任务型教学法在高中英语语法教学中的应用研究 94页

单位代码：101665仏砷技夫I硕士学位论文AnEmpiricalStudyofTask-basedLanguageTeachingofEnglishGrammarinSeniorHighSchool任务型教学法在高中英语语法教学中的应用研究论文作者：、洪*学科专业：外国语言学及应用语言学指导教师：赵天舒培养单位：外国语学院培养类别：全曰制完成时间：201S年6月5曰沈阳师范大学学位评定委员会 学位论文独创性声明本人所呈交的学位论文是在导师的指导下取得的研究成果。据我所知，除文中已经注明引用的内容外，本论文不包含其他个人已经发表或撰写过的研究成果。对本文的研究做出重要贡献的个人和集体，均已在文中作了明确说明并表示了谢意。作者签名：^7#日期：ToK学位论文使用授权声明本人授权沈阳师范大学研究生处，将本人硕士学位论文的全部或部分内容编入有关数据库进行检索；有权保留学位论文并向国家主管部门或其指定机构送交论文的电子版和纸质版，允许论文被查阅和借阅；有权可以采用影印、缩印或扫描等复制手段保存、汇编学位论文。保密的学位论文在解密后适用本规定。作者签名：速政曰期：/i、[ 编全口制研究生教育硕士同等学力硕士学位论文题目：AnEmpiricalStudyofTask-basedLanguageTeachingofEnglishGrammarinSeniorHighSchool任务型教学法在髙中英语语法教学中的应用研究所在院系：外国语学院专业名禾尔：外国语言学及应用语言学指导教师：赵天舒研究生：洪波完成时间：2015年6月5日沈阳师范大学研究生处制 AnEmpiricalStudyofTask-basedLanguageTeachingofEnglishGrammarinSeniorHighSchoolAThesisSubmittedtotheSchoolofForeignLanguagesShenyangNormalUniversityInPartialFulfillmentoftheRequirementsfortheDegreeofMasterofArtsByHongBoUndertheSupervisionofAssociateProfessorZhaoTianshuJune2015 AcknowledgementsFirstly,IwouldliketoexpressmyfeelingsofgratitudetomysupervisorZhaowhoprovidedmewithlotsofinterrelatedtreatisematerialstohelpmeunderstandtheresearchbackground,methods,frameworkandinnovation.Inthethreeyearsofmypostgraduateshegavemealotofhelpandsupportinmylearningandliving.Secondly,Iwouldexpressmygreatthankstotheteachersinourdepartment.Thanksarefortheirrigorousattitudeofscholarship,theirkind,affableattitudesandhumorous,affableandflexibleteachingmethods.Withouttheirstrictrequirementsforme,Icannotfinishmypapersmoothly.Finally,mythanksareexpendedtoallmyclassmates,especiallyXiaMengluandLina,whogavemesuggestionsandhelpedmebuysomereferencesonthissubject.Meanwhile,Iwouldliketoshowmygratitudetomyparentswhoprovidedmemuchsupport,toleranceandunderstanding.AsIlookback,scenesofthepastleapbeforemyeyes,fromselectionoftopictofinalizing,everystepsmakemeyieldgoodresults.i AbstractGrammarteachingisanimportantpartinhighschoolEnglisheducation.Howtoteachgrammar,howtoadjusttherelationbetweengrammarteachingandEnglishcommunicativeabilityaswellasaccuracyoflanguagearetheissuesthattheresearchersareconcernedallthetime.ThenewEnglishcurriculumcriteriaforhighschools(2003)clearlyadvocatedtask-basedlanguageteaching(TBLT)whichmakestudentsachievegoalsandfeelthesuccessthroughperception,experience,practiceandparticipationandsoonundertheguidanceoftheirteacher.Studentsadjustlearningstrategiesandemotiontocultivatetheirpositivelearningattitudeandpromotetheimprovementofcommunicativeabilities.ThethesiscombinehighschoolgrammarteachingwithTBLT,whichcomparedwithtraditionalteachingmethods,TBLTcanmakestudentslearngrammaticalrulesintasks.ThesuccessorfailureofapplicationofTBLTdependsontheconvertionofteachers’thoughtsandtheirmatureteachingtechnology.ThisstudyaimstoverifytheeffectivenessoftheapplicationofTBLTinseniorhighschool.Threeresearchmethods,interview,questionnaires,testsareasoptedinthisthesis.Twoclassesarechosenassamples.Oneexperimentalclassandonecontrolledclassareinvolvedinthisthreemonthsstudy.Pre-testandpost-test,interviews,twoquestionnaireswereusedintheprocessoftheexperiment.Afterone-semesterexperiment,thegrammaticalabilityofthestudentsintheexperimentalclassimprovedmuchbettercomparedwiththestudentsinthecontrolclass.Thatistosay,studentsii grammaticalabilityisimprovedafterseveralmonths’task-basedlanguageteachingmethod.Students’attitudestowardsgrammarlearningarealsoincreasing.SomesuggestionsforTBLTinSeniorhighschoolEnglishgrammarteachingareproposed.Keywords:task-basedlanguageteaching;Englishgrammarteaching;seniorhighschooliii 摘要语法是高中英语教学中一项重要的部分，怎样教高中语法，怎样调节语法教学与英语交际能力和语言准确度的关系一直以来都是研究者们关心的话题。《全日制义务教育英语课程标准》明确倡导任务型的教学模式，让学生在教师的指导下，通过感知、体验、实践、参与和合作等方式，实现任务的目标，感受成功。在学习过程中进行情感和策略调整，以形成积极的学习态度，促进语言实际运用能力的提高。本文就将把任务型教学法与高中的语法教学相结合，与传统的语法教学比较，让学生在任务中学习语法知识。任务型教学法能否被成功的应用语法教学中，需要教学思想的转变以及教学中教师教学方法和技巧的成熟。本文试图通过对语法和语法教学，任务型教学理论的探讨，经过调查问卷，课堂观察以及课堂测验，结果分析来验证任务型教学法在高中英语语法教学中的可行性和有效性。本文应用了四种研究方法，两个班级作为本次试验的样本。对实验班和控制班进行三个月的实验教学。本次试验采用前测、后测、问卷调查等试验方法。在经过半个学期的实验和观察后，在实验班采用了任务教学法的学生成绩明显高于控制班。也就是说经过三个月的实验教学，试验班语法成绩明显提高。本次任务型教学法的实验还有些局限和不足之处，把任务型教学应用到高中语法教学中仍需要改进。关键词:任务型教学法；英语语法教学；高中iv ContentsAcknowledgements.......................................................................................................iAbstractinEnglish......................................................................................................iiAbstractinChinese.....................................................................................................ivListofTables..............................................................................................................viiiChapter1Introduction.............................................................................................11.1BackgroundoftheStudy...............................................................................11.2TheStatusofGrammarTeachinginEnglishTeaching..................................21.3PurposeofStudy............................................................................................51.4OverallStructureoftheThesis......................................................................7Chapter2LiteratureReview...................................................................................82.1IntroductionofTBLTMethod.......................................................................82.1.1DefinitionandTypesofTask...............................................................82.1.2DefinitionofTBLT............................................................................132.1.3ModelsofTBLT.................................................................................152.2TheoreticalFoundationofTBLT.................................................................172.2.1InteractionTheory..............................................................................172.2.2SocialandCulturalTheory................................................................182.2.3CognitiveTheory...............................................................................192.2.4ConstructivismTheory.......................................................................202.3EnglishGrammarandGrammarTeaching..................................................21v 2.3.1TheDefinitionofGrammar...............................................................222.3.2TheTraditionalGrammarTeachingMethods....................................242.4PreviousStudiesonApplicationofTBLT...................................................272.4.1PreviousStudiesAbroad....................................................................272.4.2PreviousStudiesatHome..................................................................29Chapter3Methodology..........................................................................................313.1ResearchQuestions......................................................................................313.2Subjects........................................................................................................313.3ResearchInstruments...................................................................................323.3.1Questionnaire.....................................................................................323.3.2Experiment.........................................................................................333.3.3Interview............................................................................................343.4TeachingProcedure......................................................................................353.5DataCollectionandAnalysis.......................................................................39Chapter4ResultsandDiscussion.........................................................................414.1Results..........................................................................................................414.1.1ResultsofTest....................................................................................414.1.2ResultsofQuestionnaires..................................................................444.1.3ResultsofInterview...........................................................................494.2Discussion.......................................................................................................514.2.1TheEffectivenessofTask-basedLanguageTeachingonGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchool....................................................................51vi 4.2.2Students’AttitudestowardsTask-basedLanguageTeaching.............53Chapter5Conclusion.............................................................................................575.1MajorFindings.............................................................................................575.3PedagogicalImplications.............................................................................595.3LimitationsoftheStudy...............................................................................585.4SuggestionsforFurtherResearch................................................................60References...................................................................................................................62AppendixA.................................................................................................................67AppendixB.................................................................................................................69AppendixC.................................................................................................................71AppendixD.................................................................................................................76AppendixE.................................................................................................................82vii ListofTablesTable2.1Willis’modelfortask-basedinstruction(1996)...........................................30Table2.2Skehan’smodelfortask-basedinstruction(1998).......................................31Table2.3Ellis’smodelfortask-basedinstruction(2003)...........................................31Table3.1Wordslist.....................................................................................................37Table3.2Classificationfortheabovewords...............................................................37Table4.1Dataofindependentt-testonpre-test..........................................................49Table4.2Dataofindependentt-testonpost-test.......................................................42Table4.3Dataofpariedsamplest-testincontrolclass............................................43Table4.4Dataofpariedsamplest-testinexperimentalclass...................................43Table4.5Theresultsofpre-questionnaire.................................................................46Table4.6Theresultsofpost-questionnaire...............................................................51viii Chapter1Introduction1.1BackgroundoftheStudyGrammarteachingisagreatimportantpartinseniorEnglishteaching.HowtoteachitandhowtoadjusttherelationshipbetweenEnglishcommunicativeabilityandlanguageaccuracy,andthetwoproblemsattractmuchattention.Englishteachinghasbeeninfluencedbyforeignlanguageteachingtheoriesforalongtime.Grammar-translationmethod,audiolingualmethod,directmethodandcommunicativelanguageteachingandsoonarenotasprevalentasitoncewas.ShortageofEnglishteachers,oldfashionedfacilitiesandlarge-classtypemakeourEnglishteachingpaymuchattentiontoteachingstudentsgrammaticalrulesbutneglectingtodevelopcommunicativeabilities.Teachersarrangethecontentsofclassaccordingtothestandardsoftestsinsteadofstudents’interestsandexperiences.Asaresult,theclassroomatmosphereisveryboringandembarrassing.Thiskindofclassisteacher-centered,whichgoesagainstthedevelopmentofstudents’communicativeabilities.Withthenewcurriculumreform,communicativeteachingmethodhasbecomethemainstream,butduringthetimeofcarryingthenewcurriculumsomeproblemsoccure.Someteachersimpartlotsofgrammaticalrules,whichmakesstudentsbetiredofEnglishgrammarlearning.Lotsofteacherspaylessattentiontotheexperienceandcommunicativeabilitiesofstudents,andignorethesituationalapproachinclass.Themostnoticeableproblemisthatagreatdealofboringandhardexercisesmaketeachingeffrciencyverylow.Underthecircumstanceof1 communicativeteachingmethod,teachersbegintopayattentiontothedevelopmentofabilityofcommunication.Someteachersthinkthataslongaschancesoflanguagetrainingaregiventostudents,theycanmasterthegrammaticalrulesnaturally.Evensomeonethinksthattheaccuracyofgrammaticalrulesisinsignificant.Thesituationleadtoneglectinggrammarteaching.TheMinistryofEducationinChinapublishedtheNECSMin2001.ItmakesclearthatthegeneralgoalofEnglishteachinginSeniorHighSchoolistoenablestudentsbeactiveparticipantion,self-confident,willingtoexploreanddeveloptheirabilitiesofprocessinginformation,acquiringnewknowledge,analysisandsolveproblems.Inordertoachievethesegoals,theNESCMdefinitelyputforwardTask-basedLanguageTeachingMethods(TBLT).TBLTmethodisputforwardin1980s.Thismethodconcentratesondevelopingstudents’abilitiesofparticipating,experience,interacting,communicatingandcooperatinginlearningprocess.SoTask-basedLanguageTeachingMethodswhichfocusesoncommunicativeorexperiencedgrammarteachingisanewtrendofimprovinglearners’languageability.TheapplicationofTBLT,teachers’guidanceandstudents’cooperationcanallcouldhelpclassgrammarteachingachievetheteachinggoals.1.2TheStatusofGrammarTeachinginEnglishTeachingInthecourseofEnglishteachingdevelopment,grammarteachinggoesthroughfrombeingvalued,ignoredtobeingrecognizedandtakenseriously.Atthebegining2 