．Studentsshouldbeinformedinadvancethattheyhadbetterusepassivevoicetomakesentences．V．Evaluationoflanguageoutput：theteacherchoosesagrouptoroleplayontheteachingplatform．Theirmistakescanbecorrectedintimebytheteacher．Itisbenefitforthemtounderstandthelanguagepointsclearly．(B)AdvantagesofthesamplelessonplanItfollowsthefive-stepmethod，mentionedin4．4．Therearesomeadvantagesofthesamplelessonplan，forexampleitfollowsthelawsofcognitionandalsousesgrammarteachingmethods．Psychologically,therearethreemainmethods：induction，deductionandanalogy．Inthepast，someapproachesandmethodsfrequentlyfavoredoneofthem．Butinthisplan，threemethodsareallused．Atthebeginningoftheclass，theteacherinductsthesentencetypebyasituationaldiaIogue．Studentscaneasilyimaginethedialogue，becauseitisclosetolife．Peoplehavecommonthoughtinpracticalcommunication．IntheSteponeandtwo，theteacherusesdeductionandanalogytogether．Theteacherusesactivevoicetocomparewiththepassivevoice．Here，studentscanunderstandthedifferencesbetweenthem．Stepthreeisatranslationpractice．Usingmothertonguetohelpmasterpassivevoice，theteachergivestensentenceswhichareclosetolife．Thesentencesgivestudentsadeepimpression．Stepfourisdesignedtorealizethefinalaimoflanguage⋯communication．Thelaststepisevaluationoftheiroutput．Accurateuseoflanguageisgoodactionsofrespectinggrammar．WeshouldtakeEnglishgrammarseriously,as“asmallleakwillsinkagreatship”．49 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter4PedagogicalImplications4．6Summary(1)Thegrammarteachingmainlybringsstudentstheiracquisitionofknowledge．TheEnglishclassshouldbewiththenatureofresearchandpayattentiontoexpandingtheirlanguageknowledge；itisbeneficialtoenliventheatmosphereofgrammarteachingandtheirEnglishlearning．JustasHallidayetalindicates，“Whenlearningaforeignlanguage，itisvaluableforexperiencedadultsandyoungpeoplewhohasabroadunderstandingofthelanguagetounderstandlanguageknowledge．”Aftercriticalperiod，theprocessoflanguagelearningislikeotherlearning；thereforetransmissionofknowledgeseemsnecessary．(2)TeachinginEnglishshouldfollowlearners’cognitivepsychologicalneeds，whichisstressful．Fornon—nativelanguagegrammar,appliedlinguistsgenerallyopposethatmechanicalpracticemethodinteachinggrammarisusedonthestageofadults．Theyholdtheviews：(i)AdultlearnersneedtounderstandthestructureofthelanguagetheyarelearningSOastounderstandandusecreativelylanguagebytheirrichcognitivecompetence．Therefore，grammarteachingisgoodfortheirusinglanguageincommunication．Leamingeffectwithgrammarteachingisbetterthanonlycommunicativeteachingapproach．Thus，grammarteachingisashortcut．(ii)AccordingtoChomsky’Slinguisticview,thecodeofnon．nativelanguagemustbetaughtclearly．(iii)Theaccuraterateofspeechinformaloccasionsishardtoachieveahigherdegreeonlyrelyingoncommunicativepractice．Itneedsgrammarteaching．EvenKrashen(1982)admitsgrammarplaysamonitoringroleinthepreciselanguage；healsoputsforwardthatgrammarcanbetaughtasasubjectmatter；howeveLhestillthinkssuchteachingshouldnotbesameaslanguageteaching．