识解理论在高中英语语法教学中的应用研究 58页

摘要传统的英语语法教学将语法意义与形式分开，主张机械的背诵语法句型和规则。缺乏对句型和规则背后的意义的理解，容易造成学生语法概念模糊，对语法规则似懂非懂，进而在语言实际运用过程中，就会出现因诸多语法的错误、句式结构的混乱而造成语言表达、信息传递的失败。识解理论为英语语法教学提供了新视角，结合人类对事件的识解角度和方法，在讲解这些枯燥的语法形式基础上，进一步阐释这些结构中的深层含义，突出学习者的主体作用和一般认知能力在语法习得中的重要性。本文作者试图将识解理论运用于高中英语语法的讲解中来激发学生对英语学习的兴趣和学习动机进而提高教学效率。本文主要研究识解理论下的高中英语语法教学是否比传统教学法更有效提高教学效率以及更有效的提高学习者对英语语法学习的主动性和积极性。在介绍识解理论的定义，分类以及国内外英语语法教学的现状后，为了验证识解理论在高中英语语法教学中的有效性，一项实证性研究在葫芦岛市建昌县第一高级中学展开。研究的方法是高二年级中选取两个英语水平相当的平行班作为实验组和对照组，进行为期10周的对比教学实验，分别接受传统教学和补充了识解理论内容的教学，实验包括问卷调查,前测，后测。在对实验数据进行收集整理后，本文作者通过SPSS16.0统计软件对数据进行了分析。分析结果表明，在实施新的教学方法后，实验班成绩有了明显提高，学生对学习英语语法也表现出了更多的兴趣。最后，基于对本研究的定量和定性分析，本文提供了一些关于识解理论运用到高中英语语法的教学建议以帮助教师们更有效的进行语法教学。本研究证明在我国高中进行培养学生认知意识的英语语法教学是一片充满希望的沃土，在不久的将来，很可能成为认知语言学研究的闪光点。本文对识解理论在英语语法教学领域的应用做出了一定的尝试，希望本研究能为英语语法教学提供有益的借鉴和启示。关键词：识解理论；高中英语语法教学；应用I AStudyontheApplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolAbstractThetraditionalEnglishgrammarteachingmethodsplitsthestructureandmeaning,becauseitadvocatesrecitingthegrammarstructuresandrulesmechanically.Duetothelackofunderstandingthemeaningofgrammarstructuresandrules,studentseasilyconfusethegrammarconceptionandgrammarrules.Asaresult,intheprocessofexpressingthemselves,therearelotsofgrammarmistakesanddisorderedstructures.Undoubtedly,thiswillleadtothefailureofcommunicationandinformationdelivery.ConstrualTheoryproposesanewpointofviewtoEnglishgrammarteaching.Accordingtopeople’sconstrualangleandmethod,whenteachingthebaldgrammarstructures,teacherscanexplainthedeepmeaningofthesestructures.Inaddition,itlaysmoreemphasisontheimportanceofstudentsasmainroleandcommoncognitiveabilityinlearninggrammar.TheauthorintendstoemployConstrualTheorytotheEnglishgrammarteachingtostimulatestudents’enthusiasmandmotivationaboutgrammarandimprovetheteachingefficiency.ThisthesismainlystudieswhetherthegrammarteachingbasedonConstrualTheoryisbetterthantraditionalgrammarteachingmethodinimprovinggrammarteachingefficiencyandstimulatingstudents’enthusiasmandinitiative.AftertheintroductionofConstrualTheory’sdefinition,classificationandthecurrenttrendsofEnglishgrammarteaching,anempiricalstudywascarriedoutinJianChangfirstSeniorHighMiddleSchoolinHuludaototestifytheeffectivenessoftheapplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishgrammarteaching.TwointactclassesofstudentsinGrade2withsimilarEnglishlevelwerechoseninthisexperiment.OneisExperimentalGroupandtheotherisControlGroup.Theexperimentlasted10weeks,whichwascomposedofaquestionnaire,pretestandposttest.CGwasinstructedinthetraditionalapproachwhileEGemployedConstrualTheoryintheprocessofthegrammarteaching.Afteralltherawdatawerecollectedinthetests,scoresandresultswouldbeanalyzedbysoftwareSPSS16.0.TheresultsshowthatafterthenewteachingmethodwasadoptedthescoresofstudentsinEGimprovedalotandstudentshaveshownmuchmoreinterestsinEnglishgrammar.Atlast,onthebasisofqualitativeandquantitativeanalyses,somesuggestionsconcerningConstrualTheoryinEnglishgrammarteachinginhighschoolareofferedtoteachersfortheirmoreeffectivegrammarteaching.ThepresentstudyprovesthatteachingEnglishgrammarthroughtrainingstudents’cognitiveconsciousnessisapromisinglandinChina,whichmightbethehighlightofCognitiveLinguisticsinthecomingfuture.ThepresentstudyhasmadeconsiderableattempttoII theapplicationofConstrualTheorytotheEnglishgrammarteachingandithopestoprovidesomereferenceandinspiration.KeyWords:ConstrualTheory;Englishgrammarteachinginseniorhighschool;ApplicationIII 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文Contents摘要..................................................................................................................................IAbstract..........................................................................................................................IIChapter1Introduction.................................................................................................11.1Backgroundofthestudy.....................................................................................11.2SignificanceoftheStudy....................................................................................11.3AimsoftheStudy..............................................................................................21.4ThesisStructure..................................................................................................2Chapter2LiteratureReview........................................................................................32.1OverviewofConstrualTheory...........................................................................32.1.1DefinitionofConstrualTheory................................................................32.1.2FiveDimensionsofConstrualTheory....................................................32.2OverviewofCurrentTrendsinEnglishGrammarTeaching..............................92.2.1DefinitionofGrammar.............................................................................92.2.2CurrentSituationandTrendsofGrammar-TeachingAbroadandatHome..................................................................................................................92.3TowardaSynthesis...........................................................................................11Chapter3ResearchDesignandProcedures.............................................................133.1ResearchPurpose..............................................................................................133.2ResearchSubjects.............................................................................................133.3Materials...........................................................................................................143.4Instruments........................................................................................................143.5ProceduresoftheResearch...............................................................................143.5.1ASampleLessonPlan............................................................................203.5.2InstrumentsandDataAnalysisDevice...................................................23Chapter4DataPresentationandDiscussion............................................................254.1DataPresentation..............................................................................................254.1.1AnalysisofResultsofthePretest...........................................................254.1.2ComparisonofPosttestbetweenCGandEG.........................................264.1.3ComparisonbetweenPretestandPosttestofEG....................................274.1.4ResultsoftheQuestionnaire...................................................................274.2Discussion.........................................................................................................314.3Summary...........................................................................................................33Chapter5Conclusion..................................................................................................345.1MajorFindings..................................................................................................345.2LimitationsoftheStudy...................................................................................345.3PedagogicalImplications..................................................................................355.4SuggestionsforFurtherResearch.....................................................................35References.....................................................................................................................37AppendixAPre-test.....................................................................................................39AppendixBPost-test...................................................................................................43AppendixCQuestionnaire..........................................................................................47IV 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文Chapter1Introduction1.1BackgroundofthestudyGrammaristhepremiseofdoingEnglishreading,thekeytoEnglishwritingskillsandthebridgeofspeakingEnglishfluently.Grammarrulesforformingwordsandcombiningthemintosentences.Itisclearthatgrammarproclaimstherulesofwords-transformationandsentence-makingsothattolearngrammarisanecessaryforlearningalanguage.Althoughsince1970s,theteachingmethodofcommunicationhasbeendevelopedaccordingtoHalliday’sSystemicFunctionallinguistics,theteachingofgrammarhasbeenignored.Krashen(1981)proposedthatforeignlanguageshouldbelearnednaturallyandheisalsoopposedtogrammar-teaching.Becauseoftheirinfluences,grammar-teachingbecameunimportantforEnglishlearners.Itledtoseriousconsequence.AsMariannaCelce-Marcia(2002)said,“Convincedevidenceshowsthatteachingwithoutgrammar,thoughbasedoncomprehension,willleadtoPidginforeignlanguage”.Tusi(2003)consideredthatintheprocessofsecondlanguagelearning,theproblemisnotwhethertoteachgrammarbuthowtoteachit.AndreaTyler(2005)proposedthatconsideringtheprinciplesofgrammar-teaching,thecognitionoflanguagenatureandstructureisthemostimportantissue.GeneralismandStructuralismbothconsiderlanguageasanautonomoussystem.Thismadelanguagelearningbecomealistofrulesystem,wordsbankandspecialcases,whileresultinlearningalanguagebyrecitinglanguageformsandspecialcases.Obviously,learningprocesslikethismademeaningandformdividedandlowerthelearner’ssubjectivefactors.Oppositetotraditionalteachingmethod,cognitivelinguisticsoffersanewviewpoint.Itfocusesontheaffectofhumanexperienceandcognitiveabilityonlanguagecomprehensionandapplication.Itcombinedlanguageformwithmeaningandmeaningisprimary.Langacker’sConstrualTheoryincognitivegrammaroffersusanewviewpointtogrammar-teachingbycombiningformandmeaning.1.2SignificanceoftheStudyIntermsofthecurrentsituationofgrammarteachinginChina,somepeopleencourage‘desaltinggrammar’,focusingondevelopingcommunicationability.SomepaymoreattentiontotheinstructionofEnglishgrammar.Thesetwopointsofviewareallone-sided.ItisnecessarytorethinkprofoundlyandstudyonEnglishteachingmethodinhighschool.“Absolutely,educationisnotmerelytogiveunilateralculturebuttoinspirehumanbeing’screativity,helphumanrealizetheworthoflifeandgainviewpointofvalue.”(PanZhonggang,2002).Withthehighschoolstudentsgrowing,theirknowledgelevelishigherandself-awarenessisstronger.Theywillexploretheinternalrulesofobjectdeveloping.Thetraditionalteachingmethodcan’tfulfilltheirrequirementwhichdemandstochangeteachingmethodtomeettheirrequirement.CognitiveGrammarholdsthatlanguageexpressionis1 AStudyontheApplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolbasedonpeople’sperceptionexperienceandcognitiveprocesstotheoutsideworld.Grammarstructuresdependonhumancognitivesystemandsemanticstructure.InordertorepresentGrammarstructuresclearly,ConstrualTheoryisusedtorepresentsemanticstructures.ThispaperaimstoemployConstrualTheorytogrammarteachinginhighschooltoverifythegrammarteachingeffectivenessattainedthroughtheapplicationofConstrualTheory.1.3AimsoftheStudyThroughthisresearch,theauthoraimstomakepeoplerecognizethesignificanceofConstrualTheoryforEnglishgrammar-teaching:1.ToimprovetheefficiencyoftheclassandreducetheburdenofstudentsintheprocessofEnglishgrammarteaching.ToemploytheConstrualTheorycanhelpteachersandstudentsseparatethemselvesfromlargenumberofexercises.Theprocessoflearningandteachingwillbecomemoreeffective.Theclassroomatmospherewillbecomemoreactivebyteacher’seffectiveteachingandstudents’effectivelearning.Inthisway,studentscouldimprovetheirlearningeffectiveness.2.Toimprovestudents’interestsinEnglishgrammarlearning.Thetraditionalteachingmethodpaymoreattentiontostructure.Studentsstrengthenitbydoingalotofexercises.Asaconsequence,studentswereboredandlostinterestsinlearninggrammar.ToemployConstrualTheoryintheprocessofteachinggrammarmeanstocombinegrammarformandmeaningwhilemeaningisprimary.Thiswillmakestudentscomprehendthegrammarwiththehelpoftheirownexperienceandcognitiveabilities.Withlearninggrammarmoreinteresting,theywillbecomemoreactiveandpositiveinclass.1.4ThesisStructureThisthesisconsistsoffiveparts,includingtheintroduction.ThefirstchapterofintroductionpresentsthebackgroundofEnglishgrammarteachingandalsointroducesthesituation,significanceandpurposeoftheresearch.ChapterTwoisliteraturereviewwhichfocusesontheintroductionofrelevanttheories,suchasthedefinitionofConstrualTheory,fivedimensionsofConstrualTheoryandthecurrentstudyofEnglishgrammarteachingabroadandathome.ChapterThreeisresearchdesign,whichfocusesontheinstructionofthesubjects,instruments,andthewholeresearchproceduresinthisstudy.ChapterFourpresentstheexperimentalresultsanddiscussesabouttheexperimentalresults.ChapterFive,thelastchapter,isaconclusionforthewholestudy.Itshowsthemajorfindings,limitationofthestudy,pedagogicalimplicationsandfurthersuggestionsforfutureEnglishgrammarteachingresearch.2 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文Chapter2LiteratureReviewInthischapter,theauthorwillreviewthepreviousstudiesofconstrualtheoryandcurrenttrendsandsituationofEnglishgrammarteachingabroadandathome.2.1OverviewofConstrualTheoryCognitiveGrammaristhemainpartofCognitiveLinguistics.CognitiveLinguisticsisdifferentfromGenerativeLinguisticwhichpaysmoreattentiontolanguageform.CognitiveLinguisticstartsfrommeaningsothatCognitiveGrammaralsostartsfrommeaning.CGclaimsthat“grammarismeaningfulbecauseitembodiesandsymbolizesaparticularwayofconstruingconceptualcontent”(Langacker1991).InCGparlance，asdescribedinLangacker(1987)andTaylor(2002)，themeaningofalinguisticexpressioninvolvesnotonlyitsconceptual(objective)content，butalsohowthatcontentisconstrued；thesyntaxofanexpressionreflectsitsconceptualorganization，andrepresentsthespecificcognitiveconstrualofthesceneitdescribes.2.1.1DefinitionofConstrualTheoryConstrualTheorybelongstoCognitiveGrammar;itreferstotheabilitytodescribethesamesituationindifferentways.CGlikensconceptualcontenttoasceneandConstrualTheoryviewsitasacertainway.Taylor(2002)considersConstrualTheoryas“theverywordingthatwechooseinordertolinguisticallyencodeasituationrestsonthemannerinwhichthesituationhasbeenmentallyconstrued”．