thof20century,grammar-translationmethodtooktoomuchtimeinEnglishteachinganditspurposewastomakelearnerslearnandmastergrammaticalforms.Learnerscouldmastertheformsandtherulesbuttheleanerscouldnotexpressthemselvesapproriately.Whenpeoplerecognizedtheshortcomingsofgrammar-translationteachingmethod,itbeganfadingoutfromEnglishteaching.Directpedagogy,audio-lingualmethod,situationalmethodandcommunicativeteachingmethodcameintobeinginsuccession.Whilethroughaperiodofpracticeandreflectionpeoplebeganemphasizingcommunicationanddevelopability,theyalsorecognizedthedisadvantagesofweakeninggrammarteaching.Sotheybeganemphasizingtheroleandstatusofgrammarteaching.NationalEnglishCurriculumstandardsstatesthatdevelopinglearners’comprehensiveabilityoflanguageuseisagoalofEnglishstandardofgeneralhighschool.Linguisticskillsandlinguisticknowledgearethebasisofcomprehensiveabilityforlanguageuse.Curriculumstandardsstatesthatstudentsinhighschoolshouldlearnandmasterthebasicknowledgeofthelanguage,whichincludessound,words,grammar,functionandtopics.Linguicticknowledgeisacomponentoflinguisticcompetenceanditistheimportantfoundationofdevelopinglanguageskills.GrammaristhebasiccomponentoflinguisticknowledgeandtheNewCurriculumStandardelaboratesallgrammaticaimsinseniorhighschoolspecifically.TheNewCurriculumStandardadvocatesthatgrammarteachingshouldstartfromlanguageuseandthelinguisticforms,meaningsandusagearecombinedtogether.Teachersshouldguidelearnersunderstandandmastertheideographic3 functionofEnglishgrammar.TheNewCurriculumStandardpointsoutthattheaimoflearningknowledgeistoaccomplishtasksbutnotlearningforlearning.Itemphasizesthegoalofgrammarteachingistodeveloplearners’communicativeabilityandenablelearnersactinEnglish.ChengandGao(2008)pionteoutthatthegrammarteachingundertheNewCurriculumStandardincludedthefollowingaspectsinlessoncontent,teachingmethodsandpractice.ThegrammarteachinginNewCurriculumStandardincludesforms,meaningsandusage.Theformmeanshowthegrammaticalstructureconstitutes,meaningsindicatewhatitexpress,usagemeanswhenandwhytousetheform.TheNewCurriculumStandardopposesteachingknowledgeandlearners’passivelearning.Ingrammarteaching,thenewcurriculumclaimsthatinductionandTBLTshouldbeusedasmuchaspossible.Thegrammaticalstructureshouldbepresentedincontextandlearnersanalysisandinductgrammaticalrules,thentheteachercansummarizeandsupplement.TheformsofexercisearevariousintheNewCurriculumStandard,andtheexerciseoflanguageknowledgeandthecultivationoflanguagekillsareconnectedclosely.Learnersshouldlayemphasesonnotonlytheexerciseoflinguisticformsbutalsothecommunication,especiallyTBLTisappliedinthegrammarteachingtomakelearnerscompletesometasksinEnglish.Thecombinationofgrammarteachingandthetrainingoflanguageskillsisgoosfortransformingfromlearninglanguageknowledgetolearninglanguagekills.4 Inconclusion,thestatusofgrammarteachingintheNewCurriculumStandardcannotbeneglectedinEnglishteaching.Teachersleadlearnerslearnandmastertheideographicfunctionincontext,andtheypayattentiontotheideographicfunctionoflinguisticformsandthefunctionintheactualcontext.Learnersmuchmorechancesofexerciseshouldbeprovidedtolearners.Learnersshouldnotonlymasterlinguisticformsbutalsounderstandandpracticetheexpressionoflinguisticforms.ThismodeofgrammarteachingisembodiedwellinTBLT.SotheapplicationofTBLTingrammarteachinghasabiggersuperioritythantraditionalgrammarteachingmethods.1.3PurposeofStudyTBLTcanmeettheneedsofsocialdevelopmentanditbecomemoreandmorepopularinChina.In2001NewEnglishCurriculumStandardrecommandsimplementingTask-basedApproachinEnglishteachingsoastodothingswithwordsandfosterstudents’comprehensivecompetenceofusingthelanguage.Despiteallthis,tomanytheachersinbasiceducation,TBLTisastrangeword.ThisthesisdiscussesTBLTfromthepiontofgrammarteachinginseniorhighschool,anditdiscusseshowtoapplyTBLTinhighschoolgrammarteachingtoverifytheeffetivenessofTBLT.Comparedwithtraditionalteachingmethods,TBLThasthefollowingadvantages:Firstly,TheessenceofTBLTistoimprovethelearners’communicativeabilitywhichincludesaccuracy,feasibility,appropriatenessandeffectiveness.5 CommunicativeabilitycanobtainthemosteffectivetraininginrealcommunicativeactivitieswhicharebuiltontheTBLT.Therecanbenorealcommunicationwithouttasks.Secondly,theapplicationofTBLTinEnglishgrammarteachingadvocatesacomprehensivelearningwhichincludesparticipation,exploration,inductionandcooperation.SoEnglishgrammarlearningchangesfromarote-learningtoanactivelearningstyle.Thirdly,TBLTconcernslanguagechunks,economicalphrasesandfixedexpressions.ThereisnodoubtthatapplicationofTBLTinEnglishgrammarteachingisgoodforimprovingstudents’communicativeability.IntheimplementationofTBLT,teachersdesigntasksonthebasisofthedailylifeofstudentstoprovidethemopportunitiesforcommunication(Lu2004).Agreatdealofauthenticlanguagematerialscanenablestudentsgraspthelanguagethatmeettherequirementsofthetimes.Fourthly,whenstudentsperformthetask,theymayfeellackingofself-affirmation,whichbenefitsstimulatingthedesireofself-improvement.Studentscangainmuchexperienceofcommunicationwhichisgoodfortransitingfromclassroomcommunicationtorealcommunication.Finally,real-worldtaskscannotonlyincreaseopportunitiesofcommunicationbutalsodeveloptheirintentionsforcooperation.Insteadofcompletingthesetasksindependently,studentshavetoco-operatewitheachotherintheirowngroupandtheyplaythedifferentpartstoperformthetask.Meanwhile,studentscanobtain6 manyskillsofinteraction,negotiation,andexpressionbycooperationindifferentkindsoftasks.1.4OverallStructureoftheThesisChapterOneisangeneralintroductionwhichprovidesaoverviewofbackgroundofthestudyandanoutlineofthethesisanditstatesthebriefsignificanceofthisstudy.ChapterTwoistheliteraturereviewwhichreviewstheconceptsoftask,TBLT,grammar,grammarteachingandsomepreviousstudiesaboardandathome.ThischapterdescribetheprinciplesofTBLT,themodelsofit,theassessmentsandsomeotheraspectsaswellasthedefinitionofgrammarandgrammarteaching,anditmakeacomparisonbetweentraditionalgrammarteachingandTBLT.ChapterThreefocusesonexperimentalresearchthatiscarriedouttoidentifytheeffectivenessofTBLT.Itcoversresearchquestions,subjects,instruments,teachingprocedure,datacollectionandanalysis.ChapterFourisadataanalysispart.Itmainlyconcentratesonresultsanddiscussionsoftheresearch.ChapterFivedealswiththeconclusionofthewholethesisandraisessomesuggestionsfromtheexperiment.Itconcentratesonthemajorfindings,implications,andlimitationstotheresearch.7 Chapter2LiteratureReviewThischapterisabouttheliteraturereviewofTBLTandgrammarteaching.Atfirst,theauthorintroducesthedefinitionoftaskandTBLT,modelsofTBLTandtheoreticalfoundationofTBLT.Besides,therearedefinitionsofgrammarandgrammarteachingaswellassomepreviousstudiesonTBLT.2.1IntroductionofTBLTMethodTaskisthecoreofTBLT,sothispartpresentsthedefinitionsandtypesoftaskfirstly.ThenthedefinitionandmodelsofTBLTarealsoshowedinthispart.2.1.1DefinitionandTypesofTaskWhilementioningtasks,peoplethinkofallkindsofthingswhichwedoandcompleteinourdailylife.ModernChineseDictionarydefinestasksasanactivityoranpieceofworkwhichyouhavetodo,usuallyaspartofalargerproject.Inthefieldoflinguistics,theresearchersandadvocatesofTBLTaredifferentinacademicbackgrounds,purposesofresearches,researchmethod,sotheyhavedifferentdefinitionsoftasks.Understandingsandresearchesdevelopandchange,sothescholars’viewoftaskschangeallthetime.Therefore,therearevariousdefinitionsoftasksinthedocuments.Long(1985)isoneoftheearlierscholarswhostudytheTBLT.Longpointsoutthat“Ataskisapieceofworkundertakenforoneselforforothers,freelyorfor8 somereword.”Forexample,paintingafence,dressingchildren,buyingshoesintheshop,bookingfighttickets,writingacheckandfindingadestinationonamap,sendingamail,andborrowingabookfromalibrarycanbeconsideredascompletingatask.Longthinksthattaskmeanspeoplehavepurposestocompleteallkindsofactivitiesintheirdailylife.IntheTBLTliterature,Long’s(1985)definitionoftasksisusuallycalled“real-worldtask”(p.17).InthetasksofLong,therearethetaskswhichneedlanguagetocompletesuchasbuyingshoesintheshop,bookingfightticketsetc.butsomedon’tneedlanguagesuchaspaintingafence,writingacheckandsoon.Richards(1986)definestaskasanactivityoranactioncompletedbylearners,whenlearnersprocessorunderstandthelanguage,forexample,whilelisteningtotherecord,drawingamap.Thetaskmaynotinvolvethegenerationoflanguage.Thetaskrequiresteachersclearwhatisthesignofthecompletionofthetask.ThediversityoftasksinEnglishteachingisinordertomakeEnglishteachingcommunicative,whichgivetheclassanotherpurposeofthelanguage.Nunan(1989)givesadefinitionofthetaskinDesigningTasksfortheCommunicativeClass,communicativetasksisapieceofclassroomworkwhichinvolveslearnersincomprehending,manipulating,producingorinteractinginthetargetlanguage.Theattentionoflearnersisonexpressingmeaning,notonpracticinglanguageforms.Willisdefinestasksasusingthetargetlanguageforcommunicationpurpose.Thecurriculumstandardalsogivesusaexplanationoftask:thetaskinEnglishlearningreferstolearnersusingEnglishtoaccomplishallkindsoflanguagepractices.9 Thecurriculumgivesteachersanadvicethatthetasksshouldbebasedonlearners’lifeexperienceandinterests,helpingthemlearnEnglishknowledge,developlanguageskillsandimprovetheabilityofusinglanguage.Alltheabovedefinitionsoftaskimplythatthetaskinvolvecommunicationinformation,notonlypracticinggrammarorstructure.Themainconcernoflearnersisonlanguagemeaningratherthanlinguisticstructuresandthemainfunctionoftaskisitsfocusonthepracticalcommunicationratherthanclassroom.Differentscholarsholddifferentdefinitionsoftask,certainlytheycansummarizedifferentcharacteristics.Insum,ataskshouldpossessthefollowingcharacteristics:firstly,ataskisthatlearnersusethetargetlanguageforpurposefulactivities.Secondly,ataskhassimilaritieswithcommunicativeactivitiesindailylife.Thirdly,theconcernoftask-basedactivitiesisthemeaningofthelanguage.Fourthly,tasksinvolvelistening,speaking,reading,speaking.Lastly,thetaskisacompletecommunicativeactivity,andithasacommunicativeresult.Astocomponentsoftask,accordingtoNunan(1989),ateachingtaskcanbeanalyzedfromthefollowingcomponents:goals,input,activities,teacherrolesandlearnerroles,settings.Candlin(1987)suggeststhattasksshouldincludesixcomponents,input,roles,settings,actions,monitoring,outcomesandfeedback.Inotherwords,taskcontainsixcomponents.Rolesmeanstherelationshipbetweenparticipantsinthetask;settingsrefertosomeequipmentsentailedinthetask;activitiesrefertosomeactsthattheteacherandstudentsdoinclass.Firstly,TBLTsetastatedgoalthatincludingateachingoneandalife’sone.Languageinputcontained10 concretecontents,whichshouldbeimpartedtostudentsfromsimpletodifficult.Activitiesareteachingaidsthattheteacherandstudentsdoinclass.TheteacherservesasaguidanceanddirectorandstudentsarethemainbodyinTBLT,theyareparticipants.AlltheabovecomponentsconstituteanintegratedTBLTclass.Thesamelikecharacteristicsoftask,researchersclassifytasksaccordingtodifferentneedsfromdifferentpointsofview.ThethesiswilladoptWills’(1996)classificationoftask.Theyarelisting,orderingandsorting,comparing,problemsolving,sharingpersonalexperienceandcreativetask.(1)ListingListingisthemostcommonwayinoralandwrittencommunication.Listingfact,situation,dataandsoonaccordingtotheinformationithasbeenobtainedortheinformationyouhavemastered.Forexample,listtheirknownconditionorpossiblereasonsaboutsomespecialphenomenon.Throughlearnerslisting,theycannotonlyhaveaccesstounfamiliarwordsandconceptsbutalsodeepentheunderstandingofconcepts.(2)OrderingandSortingOrderingmeansthatarrangingobjects,events,viewpoints,conceptsorprocedureaccordingtotime,space,logicalrelations,importance.Forexample,whenateacherteachesstudentsaboutfood,hecanrearrangehealthyfoodandunhealthyfood.Sortingmeansthatclassifyingsomeanalogousthingsaccordingtotheircommonpoints.Differentbasicandcriteriaresultindifferentresults.(3)Comparing11 Comparingthingsandpeople,whichhavethesameproperty,thenwefindtheirsimilaritiesanddifferences.Asmentioned,learnerscomparewhattheylikewiththehealthyfood,suchbehaviorcanhelpthemdevelophealthydiethabits.Whethercomparisonorcontrast,learnersmakeacomparisonbetweentwoobjects,figures,placesandviewpointsitembyitem.Teacher’scomparingtaskscandeveloplearners’analysisingability.(4)ProblemSolvingThisisamoreadvancedlearningtask,whichinvolvespeople’sintelligenceandreasoningability.Problemsolvingmeansproposingsolutionsforaproblemthroughlogicalanalysis,reasoning,judgment,calculationandsoon.Theproblemscanbedividedintoseveraltypes,whichincludeday-to-dayproblemsandprofessionalproblems,socialproblemsandproblemsinnature,specificproblemsandabstractproblems.Problemsalsocanbedividedintosimpleproblemsandcomplexproblems.Methodsandstepsofsolvingproblemsareindifferentbecauseofthediversityoftheproblem.Forexample,expressingassumption,describingexperience,comparativeassessmentandreachingasolution.