(iv)Thegrammarteachinginadvancedstageshouldteachmorecomplexsentences，referstomorecomplexsentencepattemandtheirsignificanceofexpressionbasedonoriginalgrammarknowledge．(v)IftheteachersteachEnglishonlyincommunicativemethod，thatisnotteachinglanguagebutteachingspeech．(3)Inrecentyears，manykindsofmethodshavebeenputforwardonthisquestionthattheEnglishgrammarteachinginhighvocationalcollegesisnotsatisfactory．Thesemethods 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Chapter4PedagogicalImplicationsarealmostsame，thepracticeofcommunicativeapproach．However,itisdifficulttofitourEnglishgrammarteaching，becauseofourmaterialsandteachinghours．Forseveralyears，someschoolshaveusedthecognitivemethodsmentionedaboveinpracticalteaching．Thestudentslistentotheteacherwithavidattention．Resultsshowthattheygenerallygetharvest．Inaddition，wedon’twanttosaythatthemethodisoptimal．However，maybeitistheidealmethod． 山东科技大学硕士学位论文ConclusionTheCognitiveApproach，withadvancedtransformationalgenerativelinguisticsandthefrontierofcognitivepsychologyasitstheoreticalbackground，Wasputforwardcomparedwi吐lAudio-lingualmethodin1960s．Uptonow,ithasshakenthemainstreamstatusofaudio—lingualmethod，butthelatterisnotreallyreplaced．Infact，audio—lingualmethodisstilldominantinAmericanforeignlanguageteaching．InEuropeancountries，thefunctionalteachingmethodispopular,andhasafar-reachingimpactonourforeignlanguageteachingandChineseasaforeignlanguageteaching．EvennOWsomeforeignscholarseithermakeitaseparatelistoragreethatitisanimprovedgrammar-translationmethod．Itisdifficulttofindaninfluentialforeignlanguagetextbookwhichreflectscognitiveprinciplesintheworldwide．Thetimewhencognitiveapproachbeganisdiversified．Therefore，languageisnotdescribedasasingle，autonomicandclosedsystemanymore，butastructuralsystem、vithnatural，social，humanbeingsandhistoricalattributes．Itisundersuchdiversifiedlinguisticviews．cognitiveapproachgetsridofsometeachingmethodswhichareverysingleandonlyfollowtheirownsteps．Itadoptstheproveneffectivemethodsbyotherapproachesandmethodsinlanguageteaching；italsofindsthebreakthroughpointattheareaswheretheformercannotexcel；thewayittakesistofollownosetformsandtoinnovatebravely．Lookingbackovertheteachingprinciplescognitiveapproachadvocates，wecanfindthatitlearnsfromtheadvantagesofgrammar—translationmethodandattachesimportancetolanguageunderstanding，aswellasmeaningfullearninganddrills．Learningfromaudio-lingualmethod，itpaysattentiontolanguageabilityandadvocatestodevelopthefourbasicskills-listening，reading，speakingandwritingsimultaneously；learningfromfunctionalapproach，itfocusesonlanguageuseandmotivatesstudents’autonomouslearninginterestandtheirabilityofmasteringaswellascreativelyusinglaws．Basedongenerative—grammarapproachandcognitivepsychologywhosetheoriesareleadingandfullofmacrocosm，cognitiveapproachisnotsimplyconsideredtobeinsufficient．Weshouldbeawareofitswidedevelopmentprospectbecauseoftheleadingandunfixedtheories．Maturetheorieswill52 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Conclusionchangethedifficultpositionoftalkingaboutstratagemsonpaperanditcannotbecombinedwithpractice．