Hamawand(2005)claimsthat“alanguagestrategywhichallowsthespeakertoconceptualizeasituationindiscourseandchoosetheappropriatestructuretorepresentitinlanguage”.Woods(2007)alsomaintainsthat“aparticularsituationcanbeconstruedinvariousways，andthewaysofcodingthesituationconstitutedifferentconceptualizations”．Thismeansthatthestructureusedisconnectedwiththecognitiveconstrualemployedandthatcognitiveconstrualchosentostructuresituationsareequaltodifferentmentalexperiences.Consequently，thecognitiveconstrualimpliedbyalinguisticexpressionconstitutesadecisivefacetofitsmeaning．2.1.2FiveDimensionsofConstrualTheoryAccordingtoLangacker’spointofview(1991),therearefivemajordimensionsofConstrualTheory:Specificity,Scope,Figure-Background,PerspectiveandSalience.“Inviewingascene，whatweactuallyseedependsonhowcloselyWeexamineit，whatwechoosetolookat，whichelementswepaymostattentionto，andwhereweviewitfrom.”(1)SpecificityAccordingtoLangacker(2008)，specificityistheextentofdetailandprecisionatwhichasituationisdescribed.Differentformationsofconstrualarerelatedtodifferentextentof3 AStudyontheApplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolspecificity;peoplecanknowordescribeanidentityfromdifferentextentofdetailandprecious.Thethingcanbecharacterizedbysayingobject,butalsocanbesaidgreaterspecificity—implement,brushoreventoothbrush.Similarly,uncleismorespecificthanrelative,laptopismorespecificthanmachine.Theoppositeofspecificityisschematic,thusthingisschematicwithrespecttoobject,machinewithrespecttolaptop.Toapplythesewordsinsuitablesentences,therewillbemanydifferentexpressionswiththesamesituation.Inordertoelaboratesomeonedidsomething,wecan,todifferentdegreesandindifferentways,usetheexpressionslikesomeonebrokesomethingorTomcompletelyshatteredthetoothbrushinthebathroomorevenmorespecificTomecompletelyshatteredMary’stoothbrushinthebathroombyhittingitsolidlywithabrandnewwoodenhandledclawhammer.Thelastsentenceisspecificenough.Aschematicexpressionisinstantiatedorelaboratedbyanynumberofmorespecificones(ZhaoYanfang2001).Wecanproduceanexpressionasspecificaspossible.Andinthisway，characterizeasituationingreaterdetail．(2)ScopeScopereferstotheconfigurationofactivatedconceptualcontent;itcontainsBaseandProfileatleast.ScopeissimilartoCognitiveDomainwhichistheprocessionandresultofconceptualization.InthisprocessCognitiveDomainformsaninternal,coherentdomain,wecanproceedsemanticdepictbasedonit.Foreachdomain,anexpressionhasascopeconsistingofitsactivationinthatdomain.Theexpression’sscopeisitsconceptualcontentinthesubjectiveviewingframeexistinginitscomprehension.Scopecanalsobearrangedforforegroundandbackgroundalignment.Anexpression’sscopecansometimesconsistofitsmaximalscopeinacertaindomain,i.e.thefullextentofitsactivation，andanimmediatescope，thepartdirectlyrelevantforacertainpurpose.Theimmediatescopeisthusforegrounded，relativetothemaximalscope.Metaphorically，itcanbedescribedastheonstageregion，thegenerallocationofattention.Scopecanalsobearrangedintermsofforeground/backgroundalignment．Anexpression’sscopecansometimesconsistofitsmaximalscopeinacertaindomain,thefullextentofitsactivation，andanimmediatescopewhichisthepartdirectlyrelevantforacertainpurposeSkehan(1998).Theimmediatescopeisthusforegrounded，relativetothemaximalscope.Metaphorically，itcanbedescribedastheonstageregion，thegenerallocationofattention.Forexample,arm>hand>finger>knuckle.Herearmprovidesaspacedomainforhand,handforfinger,etc.ThesuperiorstepImmediateScopeofhead,arm,legisbody.TheyeachhasbelowstepofImmediateScope,suchastheimmediateScopeoflegisthigh,knee,crus,etc.TheimmediateScopeisrelatedtoSpecificity,somegrammarconstructionbasedonit.Forexample,①Thishousehas7doors.Eachdoorhas3hinges.Eachhingehas6screws.②Thishousehas21hinges/126screws.③Thisdoorhas18screws.Inthesethreesentences,thefirstsentenceseemsmoreacceptable,becauseamanifestationofmaximal/immediate4 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文scopeiscompoundandthecomponentsindicateadjoininglevelsinawhole-partrelationship,whileskippinglevelsusuallyleadstoaninfelicitousphrase.Thereforethefirstsentenceisacceptablewhilethesecondandthethirdareunacceptable.(3)SalienceorProminenceAsitsbase,anexpressionevokesaparticularconceptionwithinwhichitdesignatessomefactorsbyplacingthemonstageasthefocusofattention．Thesefactorsareaccordedaspecialquality，whichLangacker(2008)termssalienceorprominence.Wehavethecognitiveabilitytoconfirmattentionorientationandfocalpoint,thecognitiveabilityisthecognitivefoundationtoformSalienceorProminence.Forexample,thesportivefigures(flyingbird)areeasiertoattractourattentionthanstaticfigures(trees，board).Saliencereferstothequalityofacomponentinanexpressionofbeingobvious，noticeable，andconspicuous．Salienceisthenamentaloperationallowingthelanguageusertogivethefactorofanexpressionsomedegreeofsignificantnotabilityandeminence．Incognitivelinguistics,Prominenceisoneofthemainbasestowordcategorydivisionandsyntaxanalysis.Grammarconstructionismainlyaboutthespeaker’sreflectiontothesurroundingenvironmentintheconceptualprocess,whilethisconceptualprocessisrestrictedbytheattentionprinciples.Theparticipantsofprominence,especiallytheagent,becomethesubjectoftheclause;thechoiceofverbsshouldcoherewiththechoiceofsubjectandobject;Place,timeandotherrelativeelementscouldbedescribedbyadverbialmodifier.CGpositstwoparticularsortsofprominence:Profiling-BaseandTrajectory-Landmark.Conceptualbasereferstoanexpressionchoosesaparticularconceptualcontentasthebasisforitsmeaning.Amaximalscopeoranimmediatescopecanbeanexpression’sconceptualbase.Theprofileistheparticularsubstructurewhichgraspstheattention.Thusthefocusofattentionisanexpression’sprofileanditcanbeconsideredaswhattheexpressiondirectlydesignatesorreferstowithinitsconceptualbase.Forexample,knee,itsmaximalscopeisthoughttobehumanbody,whiletheimmediatescopeistheconceptionofalegwhichisplacedonstageasthegenerallocationofattention.Thereisasituationthattwoormoreexpressionssharethesameconceptualcontentyetcontrastinmeaningonaccountofprofilingdifferentsubstructuresorfacetsoftheexpressionswiththesameconceptualbase.Forinstance,theconceptionofaweekfunctionsastheconceptualbaseforMonday,Tuesday,Wednesday,Thursday,Friday,Saturday,Sunday.Theydiffersemanticallybecausetheyrefertodifferentparts.Yetcertainly,weekdesignatesthewhole.Trajectory-Landmark:Besidesathing,anexpressioncanalsoprofilearelationship.Withinlangacker’sCGmodel,athingusuallyreferstoanoundesignatingaregionthatabstractlydescribeasetofinterconnectedentities,whilearelationshipmanifeststheinterconnectionsbetweentheseparticipatingentities.Profilingisoneofthedescriptiveconceptsreferringtofocusofattention.Forexample,ThecatisonthematandThematisonthecat.Bothofthesentencesareprofilingtherelation“on”,thetwosentencesdescribe5 AStudyontheApplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchooldifferentspacerelationship,sotheyhavedifferentmeanings.Ingeneral,inapairorateamrelationshipmayhaveoneormore‘focalelements’,whichcanbecalledparticipants.Theyespeciallyattractattention,themostsaliencepartistrajectoryandotherpartsarelandmarks.Trajectoryistheinitialfocus,FirstParticipant.InLangacker(2008)’spointofview,TrajectoryandLandmarkcanbecharacterizedrespectivelyasprimaryandsecondaryfigurewithaprofiledrelationship.Thismeansthatthelandmarknotonlycanbebackgroundbutalsocanbecomesecondaryfigure.(4)Perspective“Ifconceptualization(metaphorically)istheviewingofascene，perspectiveistheviewingarrangement,Whichistheoverallrelationshipbetweenthe‘viewers’andthesituationbeing‘viewed’(Langacker2008).”Theviewingarrangementincludesthreefactors,vantagepoint,subjectivevs.objectiveandgrounding.Thevantagepointisthelocusfromwhichaspeakerorhearerobservesasituation.Asceneisconstruedfromtheperspectivewhichisdecidedbythecertainlocusoftheviewer.Thesubjectorobjectoftheperceptioninfluencetheperspective,becausetheperspectiveisconcernedwithwhethertheviewerisdesignatedassubjectorobject.Thegroundingoftheconceptualizationenablestheparticipantstoestablishmentalcontactwiththedesignatedentity.①TheVantagePointThevantagepointistheparticularlocationofthespeakerandhearer.Thesamesituationcanbeviewedandcharacterizedfromanynumberofdifferentvantagepoints,resultingindifferentcognitiveconstrualwhichmayinturnbringaboutdifferentlinguisticconsequences.Vantageisausefulconstrualconstruct,thechoiceoftrajectoryandlandmarkleadtothesemanticcontrast.Forexample,infrontofandbehindidentifythetrajectory’slocationagainstthelandmark.Ifweobserveascenewithacomputerandamouse,ifthecomputer,mouseandvantagepointareinalignment,andtheadvantagepointisthatthemouseliesbetweenthespeakerandthecomputer,wecanmakeasentenceThemouse(tr)isinfrontofthecomputer(lm)andThecomputer(tr)isbehindthemouse(lm);ifthevantagepointisthatcomputerliesbetweenspeakerandthemouse,wecanmakeasentence:Thecomputer(tr)isinfrontofthemouse(lm)andThemouse(tr)isbehindthecomputer(lm).Thevantagepointdidn’tmakesignificantdifferenceincontentorprofilingofthesentences.Vantagepointcanalsoconstruetimedomain.Forexample,inthesentenceHegraduatedfromhighschoollastmonth.Thephraselastmonthevokestheconceptionoftwelvemonthsasitsconceptualbase.Inthesemonths,itdesignatesthemonthimmediatelyprecedingtheonecontainingthevantagepointoftime.Thisvantagepointisequatedwiththespeechtime.Ofcourse,thevantagepointdoesnothavetoinvariablyamounttothetimeofspeaking.WecansayJohntoldmelastweek,“Igraduatedfromhighschoollastmonth”.Lastmonthadoptsatemporalvantagepointcountingasthetimeofthemain—clauseoccurrence:themonthistheoneimmediatelyprecedingthemonthwhenJohnpresentedtheinformationnotthemonthwhen6 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文thesentenceisuttered.②Subjectivityvs.ObjectivitySubjectiveconstrualischaracteristicoftheviewer’sroleasanunperceivedoffstageregion.Incontract,objectiveconstrualcharacterizestheonstagefocusofattention,whichdoesnotparticipateinviewing.Anobjectivelyconstruedentityisclearlymoresalientthanasubjectivelyconstruedentity.Objectiveconstrualisrelatedtoprofilingandexplicitmention,andsubjectiveconstrualisconcernedwithanimplicitlocusofconsciousness．Beingimplicitisnotthesameasbeingabsent，however．Theconceptualizationconstitutinganexpression’smeaningextendsbeyonditsonstagecontent，furtherencompassingitsmodeofapprehensionbytheoffstageconceptualizesinthecontextoftheoverallviewingForexample,weobviouslyrefertothefourfactorsbuyer,goods,sellerandmoneywhenwementionbuysomething.Theyformtheframeof[buy],whichcanbeusedtoindicatetypical[COMMERCIALEVENT]frame.Thefourfactorsembodythatdifferentperspectivesprominencedifferentrelationshipoffactorsinthesameframe,sodifferentrepresentationsemerge.Humanchoosedifferentverbsandthisindicatesemanticrelationshipoftheseverbs.Ifwesay(1)JohnboughtabookfromTomfor28dollars.Therelationshipofbuyerandgoodsismadeprominent.(2)Johnpaid28dollarstoTomforabook.Wemaketherelationshipofbuyerandmoneyprominent.(3)TomsoldabooktoJohnfor28dollars.Therelationshipofgoodsandsellerismadeprominent.(4)TomchargedJohn28dollarsforabook.Wemaketherelationshipofmoneyandsellerprominent.③GroundandGroundingTheterm‘ground’refersto“thecontextofthespeechevent”(Taylor2002),andisusedforthespeakerandhearer,thespeechevent,theirimmediatesituation,etc.Groundingisaprocessthatsituatesanentityinregardtotheground.Facetsofthegroundtendtoserveastacitpointsofreferenceforsituatingthelocationofmoreobjectivelyconstruedentitiesagainsttheground.Thegroundfunctionsasanimplicitpointofreferenceforeveryfullnominalandeveryfiniteclause.Tense,forexample,isgenerallyestimatedfromtheground：was,is,andwillberefertopast,present，andfutureinregardtothespeechtime.Thetensemarkergroundsthisprocessbyrelatingittothespeechtime.Thus,afiniteclauseisagroundedclause,whileanonfiniteclauseisanungroundedclauseduetothelackoftenseinflection.Thenominalcounterpartoftenseisdefiniteness,asinthecomparisonbetweenatree(indefinite)andthetree(definite).Definitenesscorrelatestothespeakerandhearer,foritreliesonwhetheritsreferentisapparenttothespeakerandhearer.Articlesanddemonstrativesgroundthedesignatedthingbyrelatingittothespeechcontext.Inthenominalandverbalcases,asLangacker(2008)believes,“thegroundandthegroundingrelationshiparesubjectivelyconstrued；itisonlythegroundedentitythingoraprocess--thatisonstageasthefocusofattention”.