(5)SharingpersonalexperienceExchangingpersonalopinionsmeansthatlearnersexpresstheirownviewsandlistentotheopinionsofothersonsomeissues.Sharingcandrawstudents’interestsandisgoodforfosteringstudents’capacityformulti-thinking.Learnerssharetheirownexperience,forexamplerestatethematter,describesomeoneorsomething.Thiskindofexperienceandcommunicationissimilartoinformalcommunicationorchat,12 whichhavenowell-definedgoals,nospecificrequirementsandnotimelimitationandthatalldependsontheirowncommunicativewillingness.(6)CreativetaskCreativetaskisakindofadvancedlearningtaskanditisaintegrativeactivitieswhichisperformedbyagroupanditinvolvesnotonlycampuslifebutalsoextracurricularactivity.Creativetaskinvolvesmanylinksanditisinvirtueoflisting,orderingandsorting,comparinginductionanddeductionandsoon.TheclassificationoftaskbyWillis(1996)isreferencedrepeatedlybyresearchersandteachers.Theabovesixkindsoftasksarenotastrictclassification,butitfitsforcommontasks.Thosesixkindsoftaskscanbeappliedinallkindsoftopicsandskilltrainingoflistening,speaking,reading,andwriting.2.1.2DefinitionofTBLTTBLTresearchhavebeenmorethantwentyyears,sincetheearlynineteen-eighties,N.S.Prabhu(1987)andsomepeopleconductecommunicativelanguageteachingprograme,whichisatypicalofcommunicativelanguageteaching,andtheearliestpracticalexplorationofTBLT.ThecommunicativelanguageteachingbasedonEnglishasasecondlanguageanditemphasisesnot“learningforcommunication”but“learningthroughcommunication”and“learningEnglishthroughactingandspeaking”.N.S.Prabhu(1983)proposestheconceptofTBLTfromthepointofviewofteaching,andheintendstomakelearnersuselanguagefulfillthetaskandlearnEnglishinthisway.13 TBLTisadevelopingmodeofcommunicativelanguageteaching,anditisbasedonLanguageLearningTheory,SecondLanguageTheory,LearningTheoryandTeachingTheory.TBLTemphasisescommunicativeactivities,inwhichlearnersuseandmasterlanguage.TBLTisalanguageteachingapproachwhichisbasedontaskortask-based.Accordingtotheapproach,designinglanguageteachingsyllabusandcompilingalanguagetextbookarenotlistedinsomeorderorintroducelanguageitemsbutdesigntasks.Inthespecificlanguageteaching,learnersdon’tlearnlanguageitems,whiletheyfulfillkindsofcommunicativetasks.“CurriculumStandardReading”pointsoutthatlearningtasksinTBLTisbasedoncommunicativepurposesindailylife,andlearnersmakeplansaccordingtotasks.Learnersexecutetheplanandfulfillthetasks,andlearnersassesstheirownlearningintheprocessoffulfillingthetask.TBLTregardspecifictasksaslearningmotivation,regardtheprocessoffulfillingthetaskaslearningprocessandshowingtaskachievementreflectteachingachievement.TherearenovisibledifferencebetweenTBLTandSituationalTeachingApproach,buttheiressencesaredifferent.Intraditionalsituatinalgrammarteaching,learnerswilltouchasituationaldialogueorroleplayandthensub-dialogueroleofreading,recordorrepeatthedialogueormakeadialogueaccordingtohypotheticalsituations.Thepurposeoftheactivityistomakelearnersknowthecontentofthedialoguewellandexercisethekeygrammaticalstructure.Inmanycases,thedialogueslikethisareuntrueandlearnerscannotfindaself-playingplatformfit14 themselves.WhileinTBLTthepurposeoflearnersmakingadialogueisnotadialogue,thepurposeistocompletesometask.Adialogueisjustaprocessandmeans.Intheprocessoflearners’dialoguetheyfocusontheircommunicationnottheirlanguageorlinguisticform.Bothsidesnegotiatemeaning,communicateanddiscussinordertoreachacommongoal.Inthisactivity,learnersuselanguagewithoutlimitandtheydonotoverlyconcerncorrectnessandaccuracy.Tosummarize,TBLTmakelearnerslearnanduselanguageduringtheprocessofperformingthetask.Inthisway,TBLTcombineslanguagelearningandlanguagelinguisticperformanceverywell.Nunan(1991)summarizesthefollowingcharacteristicsofTBLT:Itemphasizesoninteractioninlearningprocess;itintroducesrealtextsintothelearningsituation;itprovideslearnerswithopportunitiestofocus,notonlyonlanguage,butalsofocusonthelearningprocessitself;itisanenhancementofthestudents’ownexperiencesasimportantcontributingfactorstoclassroomlearning;itattemptstocombinelanguagelearninginclassroomwithlanguageactivityoutoftheclassroom.2.1.3ModelsofTBLTLinguistshavetheirownunderstandingofmodelsofTBLT,thisthesiswillintroducethemostinfluentialandimportantones.ModelsofWillis(1996),Skehan(1998)andEllis(2003)willbeinroducedasfollows.Table2.1Willis’ModelforTask-basedInstruction(1996)Pre-taskTask-cycleLanguagefocusIntroductionoftopicandTask,planing,reportAnalysis,practicetask15 Inpre-taskteachersintroducetasksandexplainthetopic,thenlearnerstakepartinpre-taskactivitiesinordertohelplearnersrecalltheassociatedwords,phrasesandgrammaticalstructure.Intaskcyclelearnersexecutetasks,learnersarereadytoreportthecompletionofthetasktotheclass,intheendtheyreporttheirconclusioninverbalorwrittenforms.Inlanguagefocus,theteacheranalysislanguageandlearnersexerciselanguagedifficultieswiththehelpofteacherinordertohighlightlanguageforms.Taskcycleisthemostimportantpartofthreestagesandpreparingactivitiesandactivatinglanguageareessentialinpre-task.Pre-taskwoulddeterminethatthetaskwouldgowellornot.Skehan(1998)putsforwardhisownframeworkofTBLTbasedoninformation-processingtheory.Table2.2Skehan’sModelforTask-basedInstruction(1998)StagesGoalsExamplesPre-taskTointroducelanguageTeaching(e.g.introducingTomobilizelanguagenewlanguage);ToreducecognitiveloadConsciousness-raisingDuring-taskManipulationattentionTimepressureTaskmodalityTeachersupportExtendedtaskprocedureReportpreparationPost-taskAlteringattentionbalancePublicshowReflectionandconsolidationsAnalysisConsciousnessraisingFromtable2.2,wecandrawaconclusionthatSkehan’smodelhasitstheoreticaltheoriesandempiricalresearches.Themodelismoreconvicingfromeveryaspect.TheEllis’s(2003)modelofTBLThassomesimilaritieswiththeabovetwo16 models.Italsohasthreestages.During-taskisthemostessentialinTBLTandthepre-taskandpost-taskdeveloplanguagesystemefficiently.Table2.3Ellis’sModelforTask-basedInstruction(2003)StagesPre-taskDuring-taskPost-taskExamplesdesigntheactivityTimepressureLearnerreportPlanascheduleAttendantpeopleConsciousness-raisingDoingsimilartasksRepeat-taskInpre-task,studentsandteachersprepareforperformingthetask.Theyhaveaframeworkofthettask,atimeplaninganddosomecomparabletasks.During-taskistheessentialpartofTBLT,itaimsatstudents.theteacherneedmanywaystoattractstudents’attentionontasks.Atthelaststage,studentsneedlearnsomegrammaticalrulesthatishelpfultopromotecommuniation.2.2TheoreticalFoundationofTBLTEverylanguageteachingapproachhasitsowntheoreticalbasis,thedevelopmentofTBLTisaresultofexperienceandresearch.ThefollowingfourtheoriescanhelpusjustifytherationalityofTBLT,inotherwordstheyansweranessentialquestion“whyisataskbeneficialtolearningalanguage?”.2.2.1InteractionTheoryOneoftheadvocatesofTBLT,MichealLong,heproposesinteractiontheory.Thetheoryholdsthateveryonemayencounterdifficultiesinainteraction.Eachsideneedshavenegotiationofmeaninginordertoovercomedifficulties.Learnerscanobtainlargenumberofcomprehensibleinputsintheprocessofnegotiationof17 meaning,whichisbeneficialforlearninglanguage,thatistosaylearnersexpressmeaningandsendinformationbynegotiationsforexampleasking,confirming,repeatingetc.Alearneradjustshisspeechoutputaftergettingothers’feedback,andsuchbehaviorisinfavoriflearninglanguage.Learnerscanreadjusttheirexistinglinguisticknowledgeandlinguisticskillstocorrecttheiroriginalknowledgesystem.Furthermore,interactiontheoryhasanewviewpointthatalthoughlearnerspaymuchattentiontolinguisticmeaningnotlinguisticformsintheprocessofnegotiation,theyalsoconcernlinguisticformswhenothersuselanguagetospeak.Fromthisperspective,negotiationofmeaningisbeneficialtolearninglanguage.InteractiontheorycausesapublicconcernsofresearchersinSecondLanguageAcquisition(SLA).WhatistherelationbetweeninteractiontheoryandTBLT?Thecoreideaofinteractiontheoryisnegotiationofmeaning.What’slanguagelearningactivitiesinfavorofnegotiationofmeaning.Thenegotiationininteractiontheoryisthenegotiationintheprocessofexpressingmeaningandpassinginformation,andthemainpurposeofinteractiveprocessisnegotiationofmeaning.Infact,indailylife,inlanguageteachingclasstherearenotonlynegotiationofmeaningactivitiesbutalsoothertypesofinteraction,sointeractiontheoryexplainsTBLTfromtheperspectivesofmeaningnegotiation.2.2.2SocialandCulturalTheoryInSLT,socialandculturaltheoryisoneofthemostimportanttheoriesthatexplainSLT.Theadvocateofsocio-culturaltheoryLantolf(2000)holdsthatwhen18 learnersnegotiateininteraction,theyconstructmeaningtogether.Interactionisalsothecoreofsocio-culturaltheory,butitisdifferentfromtheinteractionthatLongstatesfromperspectivefrompsychologyandcognition,socio-culturaltheoryresearchinteractionfromtheperspectiveofsocietyandculture.Intheinteractionthatsocio-culturaltheoryemphasize,learnersparticipateintaskstogether,helpandsupporteachotherandconstructmeaningtogether.Inthisprocess,learnerscanobtainlanguagestructureandgrammarthattheyhavenotmasteredfromothers.Inthecourseoffinishingthetasklearnerscanhelpeachotherachievingtheiraims.Therearekindsofhelp,excepthelpofspeech,theycandiscusshowtosimplifysomelinksoftask,howtocontrolthetendencyoftaskandhowtoreachtheirgoals,forexample,onelearnershowanothersomelinkandtheyencourageandsupporteachother.Inaddition,learnerscanobtaininspirationbycommunicatingandhelpingeachother,thentheycandeveloptheirownthinking.2.2.3CognitiveTheoryCognitivetheoryisoneofTBLTtheories.Cognitivetheorystudiesthepsychologicalprocessoflearnersintheprocessoffinishingthetaskfromtheperspectivesofcognition.Skehan(1998)holdsthatresearchinglanguageteachingfromtheperspectiveofcognition,heproposesthreequestions,first,howdolearnersdistributeandusetheirattention.Second,whatarerelationsamongtypes,characteristicsandtaskperformance.Third,howdotheenvironmentandconditioninfluencetaskperformance?19 Cognitivetheoryholdsthatlearnersconcernlinguisticforminthetraditionallanguagelearningactivities,sopayingallattentionsonlinguisticformsgoagainstthedevelopmentoflanguagecompetence.WhileintheTBLTactivitiesonlylearnersfullyunderstandlanguageandpayattentiontolanguageexpression,theywouldcompletethetask.Thisrequireslearnersdistributetheirattentiontoaccuracy,fluency,appropriateness,selectionandapplicationofgrammar.Socognitivetheoryholdsthatteachersneedtoavoidlearnerspayingtheirattentiontolanguageformsbydesigningmoredifficulttasks.Moredifficulttasksrequirelearners’moreattention,sotheywouldpaylessattentiontolanguageforms.Butbasedonactualdemands,whenteachersdemandlearnerspayattentiontotheaccuracyoflanguageexpressionandlanguageforms,teacherscandesignsomeeasytaskforthem.purposefuldifferentdifficultiesanddifferenttypestasksarehelpfultobalancesocialdevelopmentoflearners’languageability.2.2.4ConstructivismTheoryAnothertheoreticalbasisofTBLTisconstructivismtheory,whichconcernsknowledgeandlearning.Constructivismtheoryisonthebasisofpsychology,philosophyandanthropologyandthetheoryholdsthatknowledgeistemporary,developingandnotobjective.Knowledgeneedsbeconstructedbylearnersandbeinfluencedbysocialculture.Constructivismtheoryholdsthatknowledgeisconstructedbyoneselfanditisnotinitiatedbyothers.Thecognitionofpeopleisdevelopingwithexperienceandthe20 cognitionisreconstructed.Accumulationofknowledgeisacontinuousmentalprocess,anditisaprocessoflearners’experience,inventionandcreation.ThiskindofvaluableexperiencecanberealizedintherealtaskinTBLT.Thenatureandrealistictaskscanactivatetheirknowledgesystem,andaccomplishinggoalsandproblemsthatneedtobesolvedcanstimulatelearners’desirefornewknowledgeandnewinformation.Learnersfinishreconstructingtheirownknowledgebytakingpartinactivitiesandperformingatask,whilelearnersrealizethemeaningofactivitiesanddeeplyfeelthesuccessoflearning,theywillhavepowertolearnactively,thentheirlanguagelearningcanbeinternalized.Constructivismmaintainsthatlearnersconstructknowledgebyinteractionandcollaborationandlearninginisolationandmemorizingadversetodevelopmentofknowledgecapacity.Onlythroughcooperationandinteractionkindsofinternalfactorswouldbeactivated.Underthedirectionofconstructivismteachingshouldprovideopportunitiestolearners.Insuchaenvironment,learnersseekknowledge,raiseaquestion,reconstructtheirknowledgesystemandreflectbytakingpartinactivities.TBLThasacharacteristicofinteractionandcommunication,whichsatisfythedemandofconstructivism.2.3EnglishGrammarandGrammarTeachingGrammarteachingisthemostfrequentactivityinEnglishtaeching,andisalsothemostimportantpartinstudents’learning.It’stheefficientwaytoenhancelanguage21 