Inordertogetoutofthepresentdilemmaandmakemacrotheoriesintopracticalmethods，thereareaccomplishedsuggestionsbyWang(2007)：(DTheCognitiveApproachshouldsetuppracticalteachinggrammar；QItshouldgetpracticalsupportfromcognitivepsychology．ThefindingsofthestudyalsosuggestsomeimplicationsforcurrentvocationalcollegeEnglishteaching：Firstly,itdemonstratesthatgrammarisveryimportantinlanguageteachingandgrammarneedstobetaughtintheclassroom．Itismoreeffectiveinrelationwithlearners’cognitivecompetence．However，teachingofgrammardoesnotmeanareturntothetraditionaltreatmentofgrammarrules．Althoughmanymethodsandtechniqueshavebeenstudiedinthisfieldbefore，cognitivegrammarteachingintermsofcognitiveprinciplesareprovedtobeusefulforstudentsSecondly，morethanhalfthestudentsinvocationalcollegesarenotinterestedinEnglishlearning，theurgenttaskatthemomentmayfocusonraisingtheirinterestandmotivationinEnglishstudy．Thirdly,Englishclassroominvocationalcollegesisingreatneedofinteractioninemotion，thoughtsandlanguagelearning．Itdependsonteachers’instruction；afterall，teachersplayaleadingroleinclass．Thepremiseisthatteacherspayenoughattentiontostudents’cognitivecompetencedevelopmentandtrytoteachEnglishfollowingtheircognitivecompetenceandlinguisticcompetenceRelyingontheadvancedtheory,CognitiveApproachtakesthecognitivecompetenceandcognitiveprocessignoredbyotherteachingmethodologiesasthestartingpoint．Itputssomefactorsintoconsideration，suchascommonproblemsofforeignlanguageteaching，cognitivedifferencesbetweenindividuallearnersandthespeciallawoflearningforeignlanguageinthenativelanguageenvironment，andperfectsthescientificnatureofforeignlanguageteachingmethods．However，whetherthecognitiveapproachbecomesmatureandindependentteachingsystemmustgothroughahardandtortuousjoumey．Onlycourageousenoughtoprobeintoexplorationandpractice，wecancreateanewlandinforeignlanguageteaching．Accordingtothisapproach，grammarispresentedfollowinglearners’cognitive53 生查型垫奎堂堡主兰堡垒苎塑璺!坐!!!璺competence．However,duetothelimitafionofcurrentteachingconditionsinChina．it，salmostimpossibleforteacherstofollowtheapproacheffectivelyinclass，forthereareoftenover50studentsinoneclassandteachershavenoenoughtimeandenergytogiveenoughinput·Inaword，throughthestudyoncognitivegrammarteachinginvocationalcolleges，theresearcherhashadcomprehensivetheoriesrelevantwithcognitiontosomeextent．Itisexpectedthatdeeperandmoreexplorationswillbemadeinthefuture．However，thereisnotaperfectteachingmethod，butitissometimespropen 坐查型垫奎兰堕主兰垡堡茎呈!垒!尘竖竺坐。。。。’’。’’1’’’。’。’。。。。。。。。。。。。。。。_。__·--·‘·。。。。。。"_____________。-’--_。__________-．____。_1_____。-_。-_____。，。______——___-_________-—————————-___-———————————————一。Bibliography【1]Brown，H．D．PrinciplesofLanguageLearningandTeaching,铴ed【M】．NewYork：AddisonWedeyLongman，2000．[2】Brurnfit，C．J．TheCommunicativeApproachtoLanguageTeaching[M】．Shanghai：OxfordUniversityPressandShanghaiForeignLanguagesEducationPress，2000．[3】Celce—Murcia,M．&Hilles，S．TechniquesandResourcesinTeachingGrammar[M]．