(5)MentalScanning7 AStudyontheApplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolAsaresultoftheconstruer’sscanningmodes,differentmeaningsmaybeconveyedbydifferentexpressions.Scanningisakindofmentaloperationwhichconsistsoftwoparts:summaryscanningandsequentialscanning.Thesummaryscanningrepresentstheresultofthescanningprocess,andthesequentialscanninghighlightsthescanningprocessasitexpandsthroughtheconceivedtime(thetimeofitsoccurrence).Thesameconceptualcontentcanbeconstruedasaprocessoranon-processrelationshipbyjudgingwhetheritisscannedviasequentialorsummaryfashion.SequentialScanningisamentalaccessingofaneventasitexpandsthroughtime.Intheprocessofsequentialscanning，thecomponentstates(orrelationships)ofaneventconceptionarementallytrackedthroughprocessingtime(thetimeofanevent’sconception)inthesequenceoftheiroccurrencethroughconceivedtime(thetimeofitsoccurrence)，andfurther，justonecomponentstateishandledatagivenprocessinginstant(Broccias2007)．Inotherwords，thecomponentstatesaresequentiallytrackedthroughprocessingtimeinthewaythat，atagivenprocessingmoment,theonlyfocusedstatecorrespondstoitsconceivedmoment．Summaryscanningisthementalsuperimposingofthecomponentstatesofaneventtrackedintheirnaturalsequence，“thusbuildingupacomplexprofileconsistingofthesimultaneousactivationofthecomponentstates(Taylor2002).”Ateachprocessingmoment，thefocusedconceptionconsistsofallthestatesthusfarscannedthroughtheconceivedtime．Finally，allthecomponentstatesaresimultaneouslyactivated，whichconstituteasinglegestalt．Thetermprocessisproposedforacomplexrelationshipthatprogressesthroughconceivedtime(themanifestationofaprocessatanyoneinstantisitselfarelationship)andisscannedsequentiallyalongthistemporalaxis(aprocessrelationistemporalinthesensethatdevelopmentthroughtimeisinfocusoressentialtoitscharacterization)．Thesameconceptualcontentcanthereforebeconstruedaseitheraprocess(temporal)oranon-process(atemporal)relationship，relyingonwhetheritisscannedviasequentialorsummaryfashion．AbasictenetofCGisthataverbdesignatesaprocess．Sequentialscanningisthusappliedtoaverb．Whenthesameconceptualbaseisconstruedinsummarymode，theresultantexpressionbelongstoanonfiniteverbsuchasaninfinitiveandaparticiple．Additionally，apartfromnon-processrelationships，summaryscanningisalsoappliedtothings．Theyconstituteanaturalgroupingvis-à-visprocessrelationships.Inthispart,wehavediscussedtheConstrualTheoryandfivedimensionsofthetheory:specificity,perspective,salience,mentalscanningandfigure-ground(WangYin2006).ItishelpfulforteachersandlearnerstoteachandlearnEnglishgrammartoapplyingConstrualTheory.BasedonConstrualTheory,bothteachersandlearnerscanusethedimensionsofConstrualTheorytodealwithEnglishgrammarinamoreefficientway.8 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文2.2OverviewofCurrentTrendsinEnglishGrammarTeachingGrammarteachingisakeypointinteachingEnglish.AccordingtotheNewCurriculumReformonseniormiddleschoolwhichemphasizesonthestudents’languageability,tolearnEnglishgrammarbecomesmoreimportant.WhilemostEnglishteachersteachEnglishgrammarinatraditionalteacher-centeredway,studentsstillbelievegrammarclassdullandwithalowefficiency.Teachinggrammarmeansexplainingthestructurestotheclassanddoingmanyexerciseswhathasbeenpreparedbeforeclass.However,itisnotaneffectivewaytoteachgrammar.Studentsknowwhattherulesareafterlearninggrammar,whiletheycan’tusethemproperlywhencommunicatingwithothers.Soitissignificantforteacherstofindagoodwaytosolvetheseproblems.2.2.1DefinitionofGrammarOxfordAdvancesLearner’sDictionaryofCurrentEnglishdefinesGrammarasbelow:Grammaristhestudyofscienceofrulesforthecombinationofwordsintosentence(syntax),andtheformsofwords(morphology).Grammaristhestudyofuseoftherulesbywhichwordschangetheirformsandarecombinedintosentences.(ModernChineseDictionary)Grammaristherulesoflanguagestructures,includingmorphologyandsyntax.(CiHai)Aboveall,itisclearthatGrammaristhestudyoftherulesofmorphologyandthestructuresofsyntax.2.2.2CurrentSituationandTrendsofGrammar-TeachingAbroadandatHomeInthepastfewdecades,GrammarTeachinghasbeenignoredandmanylinguistspointoutthatGrammarteachingisuselessandlanguageshouldbeobtainedbyengaginginmaterialsnaturallynotbylearningthestructuresformally.WhilethecurrentstudiesaboutthesecondlanguagelearningmakepeoplerecognizethatGrammarTeachingishelpfultothelanguageacquisition.ShuDingfang(1996)pointedoutthatinsecondlanguagelearning,theproblemofGrammarteachingisnottoteachitornotbutwhatandhowtoteachit.2.2.2.1AnOverviewofCurrentTrendsinEnglishGrammarTeachingandLearningAbroadWiththedevelopmentofcommunicationmethodinforeignteaching,thestatusofgrammarteachinghasbeenweakenedsince1970s.EspeciallyundertheinfluenceofKrashen’snaturalapproach,itprotestedtoobtaintheknowledgethroughpracticeandopposedgrammarteaching.BecauseofthepsychologicalperspectiveofKrashen,grammarteachingdisappearedintheclassroomsothatitdeeplyinfluencedtheoveralldevelopmentofstudents’learningability.AsMariannaCelce-Marcia(2002)said,withoutgrammarteaching,itwasn’tcomprehensiveEnglishteaching.However,becauseofignoringgrammar,students’abilityofapplyingEnglishwasseriouslyimpacted.Throughlongtimeself-examination,grammarteachingreturnedtheforeignlanguageteachingstage.Accordingtothehistoryofgrammarteachingabroad,educationresearchersalwaysarguewitheachotheronwhethertoteachgrammarornotandhowtoteach.Since1990s,theresearchershavebeenarguingon9 AStudyontheApplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchooltwoformsofteachingmethod:grammar-translationapproachanddirectapproach.Grammar-translationapproachpointsthatgrammariscentreoflanguageandgrammar-translationisthemaintaskofgrammarteaching(JiangWeifen2005).Accordingtothisapproach,teachersmainlyanalyzethesentencesstructures,vocabularies,phrasesetcinthebook.Theyintroducegrammarrulesfirstandthenpracticethem.Thisapproachemphasesgrammaranalyzingcalledform-orientedgrammarteaching.Directapproachdoesn’tadvocategrammar-translationapproachbutintroducestudentsthegrammarbysummingup.First,teachergivesstudentssomeexamplesandletsthemfindtheregularpattern.Theapproachmainlyfocusesondevelopingstudents’communicationabilityandlearnsgrammarinameaningfulandcomprehensibleenvironment.It’salsocalledimplicitgrammarteachingandmeaning-focusedinstruction(LeiJun2006).Inthepastdecade,researchershavetriedalotabouthowtocombinethegrammarteachingwithlanguagecommunication,includingprocessinginstruction,internationalfeedbackanddiscourse-basedapproaches.VanPatten(2002)pointsthatanaccessibleteachingmethodinlanguagecommunicationistoprocesstheinputlanguagecalledprocessinginstruction.Thisapproachistocombinethegrammarteachingwithaseriesofprocessingactivitiesofinputlanguage.Itaimstohelplearnerscleartheobjectoflearninggrammarandcomprehendthegrammarrulestodeveloptheiroutputability.Internationalfeedbackreferstopromoteunderstandingintheprocedureofcommunication,languagelearnersmakeallkindsofmeaningconsultingandstrategiesrecomposing.Thismakeslearnersrecognizetheformoftargetlanguageunconsciously(Lyster&Ranta1997).Thediscourse-basedapproachesadvocatethatthroughapplyingpureandsimplifieddiscourseincludingdiscourseanalysis.Itprovideslargesumsoftargetlanguagestructureswithproperundergroundforlearnersinordertoconnectformwithmeaning.Inall,withthedevelopmentofEnglishgrammarteachingrecognition,grammarteachingexperienceddifferentformsofdevelopmentandevolution.TheadvancedgrammarteachingtheoriesabroadrenewedtheconceptofourChineseresearchersandmaketremendouseffectonEnglishgrammarteachinginchina.2.2.2.2AnOverviewofCurrentTrendsinEnglishGrammarTeachingandLearningathomeIntermsofthemaintrendsofEnglishGrammar-teachinginchina,theproblemsofgrammarteachingaretheresultsoflongtimeusingofgrammar-translationmethodandteacher’sone-sidedcomprehensionaboutgrammar-teaching.Teachersalwaysconsiderthatgrammaristherulesoflanguagesothattheyignorethecommunicationalfunctionofgrammar.Nowadays,grammarteachingisfromoneextremetotheother.AllkindsofEnglishbooksarepayinglessattentiontogrammarteachingandthecontentofgrammarandthetimeusedforgrammarteachingarebecominglessandless.Grammarasapartofclassteachingisalsoignored.Manystudentslearngrammarbyhiringtutor,takinglessonsafterschoolorlearnitbythemselves.Theseproblemsweakentheeffectofgrammarteachinginclass.Englishgrammarteachingmethodisalwaystraditionalteachingmethod.Teachers10 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文analyzeandexplainthestructuresofgrammarandstudentsdoexercisesaccordingtotheteacher’sinstruction.Thismethodiseasytomakestudentsfeeltired,boringorevenfeelanxious.What’smore,thismethodpaysmoreattentiontolearninglanguageknowledgeandanalyzingthestructuresofgrammar.Itignoresstudents’developmentofcreativenessandleadstothestudentsrecitingthestructuresandsentencepatterns.Becauseofthis,studentsmustmakemanygrammarmistakesandhaveabadeffectontheconductofcommunicationintheprocessoflanguageapplying(Ellis1995).AlthoughnewtheoriesaboutEnglishgrammarareproposedrecently,thebasicviewoflanguageisnotchanged.CognitiveLinguisticsprovidenewpointofviewtotheEnglishgrammarteaching.Tusi(2003)andZheng(2005)pointsthatEnglishteachersarepractitioner,decisionmakerandreformerinclass.Theirattitudestowardsteachingreformationandhowtoreformhavegreatinfluenceontheteachingreformationeffect.Newcurriculumstandardsputforwardthatclassroomteachingshouldchangetheteachingmodelofteacher-centeredwhoonlyteachtheknowledgeinthebooks.Theyshouldhelpstudentsgrasptheabilityofexploringknowledgeandautonomouslearning.Soteacherplaysamainroleintheteachingprocess.Inthepreviousstudies,therearelotsofbooksandarticlestalkingaboutforeignlanguageteachingespeciallyforuniversities,whiletherearefewarticlesabouthowteachersinhighschoolinfluencethegrammarteaching.Inordertogetabettergrammarteachingefficiency,itisnecessaryforteacherstoapplymoretheoriestoteachEnglishgrammar.ConstrualTheorywillprovideanewteachingmethodforteacherstoevokestudents’interestsandimprovetheteachingeffect.2.3TowardaSynthesisConstrualTheoryasapartofcognitivegrammar,ithassomeimportantimplicationsforourEnglishgrammarteaching.AccordingtotheConstrualTheory,wecanexplainandcomprehendagrammarstructurebyourexperienceandperception.Lakoff(2002)highlightstheroleofmetaphoricalthinkingbasedonbodyexperiencesinmeaningunderstandinganditisnecessarytounderstandthemeaningaccordingtodifferencesinknowledge,culture,value,etc.LangackerusedConstrualTheorytorefertothatpeoplecouldbefromdifferentperspective,choosingdifferentscopeandhighlightingdifferentfocustoachievethepurposeofexpression.TheideasandprinciplesofConstrualTheorycanbeappliedtoourteachingprocesssoastoachieveteachinggoalsofimprovingstudents’abilitiesoflearningEnglishgrammarandstimulatetheirmotivationandinitiation.ThenewperspectiveoftheresearchisexpectedtoshedsomelightsonthenewEnglishteachingmethodwithConstrualTheoryinseniorhighschool.ThefivedimensionsofConstrualTheorywillbeusedintheprocessofteachingEnglishgrammarwhichisahugechallengeforteachersandstudents.Whileintheprocess,studentsandteachermustcooperatewitheachotherintentlysoastoreachahighteachingandlearningefficiency.What’smore,studentswillhavemoreopportunitiestoexpresstheir11 AStudyontheApplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolideasandcomprehensions.Teacherwillnotonlyexplainthestructuresandgrammarrulesbutleadsstudentstounderstandthemeaningofthestructuresandrules.Thenewteachingmethodintendstoconnecttheabstractgrammarwithstudents’personalexperiencesoastoimproveteachingeffectiveness.12 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文Chapter3ResearchDesignandProceduresAftertherepresentationofthetheoreticalbackgroundaboutConstrualTheoryandGrammarteaching,theresearchwillemployquestionnaireandtwoteststoexaminetherolethattheConstrualTheorymayplayinEnglishgrammarteaching.Withtheincreasingofstudents’experience,teacherscandevelopstudents’cognitiveconsciousnesstohelpthemselvesunderstandEnglishgrammar.AlthoughEnglishteachingandlearninginChinaismainlyexam-oriented,teachersshouldprovidemoreandmoreopportunitiesforstudentstospeakout.Theresearchaimstodiscoverwhether,withthenewteachingmethod,learnersinEGcanmakeasignificantprogresscomparingwithlearnersinCGafteranexperimentalsemester.3.1ResearchPurposeWiththediscussingofthepreviouschapters,alittleworkhasbeendoneonapplyingConstrualTheoryonEnglishgrammarteachingandlearning.ThispaperaimstobridgethegapbetweentheoreticalresearchonConstrualTheoryandConstrualTheoryinEnglishgrammarteachingstudy.TheempiricalstudyisgroundedontheassumptionthatapplyingConstrualTheoryinEnglishgrammarteachinginhighschoolwillimprovehighschoolstudents’interestsinEnglishandthusfacilitatetheirgrammarlearning.Theresearchquestionsareasfollows:(1)IsgrammarteachingbasedonConstrualtheorybetterthantraditionalgrammarteachingmethodinimprovinggrammarteachingefficiency?