competence.2.3.1TheDefinitionofGrammarLinguistshavedifferentexplanationsanddefinitionsofgrammaticalconcepts.IntheEnglishteachingandlearningfield,differentteachingandlearningmethodsreflectkindsofunderstandingsofthedefinitionofgrammar.Differentdefinitionsofgrammarinfluencethedevelopmentofgrammarteachingmethodsandlearningmethods.Astothedefinitionofgrammar,Lyons(1975)holdstraditionalopinionthatgrammarisakindoflinguisticdescriptionthatexplainshowwordsarearrangedintoasentence.Inthedefinition,grammarisastaticmode,soteachingonlyemphasizeslinguisticforms.Learnersonlyunderstandgrammaticalknowledgeandtheycanmakeapropersentence,thentheyachieveteachingaims.SmithandWilson(1979)considerthatlinguisticrulesintegratewitheachotherandtheyconstituteagrammaticalsystem,whichgivesadetaileddescriptionofallsentencesofthelanguage.Widdowson(1999)holdsthatgrammarisagenerictermsofvocabularyrulesandgrammaticalrulesforgeneratingsentences.LongmanDictionaryofAppliedLinguisticsdefinesgrammarthatgrammarisadescriptionofmethodsforlanguagestructure,words,phrases.Someotherlanguageunitsconstitutingsentencesandgrammarincludemeaningandfunctionsofthosesentences.Insuchadefinition,grammarisnotastaticrulesbutitownsdynamic22 functions.Languageexistsasamediumforcommunicationanditisnotjustaknowledgesystemandrules,solanguagelearningnotonlyrequireslearnersmastertheformoflanguagebutalsopaysattentiontothemeaningsandfunctionsoflanguage.IntheEnglishclasstherearenotonlytheteacher’sexplanationofrulesbutalsolearners’actualcommunicativeactivities.Suchaclassreflectscommunicativefunctionsofgrammarandrealizesultimateaimsoflanguagelearning.GeorgeYule(2002)considersthatgrammarcanbeconsideredasaconstructsystemandthedifferencesofgrammaticalformscanbeexplainedbydifferencesofmeaningsandcontext.Whenausermastersasetofsystematicgrammar,meanings,formsandusagecannotconsideredasindivisiblethreeaspects.Grammarisacombinationofforms,meaningsandusage.Larsen-Freeman(2005)proposestheconceptofgrammaringandholdsthatgrammarincludesthreeaspects:syntax,semanticsandpragmatics.Thesethreeaspectdependoneachother,andoneaspectchangingresultsinotherschanging.Inotherwords,grammarteachingreliesonpragmaticteaching.Fromtheabovedefinition,wecanknowthedevelopmentofawarenessoflanguagenature,asatoolfordailycommunication,asacarrierfortransmittingsocialinformationandculture,itisnotjustsocialphenomenonbutsocialbehavior.Grammarhavebothstaticaspectsanddynamicaspects.Grammarisacombinationofforms,usageandmeanings,sointhegrammarteachingactivitieswemustlayemphasesonformsandfunctionoflanguage.23 2.3.2TheTraditionalGrammarTeachingMethodsInthecourseofEnglishteaching,educationalworkersandresearcherssummarizekindsofgrammarteachingmethods,forexampleinduction,deduction,activitiesintasks,oralteachingmethodanddictationetc.WhileintheactualEnglishclass,therearetwomaintaechingmethods:inductionanddeduction.Differentgrammarteachingmethodshavetheirownadvantagesanddisadvantages.Nowadays,TBLThasbecomethefocusofwidediscussion.Aneffectivemethodcanbeconsideredasateachingmethodthatcombineslangugaeknowledgeteachingwithlangugaeskillsdeveloping,onlyinthemeaningfulactivitiescanlearnersmasterlangugaeforms,meaningandfunctions.LearnersowntheabilityofcomminicatinginEnglishbyusingthelangugae.2.3.2.1DeductiveapproachDeductiveaproachisoneofthemosttwocommonteachingmethods.Theteacher’sexplainationisthecharacteristicofdeduction.Firstly,theteacherdisplaythegrammarrules,thenhegivesexamplesforexplainingtheusage.Ur(2000)pointsoutthatwhenateacheradoptsdeductiveapproach,hegivesgrammaticalrulesatfirstandthenlearnersdothelanguageexerciseonthebasisofmasteringtherules.Sometimesateacheradoptsarrribution,analysisandcomparisonetc,whenheusesdeductiveapproach.theteachermaycomparemotherlangugaewiththesecondlangugaeorcomparethenewgrammaticalruleswiththewhatlearnershavelearned,learnersmakecorrectsentenceswithnewrules.Traditionalgrammartechingadoptsdeductiontopresentgrammaticalstructure,thisistosaytheteacherexplaingrammaticalrules,24 telllearnersgrammaticalforms,explainthemeaningsofthegrammaticalformsandmakecrectesentencesaccordingtothenewgrammar.Inthelong-termteachingpractice,theshorcomingsofdedcutiveapproacharelistedasfellows:itshowgrammarinadividedandindependentway,paylessattentiontosemanticandexerciseinamechanizedway.Whiledeductiveapproachhasitsownadvantages,itcansavetime.Whenalearnerencounteradifficuityorgetconfused,thisapproachcancontributetoemphasizetheaccuracy,inaddition,thiswaycanincreaselearners’confidenceinexaminationthatemphasizesaccuracy.2.3.2.2InductiveapproachInductiveapproachisadiscoverableactivity.Firstly,theteacherprovideslearnerslearningmaterialsthatcontaingrammaticalitemsinlisteningformsorinreadingforms,thentheteacherputsforwardlearningreqiurements,whichlearnersbasedontoanalysislanguagematerialsandsummarizelangugerules.Ininductiveapproachtheteachergivessufficientexamplesordemonstrationandheletslearnersfindrulesbythemselves,therearenotobviousinteratation.Ur(2000)proposesthatteachersshouldprovidewaysforlearnersfindinggrammaticalrules,whentheyadoptinductiveapproach.Ingrammarteaching,newpedagogyadvocatesusinginductiveapproach,inotherwordsgrammaticalrulesarepresentedincontext(contexcanbecreatedorthetexts),andlearnersinductgrammaticalrulesthentheteachersummarizesandsupplements.Bycontrast,theinductiveapproachcanincreaselearners’contactswiththe25 langugeanditishelpfultodeveloplearners’senseoflanguage.Analysing,inductingandsummarizinggrmmaricalrulescandeepenlearner’understandingoflanguagewhileavoidingdisadvantagesoftraditionalcrammingmethodsofteaching.2.3.2.3LecturingmethodInconventionalteaching,thegrammarsaredispersedintheprocessofteachingandlistening,readingandwritingproceedsimutaneously.However,someteachersputforwardappropriateconcentrationthatdothegrammarteachingbeforetextteaching.ThisaproachhasbeenpopularforalongperiodandithasagreatinfluenceonEnglishteaching.Theabovecommonteachingmethodshavetheirownshortcomingsandnomethodsareabsolutelyrightandexlusive.Teachersonlyfollowthegrammarteachingprinciplesinactualgrammarteaching,theycanreceivegoodresults.Grammarteachingshouldfollowthegrammaticalsysteminthetextbookandtheselectionofgrammarmustaccordwithactualdemands.Teachersdotheirbesttocreatlanguageenvironmentinthepracticeofslides,movement,pictures,performanceandelectricalequipmentstocreatrealcommunicativeactivity,letinglearnersrecognise,understandandlearnlanguagetodeveloptheirgrammaticalskills.Teachersshouldpayattentiontothecombinationofinductionanddeduction,developgrammarteachingintheactivitiesnoflistening,speaking,readingandwritingandmakegrammarsserveactuallife.Grammarteachingshouldstimulatetheirlearningmotivationtoattractleaners’attentions.Atlast,teachersshouldnoticethevariabilitiesthatincludethevariatyofactivities,topics,classroommanagementandteachers’directivesect.26 2.4PreviousStudiesonApplicationofTBLTTask-basedlanguageteachinghasbeenappliedintomanyfieldsabroadandinChinabymanyresearchersandscholars.2.4.1PreviousStudiesAbroadTheresearchofTBLThasbeenmorethantwentyyears,inthe1980s,N.S.PrabhuputforwardtheconceptofTBLTandthebasicmeaningisthatlearnerslearnlanguagethroughcompletingthetaskwiththelanguage.Heconsidersthatlanguagelearningfocusonnotnolylinguisticformsbutalsolanguagemeaningandlearningprocess.Onthedivisionoftasks,heclassifiesthreectegoriesoflearningtasks:information-gapactivity,leanerstransportinformationandexchangeinformationwithtargetlanguage;inferenceactivities,learnersinference,summarizeanddeductthroughmakinguseoftheirknownandlimitedinformationtoobtaintherequiredinformation;opinionsactivties,learnersexpresstheirownfellings,interestsandattitudesaboutsomesceneortopics.Inactualteachinghedividestaskteachingintotwostageswhichincludespre-taskandtask.Inpre-task,theteachersetaexampleorexplainthetaskthatlearnerswillcomplete.Intasksection,theyshouldcompletethetaskbyhimselvesoraskforhelpofotherlearnersortheteacher.LinguistsDavidNunan,JaneWillisandPeterSkehanresearchTBLTfromdifferentdimensons.In1989,NunanproposeddesigningmodeofcommunicativetasksinDesigningTasksfortheCommunicativeClassroom.Inhisresearchtheframeofcommunicativetasksincludesgoals,input,activities,teacherroles,learnerroles27 andsituationetc.Thegoaloftaskindicatesalearner’sachievmentinatask.Therearefourtypesofgoals:communiativegoals,socialandculturalgoals,learninggoalsandgoalsoflanguageandculturalawareness.Inputprovidesmaterialsthatisneededincompletingthetaskandthematerialscanbeletters,newspapers,picturestoriesandshoppinglist.Theactivitydemandslearnerscommunicateaccordingtotaskgoalsandthematerialsprovided.Rolesrefertotherolesthatteachersandleanerspalyinataskandtheirsocialrelatives.Situationrefertoclassroomdesignwhichconfirmtothesituationorthetaskrequire.In1996,Willisproposedthreemodesoforganizingtaskteaching:pre-task,task-cycleandlanguagefocusinthebookAFramewokforTaskBasedTeaching.Inpre-task,theteacherintroducethetaskandexplainthetopicandlearnerstakepartinpre-taskactivitiesinordertohelplearnersrecallthehelpfulwords,phrasesandgrammaticalstructures.Intask-cycle,learnersperformatask,preparetoreportinclassandreporttheresultsinwrittenorspokenstyles.Inlanguagefocus,theteacheranalysislanguageandlearnersexercisedifficultpointsinordertohighlightthelanguageforms.Skenhan(1996)clarifiestheframeworkfortask-basedlearnningofWillis,whilehealsoproposesthedisadvantagesoftheframework.TheframeworkisshortofsufficienttheoreticalbasisandSecondLanguageAquisition,rolesconcern,procedureofaquisitionandinformationprocessingtheoryarenotembodiedinTBLT.Thetheoryisshortofpracticeoritisaverificationofothertheories.Heproposedfivecharacteristicsoftaskbasedonothers’research,meaningisprincipalanditshouldbe28 concernedatfirst;somecommunicativeproblemmustbesolvedintask;thetaskhassimilaritieswiththecommunicativeactivitiesinreallife;thecompletionoftaskisultimatepurpose;thevalueofperformingthetaskshouldbevaluedbytheresults.TheseresearchesdeepentheconnotationofTBLT,enrichTBLTandlearningtheories,involveeveryaspectoftaskandmakeTBLTcontinuetomature.2.4.2PreviousStudiesatHomeTBLTisatprimarystageinChina.EnglishCurriculumStandardputsforwardthepropositionofadvocatingTBLT.Beforethat,WuXudong,professorWUputfoewardtheprincipleofdifficultymeasurein1997,thenhestudieddegreesofdifficultiesandconditionsoftasksystematicallyin1998.In1998,XiaJimeiandKongXianhuianalyzedandintroducedthetheoryofTBLT.TheyconsideredthattheessenceofTBLTisrealizationoflanguageteachingandsocializationofclass.Learnerscanexperiencehowtosolveproblemsbyusinglanguage.Languageteachingcannotonlydependonlanguageexerciseoratextbook.Theyconsiderthatlanguageteachingisnotjustlanguageexercisebutamoreextensiveteachingmethod.Theaimoflanguageteachingisthedevelopmentofworkongabilityratherthanlearninglanguage.In2001,theEnglishCurriculumStandardputforwardtheideaifTBLT,thustheresearchofTBLThadbecomewidely.InTask-basedTeachingTheoryBasisandPracticeinClassLiaoXiaoqingintroducestheoreticalbasis,definitionoftask,structureoftaskandteachingstepsofTBLT.LuoShaoqianproposessixprojectsof29 behaviorevaluation:definiteandclearteachingaimsthatconformtheevaluationoftaskwithaimsofteaching;definiteandclearlearningcontentandskills,makesurethetaskincludeallthecontentandskills;taskdesigningshouldbereasonableandmoderatelydifficult,tomakesurelearnerscangetnewharvest;makesurewhattypesoftask;ensureappraisabletasks.DingWenproposessevenkindsoftask:jigsawtasks,informationtasks,comparingtasks,opinion-exchangetasks,problem-solvingtasks,decisionmakingtasksandcreativetasks.Onthewhole,incountrythestudyofTBLTisatintroductionandimitationstage,butweexploreallthetime.AlthoughTBLTcanovercomethedeficienciesoftroditionalgrammarteaching,comparingwiththeTBLTapplicationofreading,writing,vocabulary,theapplicationofgrammarisrare.WehavenottheflexibilityintheuseofTBLT.ThebasicrasonisthatTBLTadvocatescomprehensiveabilitiesinusingEnglish,whilethegrammar-translationmethodthathasinluencedourcountryforalongtimedon’temphasizecommunicativeabilities.So,asuccesfulapplicationofTBLTingrammarteachingneedconceptualchangesandincreasinglymatureinteachingmethodsandskills.30 Chapter3MethodologyInordertocheckwhethertheinstructionofTBLTcanimprovestudents’Englishgrammaticallevel,theresearcherconductedanexperimentalstudyinFuxinExperimentalHighSchool.Inordertogetafinalconclusion,thedatacollection,analysisandcomparisonwereuseddirectly.3.1ResearchQuestionsThisthesisstudiesseniorhighschoolstudents’Englishgrammarlearningbasedontask-bsaedlangugaeteaching.Andthestudyattemptstoanswertwospecificquestionstohelptheteacherapplyhermethodologyintoclassbetterandfinallygetaconclusion.1.What’stheeffectivenessofTask-basedLanguageTeachingingrammarteachinginseniorhighschool?2.WhataretheattitudesofstudentstowardsTask-basedLanguageTeachinginseniorhighschool?3.2SubjectsThesubjectsare100studentsfromFuXinSiniorHighSchoolandtwoEnglishteachersofGrade2.Twoclsseswerechosen,oneastheexperimentalclass,theotheroneasthecontrolclass.TheresearchisabouttheapplicationofTBLTingrammarrteachinginhighschool.WhetherfromthepiontofadvancementofTBLTinNew31 CurriculumStandardorfromthepiontofwidepublicconcernsofTBLT,theresearcherconsidersthattheteachersandstudentsingeneralhighschoolaremorerepresentative.3.3ResearchInstrumentsTheresearchadoptedquestionnaire,languageteastsandinterviewsastheresearchinstruments.Thereweretwoquestionnairesandtwotestsbeforeandafterteahingtreatment.Thequestionsofthetwotestswereselectedfromcollageentranceexamiantions.3.3.1QuestionnaireInordertofindoutwhetherTask-basedLanguageTeachinghaseffectsonEnglishgrammarlearning,theresearcherdesignedtwoquestionnairesabouttheabovecontents.QuestionnaireAwasgiventothestudentsofbothclassesbeforetheteachingtreatmentandquestionnaireBwasgiventothestudentsinexperimentalclassaftertheteachingtreatment.Thetwopre-questionnairesallcontain12questions.QuestionnaireAistolearnaboutstudents’situationofEnglishgrammarlearning,whileQuestionnaireBistoknowaboutstudents’learningmotivationandaffectiveattitudetowardsTBLTongrammarlearning.TheyarepresentedinAppendixAandAppendixBrespectively.AfteranalyzingtheresultsofQuestionnaireA,theauthorgainedsomeinformationofstudents’habitsanddifficultiesoflearninggrammar.QuestionnaireA(seeAppendixA)included12questions,amongwhichtherewere12uncertainitemsselection.1-3questionsaredesignedtoundertandlearners’32 