NewYork：OxfordUniversityPress，1988．【4】Chomsky,N．KnowledgeofLanguage：Itsorigin,natureanduse[M]．Westport：Greenwood，1986．[5】5Chomsky,N．LanguageandMind3r荔ed【MlUN：CambridgeUniversityPress，2006．[6】Cook，VLingu鼢twsandSecondLanguageAcquisition[M】．London：Macmillan，1993：246．[7】Ellis，R．InstructedSecondLanguageAcquisition：LearningintheClassroom[M]．BasilBlackwell，1991．[8】EysenckW-M．&Keane，T．M．CognitivePsychology：AStudent"sHandbook(6thed．)【M】．NewYork：PsychologyPress，2010．[9]Halliday,M。A．K．eta1．TheLinguisticSciencesandLanguageTeaching[M】．London：Longrnan，1964：225．【10]Hoffman，A．LSD：MyProblemChild【M】．London：McGraw．Hill，1980．[11】Ikpia，v．I．TheattitudesandperceptionsofadultEnglishasasecondlanguagestudentstowardexplicitgrammarinstruction．PaperpresentedattheannualmeetingoftheAmericanEducationalResearchAssociation，Chicago，IL．2003，4．[12]Kinchla，R．A．&Wolfe，J．M．TheOrderofVisualProcessing：TopDown,BottonUp,MiddleOut【J】．PerceptionandPsychohypysics，1979：25．[13】Krashen，S．PrinciplesandPractweinSecondLanguageAcquisition[M]．Oxford：Pergamon，1982：112．【14】Navon，D．ForestBeforeTrees：ThePrecedenceofGlobalFeatureinVlsua／55 山东科技大学硕士学位论文BibliographyPerception[J]．CognitivePsychology,1977：9．[15】Navon，D．TheForestRevisted：MoreonGlobalPrecedence[J】．PsychologicalResearch，1981：43．[16】Peng，K．X．HistoryofGrammar分PositionandEnlightenmentinSchoolEnglishTeachinginChina[J】．ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearch，2007(2)：32—35．【17】RichardsJ．C．&Rogers，T．S．ApproachesandMethodsinLanguageTeaching[M]．1986．【18】Skehan，P．ACognitiveApproachtoLanguageLearning[M】．Shanghai：ShanghaiForeignLanguagesEducationPress，1999．【19】Sperber,D．&Wilson，D．Relevance．"CommunicationandCognition[M]．Beijing：ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchPress&BlackwellPublishersLtd，2001"86．[20】Stem，H．H．FundamentalConceptionsofLanguageTeaching【M】．Oxford：OxfordUniversityPress，1983：131．[21】Thombury,S．HowtoTeachGrammar[M】．SanAntonio：PearsonEducationESL，2000．[22】Towell，R．&Hawkins，R．ApproachestoSecondLanguageAcquisition【M]．Philadelphia：MultilingualMattersLTD，1994．【23】Wilson，A．R．&Keil，C．F．MITCognitiveEncyclopedia[M】．Shanghai：ShanghaiForeignLanguagesEducationPress，2000．[24]Wood，R．AssessmentandTesting．"ASurveyofResearch[M】．Beijing：ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchPress&CambridgeUniversityPress．2001：230．[25]艾森克．M．W．&基恩．M．T．认知心理学[M]．高定国&肖晓云译．上海：华东师范大学出版社，2003．[26】刘元亮等．科学认识论与方法论【M】．北京：清华大学出版社，1987：62．64．【27]吕叔湘．吕叔湘全集【M】．辽宁：辽宁教育出版社，2002．【28】聂清浦．认知法与大学外语教学[J】．山东师范大学学报，2000(6)：105．【29】秦晓晴．外语教学研究中的定量数据分析[M】．武汉：华中科技大学出版社，2003．【30]王笃勤．英语教学策略论[M]．北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2002．【31]王更生，汪安圣．认知心理学【M]．北京：北京大学出版社，1992：41—46．[32】王骏．论外语教学认知法的困境与出路[J】．西安外国语大学学报，2007(4)：48．56 山东科技大学硕士学位论文[33】王宗炎．语法知识和英语水平【A】．董燕萍，王初明．中国的语言学研究与应用[c】．上海：上海外语教育出版社，2001：90．[34]章兼中．国外外语教学主要流派[M】．上海：上海华东师范大学出版社，1983[35】赵彦春．认知词典学探索[M]．上海：上海外语教育出版社，2003．[36]朱纯．外语教学心理学【M】．上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000．57 AcknowledgmentsThisthesisisdedicatedtomyfamily,especiallymyparents，whohavealwaysbeenthereforme．