(2)Isgrammarteachingbasedonconstrualtheorybetterthantraditionalgrammarteachingmethodinstimulatingstudents’enthusiasmandinitiative?Inordertoanswerthetwoquestions,theauthorproposesthefollowinghypothesis:H0:Thereisnosignificantdifferencebetweenthemeanscoresinthecontrolgroupandtheexperimentalgroupafterthetreatment.H1:Thereisasignificantdifferencebetweenthemeanscoresinthecontrolgroupandtheexperimentalgroupafterpropertreatment.3.2ResearchSubjectsThesubjectsinthisstudyweresecond-yearstudentsofseniorhighfromtwointactparallelclassesinJianchangFirstSeniorHighSchoolinHuludao.Therewerestudentswhosharedthesameeducationbackgroundandlanguagelevel.NoneofthemhadeverreceivedanyinstructionsconcerningConstrualTheorybefore.Thestudentsinclasstwowereclassedasexperimentalgroup(EG),whilethestudentsinclassonewereclassedascontrolgroup(CG).Theexperimentalgroupwascomposedof61students,whilethecontrolgroup59students.TheyhadthesimilarlearningbackgroundwiththeinstructionofthesameteacherwhoadoptedtwodifferentapproachestoteachthemEnglishforthreemonths.Theyhadfive13 AStudyontheApplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolperiodsofEnglisheveryweekandeachperiodlasts45minutes.3.3MaterialsTheteachingmaterialwasThePEPhighschoolEnglishtextbookswhichwasavailabletoallthesubjects.Inaddition,thematerialfortheexperimentwerederivedfromWangYin’sAnintroductiontoCognitiveGrammar(2006).Langacker’sFoundationofCognitiveGrammar(1991).TheGrammarwhichwasselectedwasfromthePEPhighschoolEnglishtextbookCompulsory5.3.4InstrumentsTheinstrumentsusedinthisresearchwerepretestandposttestwhichweregiventothestudentsbothfromEGandCGbeforeandaftertheexperimentrespectively;apre-experimentalquestionnaireandapostexperimentalquestionnairewerehandedouttothestudentsfromEGtocheckwhethertherewassignificantchangeontheparticipants’learningattitude,learningmethodsandlearningenthusiasms.EXCELwasusedtoanalyzetheresultsofthequestionnaire;SPSS(16.0)softwarewasusedtocalculatethedatacollectedfromtheexperiment.3.5ProceduresoftheResearchThetwogroupswereexposedtothesametextbookandtreatedwiththeidenticalamountoftimefor10weeksfromSeptember18thtoNovember23rd,2012.TheyaretaughtonMondaytoFriday,eachdayforoneperiod.Eachperiodconsistsof45minutes.Theresearcheremployedthe1stweekforthequestionnaire1andthe2ndweekforthepre-test,the12thweekforthepost-testandquestionnaire2.Inthisprocess,students’scoresandattitudestowardlearningEnglishgrammarwerecollectedandanalyzedbytheresearcher.Theworkingschedulefortheexperimentwasasfollows:ATimelinefortheResearch:Week1Questionnaire1Week2pretestWeek2-11TeachingperiodsWeek12posttestandquestionnaire2Inthisresearchtheresearcherillustratedthedetaileddescriptionofthestagesasfollows:first,aquestionnairewasdesignedandgivenawaytostudentsfromEG.ThequestionnairewasdesignedinChinesetoensureeverystudentcouldunderstandthemeaningofeachquestionwithoutanymisunderstanding.Thenthedatawerecollectedandanalyzedtofindouttheparticipants’personalopinionsonEnglishteachingmethodandwhattheyreallydoduringlearningEnglishgrammar.Asthequestionswerecloselyrelatedtothepracticalsituationofparticipants,fewofthemshowedresentmenttothetaskandthereturnratewas100％,whichincreasedthereliabilityofthedataderivedfromthesurvey.Theexperimentalteachingperiodtook10weeks,whichwasconductedfromSeptember14 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文18thtoNovember23rdwithoneweek’sbreak（NationalDay）.Duringtheresearch,bothEGandCGwereinstructedbytheresearcher.Theteachingofthetwogroupsusedthesametextbooks--thePEPhighschoolEnglishbookforgrade2studentsinhighschoolfollowedthesamesyllabus,classhours(45minuteseachday).TheonlydifferencewasthatstudentsinCGweretaughtbythetraditionalmethod,whilestudentsinEGweretaughtsimilarlybutwithinterventionbyintegratingtheteachingofthecomprehensionmethodsfromConstrualTheoryintothecontentteaching.Inthefirststage,subjectsinthecontrolgroupweregivengrammarstructures.Theteacherexplainsthestructuresbyindicatingthesubjects,predicate,objectsorwhichismainclauseandwhichissubordinateclauseetc.Thentheteacherwillwritesomeexamplesontheblackboardaccordingtothegrammarstructures.Thestudentstakenotesandreadthesentencesaloud.Finally,theteacherwillwritesomesentencesinChineseontheblackboardtohavethestudentstranslatedtheminEnglish.Afterclass,studentswilldoalotofexercisestoconcretethegrammarswhattheylearnedinclass.Whileintheexperimentalgroup,thesubjectsweretaughtinthesimilarwaysbutwithinterventionbyintegratingtheConstrualTheoryintoteachingprocess.First,accordingtotheTrajectory-LandmarktheorytheteachershowsthesentencestructuresonPPTindynamicwaysandtheteachershowsthesubjectsandobjectswithdifferentcolors.Inthisway,students’attentionwillbegrasped.TheteacherexplainsthegrammarpointsinthetraditionalwayandthenmakesafurtherexplanationtoindicatethedeepermeaningofthestructureswiththedimensionsofConstrualTheory.AccordingtotheConstrualTheory,wecanexplainandcomprehendagrammarstructurebyourexperienceandperception.Langackerusedthistermtorefertothatpeoplecouldbefromdifferentperspective,choosingdifferentscope,highlightingdifferentfocustoachievethepurposeofexpression.Thistermemphasizespeople’ssubjectivefactors.WiththeaimtohaveanoverviewoftheteachingstrategiesemployedinEG,theauthorwillgivesomeexampleswiththedimensionsoftheConstrualTheory.Exzample1:therearealotofwaystoexpressemphasisandit-stressedsentenceisthemostcommonone.Inthewrittenform，peoplecan’tdistinguishthemaininformationandtheminorinformationaccordingtothetonebuttheycandistinguishthemaccordingtotheexchangeofspeechorderandsentencepattern.Inordertoemphasisthesubject,object,adverbialmodifier,predictiveetc,theycanbeputbehind“itis/was”aspredictiveandthewholestructureassubject.Theotherpartsareputbehind“that”asobjectorcomplement.Inthetraditionalwaytoteachit-stressedsentence,teachersmanlyproposeseveralexamplesofit-stressedsentenceandthensumupthemainstructureofit-stressedsentence:Itis/was+stressedparts+that+subordinateclause.Finally,studentswilldolotsofexercisestoconcretethisstructure.Fromthelanguagestructures,“itis/was+stressedpart”isregardedassubjectand“that+subordinateclause”asobjectorcomplement.WhileaccordingtotheConstrualTheory,“it15 AStudyontheApplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolis/was+stressedpart”canbeseenasfigureand“that+subordinateclause”asbackground.Wecanchoosedifferentperspectiveandthenthedifferentpartscouldbeprominent.Theteachercanshowapictureofvase-face,whichdynamicallyshowsthatwhenyouchoosedifferentperspectivethenyoucanseedifferentfigures.Inthisstructure,whenwefocusonthesubjectorobject,wecanputthembehind“itis(was)”asafiguretohighlight.First,listenerswillbeattractedbythesubjectofit-stressedsentenceandthentheywillbuildacognitivereferencepoint.Whenthebackgroundemerges,listenerscertainlyputthefigureonthebackgroundasafocus.Therearesomeexamplesbelow:(1)Toemphasizethesubjectofthedeclarativesentence.Theearlybirdcatchestheworm.Itistheearlybirdthatcatchestheworm.Thisexampledescribesascene“birdcatchesworm”,earlybirdissubjectinthefirstsentenceandtheverb“catch”connectthesubjectwiththeobject“worm”andthewormisbackground.Inthesecondsentence,earlybirdimmediatelycatchesthehearer’sattention,thefigure‘bird’ismoresalientandthebackgroundhighlightsthefigureandmakeshearer’sfocusonthefigure.(2)Toemphasizetheobjectofthedeclarativesentencea)Igavewatertothedog.b)ItwasthedogthatIgavewaterto.Thefirstsentencedescribesascene“Igavewatertothedog”.“I”isthesubjectinthedeclarativesentenceanditisthefigureofthescene.“givewater”isamovementthatconnectsthesubjectwithobjectalsothebackground“dog”.Whenthissentenceischangedtoit-stressedsentence,theformerobject“dog”islocatedonthesubjectandbecomesanewfigureandimmediatelyattractshearer’sattention.Theformersubject“I”becomesbackgroundandmakethefigure“dog”moresalient.(3)Toemphasizethecomplementa)Theyhavepaintedthekitchendarkgreen．b)Itisdarkgreenthattheyhavepaintedthekitchen．Thefirstsentencedescribesascene“Theyhavepaintedthekitchendarkgreen”.“they”isthesubjectinthedeclarativesentenceandalsothefigureofthescene.“paint”isamovementthatconnectthesubjectwiththeobjectandcomplement.Whenthisdeclarativesentenceischangedtoit-stressedsentence,theformercomplement“darkgreen”islocatedinthesubjectandisfocusedonbyhearerasthefigure.Thismakestheunimportantcomplementsalientaccordingtochangingthewordsorder.Otherpartsbecomebackgroundtosetoffthecomplement.Thesubjectivechangeofspeakercanmakehearerfocusonthesubject(figure)completelyandcanhaveabetteremphasiseffect(GuanChunxi2008).WithConstrualTheory,teachercanintroducethestructuresofthegrammarinthetraditionalwayandmakeafurtherexplanationforthegrammarstructures.Inthisway,16 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文studentscanunderstandthegrammar’sdeepermeaningandavoidrecitingthestructuresmechanically.Aftersomeexercises,studentswillrememberthegrammarpointconcretely.Example2.Langackerdistinguishedtwodifferentmentalscanningabilities:sequentialscanningandsummaryscanning.Theyareusedwhenspeakerconstruesasamesituationwithdifferentmethods.Sequentialscanningregardsaprocessionasasequence.Whilesummaryscanningregardsaprocessionasawholeunit.Ateachprocessingmovement,thefocusedconceptionconsistsofallthestatesthusfarscannedthroughtheconceivedtime.Finally,allthecomponentstatesaresimultaneouslyactivated,whichconstituteasinglegestalt.Figure2.1SequentialScanning(a)andSummaryScanning(b)InEnglish,Verbbelongstosequentialscanning.Noun,Predictivebelongtosummaryscanning,whenexpressingthemeaningof“giveadvice”,wecanapply“makeasuggestion”and“suggest”toexpressthesamemeaning.Accordingtocognitivegrammar,theybelongtodifferentscanningprocess.Nounsareusedtohighlightindividual,eventandabstractrelationsanditemphasizessummaryscanning;verbsareusuallyusedtohighlightprocessingtimeanditemphasizessequentialprocession.Withthistheory,wecanexplainthedifferencebetweennounandverb.WhenspeakerdescribesascenethatBobcomesintoabuilding,therearetwowaystoexpressthesamesituation.1)a.Bobenteredthatbuilding.b.Bob’sentranceintothatbuilding.Ina,thescanningmethodof“enter”issequentialscanning.Inb,thescanningmethodof“entrance”issummaryscanning.Wecanalsoexplaindifferentstructuresof“subject+verb+object+complement”(SVOC).2)a.IsawBobwatchingthatmovieb.IsawBobwatchthatmovie.Both“watchingthatmovie”and“watchthatmovie”arecomplementsinthetwo17 AStudyontheApplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolsentences.Onesentenceuses“-ingparticiple”,whiletheotheroneusesinfinite.Becausetheformersentenceadoptssequentialscanning,itemphasizesthemovementwhentheeventishappening.Thelateroneadoptssummaryscanning,itemphasizesthewholeprocession.Ifteacherexplainsthisstructureinthetraditionalway,therewillnotbeanydifferencebetweenthetwosentences.Theyarejustthesamesentencewithdifferentstructures“seesbdosth”and“seesbdoingsth”.WhilewithConstrualTheory,teachercouldapplysequentialscanningandsummaryscanningtoexplaintheirinnerdifferences.Inthisway,studentswillunderstandthisstructuredeeply.Aftersomeexercise,theywillmasterthisgrammarconcretely.Example3:whenexpressingasituationthatJohnboughtabookfromTomfor28dollars.Wecanexpressthismeaningforseveralways:1)JohnboughtabookfromTomfor28dollars2)Johnpaid28dollarstoTomforthebook3)TomsoldabooktoJohnfor28dollars.4)TomchargedJohn28dollarsforabook.Intraditionalways,teacherjustexplainsthesesentenceswiththesamemeaningbutwithdifferentstructures.WhilewithConstrualTheory,teachercouldexplainthesesentencesmorespecific.Thesesentencescanbeconstruedwithdifferentperspectivesandhighlightdifferentrelationshipoffactors.Teachershouldtellstudentstherearefourfactorsbuyer,goods,seller,andmoneywhenwementionbuysomething.Whenwechoosedifferentverbsthatwerepresentdifferentrelationshipofthesefactors.ThefirstsentenceJohnboughtabookfromTomfor28dollars.Therelationshipofbuyerandgoodsismadeprominent.ThesecondsentenceJohnpaid28dollarstoTomforabook.Therelationshipofbuyerandmoneyismadeprominent.ThethirdsentenceTomsoldabooktoJohnfor28dollars.Wemaketherelationshipgoodsandsellerprominent.ThefourthsentenceTomchargedJohn28dollarsforabook.Therelationshipofmoneyandselleraremadeprominent.Allthedifferentstructuresdependonwechoosewhatperspective.Aftertheexplanation,studentswillknowwhatthedifferencesofthefourverbsareandknowhowtochoosetherightverbstoexpressdifferentrelationshipsofthefactors.Examplefour:InConstrualTheory,thereisaveryimportantdimension:prominenceorsalience.AndtherearetwofactorsinProminence:profile—baseandtrajectory-landmark.InEnglishGrammar,inversionisacommonphenomenonandtrajectory-landmarkillustratesthethoughtthatEnglishinvertedsentencesareinaccordancewiththesalientprinciplesfromthecognitiveperspective.Trajectory-landmarktheorystatesthatinvertedsentencesmovethetrajectoryofnaturalorderedsentencestotheendoftheinvertedsentences,thatis,speakersusuallyconvert“trajectory--landmark”inthenaturalsentencesinto“landmark--trajectory”toformanend-focusandmaketheinformationfocusdroponthenewinformationtoattractlistener’sattentionandreachthebestsalientresult(YangZhuangchun2003).Iftheadverbialphraseorprepositionphraseisputbeforetheverbinasentence,thissentencecanbecalledfullinversion.Thesephrasescouldbeup,down,in,away,here,there,18 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文then,off,out,intheroom,onthewalletc.Whenteacherexplainsthiskindoffullinversiontothestudents,hecangiveseveralexamplesfirst:1)InalecturehallofauniversityinEnglandsitsaprofessor.2)Southoftheriverliesasmallfactory.3)Outrushedthechildren4)OnthehorizonappearedalonelyhorsemanThesestructurescanbesummarized‘phrase+verb+subject’,andthesesentencescouldalsobeinnormalorder:5)AprofessorsitsinalecturehallofauniversityinEngland.6)Asmallfactoryliessouthoftheriver.7)Thechildrenrushedout.8)Alonelyhorsemanappearedonthehorizon.Intraditionalteachingmethod,thesesentencesarewiththesamemeaningbutwithdifferentstructures.WithConstrualTheory,teachercanmakeafurtherexplanation.Inthetrajectory—landmarktheory,trajectoryreferstothemainprominenceandlandmarkreferstominorprominence.Inthenormalordersentences“Alonelyhorsemanappearedonthehorizon.”