perception,perspectivesandacceptabilityofEnglishlearning.4-5questionsaredesignedtolearnaboutstudents’attitidestowardsgrammarlearning.6-7questionsinvolvestudents’atitudestowardsthepresentgrammarteachingmethod.8-10questionsindicatethelearninghabitsofEnglishgrammar.11-12questionsaredesignedtolearnabouttheirdegreeofsatisfactionoftheirEnglishscoresandtheiratitudestowardscombinationofgrammarlearningandactuallife.Thereare12questionsinquestionnaireB(seeAppendixB).1-2questionsfocusedonstudents’atitudestowardstheapplicationofTBLTingrammarteaching.ThethirdquestionindicatestheeffectofTBLTinEnglishlearning.3-10questionsconcentrateonthelevelofacceptanceandteachingeffectivenessofTBLTandtoidentifytheproblemsthatneedtobefixed.ThelasttwoquestionspayattentiontotheeffectofTBLTfromdifferentpiontsofview.3.3.2ExperiemntTwotestswereconducted.Eachtestcontains50single-choicequestionsaboutthetargetgrammarandthetotalscoreis100points.Questionsinthetestswereselectedfromcollageentranceexaminationinsomeprovinces.TheThegradingofthetwotestswasprovidedbytwoexperiencedEnglishteachersintheschool.Thescoresofthetwotestswerecollectedandanalysized.3.3.2.1Pre-testAtthebeginningofnewterm,allthestudentsinexperimentalclassandcontrolclasstookpartintheexamwhichwasdesignedtosurveythestudents’Englishlevel.33 ThetestcontainedgrammaticalpiontsthatwerewithinlinthecurriculumforSeniorGrade2,suchasinfinitive,inversion,subordinateclause,passivevoice,comparativeconstruction.Allthequestionswerechosenfromcollegeentranceexamination.Thetestaimedtolearnaboutstudents’EnglishlevelandwhethertherewasdifferenceofEnglishproficiencybetweenthetwoclasses.3.3.2.2Post-testBoththecontrolclassandexperientalcalssreceivedasignificanttestongrammar.Thedataincludedresultsanalysisofcontrolclassandexperimentalclassinpre-testandresultsanslysisofthetwoclassinpost-test.Thestatisticaltoolisspss19.0andtheresultsoftestsrepresentedtherelationshipofthevariabalsbyt-value.Experiementalresultscamefromresultandanalysisbystatisticaltool.Becauseofthenumberofstudents,theresearcheradoptedt-testtoillustratewhethertherewasasignificantdifferencebetweenthetwoclasses,andthenthepost-testwascomparedwiththepre-testtoillustrateiftherewasapromotionofscoresornot.3.3.3InterviewTheinterviewwasemployedinordertolearnaboutstudents’attitudestowardsTBLT,learninghabitsofEnglishgrammarandtheirinterstsofgrammarlearningandsoon,meanwhiletheresearcheralsoneedtoknowsomeproblemsandsuggestionsintheprocessofimplementingTBLT.Theinterviewwascarriedinarelaxedatmosohere,sostudentscouldshowtheirrealatitudes.Theinterviewincludesfivequestionsforstudents.Theinterviewcangivefurtherinformationoftheactualsituationofthe34 applicationofTBLT.TheintervieweeswererandomlyselectedfromtheexperimentalclassinwhichTBLTwasapplied.Fivestudentswereselected.Eachinterviewlasts10to15minutes.Alltheinterviewswererecorded.Thefivequestionsincludes:(1)WhatareyourdifficultiesinyourEnglishgrammarlearning?(2)WhichteachingmethodismoresuitableforyouinyourEnglishgrammarlearning,traditionalteachingmethodorTBLT?Givemeyourreasons.(3)DoyouhaveanyprogressinyourgrammarleaningaftertheapplicationofTBLTinthissemester?(4)CanyouaccepttheapplicationofTBLTingrammarlearning?(5)DoyouhaveanysuggestionsforTBLTclass?TheinterviewwereconductedinChinese,sostudentscouldfullyexpresstheiropinions.ThentheresearchertranslatedtheirrepliesintoEnglish.3.4TeachingProcedureTBLTwasappliedintheexperimentalclassandtraditionalinductiveteachingmethodwasappliedinthecontrolclass.Teachingtime,teachingcontents,teachingprogressandsoonwereconsitentwitheachotherbasicallyinthetwoclasses.Theexperimentalclasswasdividedintosixgroups,andtherewereonetothreestudenstwithhighmarksineachgroupinpre-test.Everyoneintheirowngroupcouldcooperate,communicateanddiscusswitheachotheractively.Theresearchinvolvesfivephases.Atthefirstphase,InSeptember,2014,thestudentsintwoclassestookpartinthe35 pre-testtotesttheirlevelofEnglishgrammar.Thetestisaccordedwiththeircurrentlearningability.Andtheresultsshowednogreatdifferencebetweenthetwoclasses,andthenClass3waschosenastheexperimentclass(EC)andClass4thecontrolclass(CC)randomly.Atthesecondphase,ThestudentsofbothclassesweregivenquestionnaireA.ThemostimportantfunctionofquestionnaireistolearnaboutthecuttentlearninghabitsandtheirattitudestowardsEnglishgrammarlearning.ThedatacouldhelptheresearcherapplyTBLTappropriatelyintoEnglishgrammarteaching.Andthesedatawerestoredforthefinaluse.Atthethirdphase,TheresearcherappliedTBLTinEnglishgrammarteachingandstudentsreceivedtheTBLTtrainingintheexperimentalclass,whilethetraditionalgrammarteachingmethodwasappliedincontrolclass.Inthefollowingthreemonths,theteacherdesignedhertask-basedclassaccordingtothemodelsofEllis.Meanwhile,theteacheralsopaidmoreattentiontostudents’attitudesandwaysofthinkingintheirdailyEnglishgrammarclass.Atthefouthphase,theexperimentalclassweregivenquestionnaireBbecausetheyreceivedspecialteachinginstructionandthequestionnairecouldhelptheresearcherlearnabouttheirchangesofattitudesandtheeffectivenessofTBLT.What’smore,theresultsofQuestionnaireBintheexperimentalclasswerecollected.Atthelastphase,thestudentsinthetwoclassestookpartinthepost-test.Thetestpapersweremarkedbytheresearcheranonymously,andthescoreswereanalyzedwiththehelpofSPSS19.0,andthemostimportantthingwastocomparetheresults36 ofthepost-testofthetwoclasses,especiallythescoresofthepost-testinexperimentalclasswerealsocomparedwiththatinpre-test.TheresearchertookModule1inStudent’sBook7foranexample.Thelanguagefocuswaspassivevoice.ThetopicwasEurope.TheprocedureofTBLTtrainingintheexperimentalclasswasshownasfollows:Step1,inpre-task,theteacherintroducedthetopicEuropeandletstudentscompletethetablewiththewordsinthefollowingbox.Instep1,studentswouldbefamiliarwiththewordsthatarerelatedwiththetopicandthericonciousnesswouldbearoused.Table3.1WordsListAthensEnglishFranceFrenchGreeceGreekItalianItalyLisbonLondonMadridParisPortugalportugueseRomeSpainSpanishUnitedKigdomTable3.2ClassificationfortheabovewordsCountryCapitalLanguageStep2,duringthetask,thewholeclasscouldbedividedinto6groupsandstudentsineachgroupcompletedthetasktogether.Firstly,TeachergaveapicturewhichcontaineddifferetcountriesandinformationaboutEuropetoeachgroup.Secondly,StudentswererequiredtocompletetheblankinthePPTwiththe37 informationtheyhadgotfromtheirpicturesbycommunicating.Duringtheactivity,studentswouldusethefollowingsentensencepatterns:...bevisitedby...,...wasdesignedby...,...wereproducedby...,...isknownas...,...wasbuilt...Andtheycoulddicussoraskquestionstoeachothertocompletethetasktogether.Thelimitationoftimewas10minutes.Step3,inpost-task,everygroupselectoneortwostudentsrogivethewholeclassareportwhichtheyhadpreparedtogether.Then,studentswereaskedtowritedowntheirsentencesontheblackboardandtheteachershowedthekeystructureofthesesentenceswhichhadbeenpresentedintask-cycle.Theteachergaveasummaryoftoday’sgrammaticalrulesandkeywords.Lastly,studentsdidsomeappropriateexercisetoconsolidatetheknowledgetheyhadrequiredduringthetask.Insum,inthewholeexperiment,theteacherattemptedtostrengthenthestudents’awarenessoftasksandsheremindedthatcommunication,cooperationanddiscussionwereimportantingrammarlearning.Duringthefollowingweeks,studentslearntgrammarbasedonthemodeofpre-task,task-cycleandpos-task.Duringclasses,studentsencounteredwithmanyspecialproblemsofcommunicationwhichalsohelpedthemdeepentheirunderstandingofTBLTaswellasthespiritofcooperation.Onthecontrary,theteacheradopteddeductiveteachingapproachingrammarteachingincontrolclass.Theteacher’sexplainationisthemiancharacteristicofdeduction.Firstly,theteacherdisplayedthegrammarrules,thenshegavesomeexamples.Whenateacheradopteddeductiveapproach,shegavegrammaticalrulesatfirstandthenlearnersdidsomeexerciseonthebasesofmasteringtherules.Takethe38 pastperfectpassiveasanexample,firstly,theteachershowedthegrammarticalrulesandthengavesomesentencesaccordingtotherules,forexample“Thesurvivorsoftheearthquakeweretheoneswhostayed(stay)inthevillageuntiltheearthquakehadfinished(finish).”Secondly,theteachercomparedmotherlanguagewithEnglishandcomparedthenewgrammaticalruleswithwhatlearnershadlearned,andthenstudentsmakecorrectsentenceswiththenewgrammaticalrules.Theteacherexplainedgrammaticalrules,andthenexplainedthemeaningsofgrammaticalformsandmadecorrespondingsentencesaccordingtothegrammaticalrules.Forexample,theteachercompared“haddone”with“havedone”,whichstudentshavelearnedbefore.Theteacherincontrolclasspaidmoreattentiontothegrammaticalformsandpaidlessattentiontosemanticmeanings.Thesituationleadtothatgrammartechingwasinadividedandindependentway.However,thisapproachcouldsavetime.Whenaleanerencounteredadifficultiyorgetconfused,theapproachcouldemphasizetheaccuracy,inaddition,thisapproachcouldincreaselearners’confidenceinexaminationsthatemphasizedaccuracy.3.5DataCollectionandAnalysisTheresearchertriedherbesttocollectthedatathroughtwotypes,questionnaireandtest.Everystudent’sscoresofpre-testwerecollectedbeforetheexperiment.Aftercollectingdata,theresearcherbegantoanalyzethedatawiththehelpofSPSS19.0.39 Students’scores,meanscore,standarddeviationandt-valuewereanalyzed.Post-testwasimplementedattheendofthesemesteronDecember28,2014.AllthescoresthattheresearchercollectedfromthetestswereanalyzedbySPSS19.0.What’smore,thescoresofthetwoclasseswerecomparedwitheachotherandtheresultsoftheexperimentalclassinthepost-testwerecomparedwiththatinthepre-test,aimingtodemonstratewhetherTBLTwereeffectiveinEnglishgrammarteaching.TheT-valuecamefromtheresultsoftestswhichwasusedtocomparethemeansofthetwosampleclassestocheckwhetherthereisadifferenceintheachievementsofthestudentsinthecontrolclassandtheexperimentalclass.Thepre-andpostexperimentalquestionnairewerecollectedforcomparisonafterthat.Attheendofthestudy,QuestionnaireBweresurveyedbystudentsintheexperimentalclasstolearnaboutstudentsatitudestowardsTBLTandtheeffectivenessofTBLT.studentsansweredquestionsbasedontheirrealpersonalsituationandsheremindthemnottodiscusswithothers.Therefore,theinformationofthequestionnaireswasreliableandpersuadable.Questionnairewasveryhelpfulforteacherstolearnaboutstudents’truefeelingsandreallearningsituation.40 Chapter4ResultsandDiscussionInthischapter,theresearcherusedSPSS19.0toanalyzeandcomparethedatashehadcollectedfromthetestsandquestionnairesoftheexperimentalclassandcontrolclass.Discussionsoftheresultsoftheinterview,testsandquestionnairesarealsopresentedasfollows.4.1ResultsInthissection,theresearcherfocusedontheresultsoftwoquestionnaires,twotestsandoneinterviewoftheresearchandshegaveadetaileddiscussionofthembasedontheresultsoftheresearch.Theresultsoftwoquestionnaires,twotestsandoneinterviewrespectivelyanswerthetworesearchquestionsandtheauthordiscussedtheminthefollowingpart.4.1.1ResultsofTestBeforetheexperiment,allthestudentsintheexperimentalclassandcontrolclasstookatestbeforetheexperimntinordertomakesuretherewasnosignificantdifferencebetweenthetwoclasses,andthescores,meanscore,standarddeviationandt-valuewerelistedasfollows:Table4.1DataofIndependentt-testonPre-testStd.ClassNumberMeanScoreTPDeviationControl5067.758.33Class-0.0740.970Experiment5069.368.56alClass41 TheresultsinTable4.1showsthatthemeanscoreofcontrolclassis67.75,andthemeanscoreofexperimentalclassis69.36,andthestd.Deviationsofthemaresimilar.Besides,thetwo-tailedvalueofPisgreaterthan0.05,sotheallthedataintable4.1canprovethatthereisnosignificantdifferenceoftheriEnglishlevelinthetwoclass.Takeninthissense,theteachingtreatmentintheclasscangiveavalidexperiemntalresults.Aftertwelveweeksteaching,studentsinClass3andClass4tookpartinthepot-testinordertolearnaboutwhetherthereisasignificantdifferenceoftheirEnglishlevelbetweenthetwoclasses.Thescores,meanscore,standarddeviationandt-valuewerelistedasfollows:Table4.2DataofIndependentT-testonPost-testStd.ClassNumberMeanScoreTPDeviationControl5075.368.12Class-3.0150.003Experiment5079.58.45alClassTable4.2showsthatincontrolclassthemeanscoreis75.3,standarddeviationis8.12.Asfortheexperimentalclass,themeanscoreis79.5andthedeviationis8.45.Themeanscoreofexperimentalclassishigherthanthatofcontrolclass,moreover,thestandarddeviationofExperimentalclassisalsohigherthanthatofcontrolclass.Thep-valueis0.003<0.05,whichindicatesthatthereisasignificantdifferencebetweenthetwoclasses.GrammaticalcompetenceofstudentsinexperimentalclasshasbeendevelopedgreaterthanthatofstudentsincontrolclassaftertheapplicationofTBLT.42 