Withouttheirlove，careandsupport，1wouldnothavefulfilledthethesissuccessfullyIalTlespeciallygratefultomysupervisor,ProfessorSongYan，forhervaluableinstructionsandpatientguidanceinmanyways；fromtheverymomentIemeredthisuniversitytotheverylastbeforethepresentation，sheofferedmevaluablesuggestionspatientlyinthepreparationofthisthesis．1wouldliketoexpressmysincereandheartfeltappreciationtomyfriends，Judy,Rhoda，andSnowetc．fromwhomIhavegreatlybenefited．Intheperiodofpreparingthethesis，theygavemeagreatdealofassistanceaswellaspreciousadvice．Finally,1wouldliketoshowmyappreciationofalltheteachers’andstudents’participationintheinvestigation．Thestatisticsfromtheinvestigationprovidesproofsforquestionsthethesisconcerns 山东科技大学硕士学位论文Publications“隐性课程理论在外语教学中的运用原则”．《徐州师范大学学报(教科版)》，2011(04)．59 山东科技大学硕士学位论文AppendixIAppendixI针对非英语专业高职学生英语语法学习情况的调查说明：亲爱的同学们，想让老师了解你的英语学习情况吗?请根据你的真实想法或做法认真完成此问卷调查。1．你对英语A．非常喜欢B．有点喜欢C．不喜欢也不讨厌D．有点讨厌E．j艮讨厌2．你学习英语的动机是(可多选)A．英语等级考试B．毕业后找份好工作C．为了出国留学或工作D．喜欢学习英语E．提高自己的综合素质3．你每周大约花多少课外时间学习英语?A．1小时以下B．1．2小时C．2．3小时D-3小时以上4．你在中学时期的英语语法学习情况是?A．j艮好B．较好c．一般D．较差E．极差5．你认为英语语法在大学英语学习中还重要吗?A．重要B．一般C．不重要D．不知道6．你在课后的英语学习中，花在语法学习上的学习时间占英语学习的A．大部分时间B．一半时间C．三分之一时问D．极少时间E．几乎不花时问7．目前，你在英语学习中碰到的语法问题如何解决?A．自己查阅语法书B．请教老师C．请教同学D．忽略8．你是否愿意参加英语课堂的语言交流活动，例如小组讨论、对话、辩论、角色扮演等?A．非常愿意B。愿意C。随便D．不愿意E．讨厌9．你认为造成你语法学习困难的原因是(可多选)A．缺乏良好地外语学习环境B．中文干扰英语及其语法的学习60 山东科技大学硕士学位论文AppendixIC．未能从小学习英语D．教师教学方法不够吸引力E．语法知识点讲解不够，练习不多F．其它因素10．假如有一个方法可指导你轻松地掌握英语语法学习，你愿意尝试吗?A．非常愿意B．愿意C．随便D．不愿意E．讨厌谢谢同学们．6．g-fllf祝愿你们的大学生活丰富多彩，，6l2012年10月 山东科技大学硕士学位论文AppendixIAppendixIIPRETCO-B(June，200s)PartIIVocabulary&Structure(15minutes)Directions：Thispartistotestyourabilitytousewordsandgrammarcorrectlytoconstructmeaningfulandgrammaticallycorrectsentences．Itconsistsof2sectionsSectionADirections：Thereare10incompletestatementshere．YouarerequiredtocompleteeachstatementbychoosingtheappropriateanswerfromthefourchoicesmarkedA)，B)，C)。andYoushouldmarkthecorrespondingletterontheAnswerSheetwithasinglelinethroughthecentre16．Judgingfromhisaccent，Ican——thatheisfromthesouth．A)speakB)lookC)tellD)show17．W色won’tbeabletoleavetheofficeuntiltherainA)stopB)stopsC)stoppedD)isstopping18．Thebosstoldhissecretaryto．．．．．．．．．——thedocumentsforlateruseA)putawayB)turnonC)makeupD)breakout19．Marysaysthisisthedecisionshehasevermadeinhercareerlife．A)badB)worstC)worseD)badly20．Wba11thinkthatJohncandidatewillgetthejob．A)whomB)whoseC)whoD)whoever21．Thefact—————————Marywaslateforthemeetingagainmademeangry．A)thatB)whyC)whatD)which22．Mostofthemachinesintheworkshop———————一nextmonth．A)arerepairedB)havebeenrepairedC)wererepairedD)willberepaired 山东科技大学硕士学位论文AppendixI23．————————isquitedifficultforMarytopasstheinterview．A)whatB)ThisC)ThatD)It24．If1workinasmallfactory,itisnot———————formetogainmuchexperience．A)weeklyB)friendlyC)likelyD)lively25．ThevillagershaveofferedmuchhelptoUSandwethinkweshoulddosomethingforthemA)inreturnB)inplaceC)infashionD)indangerSectionBDirections：Therearealso10incompletestatementshere．