“alonelyhorseman”isthemainprominenceand“onthehorizon”istheminorprominence.Whileintheinversionsentence“Onthehorizonappearedalonelyhorseman”,thespeakerputthemainprominenceintheendofthesentencetomakethemaininformationmoresalient.Thisinversionsentencejustlikesalivelypicturethatisshowedbeforethehearers.“onthehorizon”isputbeforetheverbasasettingoutpart.Withitsinfluence,thetrajectoryofthepicture“thelonelyhorseman”becomesmoreclearlyandrepresentsthespeaker’scognitiveprocesstothereality.Sowhenwriterorspeakerwantstoemphasizeapartofinformation,inversionsentenceisoneofthebestways.Anotherexampleisasfollow…..Theninaminuteshealsostoodbyusontherailroadtrack，withmyfathersoakedtothewaist．Downthetracksonhigherlandstoodthebighouseofthesection—master．Therelightswereburning；everybodyWasup；everybodywaslisteningtothevoiceintheflood．Wehurriedtothelight．⋯⋯(LiQing,RenSuzhen2008)Inthistext,inversionsentenceisusedinthesecondparagraph.Thewriterputthephrase“downthetracksonhigherland”attheheadofthesentence.Inthisway,notonlythewholesentencelinksupwell,butthesubject“thebighouseofthesection—master”asatrajectoryisprominent.Thefollowingsentencesdevelopaccordingtothemainprominence.Ifthefirstsentenceinthesecondparagraphisanormalordersentence,themeaningofthesentenceisnotchangedbutthistextcannotgetaprominenteffectofthemaininformation.Whenpeoplereadthistext,theywillgetthisimportantinformationeasilyandfeelreadingthisparagraphfluently.19 AStudyontheApplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchool3.5.1ASampleLessonPlanWiththeaimtohavinganoverviewoftheteachingstrategiesemployedinEG,thefollowingisasamplelessonoftheexperimentalperiod.ToimplementtheConstrualTheoryintogrammarteaching,themostimportantistodesignactivitiestocaterforstudents.Theteachershoulddesigntheteachingactivitiesandintegratethemintolearningmaterials.ThefollowingisateachingplanforModelfourCarnival.IjustwanttogiveanexampleabouthowIteachEnglishgrammarinclass.Time:October10th,2012Place:TheFirstSeniorHighSchoolinJianchangCounty,Class2Grade2Amountsofstudents:61Teachingcontents:NewStandardEnglishstudent’sbook5.ModelfourCarnivalTeachingObjectives:Inthisunit,thegrammarpartispassivevoice.Thestudentsarerequiredtograspthisstructureindifferenttensesandsomesituationsthatactivevoicetorepresentpassivevoice.Difficultteachingpoints:tobeawareofthemeaningunderthegrammarstructures.Timeduration:45minutesTeachingprocedure:1grammarinthetext2.Exerciseandreinforcement3.Homework(1)Grammarinthetext①DifferenttensesofpassivevoicePassivevoiceismadeupof“be+done”.“Be”canbeusedindifferenttenses.Teacher:Passivevoiceisnottransformedfrompositivevoice.Theybelongtodifferentcomprehensiveprocesstooneevent.Thepositivevoiceisusedwhenthespeakerdescribesaneventfromtheagent’sperspective.Whilewhenthespeakerdescribesaneventfromthepatient’sperspective,passivevoiceisused.Nowlet’slookatapictureonthescreen.(Theteachershowsapicturethatahunterkillsatigerandallthestudentspaytheirattentiononthepicture)Teacher:Nowwhocandescribethispictureforus?StudentA:Thehunterkilledthetiger.StudentB:Thetigerwaskilledbythehunter.Teacher:Well,Bothofyouareright.Let’slookatthedifferencebetweenthetwosentences.Whenwelookatthispicture,wecanchoosedifferentperspectivetodescribethispicture.Ifyouchoosetigerasafigure,youwilllocatetigeronthesubjecttohighlightandthehunterwillbecomebackgroundtohighlightthefigure.IfIaskyou“Whathappenedlastnight?”.Howdoyouanswerthequestion?StudentA:Thehunterkilledthetiger.20 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文Teacher:Ok.Howdoyouanswer“whathappenedtothetigerlastnight?”Student:Thetigerwaskilledbythehunter.Teacher:Allright!Whyshouldweanswerthesetwoquestionsinthisway?Becausewhenwechoosethetigerasourtopic,weshouldexpressitfromthetiger’sperspective.Ifweanswerthesecondquestionwith“thehunterkilledthetiger”,thehunterastheunknowninformationisputatthelocationofknowninformation,whichisunacceptable.Inpassivevoice,“be”canbetransformedintodifferenttenses:bedone,willbedone,bebeingdone,havebeendone,etc.Thesubjectsareallpatientsandareprominentasfigures.Forexample:Sheisrespectedbyeveryone.(Simpletense)Thebookwillbereprintedsoon.(Simplefuturetense)Theroadisbeingrepaired.(Presentprogressive)Theyhavebeengivenawarning.(Presentperfecttense)(TheteachershowthesesentencesonPPT,thesubjectsofthesesentenceswereshowedindifferentcolorstoattractthestudents’attentionaspatients)(2)ExercisesandreinforcementAfterexplainingtheusageofpassivevoice,teachershowsaseriesofpicturesforstudentstoaskthemtodescribethepictureswithdifferentperspective.Inthisway,theywillmakesomesentencesincludingactivevoiceandpassivevoice.Inthisway,studentsrecognizethattheywillmakedifferentsentenceswithdifferentperspectives.What’smoretheywillunderstandwhythestructureisusedlikethis.Andthenteacherwillproposesomequestionstoconcretethestructure.Teacher:Nowlet’sdosomeexercises.LookattheexercisesonPPT.1)MrLisaidthosewhohadfailed____furthertrainingandasecondchancetopasstheexamthenextweek.A.weregivenB.hadgivenC.weretogiveD.wouldbegiven2)----Mycar____twicethismonth.----I’msorrytohearthat.A.hasbeenbrokeninB.hasbeenbrokenC.hasbeenbrokenintoD.wasbrokenintoTeacher:whocangivemetheanswerandtellmewhy?Student:theanswerisDandC.Thefirstoneisanobjectclause,“whohadfailed”isthesubjectoftheclauseandthesentencealsocouldbesaid‘MrLiwouldgivethestudentswhohadfailedasecondchancetopasstheexamthenextweek’,whileintheclauseweshouldexpressthemeaningfromthestudents’perspectives,sowechoosepassivevoice.Thenextweektellsusthatit’spastfuturetense.Teacher:Yes,Thisispassivevoicewithpastfuturetense.Thesecondone,mycarisprominentasasubjectsoweusepassivevoice.Theverbphrasewechoose‘brokeinto’.‘brokein’means‘打破’withoutpassivevoice.3)Toapplyactivevoicetorepresentpassivevoice21 AStudyontheApplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolTeacher:Languageisn’trestrictedonlybytherulesofgrammar,butpeople’sexperienceandcognitivepatternscanmakeaneffectontheapplyingoflanguage.Inpassivevoice,thereisastructurethatusesactivevoicetorepresentpassivevoice.Let’slookatanexample:①Theseshirtswashwell.②ThiscardrivesverysmoothlyInthesetwosentences,thesubjectsbotharepassiveparticipantsintheevent.Whydon’twewritethesetwosentenceslikethistheseshirtsarewashedwellandThiscarisdrivenverysmoothly?Thussentencesrepresentaneventthatpassiveparticipantsmakeanactiveeffectonthehappeningbecauseoftheirinnerfeatures.Thestructureis‘NP+V+Adv’.Therearetwocharacteristicsinthisstructure:1.Thesubjectiscorrespondingtothepatientoftheverbandtheagentisn’texpressedinthesentence.2.Thisstructurelacksspecifictimegenderandeventgender.Forexample:③Thebookssellfast.④Thebooksaresoldfast.③isatypicalactivevoicetorepresentpassivevoice,while④isacorrespondingpassivevoice.Thesetwosentencesaresimilarinstructure,NPofthetwosentencesbothare‘thebooks’andthetwosentencesbothcontainpassivemeaning.Nowlet’sanalyzethemeaningofthesesentences.Thebookssellwell.Inthissentence,thebooksarepassiveparticipantbutthebookhasitsinnercharacteristics.Forexample,thisbookwaswrittenbyaveryfamouswriterorthecontentofthisbookisverypopularwithmanypeople.Theseinnercharacteristicsleadtothegoodsell.Althoughthebookisapassiveparticipant,itplaysaveryactiverolebecauseofitsinnercharacteristics.Thebooksaresoldfast.Inthissentence,thebooksarejustanobjectivepatientinthisevent.Now,whocangivemeanexampleaboutactivevoicetorepresentpassivevoice?StudentA:Thedoorwon’tshut.StudentB:Theclothwashedwell.Teacher:Verygood,nowcanyoutellmewhyyoudon’twritethesentencesas“thedoorwon’tbeshut”or“Theclothwillbewashedwell.”?StudentA:Thedoorcan’tbeshutmaybecausethedooritselfbrokeandpeoplecan’tshutit,notbecausethepersonwhoshutthedoordoesn’thaveenoughstrength.StudentB:Theclothwasheswell,becausetheclothitselfissoftorthin.Itisitsinnercharacteristic.Theclothisprominentinthetwosentences,buttheyplaydifferentroles.Teacher:Good.Bothofyouhaveunderstoodtheusageofthestructure.Thesubjectsoftheabovesentencesareallprominentbuttheyplaydifferentroles.Nowyoushouldunderstandwhenwelearnastructure,wenotonlylearnitbymemorizingthestructuremechanically,butweshouldunderstandthemeaningbehindthestructures.(ThentheteacherwillshowsomeexamplesonthePPT,highlightthesubjectsofthesentences.)22 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文Thesentencesreadclearly.这些句子读起来很清楚。（即这句子没有歧义）Thesentencesarereadclearly.这些句子被读的很清楚。（指读的人读的好）Afterexplainingthemeaningunderthestructures,somestructuresaboutpassivevoicewillbemasteredaccurately.Inthefuture,whenteachinggrammar,teachercoulddesignsomeactivitiestocooperatewiththenewteachingmethod.(3)Homework:Letthestudentsdothefollowingexercisetoconcretetheknowledgelearnedinclass:1Wehavebeentalkingabouttheissueoftheenvironmentalpollutionforyears.2IwillaskeverystudentaquestionofEnglishgrammar3Wehaveneverknownthegirltellalie4Theywillhavetoadoptadifferentattitude5Youmustlaysocialemphasisonthechoiceofwords.6WeknowthattheexpeditionreachedtheSouthPoleinMay3.5.2InstrumentsandDataAnalysisDeviceTheinstrumentsusedinthestudyweretwotests(pretestandposttest)andaquestionnaire.SPSSsoftwarewasusedfordoingstatisticalanalysis.3.5.2.1TestDesignInthisstudy,therearetwotests（pretestandposttest）andaquestionnaire.Thepretestwasconductedbeforetheexperiment;itaimstoverifywhetherthecontrolgroupandexperimentalgrouphavesignificantdifferenceintheabilitytolearnEnglish.Theauthorcarriedout50multiple-choicequestionsaboutthegrammarsthatstudentshavelearnedinGradeone.Thetimeoftheexamwaslimitedto90minutes.Posttest:aftertheexperiment,posttestwascarriedoutinbothcontrolgroupandexperimentalgroupforthepurposeofcomparingthedifferenceoftheresultsbetweenCGandEGinthelastweekofNovember.Theposttestconsistsof50multiple—choicequestions:1---5areallaboutit-stressedsentencetotestwhetherstudentshavegraspedthemethodofanalyzingthisgrammarpointwithfigure—groundtheory.6---7areabout‘subject+verb+object+complement’structuretotestwhetherstudentshavelearnedhowtoanalyzethestructurewithmentalscanning.8—12areallaboutpassivevoice,thesequestionsareusedtoteststudents’abilitytoanalyzethestructurewithsubjectiveperspectiveandfindouttheprominentpart.Aftermasteringthestructures,whatismoreimportantistounderstandthemeaningbehindthestructure.13—15areaboutfullinversiontoteststudents’abilitytoanalyzewhichpartisprominentandinwhichconditionthesentenceshouldusefullinversionandtheother35questionsareallaboutthegrammarstheyhavelearnedinthissemester.Eachcorrectanswerisgiven1pointsandthemaximumformultiple—choicequestionsis50points.Therewere120copiesofpaperswith61fromEGand59fromCGcollectedwhenthetestwasover.Thetimefortheposttestwaslimitedto90minutes.