Inordertomakeananalysisofthedifferenceofstudents’performancebeforeandaftertheexperiment,theresearchermadeacomparisonbetweenthepre-testandpost-testofthecntrolclass.TheresearchercolectedandanalyzedthedatabySPSS19.0andtheresultsarepresentedinthefollowingtable.ThePariedSamplesTestsareshownasfollows:Table4.3DataofPariedSamplesT-testinControlClassStd.TestNumberMeanScoreTPDeviationPre-test5067.758.33-2.4790.021Post-test5075.368.12Aftertheexperiment,thedataofpre-testandpot-testincontrolclasswascollected.Theabovetablepresentsthattheresultoftwotestsincontrolclass.Forcontrolclass,themeanincresaesto75.36,whichindicatesthestudents’haveaprogressintheirEnglishlevel,andtheP=0.021<0.05,whichrevealsthesignificantdifferencebeforeandaftertheteachingteachingtreatment.Inthissense,thereisanobviousprogressofstudentsincontrolclass.Thedataofpre-testandpost-testinexperimentalclasswasalsoanalyzedbySPSS19.0andthescoresofexperimentalclassinpre-testandpost-testwereanalyzedthroughthepariedsamplest-testinthefollowingtable.Table4.4DataofPariedSamplesT-testinExperimentalClassStd.TestNumberMeanScoreTPDeviationPre-test5069.38.56-6.2330.000Post-test5079.58.45Aftertheexperiment,thedataofpre-testandpost-testwascollected.Thetablepresentsthecomparisonoftwotestsintheexpeirmentalclass.Themeanscore43 increasesfrom69.3to79.5,whichshowsthemeanscoreofexperimentalclassdiffersmuchmorethanthatofcontroclass.TheP-valueis0.000<0.01,soitprovesthatthereisgreatprogressofexperimentalstudents’grammarticallevel.Accordingtotheabovetables,bothexperimentalclassandcontrolclassmakeaprogressinasensethroughTBLTmethodandtraditionalteachingmethod,however,thescoresofexperimentalclassinpre-testandpost-testhaveagreatersignificanceandtheexperimentalclassimprovesmuchbetterthanthecontrolclassSoTBLTisindeedafeasibleandeffectiveteachingmethodinEnglishgrammarteaching.4.1.2ResultsofQuestionnairesTheresearcherconductedtwoquestionnairesbeforeandaftertheexperiment.Thepre-questionnairewasgiventobothexperimentalclassandcontrolclass,andthepost-questionnairewaspreparedfortheexperimentalclassaftertheexperiment.4.1.2.1ResultsofPre-questionnairesQuestionnaireA(seeAppendixA)included12questions,amongwhichtherewere12uncertainitemsselection.Thequestionnairewasconductedbeforetheexperimentinordertolearnaboutthestudents’learningsituationofEnglishgrammar.AccordingtotheresultsofquestionnaireA,Table4.5isformedasfollows:44 Table4.5Theresultsofpre-questionnaireStronglyStronglyNumberofAgreeNotsureDisagreeagreedisagreequestionsFP(%)FP(%)FP(%)FP(%)FP(%)1100100%0000000021515%2323%3838%4444%00%31313%5555%1212%1919%11%455%1616%2424%5050%55%58383%1717%00000062121%5252%55%2020%22%72424%4343%44%2626%33%83434%5656%00000090022%006767%3131%10001010%007979%1111%1100%88%1010%8282%001299%8787%44%0000(Note:Freferstofrequency;Preferstoprecentage)Question1-3focusedonstudents’atitudestowardsEnglishlearning,thethirdquestionshowedthat68%studentslikedEnglishverymuch,but20%studentsdidnotlikeitsatall.Although20%studentsdidnotlikeit,100%studentsthoughtEnglishwasveryimportanttothem.thesecondquestionpresented44%studentsdislikeEnglishgrammarlearningand38%studentswerenotsurewhethertheylikeEnglishgrammarlearningornot.Question4-7aimedtolearnaboutstudents’situationofEnglishgrammarlearning.Only20%studentsweresatisfiedwiththeirteacher’steachingmethodsinEnglishgrammarclassand55%studentsweredissatisfiedwiththeirteacher’steachingmethod.Althoughmoststudentsweredissatisfiedwithteachingmethodsbut100%studentsthoughtgrammarlearningwereveryhelpfultodeveloptheirEnglishlevel.Question7indicatedthat67%studentsthoughtthemechanicalmemorizingin45 grammarlearninghadapoorefficiency.Question6showedthat73%studentsthoughtEnglishgrammaelearningwasboring,sothesituationneedtheapplicationofTBLTinEnglishgrammarclass.Question8-10focusedonstudents’learnighabitsofEnlishgrammar.100%studentswerewillingtolearnEnglishgrammarthroughlistening,reading,communicationandsomeotherways.ThissituationindicatedthatTBLThadalargespaceforimplementation.Question9indicated98%studentsdidnothavechancestocommunicatewiththegrammartheyhadlearnedand79%studentsdidnotwanttodolotsofexerciseandtheymayneedsomeinterestingwaysforEnglishgrammarlearning.Question11-12aimedtoknowstudents’expectationsonEnglishgrammarlearning.Qustion11indicatedthat82%studentsweredissatisfiedwiththeirEnglishabilitiesandonly8%studentsfeltsatisfiedwiththeirEnglishlevel.Withregardstothequestion12,96%studentswerewillingtocombinegrammarlearningwiththeirdailylifeandthissituationproviedpossibilitiesfortheapplicationofTBLT.Allinall,moststudentswantsomeefficientwaystoimprovetheboringsituationofEnglishgrammarlearning.Accordingtothequestionnaire,athoughstudentshadrecognizedtheimportanceofEnglishgrammar,theylackedsomeinterestingandefficientteachingmethodsandlotsofexercisewerealsowhattheydisliked.Thestudentsalsoshowedangreatexpectationforgrammarlearning.Moreover,theiranswersofpre-questionnairealsogavesomeinspirationofgrammarteachingintheexperimentfortheresearcher.46 4.1.2.2ResultsofPost-questionnaireThepost-questionnairewasdesignedfortheexperimentalclassinordertoidentifytheeffectivenessofTBLT,students’atitudestowardsTBLTandstudents’performanceinTBLTclas.Theresultswerepresentedinthetable4.6.Table4.6Theresultsofpost-questionnaireStronglyStronglyNumberofAgreeNotsureDisagreeagreedisagreequestionsFP(%)FP(%)FP(%)FP(%)FP(%)1612%4080%48%00002714%3060%1326%000031020%3264%816%00004816%3570%510%24%00548%3774%714%24%00636%1326%1836%1632%00748%3774%816%12%00811%612%1020%3366%0091122%3366%612%00001036%3468%1326%000011002754%2040%36%00121326%3060%714%0000(Note:Freferstofrequency;Preferstopercentage)Question1-2focuseonstudents’atitudestowardsTBLT,question1andquestion2indicatedthat12%studentsstronglyagreewiththeideaand80%studentsthoughtTBLTclasswasinteresting.74%studentsagreedwiththeapplicationofTBLTinEnglishgrammarteaching.NoneofthemdisgreewiththetheapplicationofTBLTinEnglishgrammarteaching.Tosomedegree,theTBLTclassarepopularamongthemoststudents.Question3-4concernstheeffectivenessofTBLT.Whenateacherintroducedanewgrammaritem,86%studentscanundertandtheformandmeaningwell,10%47 studentscouldhaveafullyunderstandingand8%studentsdidn’tgetit.Question3toldthat84%studentsthinkTBLTishelpfultoimprovetheirspeakingabilityandtheirabilitiesofapplicationandunderstanding.Fromtheabovedataandanalysis,TBLTindeedhasapositiveeffectonstudents’Englishgrammarlearning.ItnotonlyarousetheirenthusiasmforgrammarlearningbutalsoincreasetheefficiencyoftheirEnglishlearning.Question5-8focusonstudents’performanceinclassanditaimesatthedegreeofstudents’applicationofthenewgrammaritem.Question5shows82%studentslikegroupworkinganddiscussiontocompletethetaskandthefollowingquestionsshowthatThethestateofoutput,almost68%studentsusethenewgrammaritemoccationally.Question7presentsthatmoststudentsarewillingtocompletethetaskwithbothspeakingandwritingway.Thissituationisthesamewithperformingtaskandthesituationcanillustratethatstudentsdon’thavehighsensitivewithnewgrammarandstudentscannotuseitconciously,therolesoftheteacherisveryimportant.Theteacherfirstlyshouldactasanorganizerofthematerials,secondasaguideinclass,thethirdasaresearcherandtheteachermustpossesssufficientrelatedknowledge,abilitiesandexperience.Question9-10concernsstudents’performanceatpost-taskphase.Atthelaststage,96%studentsthoughtpraticeandconsolidationwereveryimportantand36%studentscouldhaveabasicmasterofnewgrammaritem,therewere88%studentsthoughtthemselvescanmasternewgrammaritemverywell.Thedataofthetwoquestionsindicatethatappropriateexercisesarehelpfulinthepost-taskphase,andit48 hasafunctionofconsolidationandmakethemselvesmasterofthenewgrammar.Regardingtothequestion11-12,theyaimattheinfluencesofTBLTonstudentsfromthepiontofaffection.Question12showsthatallthestudentsdeveloptheirteamspiritsandsensesofcollectivehonor.Question11indicatedthattherewere92%studentscouldstudyEnglishbytheirefforts.Toacertainextent,TBLTarenotonlyhelpfultotheirgrammarlearningbutalsohelpfultocultivatethespiritofcooperationandthehabitofself-study.Insum,formoststudents,TBLTisaneffectivewayofEnglishgrammarlearningandmoststudentsholdapositiveatitudestowardsit.Besides,students’answersofthepost-questionnaireindicatethatTBLTalsohasapositiveeffectontheiratitudestowardsEnglishgrammarlearning.4.1.3ResultsofInterviewTheinterviewwasconductedaftertheexperimenttolearnaboutthestudents’opinionsonTBLT,theirachievementsandsuggestions.Fivestudentswererandomlyseclectedfromtheexperimentalclassandtheyweremarkedfromstudent1tostudent5.Therewerefivequestionsintheinterview.Question1coveredstudents’difficultisinEnglishgrammarlearning.Question2focusedonstudents’attitudestowardsthetraditionalteachingmethodandTBLT.Question3aimedtolearnaboutstudents’achievementsingrammarlearningaftertheapplicationofTBLT.Question4wastoknowstudents’atitudstowardsTBLT.Question5aimedtocollecttheirsuggestionsforTBLTmethodingrammarteaching.49 Onthebasisofinterview,theresearchersummarizedtheiranswerstothefirstquestionfromthefollowingaspects:thetediousgrammarclassmadestudetsloselearningintersetsandenthusiasm;toomanygrammaticalrulesneedtobememorized;toomanyexercisesneedtobedone;lackofcommunicationanddiscussion.Alloftheaboveaspectswerethemaindifficultieswhichstudentsencountered.Answerstothesecondquestionwereshowninthefollowingaspects:fourintervieweessaidTBLTmethodwasmoresuitableforthem.Oneofthemsaid“inTBLTclass,Irequiredmorespacetothinkandcommunicateanditgivesmethefeelingofachievement”andanothersaid“grammarteachingclassareinterestingandI’mconfidentlearningEnglishwell”.Thereasonsthattheygavetheresearcherwereconcludedinthefollowingaspects:liveandinterestingclass;senseofachievement;morediscussionandgroupwork;grammarlearningwasclosetodailylife.TheiranswershowedthatTBLTwerepolularamongstudentsandithadangreateffectonthem.Tothethirdquestion,allfivestudentsindicatedthattheyhadabigprogressingrammarlearningfromtwoaspects.Ontheonehand,theyhadmoreinterestsandenthusiasmingrammarlearningandtheirlearningefficiencywasimproved.Ontheotherhand,theirabilitiesofcommunicationandcooperationhaddevelopedalot.TheabovetwoaspectsshowedthatTBLTbenefitedstudentsfromtheiraffectionandlearningeffeciency.ThefourthquestionshowedthatallofthemcouldaccepttheTBLTmethodingrammarlearning.TheyhopedtheirEnglishteachergavethemmoretimeamd50 chancesforcommunicationandgroupwork.ThisillustratedthatTBLThadapracticalfunctionintheirgrammarlearning.Accordingtotheiranswerstoquestion5,theresearchersconcludedthethreeaspects:firstly,somestudentssaid“weneedmorechancesofusingnewgrammatialknowledgeandmoretimeforustothinkandcomprehendbyourselves.”Secondly,studentshopedthattheteacherstrengthenedinterestsofgrammarteachingandgrammarteachingbecamemorelively.lastly,studentsrequestedmoreoralpracticeandinteraction.Insum,studentscouldhavemotivationandinterestsingrammarlearning.Soteachersshouldinteractwithstudentsasmuchaspossibletofindoutwhatstudentsreallywanted.besides,teachershadbetterintegratevariousculturesandcustomswiththeirEnglishgrammarteaching.4.2DiscussionInthispart,theresearcherdiscussestheresultsoftwotests,twoquestionnairesandtheinterviewanditaimstoanswerthetworesearchquestionsindetail.4.2.1TheEffectivenessofTask-basedLanguageTeachingonGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolAccordingtoQuestionnaireB,studentsprefergroupworkanddiscussiontocompletetasks.Performingtasksingrammarlearningaccordswithlearningmotivation,learninginterests,anditcanenablestudentsdeveloptheircommunicative51 ability.students’learninginterestsarearousedwhenTBLTareadoptedmethodingrammarteaching.Students’attitudestowardgrammararechangedgradually.Someofthemcommunicateforgettinginformation,someofthemtalkwitheachotherforfun.Studentshavemorechancestoparticipateinclasses.Theyenjoytheclassverymuch.AlltheseprovethatTBLTismoreeffectivethantraditionalteachingingrammarteaching.Itisbetterthanthetraditionalteachinginimprovinglearners’classroomperformance.Theadvantagescanbeeasilyseen.ThelasttwoquestionsillustratethatTBLTnotonlyisaneffectivewaytoimprovetheirEnglishgrammarbutalsocanimproveyourteamspiritandsenseofcollectivehonor.Aftertheresearch,thedataofcomparisonbetweenexperimentalclassandcontrolclassindicatethatTBLThasanobviouseffect.Standarddeviationofexperimentalclassissmallerthanthatofcontrolclass.Thiscanshowthatstudents’discrepancyofgrammaticalabilitybecomesmaller.Highmeanscoreofstudentsinexperimentalclassshowthatstudentsinexperimentalclasshavemoremotivationandmoreinterestsinlearninggrammar.Althoughscoresinbothclasseshavebeenimproved,itisobviousthatstudentsinexperimentalclasshaveamoreobviousimprovementthanstudentsincontrolclass.it’snecessarytoinformwhethertheexperimentalhasamoreobviousimprovementafterTBLTtraining.ThedatainTable4.2showsthatthescoresofexperimentalclassandcontrolclassinthepost-test.Themeanscoreoftheexperimentalclassis79.5aftertheexperiment,anditishigherthatthatincontrolclass,inwhichthemeanscoreis75.36.InTable4.2,p-valueis0.03whichislowerthan0.05,andthisindicatesthatthereisanobviousdifference52 