Youshouldfillineachblankwiththepaperfo，．肌ofthewordgiveninthebrackets．脚娩thewordorwordsinthecorrespondingspaceontheAnswerSheet26．Somepeopledobelievethatsmokingwill(certain)27．Iftheteammembershadn’thelpedme，I(fail)28．Iaskedhimnot(say)29．Weusually(go)30．Withthe(develop)andexportbusiness．31．(see)causelungcancerinthelastexperiment．anythingaboutourcontractuntiltheendofthemonth．abroadforourholiday,butthisyearwearestayingathome．offoreigntrade，moreandmorepeoplearedoingimportfromthetopofthehill，thevillageisverybeautiful．32．ItWasvery(help)ofyoutomakeallthenecessaryarrangementsforUS33．Onheatingthegoodnewsthatournewproductssoldwellinthemarket．weallgot(excite)34．Markwasalittleupset，forthemanagerdidn’tallowhim(take)thefollowingweek．35．SomeAmericanbusinessmeninChinaarespendingalotoftimein(1earn)Chinese．63hisholiday 山东科技大学硕士学位论文AppendixIIIAppendixIIIPRETCO—B(June，2006)PartIIVocabulary&Structure(15minutes)Directions：Th／spartistotestyourabilitytousewordsandgrammarcorrectlytoconstructmeaningfulandgrammaticallycorrectsentences．Itconsistsof2sectionsSectionADirections：Thereare10incompletestalementshere．Youarerequiredtocompleteeachstatementbychoosingtheappropriateanswerfromthe4choicesmarkedA)，B)．0。andD)．YoushouMmarkthecorrespondingletterontheAnswerSheetwithasinglelinethroughthecentre．16．Davidhas——————muchworktodothatheisstayinglateathisoffice．A)suchB)SOC)veryD)enoughl7．Itriedhard，butIcouldn’tfindthe——totheproblem．A)solutionB)helpC)replyD)demand18．Ican’tfindthekeytomyoffice．I——havelostitonmywayhome．A)wouldB)shouldC)mustD)oughtto19．TherearethreecolorsintheBritishflag，——red，whiteandblue．A)rarelyB)namelyC)reallyD)naturally20．AsfarasI"mconcerned，Idon’tlike——inthatway．A)tobetreatedB)totreatC)treatedD)treating21．Myimpressionoftheserviceinthehotelwasthatithadreally——————————．A)imaginedB)impliedC)importedD)improved22．Thepolicemanstoppedthedriverandfoundthathe———————————alcoh01．A)drinksB)hasdrankC)isdrinkingD)haddrunk23．ThereWaSaheavyfogthismorning，SOnoneoftheplanescould——．A)getthroughB)takeoffC)pulloutD)breakaway611 山东科技大学硕士学位论文AppendixllI24．writingalettertothemanager,hedecidedtotalktohiminperson．A)insteadofB)BecauseofC)AsforD)Dueto25．Lisawasbusytakingnotes————————MarkwassearchingtheIntemetfortheinformation．A)untilB)unlessC)whileD)ifSectionBDirections：Therearealso10incompletestatementshere．Youshouldfillineachblankwiththeproperformofthewordgiveninthebracke船．WritethewordorwordsinthecorrespondingspaceontheAnswerSheet26．Ofallthehotelsinthecity,thisoneisthe(good)27．YesterdaytheyreceivedawriRen(invite)28．Thatnewmmisworth(see)29．Nextweekwe(sign)30．(general)toadinnerfromMr．Black．forthesecondtime．thesalescontractwimthenewsupplierspeaking，heisapersonthatyouCantrust．31．Thenewmachineoughtto(test)beforeitisputtouse．32．Ifyourcreditisgood，youwillbeallowed(use)33．Itwillbevery(help)meeting．thecreditcard．ifeachmemberpresentshisorherownopinionatthe34．Thenumberofsalespeoplewhohaveleftthecompany(be)35．Itiswell—knownthatspotswill(strength)65verysmall．thefriendshipbetweennations．