(seeappendixB)Questionnaire:therewasaquestionnairewhichwasproceededbeforeandafterthe23 AStudyontheApplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolexperimenttotheEG.Asforthequestionnairewhichincluded15questions.Itaimstogetageneralpictureaboutstudents’attitudestowardEnglishgrammar,students’learninginclassroomandtheirresponsetowardsleaningEnglishafterclass.ThequestionnairewasprecededtoEGstudentsaftertheexperimentaimedtoobtainafeedbackofstudents’assessmentsontheexperimentandtestifywhetherthenewteachingapproachwaswelcomedandacceptedbystudents,whetherthenewteachingapproachwaseffectiveandbeneficialforEnglishleaningandteachinginclass.3.5.2.2SoftwareStatisticalanalysesarecarriedoutbyemployingSPSS16.0(StatisticalPackagefortheSocialScience).ThetwogroupsofdatafromthetraditionalteachingmethodandtheexperimentalteachingmethodintwotestswereprocessedwithSPSStoconductanIndependent—SampleT-testtoverifywhetherthereisasignificantdifferencebetweenthecontrolgroupandtheexperimentalgroupafterpropertreatment.Inaddition,EXCELwasusedtoanalyzetheresultsofquestionnaireaftertheexperiment.24 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文Chapter4DataPresentationandDiscussionInthischapter,theauthorwillelaborateontheresearchquestionbroughtupinthepreviouschapter.Thefirstsectionisthedataanalysisoftheresultsofthepretest,whichtestifieswhetherthestudentsfrombothEGandCGareinthesimilarEnglishlevelandthedataofthepretestwillbeusedtocomparewiththeposttest.ThentheanalysisofposttestiscomparedwiththepreviousonesoastoseewhethertheConstrualTheorymakeasignificantdifferenceontheEnglishgrammarteachingthanthetraditionalmethod.Finally,thedataofquestionnairepresentedtothestudentswillbeanalyzed,withtheaimtofindoutwhetherthenewteachingmethodimprovestudents’interestsinlearningEnglishthanthetraditionalway.4.1DataPresentationToensurethatthestudentsintheexperimentalgroupandcontrolgrouphaveasimilarabilityoflearningEnglishgrammar,theauthorcollectedthescoresofpretestandcalculatedthecriticaldatalikemean,standarddeviationandIndependentSampleT-testofeachgroup.4.1.1AnalysisofResultsofthePretestThepretest(seeAppendixA)wasdesignedbytheauthorbasedonthematerialsfromthePEPseniorhighEnglishbook.Aspresentedinthepreviouschapter,thepretestwasdesignedtoensuretherewasnosignificantdifferenceofabilitytolearnEnglishbetweensubjectsfromCGandEGbeforetheempiricalresearch.TheIndependentSampleTestwasusedtoanalysistheresultswhichwasshownasfollows:Table4.1GroupStatisticsinthepretestclassNMeanStd.DeviationStd.ErrorMeanPretest5934.89835.78254.75282CGEG6134.86895.45734.69874Table4.2IndependentT-testanalysisofPretestLevene’sTestforEqualityofVariancesFSig.PretestEqualvariancesassumed.604.439EqualvariancesnotassumedSig.MeanStd.Error95%ConfidenceIntervalofdf(2-tailed)DifferenceDifferencetheDifferenceLowerUpper117.023.977-.029541.02612-2.063612.00470118.977-.029541.02612-2.061462.0025525 AStudyontheApplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolGenerallyspeaking,inthepretest,themeanscoreforCGis34.8983andthestandarddeviationis5.7825;themeanscorefortheEGis34.8689andthestandarddeviationis5.45734.Themeanscoresandthestandarddeviationofeachgroupareveryclose.Inaddition,intable4.3,Levene’sTestforEqualityofVariancesshowsSig.=0.439>0.05.TheT-testforEqualityofMeansshowsSig.(2-detailed)=0.977>0.05.Asshownintheabovetable,wecanseethepretestshowsthattherewasnosignificantdifferenceonsubjects’proficiencylevelintermsofEnglish.4.1.2ComparisonofPosttestbetweenCGandEGTheposttestwasdesignedbytheauthorbasedonthematerialofGrade2inseniorhighschool.50multiple-choicequestionswereputouttothestudentsofcontrolgroupandexperimentalgroup.ThesequestionswereallaboutthegrammarsthattheylearnedinthefirstsemesterofGrade2.Thistestwastakeninthe12thweek.Table4.3GroupStatisticsintheposttestclassNMeanStd.DeviationStd.ErrorMeanPosttestCG5935.25425.45702.71044EG6138.44263.68567.47190Table4.4IndependentT-testanalysisofPosttestLevene’sTestforEqualityofVariancesFSig.PretestEqualvariancesassumed10.919.001EqualvariancesnotassumedSig.MeanStd.Error95%ConfidenceIntervalofdf(2-tailed)DifferenceDifferencetheDifferenceLowerUpper101.391.0003.18839.852891.496564.88021118.0003.18839.847551.510004.86677AsindicatedinTable4.3,themeanscoreobtainedbyEGishigherthanthatofCG,specially,35.3542inCGand38.4426inEG.Thatistosay,thedifferencefromtheperspectiveofmeanscoresbetweenCGandEGisstatisticallysignificant.Asisdemonstratedin4.4,Levene’sTestforEqualityofvariancesshowsig.=.001<0.05,soitrefusesthenullhypothesis.Thatistosay,Std.DeviationofEGisdifferentfromthatofEG.Inaddition,T-testforEqualityofMeansshowSig.(2-tailed)=.000<0.05.Italsorefusesthenullhypothesis.WecanmakeaconclusionthatthereissignificantdifferencebetweenCGandEGinthescoreofposttest.TheEGhasmadeagreatprogressthantheCG.SubjectsfromEGdo26 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文muchbetterinEnglishgrammarcompetence.TheresultsoftheposttestsupportthehypothesisthattheintegrationofConstrualTheorywouldenablestudentsinEGtohaveabetteracademicperformancethanthosestudentsinCG.4.1.3ComparisonbetweenPretestandPosttestofEGAfterthepost-test,wemadeacomparisonbetweenpretestandposttestofEG.ItaimedtotestifywhethertheEGmadeaprogressthanbefore.Table4.5TheresultsofpretestandposttestofEGclassNMeanStd.DeviationStd.ErrorMeanPretest6134.86895.45734.69874EGPosttest6138.44263.68567.47190EGTable4.6IndependentT-testanalysisofpretestandposttestLevene’sTestforEqualityofVariancesFSig.PretestEqualvariancesassumed5.705.018EqualvariancesnotassumedSig.MeanStd.Error95%ConfidenceIntervalofthedf(2-tailed)DifferenceDifferenceDifferenceLowerUpper120.000-3.16393.86947-4.88543-1.44244110.593.000-3.16393.86947-4.88692-1.44095TheaimoftheabovetablesistofindoutwhetherthereissignificantdifferencebetweenthetwotestsofEGafter10weekstreatmentonthegrammarlearningwithnewteachingmethod.Fromthetable4.5,itisshownthatthemeansofscoresobtainedbyEGinthepretestandposttestaresignificantdifferent,38.4426intheposttestand34.8689forthepretest.TheT-sampletestbetweenpretestandposttestofEG,itisindicatedthatSig.(2-tailed)=0.000<0.05,sowecanassumethattherearestatisticallysignificantdifferencesbetweenthetwotestsafter10weekstreatmentinEG.TheresultsofthetestsshowthattheConstrualTheorywillhelpstudentsinexperimentclasstohaveabetteracademicperformancethanbefore.4.1.4ResultsoftheQuestionnaireAstheresearcherhasmentionedinchapter3,thesamequestionnairewasputouttothestudentsbeforeandaftertheexperimentinordertogetageneralpictureofstudents’learninginEnglish.ThequestionnaireincludestheirattitudestowardEnglish,theirresponsetowardsEnglishclassroomandafterclass.Theresearcherdistributed61copiestothe27 AStudyontheApplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolexperimentalclassbeforeandaftertheexperimentinordertofurtherprovefeasibilityofTBLT.Thequestionnaireconsistsof14objectivequestionsandanopenquestion.Thechoiceschangedalotbeforeandaftertheexperiment.Thestudents’answerstothequestionnaireweresummedupinthefollowingfigure.50424038343630292828pretest262521222123202221posttest2019171915141098101186754530ABCDABCABCDABCABQ1Q2Q3Q4Q5Figure4.7HistogramofQuestion1toQuestion5relatedtolearninginterestNotes:Q1.WhatdoyouthinkisthemostimportantforlearningEnglish?A.GrammarB.vocabularyC.readingD.compositionQ2.WhatisyourdestinationtolearnEnglish?A.topasstheexamB.tolayagoodfoundationforthefutureC.forteachersandparentsQ3.AreyouinterestedinlearningEnglish?A.alwaysB.oftenC.sometimesD.neverQ4.Accordingtothepresentteachingmethod,doyouhaveconfidencetolearnEnglishwell?A.yesB.noC.unknownQ5.WhatdoyouthinkofyourattitudetowardlearningEnglish?A.positiveB.negativeFromthechart,wecanseethatthestudentsaremoreinterestedinEnglishlearningthanbeforeaftertheexperiment.TakeQ3forexample,77%(19studentschooseAand28studentschooseB)studentsafterexperimentshowinterestsinEnglish,comparedwith59%(29students)beforetheexperiment,whichis18%higherthanbefore.Thatindicatesthattheexperimentapparentlystimulatestudentsinterests.ThestudentsalsorecognizetheimportanceofEnglishgrammar.Q1forexample,47.5%studentsagreethatgrammaristhemostimportantcomparedwith34.4%(21students)beforeexperiment.Inaddition,theybecomemoreconfidentthanbeforebecauseofthenewteachingmethod,theyknowhowtounderstandtheabstractstructuresthroughtheirmeaningsnotbymechanicalmemory.59%students(36studentschooseA)becomemoreconfidentthanbefore,whichis36%(22studentschooseA).28 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文WiththeConstrualTheory,teachercanbemoreflexibletoteachEnglishgrammar.Theclassroomwillnotbesoboringandstudentscouldunderstandwhatteacheristeachingthem.Inthatcase,studentswillfeelrelaxandnotbeafraidofteacher’squestions.Theywillbecomemoreactiveinclass.Thedatashowsthat68.9%studentscanperformactivelyinclass,comparedwith34.4%,whichis34.5%higherthanbefore.50504241403536302730282827pretest26242322posttest20182021181012111110997557620ABCABCABCABCABCQ6Q7Q8Q9Q10Figure4.8HistogramofQuestion6to10relatedtostudents’attitudeinclassQ6.Ifyoumeetthequestionsaboutgrammar,youwillA.turntoEnglishteacherorclassmatesforhelpB.lookupdocumentsmyselfC.givethemupQ7.Whatdoyouthinkoftheatmosphereoftheclassroom?A.seriousandnervousB.baldnessandvapidityC.relaxandharmonyQ8.DoyoufeelsleepyinEnglishclass?A.alwaysB.sometimesC.neverQ9.Doyouanswerthequestionsaboutgrammarinclass?A.Keepsilentanddon’tanswerquestionsB.Listentotheteachercarefullybutdon’tanswerquestionsvoluntarilyC.Listentotheteachercarefullyandanswerquestionsvoluntarily.Q10.Howmuchgrammarknowledgedoyoumasterinclass?A.AbsolutelyC.someD.littleThesefivequestionsaredesignedtoevaluatethestudents’attitudetowardstheEnglishclass.Fromthechartwecanseethereismuchdifferencebetweenbeforeandafterexperiment.Thelearningatmospherebecomesmorerelaxandharmony.Inthiscase,studentswillnotfeelnervousandthestudyefficiencywillimprovealot.TakeQ7forexample,68.9%studentsfeelrelaxinEnglishclass,comparedwith8%beforetheexperiment,theresearcherdesignsomeactivitiesinclassandteachthegrammarwiththedimensionsofConstrualTheoryatthesametime.Thismethodnotonlymakethestudentsunderstandthemeaningofthestructuresbutalsomasterthegrammarthroughtheactivities.ForQ9asanexample,beforetheexperimentmostofthestudentslistentotheteachercarefullybuttheydon’twanttoanswerquestionsin29 AStudyontheApplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolclassbecauseoftheirshyness.Whileaftertheexperiment,36%studentsliketoanswerquestionsandlistentotheteachercarefullyand81.9%studentscouldpayattentiontotheclass,comparedwith70%beforetheexperiment.Inaddition,becauseoftheteachingmethodchanged,nearlyallofthestudentsarenotsleepyinclass(only2studentchooseAinQ8).Aftertheexperiment,wecanseethatmostofthestudentswon’tgiveupthequestionstheydon’tunderstandtheymayaskteacherorstudentsforhelporlookupthedocumentsthemselves.TakeQ6forexample,23studentsgiveupthequestionsbeforeexperimentbutaftertheexperimentonly10.Themostimportantisthatmostofthestudentscanmastertheknowledge,onlysixstudentscannotunderstandbecauseoftheirlackoffundamentalknowledge.TheresultsshowthatthedimensionsofConstrualTheorywithsomecertainactivitiescanhelpstudentsfeelrelaxandmuchmoreconfidentinlearningEnglishgrammarthanbefore.50484541414035353333pretest3026posttest252320191716171514141413101010898555653230ABCABCDABCABCDQ11Q12Q13Q14Figure4.9Histogramofquestion11to14relatedtolearningmethodafterclassQ11.ThetimeyouspendonlearningEnglishcomparedwithbeforeafterclassA.moreB.thesameC.lessQ12.DoyouthinkgrammarisimportanttolearnEnglishwell?A.alwaysB.oftenC.sometimesD.neverQ13.Howdoyoumemorizegrammar?A.mechanicalmemorizeB.understandthemeaningofthestructureanddoexercisesC.othermethodsQ14.Doyoufinishthegrammarexerciseactively?A.alwaysB.oftenC.sometimesD.neverThispartisaboutstudents’learningconditionafterclassandwhethertheirlearningmethodisscientific.TheresultsshowthatstudentsafterclassspendmoretimeandenergyinEnglishlearningafterclass.Beforetheexperiment,23%studentsspendmoretimeon30 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文learningEnglishthanothersubjectswhileaftertheexperimentthefigureaddupto57%.MostofthestudentsrealizetheimportanceofEnglishgrammarandtheybelievethattheappropriatelearningmethodcanhelpthemmasterthegrammarquicklyandexactly.Whentheywereaskedhowtheymemorizegrammar,78.7%studentschooseA,whichmeansmechanicalmemorize.Infact,theydon’tunderstandwhythegrammarmustbeusedlikethis.Aftertheexperiment,manyofthemknowthemeaningoftheabstractgrammarandtheydosomeexercisestopractice.Inordertogetgoodscores,mostofthemcouldfinishtheexercisesactivelybothandbeforeclass.ButfromQ14,wecanseemoreandmorestudentsliketodothisaftertheexperiment.40studentschooseAandB,itis15morethanbefore.Thelastquestionisanopenquestion:“giveyourEnglishteachersuggestionabouthowtoteachEnglishgrammar.”allthestudentsfromthecontrolclassandexperimentalclassgivetheirsuggestions.Basicallyhavethefollowings:A.moremulti-mediateachingB.morechancesinclasstospeakoutC.teachingthroughlivelyactivitiesD.givethemsometimetodigesttheabstractstructures.Fromtheabovesuggestions,wecanseethatthestudentshaveshowntheirinterestsaboutEnglish.Whatteacherscandoistofulfillthem.Theyarehungeringforsomefreshteachingmethodtostimulatetheirmotivation.Theylikegettinginvolvedintheclassandtheyhopeteachercouldgivethemmorechancestospeakouttheirideas.4.2DiscussionIthasbeenstatedthatasanintegralpartoflanguagelearning,grammarplaysaveryimportantroleinforeignlanguagelearning.HowevertoomuchtimehasbeenspentonEnglishgrammarlittlehasbeenobtained.Traditionalteachingmethodaredevotedtotheintroductionofformation,acceptationandthestrategiesofmemorizationbutthecognitivefactorsintheprocessofgrammarteachingtendtobeignored.Inthissection,thedataanalysisresultsaretobeinterpreted.Atfirstaquestionnairewasdesignedbytheauthorforthepurposeofgatheringinformationaboutsubjects’attitudestowardEnglish,theirresponsetowardsEnglishclassroomandafterclass.Inaddition,twotestswerecarriedouttotestifytheeffectivenessofthenewteachingmethod.Theanalysisoftable4.6,table4.7andtable4.8indicatethatbeforetheexperimentmostofthesubjectsarepassivelearners,theydidn’treallyrecognizetheimportanceofgrammarinlearningEnglish.Althoughrotememorizationisnotviewedasthemosteffectiveteachingapproachtogrammar,itisstillwidelyused.Forstudentsinhighschool,grammarisstilloneoftheirheadachesinEnglishlearning.Theyjustmemorizethegrammarstructuresanddolotsofexercisestoconcretethemwithoutreallyunderstanding.Themeaningunderthestructureisignoredinhighschoolteaching,whichhashinderedlanguageteachinginsomeextent.WiththeGrammar-Translationteachingmethod,studentsshowlittleinterestsinEnglishgrammar.31 AStudyontheApplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolBecausetheyreallydon’tknowwhythestructuresshouldbeusedlikethat.TheapplicationofConstrualTheoryintheEnglishgrammarteachingwasdifferentfromthetraditionalteachingmethod.SinceasanactiveEnglishgrammarteaching,thedimensionsofconstrualtheoryaremoreeffectivethantraditionalmethod.Mostofthestudentsshowmuchenthusiasminit.Theteachingmethodbuiltuparelativelyrelaxedandharmoniousatmosphereforstudentsinclass.Thisteachingmethodreducedstudents’anxiety,increasedstudents’confidentsandmostofthemwereinterestedinspeakingouttheirideasaboutthemeaningofgrammar.Inaddition,thisteachingmethodmadestudentsvolunteertospendmoretimeinlearningEnglish.ThisenabledthemtouseEnglishfluentlyandaccurately.Inthetraditionalclassroom,studentsarethepassivelearnersandtheteacheristhecenterofclass.Theteacherwastheauthorityofknowledgeandexpectedstudentstopaymoreattentionandtimelearninggrammarandrecitingwords.Itaimedtomakestudentsdowellinallkindsofexams.Thetraditionalteachingmethoddidn’tadvocatediscussioninclassanditavoidemployingtasksandactivitiestoreinforcelanguagepracticeinsteadofreciting,doingdrillsattheendofeachmodel.Thisteachingmethodcouldn’tstimulatestudents’interestsandmotivationinsteadofbeingsleepyandbeingboring.ItwillmakestudentstiredoflearningEnglish,whichresultsthewrongattitudeoropinionsonEnglishlearning.MostofthestudentsbelievedthattolearnEnglishisjusttorecitethewordsandstructuresbyrote.Studentshardlyhavechancestospeakoutinclasstoshowthemselveswhichrestrainedstudents’initiativeinlearning.Itwasexpectedtheteachertogivemoretimeandopportunitiestodiscussandsolveproblemsinclass.TheapplicationofConstrualTheorytotheEnglishgrammarteaching,thestudentsallshowtheircuriositytothenewteachingmethodandtheywillnotrecitethegrammarrulesbyrote.Intheclass,studentshavetheopportunitytopresenttheircomprehensionaboutthestructureafterteacher’sexplaining.Thenewteachingapproachmakesthemgraspthegrammarrulemoreaccuratelyanduseitmorefreely.Whentheydotheexercise,theywillnotdotheexerciseonlyaccordingtothegrammarrulesbutalsorelyonthemeaningofthesentence.Asisknownintheanalysisoftestsscores,thepretestsoftheEGandCGshowednosignificantdifferenceforp>0.05.Intheposttest,thereissignificantdifferenceinbeforeandaftertheexperimentbecausep<0.05.Therefore,judgingfromthesedatapresentedabovetheConstrualTheoryindeedmadedifferenceinimprovingstudents’academicperformance.Andthisnewteachingapproachenabledstudentsinexperimentalclasstohaveabetteracademicperformancethanthosewhowereincontrolclass.Inordertohelphighschoolstudentseventuallyeffectivelyextricatefromdifficultyingrammarlearning,itisurgenttoexploreintotheapplicationofConstrualTheorytogrammarteachingandstimulatetheirmotivationandfostertheirinterestinEnglishgrammar.TheresultsshowthattheparticipantswouldspendmoretimeandenergyinlearningEnglish.Bothanalyzeshowthatstudentsprefertothenewteachingmethodratherthanthetraditionalone.32 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文ItcanbeconcludedthatapplyingConstrualTheoryintheEnglishgrammarteachinggivethechanceforstudentstospeakoutinclassandunderstandthegrammarrulesmorecorrectly.Fromthedatacollected,studentsheldapositiveattitudetowardsEnglishgrammarlearning.Theylearnedhowtosolvequestionsthemselves.4.3SummaryTheresearchhastestifiedhoweffectivelythehighschoolstudentslearnEnglishgrammarundertheConstrualTheorydesignedbytheauthorandmadeacomparisonofresultsbetweenpretestandposttestconductedinbothCGandEG.Aquestionnaireaboutthehighschoolstudents’attitudestowardEnglish,theirresponsetowardsEnglishclassroomandafterclasswasdesignedandcollectedbytheauthorbeforeandaftertheexperiment.Inaddition,apretestwascarriedoutamongthesubjects.IthasbeenfoundthattheEnglishgrammarlevelofEGandCGaresimilar.Thetwogroupswereexposedtothesametextbooksandtreatedwiththesameamounttimeof10weeks,duringwhichdifferentteachingmethodswereusedtotwogroups.Attheendoftheterm,theposttestwascarriedouttotestifytheeffectivenessoftheConstrualTheoryforEnglishgrammarteachingandlearningbycomparingwithtraditionalteachingmethod.TheresultsshowthatthereissignificantdifferencebetweenthetraditionalteachingmethodandthenewteachingmethodusedbyEG.ThisindicatedthattheEnglishgrammarteachingwithConstrualTheoryusedintheempiricalstudyimprovedthescoresofthesubjects.Thequestionnairewascarriedoutbeforeandaftertheexperiment.Theresultsshowthatstudentsareveryinterestedinthenewteachingmethod.TheyspendmoreenergyandtimeinlearningEnglish.Inaddition,theysuggestteachertogivethemmorechancestoexpressthemselvesinclass.ApparentlythenewteachingmethodstimulatestheirmotivationandinterestinlearningEnglishgrammar.AlltheanalysisofthedataobtainedfromtheexperimentindicatesthattheteachingmethodwithConstrualTheoryismoreefficientthanthetraditionalmethodinhighschool.Andbythecultivationofstudents’cognitiveawareness,theeffectivenessinEnglishgrammaracquisitioncanbeimprovedalot.TeachingEnglishgrammarwiththeknowledgeofcognitivelinguisticisstillavirginlandinchina,andfromtheperspectiveofhighschoolstudents,knowledgeofcognitivelinguisticisquitenewtothem,furtherresearchshouldbedevotedtothisarea.33 AStudyontheApplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolChapter5ConclusionThischapterwillmakeasummaryofthemajorfindingsintheresearchandstressimplicationsforEnglishgrammarteachingandlearning,andalsoaddressthelimitationsoftheresearchandproposesuggestionsforfutureresearch.5.1MajorFindingsIntheprocessoflanguageteachingandlearning,grammarisveryimportant.LanguagelearnersfacethetaskoflotsofboringgrammarstructurestomemorizewhentheylearnEnglisheveryday.Andteachersarealsofacingthetaskofhelpinglearnersunderstandandgraspthemaingrammarstructuresandimprovingtheirgrammarlearningefficiency.Grammaracquisitionisarelativelylongandgradualprocessconsistingofmanycomplicatedstructures.ThispaperisatentativestudyontheapplicationofConstrualTheorytoEnglishgrammarteachinginseniorhighschool.ConstrualTheoryconsistsoffivedimensions:Specificity,perspective,figure-ground,prominence,mentalscanning.Withthesefivedimensionstheauthordesignedcertainteachingprocedurestoteachgrammarstructures.ItaimstohelplearnersmasterthegrammarstructuresmoreefficientandimprovetheirintereststolearnEnglishgrammar.Withthetheoreticalframework,twotestsandaquestionnairehavebeenmade.Majorfindingsofthisempiricalstudyaresummedupasfollows:1)Theenhancementofconstrualawarenessplaysaroleinhelpinglearnersunderstandtheabstractgrammarstructuresmorevisualized.TheConstrualTheoryhelpsstudentsgraspthegrammarstructureswiththeirownexperienceandcognitivepatterns.ThisevokestheirintereststolearnEnglishgrammaralotandgreatlyimprovetheefficiencyofteachingEnglish.2)Fromtheanalysismadeinthetest,highschoolstudents’abilityofconstrualcanbecultivatednotonlyinshorttermbutalsoinlongterm.Withtheresultreported,mostofthestudentsshowinterestsinthenewteachingmethodandtheyareeagertohavemoreopportunitiestoimprovetheircommunicativecompetenceandspeakoutinclass.5.2LimitationsoftheStudyAlthoughthepresentstudyhasbeencarefullydesigned,it’sfarfromsatisfactory.Therearestillsomelimitationsduetothelimitationofenergy,time,experimentalenvironmentandsomeotherfactors.Wearenowsummarizingthemasfollows.(1)Giventheempiricalstudy,thesubjectsintheexperimentareonlyonehundredorsoandtheinstructiontimeisonly10weeks.Ifmoresubjectsandmoretimehadbeendevoted,thestudywouldbemorereliableandvalid.(2)Therearesomeuncertainfactorsinrespecttolearningandlearners.Theauthorhastriedherbesttobalancetheexperimentalclassandthecontrolclass,butthestudents’learningmotivation,learningautomationandmanyotherfactorswillmoreorlessinfluencethe34 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文results.(3)Anotherlimitationconcernsthedesignsofthetest.Thedesignsofthetestareexperienced-oriented.Morescientificdesignsofthetestswillmakethestudymorereliableandconvincing.(4)ItisnotenoughonlybasedonConstrualTheoryforEnglishgrammarteaching.IfmoreteachingmethodswereappliedtocooperatewithConstrualTheory,theeffectwouldbemoreobvious.Forexample,task-basedteachingmethodorinteractiveEnglishteachingmethodcouldbeusedtocooperatewithConstrualTheoryinEnglishclassroom.Asmentionedabove,Englishgrammarisahugeandcomplicatedsystemwithsomanylevelsresearched.Becauseofthelimitationoftimeandspaceinthisresearchandtheauthor’slimitationscopeoftheknowledge,thisresearchcouldonlyinvolvecertainaspectsoftheEnglishgrammar.MoreaspectsareexpectedtoberesearchedwiththeapplicationofConstrualTheory.5.3PedagogicalImplicationsConstrualTheorywasappliedintoEnglishgrammarteachingrequiresteacherstorenewtheirteachingrationalequickly.Andthenewcurriculumstandardpromotedthatteachersshouldgetridoftraditionalgrammarteachingmethodandtheyshoulddevelopstudents’stronggrammarconsciousnesstoapplythegrammarstructures.EachteacherneedunderstandthedestinationtolearngrammarnotforexambutforexpressingthemselvesinEnglishfluentlyandaccurately.SotheEnglishteachersshouldenlargetheirvision,reconstructtheirknowledgestructureandimprovetheirprofessionalknowledge.BasedontheEnglishlevelofhighschoolstudents,inthecourseofactualEnglishteaching,teachershadbetterfollowthecognitionrulesoflearnersandcombinetheConstrualTheorywiththetraditionalteachingmethodinaflexibleway.Todevelopstudentscognitiveconsciousnessisbeneficialtogrammaracquisition.IflearnersarefrequentlyexposedtothedimensionsofConstrualTheory,theywillcomprehendagrammarstructurewithConstrualTheorynaturally.InthelightofthefactthatConstrualTheoryisreallynewtostudents,moreclassroomactivitiesshouldbeproposedtoenhancelanguagelearners’cognitiveawarenessandturncognitiveawarenessintoanadditionalchannelforgrammaracquisition.5.4SuggestionsforFurtherResearchThestudyofEnglishgrammarteachingontheConstrualTheoryhasbeenfarfrombeingexploredthoroughly.ConstrualTheoryisacomplicatedcognitivemethodandtheenhancementofcognitiveawarenessplaysanessentialroleingrammarlearningandteaching.IntheviewofprevioustheoreticalandempiricalstudiesontherelationshipbetweenConstrualTheoryandEnglishgrammarteachinginhighschool,thefollowingsuggestionsareofferedforfutureresearch35 AStudyontheApplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchool1)AlargequantityofempiricalstudyisrequiredforthepurposeofverifyingtheeffectivenessofConstrualTheoryinEnglishgrammarteachingandinauthenticlanguageuse.2)AlthoughthetentativemodelofintegratinganalysisofConstrualTheorywithgrammarteachingdefinitelyprovidesaneffectivechannelforgrammarlearningwithexamplesroughlyorganizedintermsofvehicles,thereisstillmuchdesignandresearchworthytobedonesuchasagedifference,genderdifference,culturaldifference.3)AlthoughtheConstrualTheorycanexplainsomecognitiveprocessofgrammarstructuresandtheirmeanings,itisnotenough.InthecourseofEnglishgrammarteachingteachersshouldintegratethismethodwithotherteachingmethodssuchastask-basedteachingmethod,cooperativelearningetc.theeffectwillbemoreapparent.4)Majorityoftheresearchesarecarriedoutsofardependingonlinguisticdataorganizedmainlybytheresearcher’sintrospection.Iftheauthenticdatasuchasthoserandomlychosenfromalargecorpuscouldbeencouragedinthefuture.36 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辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文AppendixAPre-test1)Heisusedto_____themattersthatIdon’tknow_____.A.dealingwith;whattodowiththemB.dealingwith;howtodealwithC.dowith;whattodowithD.dowith;howtodealwiththem2)You’dbetternotphonethemanagerbetween7and8tomorrowevening;he____animportantmeetingthen.A.wouldhaveB.willbehavingC.willhavehadD.willhave3)IfhewantstogotoBeijingtonight,hehasnoalternativebut_____byair.A.goB.togoC.goingD.gone4)----Justamoment.Ihaven’tfinishedpackingmysuitcase.-----______It’shightimeweleftfortheairport.A.GoaheadB.TakeiteasyC.HurryupD.That’sfine5)-----WhatshouldIdowiththispassage?