betweenexperimentalclassandcontrolclass.GrammaticalcompetenceofstudentsinexperimentalclasshasbeendevelopedgreaterthanthatofstudentsincontrolclassaftertheapplicationofTBLT.Theabovedataanalysisoftestsanddatacomparisonshowaclearandcompletepicturefortheresultsandfindingsoftheexperimentimplementedduringtheresearch.Thestatisticsinthetablescanreflectthebigchangesofstudents’scoresafterTBLTtraining.AndduringtheTBLTtraining,theteacherandstudentscooperatewitheachotherbetterandbetter.Students’interestsandEnglishabilityareimprovedthroughtheexperiment.ItisaworkableandeffictivewaytoteachEnglishgrammar.SotheapplicationofTBLTmethodinteachingSeniorEnglishgrammarteachingisoperativeandeffective.4.2.2Students’AttitudestowardsTask-basedLanguageTeachingAccordingtoquestionnaireA,whentheteacherappliestraditionalgrammarteachingmethod,studentsfeelcomplicatedandboring,andtheyignorethedevelopmentoftheircommunicativeability.Althoughsomestudentshavemasteredthegrammaticalrulesinwriting,theirspokenEnglishcannotbeimprovedandthefrequencyofgrammarusingislow.Manyteachersignoretheimportanceofstudents’communicativeability.Butstudentshaverealizedtheimportanceofgrammarlearningandhaveahighexpectationofgrammarlearning.Asforwaysofunderstandingnewgrammaritem,Question5intableshows82%studentslikegroupworkinganddiscussiontocompletethetaskandtheywanta53 relaxedandinterestingwaytolearngrammarandgroupworktosolveproblems.Thesituationaskfornotonlyvariouslearningmaterialsbutalsokindsoflearnigactivitiestoarousetheirlearninginterestsandcreatactiveclassroomatmosophere.inpre-taskphasewhenstudentslearnnewgrammaritems,theycanhaveabasicunderstandingofnewgrammaritem,butstudentshavemoredifficultiesinundertandingandmasteringthantraditionalteachingmethod.Intraditionalteachingmethodteacherscanexplaingrammaticalrulesdirectly,butinTBLTclassstudentsneedindependentthinkingandpersonalunderstanding.Theyaretotallydifferentmethods.Teachersneedmakeagreatdealofpreparetionsforwarm-upandgivestudentsarationallydesignedandanappropriatedifficulttasktoachievethetransitionstepbystep.Question1-2inpost-questionnairedirectlyfocusesonstudents’atitudestowardsTBLTmethod.Therewere100%studentsthoughtTBLTarehelpfultoimprovetheirEnglishfromdifferentaspects,especiallyspeakingandunderstandingabilities.74%studentsagreedwiththeapplicationofTBLTingrammarteaching.NoneofthemdisgreewiththetheapplicationofTBLTinEnglishgrammarteaching.Tosomedegree,theTBLTclassarepopularamongthemoststudents.ThedatadirectlyshowsthatstudentshaveapositiveatitudestowardsTBLTandtheylikeacceptingitwhichcangivethemamoreinterestingandrelaxedEnglishclass.AccordingtoTable4.4,traditioanlabundantgrammarpracticeisunpopular,andstudentshavenointerestsinthismethod,whichwouldinfluencetheeffectsoflearning.Whilestudentsdislikelotsofgrammarexercise,theywantmeaningfullanguageactivitiesthatistosayTBLTismorepopularthantraditionalteaching54 method.Althoughstudentscanaccepttraditionalteachingmethod,theywanttodeveloptheirabilitiesofapplyingthenewgrammarinactualsceneandusinglanguagetoperformsometask.Sothislearningwayofcompletingtasksaccordswithlearningmotivation,arsouselearninginterests,makestudentsdeveloptheircommunicativeabilities.Throughclassroomobsevation,theresearcherfoundthatalthoughgroupworkcanarousestudents’interestsandmotivation,theycannotuseitconciouslyandtheeffectisnotobvious.Thesituationrequestteacheractasupervisior,areminderandacounselor.Whenstudentsperformatask,theyaremainpartinclass,sotheteachershouldactasasupervisororaguide.Ontheonehandateachershouldkeepdistancewithstudentsinordertoavoidthatstudentsproducethefeelingdependance;ontheotherhand,ateachershouldpaycloseattentiontothesituationoftasks,whenstudentsuselotsofmotherlangugaeorsomeotherreasonsthattheycannotcommunicatesuccessfully,theteachershouldgiveareminderandhelpthemthemoutoftrouble.TheaboveanalysesindicatethatTBLTisaneffectivewayofEnglishgrammarlearningandmoststudentsholdapositiveatitudestowardsit.Besides,students’answersofthepost-questionnaireindicatethatTBLTalsohasapositiveeffectontheiratitudestowardsEnglishgrammarlearning.Grammarlearningisagradualprocedureanditcontainsunderstanding,practice,proficiencyandapplication.Communicativeexercisecanaimattheproblemswhichoccurwhenstudentsperformthetaskandtheformcanbeexercisedinclassorhomework.Acertainamoutoflanguageanalyses55 andlanguageexercisecanhelpstudentsconcernlanguagefeatures,rememberthegrammaticalstructuresandguaranteetheaccuraryofthelanguage.56 Chapter5ConclusionThisthesismainlyexplorestheapplicationofTBLTinEnglishgrammarteachinginseniorhighschool.Inthisconcludingchapter,themajorfindingsandpedogicalimlicationsareintroducedfirst,thentheweeknessandsuggestionsforfurtherresearchwillbediscussed.5.1MajorFindingsFirstly,Accordingtotheresearchresults,moststudentsintheexperimentalclassbenefitfromtheapplicationofTBLTinmanyaspects.Students’learningattitudesandgrammaticalabilityareimprovedduringtheexperiment,theybecamemoreactive,theirbasiccomprehensivelinguisticabilitywasimproved.Teachingunderthisteachingmethodbetterimprovesstudents’grammaticalabilitythanteachingbythetraditionalteachingmethod.Secondly,theresultsoftheexperimentshowsthatapplyingTBLTintoteachinggrammarinseniorhighiseffectiveinpractice.Students’learningattitudesandgrammaticalabilityareimprovedduringtheexperiment.Aftertheexperiment,studentsintheexperimentalclassmakemuchmoreprogressingrammar.StudentsintheexperimentalclassbecomemoreactivethanstudentsinthecontrolclassinEnglishclass.Students’interestsandpassionarestimulated.Moststudentshavemoreopportunitiestoparticipateintheclass,whichnotonlyhelpstoimprovestudentsgrammaticalabilitybutalsohelpstoimprovetheirperformancetocommunicatewith57 othersinEnglish.Teacher-centeredclassisgraduallychangedintolearner-centeredclass.Thirdly,moststudentswanttocommunicatewitheachothertogetinformationfromeveryaspect.Fewerstudentslearnfortheexam.Thisisagreatchangeintheexperimentalclass.Whileinthecontrolclass,moststudents’attitudetowardEnglishgrammarisstillthattheylearnjustfortakingexams.Inconclusion,thepresentresearchprovesthatapplyingTBLTintoteachingEnglishgrammarforseniorhighisfeasible.Itdemonstratesthatthiskindofteachingmethodbenefitsmoststudents.Students’learninginterest,grammaticalabilityandcommunicativeperformanceareimprovedthroughlearningunderthisteachingmethod.Studentsmakemuchmoreprogress.5.2PedagogicalImplicationsTosomeextent,thestudyissuccessfuljustastheauthorhasexpected.FortheapplicationofTBLTinEC,somepedagogicalimplicationsarelistedasfollows:Firstly,Teachers’scopeofknowledgeandabilitiesofdesigningtasksareimportant.Intraditionalgrammarteaching,teacheroftenpaymoreattentionontheunderstandingonthetextandexercise,whilethecommunicativeabilityofstudentsisignored.Itisessentialtodesigndifferentlevelsoftasksforstudents.Onlywhenateacherhasacomprehensiveknowledgeandawidevision,hecandesignappropriatetasksforstudentsandTBLTcanbeappliedingrammareffectively.58 Secondly,TeachersshouldfocusonlearningEnglishteachingtheory.TeachershouldguidestudentstomastersomekonwledgeofTBLT,meanwhile,theyshouldbealearnerofTBLTthemselvessothattheycanclearlyunderstandwhenandwheretouseTBLTproperlyduringEnglishgrammarlearning.Accordingly,students’independentlearningabilitycanbeimproved.Thirdly,Studentsshouldbemorepositiveandlearntoconstructknowledgebythemselves.Theyaresometimesrestrictedbytraditionalteachingsystemandconception.Infact,theyshouldstandupfortheiropinionsandnewpoints.Itisalsonecessarytoadjustteachingevaluationsystem.Thesystemshouldbemorevarious.5.3LimitationsoftheStudyFirstly,Theexperimentlastsonlyonesemester.Itisonlyabout3months.Timeisnotenough,soitisverylimited.Secondly,Thesubjectofthestudycontain100studentsfromFuXinSeniorHighSchool.Thenumberofsubjectissosmallandtheynottypicalenoughsotheresultsoftheexperimentarenotabsolute.Thirdly,questionnaires,interviews,andtestsarethemaininstrumentsinthisstudy.Moreexperimentaltoolsneedtobeusedtodothestudyinthefuture.Finally,duetotheauthor’slimitedability,theauthormaynotgiveanoverallanalysisoftheresultsoftheresearch.59 5.4SuggestionsforFurtherResearchFirstly,teachersshouldimprovetheirprofessionalaccomplishmentandconverttheirroles.Theyshouldimprovethemselvefirstly.Thenewsituationrequiresteachersunderstandthenewcurriculum,updatetheirviewsoneducation,haveself-reflectionandself-improvement,improvetheirteachingandresearchabilities,cross-culturalcompetenceandpedagogicalcompetence.Textbook,internetandsomeothermediasareallimportantresourcesfromwhichteachersandstudentscangetrelatedwesternculture.Theyshouldusethetextbookflexiblyandcreatively,thisistosay“useitnotteachit”.TherearemanydifferencesbetweenTBLTandtraditionalteachingmethod.Therolesofteacherhavechanged.AnEnglishteachershouldactasaguide,anorganizer,ataskdesignerandataskparticipantratherthananinstructorinEnglishgrammarteachingprocess.Ateachershouldteachstudentshowtostudybythemselves,givetheclassbacktothemselves.Designingdifferentkindsoftasksmakestudentstakepartinclassroomactivitiesandgivefullplaytotheirowninitiative.OnlywhenteachersconverttheirrolesandchangetheirideascanTBLTbeimplementedsmoothly.Secondly,TBLTandtraditionateachingmethoddevelopharmoniously.Itisbettertocombinethertwoteachingmethod.TBLTisanewbornthingwhichteachershavenotaccepted,soweshouldhavepatienceforit.Butatthesametime,teachersshouldnotgiveupthetraditionalteachingmethod.AsanEnglishteacher,noteachingmethodisperfectandallofthemhaveadvantagesanddisadvantages,soateachershouldselecttheessenceanddiscardthedross.Inactualteachingwhentheyapply60 TBLT,theyshouldcombinethetwoteachingmethodanduseteachingmethodsobjectivelytoobtainthebestteachingeffect.61 ReferencesChomsky,N.(1969).Syntacticstructures.Lahore:PaKBookCorporation.Chomsky,N.(1972).Aspectsofthetheoryofsyntax.Massachusetts:theMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologyPress.Doughty,C.,&Williams,J.(1998).Focusonforminclassroomsecondlanguageacquisition.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Bruner,J.S.(1960).TheProcessofEducation.Cambridge.Mass:HarvardUniversityPress.Bygate,M.,P.SkehanandSwain(Eds.).(2001).ResearchingPedagogicTasks:SecondLanguageLearning,TeachingandTesting.London:Longman.C.JBrumfit&K.Johnson.(1979).Thecommunicativeapproachtolanguageteaching.OxfordUniversityPress,180.Crookes,G&Gass,S.M.(1993).TasksandLanguageLearning:IntegratingTheoryandPractice.MultilingualMattersLtd.Ellis,R.(2003).Task-BasedLanguageTeachingandLearning.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.Harmer,J.(2010).ThepracticeofEnglishlanguageteaching.Posts&TelecomPress,107.James,P.Lantolf.(2000)SocioculturalTheoryandSecondLanguageLearning.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.Krashen,S.D.(1985).Theinputhypothesis:issuesandimplications.London:62 Longman.Larsen-Freeman,D.(2005).TeachingLanguage:FromGrammartoGrammaring.Beijing:BeijingForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchPress.Littlewood,W.(1981).Communicativelanguageteaching.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Littlewood,W.(1984).Foreignandsecondlanguagelearning.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Long,M.H.,&Crooks,G.(1992).Threeapproachestotask-basedsyllabusdesign.TESOLQuarterly,26(1),27-56.Long,M.H.,&Doughty,C.J.(2011).Thehandbookoflanguageteaching.Manhattan:JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.Nunan,D.(1989).Designingtasksforthecommunicativeclassroom.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Nunan,D.(1991).CommunicativeTaskandtheLanguageCurriculum.TESLQuarterly.Nunan,D.(1999).SecondLanguageTeachingandLearning.Boston,MA:Heinle/ThomsonLearning.Nunan,D.2004.Task-basedlanguageteaching.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPressNunan.David.(2007).PracticalEnglishlanguageteaching---grammar.ChinaHigherEducationPress,49.Prabhu,N.(1987).SecondLanguagePedagogy:APerspective.Oxford:Oxford63 UniversityPress.Richard,J.,J.Platt,andH.Weber.(1986).LongmanDictionaryofAppliedLinguistics.London:Longman.Richard,J.AndT.Rodgers.(1986).ApproachesandMethodsinLanguageTeaching.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Skehan,P.(1996).Aframeworkfortheimplementationoftask-basedinstruction.AppliedLinguistics,17(1),38-62.Skehan,P.(1998).Acognitiveapproachtolanguagelearning.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.Ur,P.(2000).AcourseinLanguageTeaching:PracticeandTheory.Beijing:ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchPress.Vygotsky,L.S.(1978).MindinSociety.Cambridge,Mass.:MITPress.Vygotsky,L.S.(1962).ThoughtandLanguage.Cambridge,Mass.:MITPress.Willis,J.(1996).AFrameworkforTask-basedLearning.London:Longman.Widdowson,H.G.(1999)AspectsofLanguageTeaching.Shanghai:ShanghaiForeignLanguageEducationPress.Wilson,J.(1979)GeneralPrinciples.London:OxfordUniversityPress.Yale,G.(2002)ExplainingEnglishGrammar.Shanghai:ForeignLanguageEducationPress.陈琦,张建伟(Chen,Qi&Zhang,Jianwei).(1998).建构主义学习观要义评析.华东师范大学学报（教科版）,第1期.程可拉(Cheng,Kela).(2006).任务型外语学习研究.广州:广东高等教育出64 版社.程晓堂(Cheng,Xiaotang).(2008)．任务型语言教学.北京：高等教育出版社.杜诗春(Du,Shichun).(1992).中国学生英语学习心理.长沙：湖南教育出版社.郭德丽(Guo,Deli).(2009).任务型教学在英语教学中的应用.新乡教育学院学报,第22卷第4期.龚亚夫，罗少茜（Gong,Yafu&Luo,Shaoxi）.(2003).任务型语言教学.北京:人民教育出版社.李艳（LiYan）.(2010).高中语言教学中的任务型教学研究.长春：东北师范大学刘润清，胡壮麟(Liu，Runqing&Hu，Zhuanglin).(1999).外语教学中的科研方法.北京:外语教学与研究出版社鲁子问(Lu,Ziwen).(2004).中小学英语真实任务教许实践论.北京:外语教学与研究出版社.鲁子问(Lu,Ziwen).(2001).英语教育动态原则与真实原则论.北京:外语教学与研究出版社,吕京(Lv,Jing).(2010).英语任务型教学法的有效实施.中国教育学刊,第6期.宋东辉(Song,Donghui).(2006).任务型教学在高中英语课堂的英语研究.长春：东北师范大学.宋梅(Song,Mei).(2010).关于任务型教学法在高中英语课堂中有效实施的研究.济南：山东师范大学.中华人民共和国教育部(ChineseEducationDepartment).(2001).全日制义务教育普通高级中学英语课程标准.北京：北京师范大学出版社.65 魏永红(Wei,Yonghong).(2003).任务型外语教学研究一认知心理学视角.上海:华东师范大学出版社.魏永红(Wei,Yonghong).(2004).任务型外语教学研究(认知心理学视角).上海：华东师范大学出版社.夏纪梅，孔宪辉（Xia，Jimei&Kong,Xianhui).(1998).“难题教学法”与“任务教学法”的理论依据及其模式比较.66 AppendixAQuestionnaireA高中二年级学生英语语法学习情况调查同学你好：设计的这份问卷调查主要了解高二学生英语语法学习的基本情况，问卷共12小题。请根据实际情况回答。该问卷采用不计名方式进行，对你的学习成绩和操行评定不会造成任何影响，谢谢您的支持。1.我认为英语语法学习对我来说很重要。A.非常同意B.同意C.不确定D.不同意E.非常不同意2.我很喜欢学习英语语法。A.非常同意B.同意C.不确定D.非常不同意E.非常不同意3.我喜欢学习英语。A.非常同意B.同意C.不确定D.非常不同意E.非常不同意4.我对老师现在所采用的英语教学方法很满意。A.非常同意B.同意C.不确定D.非常不同意E.非常不同意5.我认为英语语法学习对英语能力提高很有帮助。A.非常同意B.同意C.不确定D.非常不同意E.非常不同意6.我认为英语语法学习很枯燥难懂。A.非常同意B.同意C.不确定D.非常不同意E.非常不同意7.平时学习语法大多采用死记硬背的学习方式，学习效率较低，而且很少把新学习的语法应用的课堂讨论中。A.非常同意B.同意C.不确定D.非常不同意E.非常不同意67 8.我希望通过听力材料，对话讨论，阅读等方式学习英语语法。A.非常同意B.同意C.不确定D.非常不同意E.非常不同意9.平时学习语法后，会有很多应用语法交流的机会。A.非常同意B.同意C.不确定D.非常不同意E.非常不同意10.我愿意通过做大量习题的方式来提高英语语法掌握能力。A.非常同意B.同意C.不确定D.非常不同意E.非常不同意11.我对自己的英语成绩和英语能力很满意。A.非常同意B.同意C.不确定D.非常不同意E.非常不同意12.我愿意将语法学习和实际生活联系起来。A.非常同意B.同意C.不确定D.非常不同意E.非常不同意68 AppendixBQuestionnaireB同学你好：设计的这份问卷调查主要了解高二学生在实施任务型英语教学后学生英语学习的基本情况，问卷共12小题。请根据实际情况回答。该问卷采用不计名方式进行，对你的学习成绩和操行评定不会造成任何影响，谢谢您的支持。1.我认为任务型教学使语法课堂变的生动有趣提高学习兴趣和热情。A.非常同意B.同意C.不确定D.非常不同意E.非常不同意2.我同意将任务型教学法应用在英语课堂中。A.非常同意B.同意C.不确定D.非常不同意E.非常不同意3.我认为任务型教学法在提高理解运用语言能力和口语表达能力方面很有帮助。A.非常同意B.同意C.不确定D.非常不同意E.非常不同意4.通过不同的学习资料，我对新语法项目的掌握程度很好。A.非常同意B.同意C.不确定D.非常不同意E.非常不同意5.我更愿意通过小组合作和讨论的方式完成任务。A.非常同意B.同意C.不确定D.非常不同意E.非常不同意6.在执行任务时，我会自觉运用新学习的语法项目。A.非常同意B.同意C.不确定D.非常不同意E.非常不同意7.我希望通过口头和书面表达两种方式报告任务完成情况。A.非常同意B.同意C.不确定D.非常不同意E.非常不同意8.在你完成老师布置任务后，我对新的语法项目掌握熟练。69 A.非常同意B.同意C.不确定D.非常不同意E.非常不同意9.在后任务阶段，我认为适当的语言分析，强调重点，练习和巩固很重要。A.非常同意B.同意C.不确定D.非常不同意E.非常不同意10.在后任务阶段练习时，我对语法规则和用法基本掌握。A.非常同意B.同意C.不确定D.非常不同意E.非常不同意11.任务型语言教学后，你主动尝试独立学习英语语法。A.非常同意B.同意C.不确定D.非常不同意E.非常不同意12.任务型学习增强了我的集体感和荣誉感A.非常同意B.同意C.不确定D.非常不同意E.非常不同意70 AppendixCPre-test一，选择题（60分）1.TomhasneverbeentoBeijing._____A.sohassheB.sodoIC.IdosoD.youdoso2.Thetrain_____foraboutanhour.A.hasstopedB.hasbeenhereC.isstoppedD.hascome3.Jimwasmade_____dishesforthreedaysasapunishment.A.towasB.washC.washingD.tobewashed4.Willyou_____meafavour,please?A.doB.giveC.makeD.bring5.Thelectureonhowtoenjoypopmusicisreally_____worth_____.A.well,listeningtoB.very,listeningC.well,listeningD.very,listeningto6.Itisnouse_____alotofbookswithout_____them.A.buy,readingB.tobuy,readC.tobuy,toreadD.buying,reading7.Jackwentbacktohisclassroom_____hehadlefthisEnglishbookthere.A.whereB.inwhichC.whenD.Because8.Itisaruleinhisfamilythat_____comeshomesearliershouldcookthedinnerforthefamily.A.anybodyB.whoC.whothatD.whoever9.Let’snotwaste_____timewehaveleft.A.thelittleB.littleC.alittleD.alittle71 10.Heisnottheman_____hewastenyearsago.A.whomB.thatC.whoD.as11.Itwassaid_____thatwas_____theprisonerescapedfromtheprison.A.that;whatB./;thatC./;howD.that;how12.Takecare!Don’tgettheinkonyourwhiteshirt,forit_____easily.A.won’twashoutB.won’tbewashedoutC.isn’twashedoutD.isn’twashingout13.Theystoodatthewindow,_____theycouldsee_____washappeninginthestreet.A.fromwhich;thatB.fromwhere;whatC.where;allD.where;that14.Inordertomakeourcitygreen,_____.A.itisnecessarytohaveplantedmoretreesB.manymoretreesneedtoplantC.ourcityneedsmoretreesD.wemustplantmoretrees15.I’dliketotakemyfirstpicture_____standsthehightower.A.whereB.whichC.thatD.inwhich16.Acomputercanonlydo_____youhaveinstructedittodo.A.howB.afterC.whatD.when17.Itistheabilitytodothejob_____mattersnotwhereyoucomefromorwhatyouare.A.oneB.thatC.whatD.it72 18.Themoney_____,Icouldnotbuythedictionaryatthemoment.A.beinglostB.lostC.hadbeenlostD.waslost19.Heis_____isknownasahackerhelikestoshowoffontheinternetandattackwebsites.A.whoB.whatC.thatD.Which20.Itwasfiveo’clockintheafternoon_____theyclimbeduptothetopofthemounatin.A.sinceB.whenC.thatD.until二，完形填空（15分）Theaimofwritingaletterofapplicationistohelpyouto“sell”yourself.Itshouldstate___1___thejobyouwant，andshouldtellwhatyourabilitiesareandwhatyouhave___2___.Itshouldbesimple，human，personalandbriefwithout___3___outanynecessaryfact.Inwritingaletterofapplication，bearinmindthatthethingsapossibleemployerismost___4___towanttoknowaboutareyourqualifications，yourachievementsandyouraims.Theopeningparagraphisperhapsthemostimportantpart.Ifthefirstfewsentencesfailto___5___thereader’sattention，therestofthelettermaynotbe___6___atall.Trytokeyyouropeningremarkstotheneedsorinterestsoftheemployernottoyourownneedordesires.Forexample，insteadofbeginningwith“Isawyour___7___intoday’spaper.”Youmightsay,“Ihavemadeacarefulstudyofyouradvertisingduringthepastsixmonths”or“Ihavemadeasurveyinmyneighborhoodtofindouthowmanyhousewives___8___yourproductandwhytheylikeit.”Tryto___9___generalities.Beclearaboutthekindofjobforwhichyouarenow__10___.Collegegraduateslookingfortheirfirstpositionsoftenask“WhatcanI___11___inaletter？Employerswantexperience，which，naturally，no___12___has.”Theansweristhateverythingyouhaveeverdoneis___13___.Itisimportanttowriteagoodstrongclosingforyourletter.___14___aspecificrequestforaninterviewofgivingthepossibleemployersomethingdefinitetodoorexpect.73 Anexcellent___15___istoencloseastamped，selfaddressedenvelopewithyourletter.Thatmakesiteasierforapossibleemployertogetintouchwithyou.1.A.clearlyB.carefullyC.obviouslyD.easily2.A.foundB.doneC.knownD.heard3.A.sendingB.takingC.leavingD.picking4.A.probableB.possibleC.likelyD.able5.A.payB.winC.showD.fix6.A.keptB.continuedC.writtenD.read7.A.advertisementB.reportC.articleD.introduction8.A.changeB.makeC.sellD.use9.A.avoidB.rememberC.protectD.gain10.A.losingB.applyingC.preparingD.fitting11.A.informB.supplyC.meanD.provide12.A.workerB.beginnerC.ownerD.manager13.A.successB.developmentC.practiceD.experience14.A.MakeB.AskC.StateD.Get15.A.resultB.decisionC.promiseD.idea三，语法填空（共十小题，没题1.5分，共15分）阅读下面短文，按照句子结构的与发性和上下文连贯的要求，在空格处填入一个适当的词或使用括号里面词语适当形式填空。Overyears,I’vebeenteachingchildrenaboutasimplebutpowerfulconcept----theantphilosophy.Theyhaveanamazingfour-partphilosophy.___1___,antsneverquit.They’llclimbover,they’llclimbunder,andthey’llclimbaround.Theykeep___2___(look)foranotherway.Whataneat(了不起的)philosophyitistoneverquitlookingforawaytogetwhereyouaresupposedtogo!Second,antsthinkaboutwinterandsummer.That’s___3___importantattitude.Youcan’tbesonaïve(幼稚的)astothinksummerwilllastforever.People___4___havealittleexperienceareclearaboutthis.Soantsaregatheringtheirwinterfoodinthemiddleofsummer.It’simportanttobe___5___(realistic).Youhavegottothinkaboutrocksasyouenjoy74 thesandandsun.Thinkahead.Thethirdpartisthatantsthinkaboutsummerallwinter.Duringthewinter,theyremind___6___,“Thiswon’tlastlong;we’llsoonbeoutofhere.”And___7___thefirstwarmday,theantsareout.Ifit___8___(turn)coldagain,theywilldivebackdown.Buttheycomeoutagainifitiswarm.Theycan’twait___9___(get)out.Last,howmuchwillanantgatherduringthesummertoprepareforthewinter?Allthatit___10___(possible)can.Whatagreatphilosophytohave----theantphilosophy:nevergiveup,lookahead,staypositiveanddoallyoucan.四，句型转换。（共5小题，每题2分，共10分）1.Nobodyundertandhisspeech.________________________________（改为反义疑问句）2.Wecangotothemuseumtoday.Wecanalsogotheretomorrow._________________________________（用either...or...将两个句子合并为一句）3.Hedidn’tgotobeduntilIcameback.__________________________________（对划线部分进行强调）4.Henotonlymadeapromise,butalsohekeptit.__________________________________（改为倒装句）5.IcametoNewYorkforthefirsttime.Ihaddifficultymakingmyselfunderstood.__________________________________（把两个简单句改成时间状语从句）75 AppendixDPost-test一，填空题（60分）1.Themistakesintheexercisewill_____bytheteacher.A.crossB.becrossingC.becrossedbyD.crossby2.It_____thisway.A.usedtodoB.usedtobedoneC.isusedtodoD.isusedtodoing3.Thestory_____inChina.A.wastakenplaceB.washappenedC.tookplaceD.hasbeentakenplace4.Greatchanges_____inourprovince.Manytallbuildings_____.A.havebeentakenplace,havebeensetupB.havetakenplace,havebeensetupC.havebeentakenplace,havebeensetupD.Weretakenplace,weresetup5.Thehall’s_____butit’snotyet_____withlamps.A.furnished,finishedB.beenfinished,beenfurnishedB.Beingfinished,beingfurnishedD.Setup,full6.Thenewsuspensionbridge_____bytheendoflastmonth.A.hasbeendesignedB.hadbeendesignedC.wasdesignedD.wouldbedesigned7.Someofthehotelsinmyhometown_____.76 A.havenowbeenrebuildingB.ArenowrebuildingC.arenowbeingrebuiltD.Arerebuiltnow8.NeitherhenorI_____fortheplan.A.wereB.isC.areD.am9.Myfather,togetherwithsomeofhisoldfriends,_____therealready.A.willbeB.hadbeenC.hasbeenD.havebeen10.Myfather,togetherwithsomeofhisoldfriends,_____therealready.A.willbeB.hadbeenC.hasbeenD.havebeen11.Ourfamily_____ahappyone.A.wereB.wasC.areD.is12.Thewholeclass_____greatlymovedathiswords.A.isB.hadC.wereD.was13.TheUnitedNations_____in1945.A.wasfoundB.wasfoundedC.werefoundedD.werefound14.Thenumberofthepeoplewho_____cars_____increasing.A.own...areB.own...isC.owns...isD.owns...are15.Anumberofstudents_____goneforanouting.Thenumberofthestudents_____increasingyear.A.have;hasB.have;haveC.has;haveD.have;is16.Theybecamefriendsagainthatday.Untilthen,they_____toeachotherfornearlytwoyears.A.didn’tspeakB.hadn’tspokenC.haven’tspokenD.haven’tbeen77 speaking17.BythetimeJackgetshome,heraunt_____forLondontoattendameeting.A.willleaveB.leavesC.willhaveleftD.Left18.BythetimeJackreturnedhomefromEngland,hisson_____fromcollage.A.graduatedB.hasgraduatedC.hadbeengraduatingD.hadgraduated19.Theplayhadbeenonforquitesometimewhenwe_____atthenewtheatre.A.havearrivedB.arrivedC.hadarrivedD.arrived20.Experimentsofthiskind_____inboththeUSandEuropewellbeforethesecondworldwar.A.haveconductedB.havebeenconductedC.hadconductedD.hadbeenconducted二，完形填空（15分）Zigfried,alittlemouse,blewhisbreathonthefrostywindowofthefarmhouseandrubbedittoseetheoutside.Stillnobodycame.Maybetoday,hethought1.ItwasonlyafewdaysbeforeChristmasandhewaswatchingforamiracle(奇迹).Thisfarmhousehadbeen2toolong.Itneededafamily.Zigfried’s3madeanoise.Herealizedthathehadn’teatenanythingsinceyesterday.Hejumpedfromthewindowsill(窗沿),grabbeda4fromhishome,andwentnextdoortoFarmerMike’s.FarmerMike’shousehadbeenagreatplaceforthelittlemouseuntilthefarmermarriedawifewhohadacat.Zigfried5whenhethoughtofit.Helookedaroundcautiouslyashe6intotheroomwheregrainwasstoredand78 wasquitenervousashefilledhisbagwithwheat.Hewasturningtoleavewhensuddenlyhe7ahotbreathabouthisear.Hisheartbeat8,andwithoutthinkinghestartedtorunandluckily9thecat’spaws(爪子).ThenextafternoonZigfriedheardsomegoodnews:a10familywouldbemovingintothefarmhousesoon.Zigfried’sgrannywouldarriveonChristmasEveto11withhim.Hehopedthatthefamilywouldcomebeforehisgrannycame.Beforelong,acarcameuptheroadleadingtothehouse,withbuttersandwiches,cheeseandchocolate.Zigfried’sChristmasmiracledidarrive!Thehousecamealivethenextfewdays.Zigfried12everysinglehourofthem.However,thedaybeforeChristmaswhenhewasdrinkinghotchocolatewitha13smileatthedoorofhishome,heheardthe14ofthechildrenofthefamilyaboutwhattheymightgetforChristmas.What?Acat?The15frozeonhisface;hismouthfellwideopen.Afteralongwhile,heatlastfoundhisvoice:“Hey!WhoseChristmasmiracleisthis?”1.A.carefullyB.excitedlyC.hopefullyD.proudly2.A.shabbyB.noisyC.messyD.empty3.A.mouthB.noseC.stomachD.throat4.A.bagB.stickC.bowlD.coat5.A.leaptB.sniffedC.trembledD.withdrew6.A.brokeB.marchedC.pacedD.stole7.A.tookB.releasedC.feltD.drew79 8.A.stronglyB.irregularlyC.slowlyD.wildly9.A.escapedB.seizedC.rubbedD.scratched10.A.closeB.happyC.newD.young11.A.celebrateB.communicateC.competeD.compromise12.A.countedB.enjoyedC.missedD.wasted13.A.bitterB.forcedC.politeD.satisfied14.A.introductionB.discussionC.commentD.debate15.A.bloodB.smileC.tearD.sweat三，语法填空（共10小题，每题1.5分，共15分）阅读下面短文，按照句子结构的与发性和上下文连贯的要求，在空格处填入一个适当的词或使用括号里面词语适当形式填空。Fewpeoplewouldeventhinkofbeginninganewjobattheageof76,_1_____oneofAmerica’smostfamousartistsdidjustthat.AnnaMaryRobertson,better2(know)as“GrandmaMoses”,turnedtopainting_3____shewastoooldtoworkonherfarm.GrandmaMoseswascrazyaboutpaintingsoonaftershepickeditupandworkedhardatit.Shepainted__4___(careful)andherworkswerenice.Shefirstpaintedonlytoplease_5____,andthenbegantosellherworks_6___alittlemoney.In1993,acollector,LouisCaldorhappened___7_(see)severalofGrandmaMoses’workshanginginashop.Helikedthem,8（buy）thematonce,andsetouttolookformore.Caldorheld__9____showtointroducetheworksofGrandmaMosestootherartists.GrandmaMoses,_10_____wasworld-famous,diedonDecember13,1961,attheageof101.80 四，句型转换。（共5小题，每题2分，共10分）1.Therearenobus,wehadtowalkhome.____________________________________（将并列句改为简单句）2.Hedidn’trealizetheimportanceoflifeuntilhesurvivedinthecaraccident._____________________________________（改为倒装句）3.IfIwereyou,Iwouldaccepttheinvitationandgototheparty.______________________________________（改为省略if的倒装句）4.Thegirlwasspokenhighlyof.Herspeechwaspersuasive._______________________________________(用定语从句合并句子）5.Heisastudent.Heisworthpraising.________________________________________（把两个句子改为who引导的定语从句）81 AppendixEFiveQuestionsofInterview1.WhatareyourdifficultiesinyourEnglishgrammarlearning?2.WhichteachingmethodismoresuitableforyouinyourEnglishgrammarlearning,traditionalteachingmethodorTBLT?Givemeyourreasons.3.DoyouhaveanyprogressinyourgrammarleaningaftertheapplicationofTBLTinthissemester?4.canyouaccepttheapplicationofTBLTingrammarlearning?5.DoyouhaveanysuggestionsinTBLTclass?82