------______themainideaofeachparagraph.A.FindingoutB.FoundoutC.FindoutD.Tofindout6)______aroundtheWaterCube,wewerethentakentoseetheBird’sNestforthe2008OlympicGames.A.HavingshownB.TobeshownC.HavingbeenshownD.Toshow7)ThefilmMeiLanfang,______LiMingplaysthestarringrole,hasgaineddrawntheworld’sattentiontoourtraditionalChineseart.A.whatB.thatC.whichD.where8)Ifhe______myadvice,hewouldn’thavelosthisjob.A.followedB.shouldfollowC.hadfollowedD.wouldfollow9)Timisingoodshapephysically_____hedoesn’tgetmuchexercise.A.ifB.eventhoughC.unlessD.aslongas10)IinvitedJoeandLindatodinner,but____ofthemcame.A.neitherB.eitherC.noneD.both11)__________inhealth,hepersistedindoingtheexperiment.A.AshewaspoorB.PoorashewasC.PoorwasheD.Poorhewasthough12)Experimentofthiskind_____inboththeUSandEuropewellbeforetheSecondWorldWar.A.haveconductedB.havebeenconductedC.hadconductedD.hadbeenconducted13)EveryyearafloodoffarmersarriveinShenzhenforthemoney-makingjobsthey____39 AStudyontheApplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolbeforeleavingtheirhometowns.A.promisedB.werepromisedC.havepromisedD.havebeenpromised14)Thiscoastalarea______anationalwildlifereservelastyear.A.wasnamedB.namedC.isnamedD.names15)Inordertofind___betterjob,hedecidedtostudy____secondforeignlanguage.A.the;aB.a;aC.the;theD.a;the16)Peter’sjacketlookedjustthesameasJack’s,butitcost____his.A.asmuchtwiceasB.twiceasmuchasC.muchastwiceasD.astwicemuchas17)______fromthepastperformance,heisnotlikelytodoverywellinhisexams.A.JudgingB.JudgedC.ConsideredD.Considering18)MrLisaidthosewhohadfailed_____furthertrainingandasecondchancetopasstheexamthenextweek.A.weregivenB.hadgivenC.weretogiveD.wouldbegiven19)Accordingtotheartdealer,thepainting_____togoforatleastamilliondollars.A.isexpectedB.expectsC.expectedD.isexpecting20)_______ofthesurfaceoftheearth_______coveredwithwater.A.Two-thirds;isB.Two-third;isC.Two-thirds;areD.Two-third;are21)Thenewsecretaryissupposedtoreporttothemanagerassoonasshe______.A.willarriveB.arrivesC.isgoingtoarriveD.isarriving22)________yoursavingsofast,oryouwillendupasabeggar.A.StoptospendB.TostoptospendC.StopspendingD.Stoppingspending23)I’llneverforget____youforthefirsttime.A.tomeetB.meetingC.tohavemetD.havingtobemeeting24)Thenewsecretaryissupposedtoreporttothemanagerassoonasshe____A.willarriveB.arrivesC.isgoingtoarriveD.isarriving25)Jackdescribedhisfather,who_____abraveboymanyyearsago,asastrong-willedman.A.wouldbeB.wouldhavebeenC.mustbeD.musthavebeen26)I____havewatchedthatmovie------it’llgivemehorribledreams.A.shouldn’tB.needn’tC.havetoD.don’thaveto27)Ihavelostoneofmygloves.I_____itsomewhere.A.mustdropB.musthavedroppedC.mustbedroppingD.musthavebeendropped28)ItoldSallyhowtogethere,butperhapsI_____forher.A.hadtowriteitoutB.musthavewrittenitoutC.shouldhavewrittenitoutD.oughttowriteitout40 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文29)Myuncle________yet,otherwisehewouldhavecalledmetopickhimup.A.mustn’thavearrivedB.shouldn’thavearrivedC.can’thavearrivedD.needn’thavearrived30)Whenhegotmarried,he______downinTokyo.A.livedB.gotC.tookD.settled31)------DidLindaseethetrafficaccident?-------No,nosooner______thanithappened.A.hadshegoneB.shehadgoneC.hasshegoneD.shehasgone32)----DoyouknowwhereDavidis?Icouldn’tfindhimanywhere.-----Well.He______havegonefar------hiscoat’sstillhere.A.shouldn’tB,mustn’tC.can’tD.wouldn’t33)Whatapity!Consideringhisabilityandexperience,he_____itbetter.A.needhavedoneB.musthavedoneC.canhavedoneC.mighthavedone34)-----Therewerealreadyfivepeopleinthecarbuttheymanagedtotakemeaswell.------It_______acomfortablejourney.A.can’tbeB.shouldn’tbeC.mustn’thavebeenD.couldn’thavebeen35)______histelephonenumber,shecouldn’tgetintouchwithTomandinformhimofthechangeoftheirplane.A.NotknowingB.NottoknowC.HavingknownD.Havingnotknown36)AsfarasIknow,heisawastefulman.Heboughteverythingthatpleasedhim,____thecost.A.howeverB.whateverC.evenifD.nomatter37)Wehavevarioussummercampsforyourholidays.Youcanchoose______basedonyourowninterests.A.eitherB.eachC.oneD.it38)-----ShallIhelpcleanthekitchen,Mum?------Thankyou.Butyou_____itbecauseIcandoitmyself.A.mustn’thavedoneB.wouldn’thavedoneC.mightn’thavedoneD.haven’tgottodo39)Onlyinthisway______tomakeimprovements.A.youcanhopeB.canyouhopeC.youdidhopeD.didyouhope40)-----ShirleywonthefirstprizeintheEnglishspeechcontest.------Woo!_______shehasmadesincethebeginningofthisterm!A.WhatgreatprogressB.Howgreatprogress41 AStudyontheApplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolC.WhatagreatprogressD.Howgreataprogress41)Helenhadtoshout_____abovethesoundofmusic.A.makingherselfhearB.tomakeherselfhearC.makingherselfheardD.tomakeherselfheard42)Johnisthetallestboyintheclass,_____accordingtohimself.A.fivefooteightastallasB.astallasfivefooteightC.asfivefooteighttallasD.astallfivefooteightas43)Bettyisverypopularamongus,becausesheiseasy____.A.tobegettingalongB.tobegetalongwithC.togetalongwithD.togetalong44)AlthoughshedidnotknowBostonwell,shemadeherway_____toBosonCommon.A.easyenoughB.enougheasyC.easilyenoughD.enougheasily45)-----Iamgoingtothemall,Mrs,King.Doyouhaveanything_____?------No,thanks.A.tobuyB.tobeboughtC.boughtD.beingbought46)I_____youtheexcitingnews,butyouwerenotathome.A.meanttellingB.meanttohavetoldC.meanthavingtoldD.meanttotell47)Thereason_____hewaslateforthemeetingwas_____hewasheldupinatrafficjam.A.why;becauseB.that;thatC.why;thatD.that;because48)_______bytheadvancesintechnology,manyfarmershavesetupwindfarmsontheirland.A.BeingencouragedB.EncouragingC.EncouragedD.Havingencouraged49)Johnswimsverywell,butIdon’tliketheway_____healwaysshowsoffinpublic.A.whichB.howC.bywhichD.that50)TheywillflytoWashington,______theyplantostayfortwoorthreedays.A.whereB.thereC.whichD.when42 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文AppendixBPost-test1)Peopleseemedtohaveforgottenhowmanyyearsago__thepowerstationwasbuiltthere.A.itwasthatB.wasitthatC.itwaswhenD.wasitwhen2)----Inwhichpartoftheplaywas__yourbrotherappeared?----Inthelasttenminutes.A.thatB.whichC.whereD.why3)____shewasstandingandwaitingforabusthatshecaughtsightoftheformerPresidentClinton.A.ItwaswhileB.AssoonasC.WhileD.Duringthetimewhen4)John’ssuccesshasnothingtodowithgoodluck.Itisyearsofhardwork____hasmadehimwhatheis.A.whyB.whenC.whichD.that5)Itwasplayingcomputergames___costtheboyplentyoftime__heoughttohavespentdoinghomework.A.that;thatB.which;thatC.which;whenD.that;when6)Isawhim__ajacketatthattime.A.wearingB.puttingonC.havingonD.bothAandB7)Listen!Doyouhearsomeone____intheneatroom?A.singingB.singC.tosingD.sang8)Aftergettinglostinastorm,anumberofthenavyteam____fourdayslater.A.rescuedB.wasrescuedC.hasrescuedD.hadbeenrescued9)Iftheywinthefinaltonight,theteamaregoingtotouraroundthecity____bytheirenthusiasticsupporters.A.beingcheeredBbecheeredC.tobecheeredD.werecheered10)----Whydon’twechoosethatroadtosavetime?-----Thebridgetoit_____.A.hasrepairedB.isrepairedC.isbeingrepairedD.willberepaired11)Wouldyoupleasekeepsilent?Theweatherreport______andIwanttolisten.A.isbroadcastB.isbeingbroadcastC.hasbeenbroadcastD.hadbeenbroadcast12)Itissaidthatanewrobot____byhimbynextweek.A.designedB.hasbeendesignedC.willbedesignedD.willhavebeendesigned13)Johntalkedwithmeforaboutanhouryesterday.Never___himtalksomuch.A.hadIheardB.didIhearC.IhadheardD.Iheard14)_______thatshewasoftenpraisedinpublicA.SogoodagirlshewasBSuchagoodgirlwassheC.ShewassuchgoodgirlD.Sodiligentwassheagirl43 AStudyontheApplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchool15)Johnopenedthedoor.There____hehadneverseenbefore.A.agirldidstandB.agirlstoodC.didagirlstandD.stoodagirl.16)Accordingtothe_____situation,he_____hisopiniononhowtodealwiththematterA.present;presentB.presenting;presentedC.presented;presentingD.present;presented17)______withoursmallapartment,ouruncle’shouseseemedlikeapalace.A.Comparing;B.ComparedC.TocompareD.Havingbeencompared18)---_____theChristmascard_____toMrWhite?---No.itisstillonthedesk.A.Has;givenB.as;givenC.as;beengiven.ill;begiven19)______frightenedus______atigerturnedupsuddenlyinfrontofus.A.Itwas;thatB.What;wasC.It;thatwasD.What;wasthat20)Mary____adresswhenshecutherfinger.A.madeB.ismakingC.wasmakingD.makes21)Asshe____thenewspaper,Granny_____asleep.A.read;wasfallingB.wasreading;fellC.wasreading;wasfallingD.read;fell22)----HavefinishedreadingJaneEyre?----No,I______myhomeworkalldayyesterday.A.wasdoingB.woulddoC.hadsoldD.do23)Excuseme,I______Iwasblockingyourway.A.didn’trealizeB.realizeC.haverealizedD.wouldrealizing24)_____fromheartdiseaseforyears,myfatherhastakesomemedicinewithhimwhereverhegoes.A.SufferedB.SufferingC.HavingsufferedD.Beingsuffered25)Istillremember____totheFamenTempleandwhatIsawthere.A.totakeB.tobetakenC.takingD.beingtaking26)IheartheyhavepromotedTom,nuthedidn’tmention____whenwetalkedonthephone.A.topromoteB.havingbeenpromotedC.havingpromotedD.tobepromoted27)Thetrees________inthestormhavebeenmovedofftheroad.A.beingblowndownB.blowndownC.blowingdownD.toblowdown28)Somepeopleeatwiththeireyes.Theyprefertoorderwhat____nice.A.looksB.smellsC.feelsD.tastes29)Afterhebecameconscious,heremembered______and______ontheheadwitharod.A.toattack;hitB.tobeattacked;tobehitC.attacking;behitC.havingbeenattacked;hit30)Atthesightofthe____snake,thereappeareda_____lookonherface.44 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文A.terrifying;terrifyingB.terrified;terrifiedC.terrifying;terrifiedD.terrified;terrifying31)Hestaysuptoolateeverynight,____tocatchupwithhisclassmates.A.determinedB.determiningC.todetermineD.determine32)Wefeel____ourdutytomakeourcountryabetterplace.A.itB.thisC.thatD.one33)Thepoliceofficersinourcityworkhard____therestofuscanliveasafelife.A.incaseB.asifC.inorderthatD.onlyif34)----_____whenhasthecountrybeenopentointernationaltrade?-----1987,Isuppose.A.SinceB.InC.FromD.After35)Inpeace,too,theRedCrossisexpectedtosendhelp____thereishumansuffering.A.whoeverB.howeverC.whateverD.wherever36)__________,hetalksalotabouthisfavoritesingersafterclass.A.AquietstudentashemaybeB.QuietstudentashemaybeC.BeaquietstudentashemayD.Quietashemaybeastudent37)Nomatterhow_____,itisnotnecessarilylifeless.A.adesertmaybedryB.dryadesertmaybeC.mayadesertbedryD.drymayadesertbe38)Hewastoldthatitwouldbeatleastthreemoremonths_____hecouldrecoverandreturntowork.A.whenB.beforeC.sinceD.that39)DrSmith,togetherwithhiswifeanddaughter,______visitBejingthissummer.A.isgoingtoB.aregoingtoC.wasgoingtoD.weregoingto40)Youwillfindtaxiswaitingatthebusstation______youcanhiretoreachyourhostfamily.A.whichB.whereC.thatD.which41)ItwasApril29,2011______PrinceWilliamandKateMiddletonwalkedintothepalacehalloftheweddingceremony.A.thatB.whenC.sinceD.before42)Asachild,Jackstudiedinavillageschool,____isnamedafterhisgrandfather.A.whichB.whereC.whatD.that43)StephenHawkingbelievesthattheearthisunlikelytobetheonlyplanet____lifehasdevelopedgradually.A.thatB.whereC.whichD.whose44)InChina,thenumberofcitiesisincreasing______developmentisrecognizedacrosstheworld.45 AStudyontheApplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolA.whereB.whichC.whereD.that45)Manychildren,_____parentsareawayworkinginbigcities,aretakengoodcareofinthevillage.A.theirB.whoseC.ofthemD.withwhom46)Itissaidthatthetoysofthiskindinmyfriend’stoyshop_____out,sodon’tbeafraidthatthey_____.A.havebeensold;don’tsellB.havesold;aren’tsoldC.havesold;don’tsellD.havebeensold;aren’tsold47)----Hehastofinishtheexperimenttoday.Hemustbeinthelab,_________?-----Thatisquitepossible.A.mustn’theB.won’theC.doesn’theD.isn’the48)Insomecountries,______somepeopledon’tevenhavefreshwaterorbasichealthcare,reachingthetargetwillbedifficulty,______helpfromtheinternationalcommunity.A.where;despiteB.that;thoughB.where;althoughC.which;despite49)_______sodelicious,thefoodinthismarketwassoldoutsoon.A.TastingB.TastedC.HavingbeentastedD.Beingtasted50)Thestudentsenteredtheclassroom,smilingand____,and____downtohavetheirlessons.A.talked;satB.talking;sittingC.talking;satD.talked;sitting46 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文AppendixCQuestionnaire实验前,后高中学生英语语法调查问卷本问卷包含客观问题、量表问题和主观题问题。填写此问卷大概需要10分钟，您的数据对我们的研究至关重要，请您认真作答，谢谢合作！（未有说明均为单选）性别：____年龄:______到目前为止你有几年学习英语的经历:______1）你认为学习英语最重要的是什么？A.语法B.词汇C.阅读D.作文2)你学习英语的目的是什么？A.为了应付考试B.为了将来更好地学习打基础C.为了老师和父母3)你对英语语法的学习感兴趣吗？A.有很大兴趣B.比较感兴趣C.不太感兴趣D.一点不感兴趣4)目前的这种授课方式是否让你对自己的语法学习更有信心？A.是的B.不是C.不知道5）你认为自己在英语语法学习的积极主动性方面A.积极主动参与英语学习B.被动接受知识6）遇到不懂的语法题，你会A.向老师同学请教B.查工具书D.不会就放弃7）你觉得英语课堂氛围A.严肃紧张B.枯燥乏味C.轻松和睦融洽8）上英语课时你会昏昏欲睡？A.经常B.偶尔C.从不9）你上课回答关于语法的问题A.上课很沉默，不怎么回答问题B.上课时积极投入按老师要求做，但不主动回答问题C.课上很投入，积极回答问题10）英语课堂上，你对老师讲授的语法内容掌握情况A.完全掌握B.基本掌握C.不太明白11）你用在学英语上的时间与其它课程相比A.多B.不多C.少12）你认为方法对于学习英语语法的重要性A.很重要B.比较重要C.有没有差不多D.不重要13)你是怎样记忆英语语法的？A.死记硬背B.理解句法结构的意义，配合练习C.其它方式14）平时你很积极的完成语法练习吗？47 AStudyontheApplicationofConstrualTheoryinEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolA.很积极B.积极C.一般D.拖沓15）老师应该如何改进语法教学，你的建议是__________________________48 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文AcknowledgmentsThisthesishasbeenfinishedafterthreemonths’hardwork.Intheprocessofwritingthisthesis,Imetlotsofdifficulties.Fortunately,thereweremanypeoplehelpme.Withtheirhelp,patienceandsupport,thisthesiswasfinishedsuccessfully.First,I’dliketogivemygreatgratitudetomysupervisorCuiLin,whowassokindandpatienttoread,criticizeandpolishallthedraftsofthisthesis.IalsowantedtoexpressmygreatappreciationtoalltheprofessorsofEnglishdepartmentinLiaoningNormalUniversity,Ihavelaidafoundationformyresearchworkbecauseoftheirinstructionsandlectures.Second,Iwouldliketoextendmythankstomyclassmateswhohelpedmeduringmywritingofthethesis.Third,IappreciatedthosewritersandeditorswhosearticlesandbooksIhaveread,andwillbenefitforever.49