基于语料库的英汉谚语隐喻特征的认知对比研究 87页

分类号：硕士学位论文ACorpus-basedCognitiveContrastiveStudyofTitle:ProverbialMetaphorsinEnglishandChinese基于语料库的英汉谚语隐喻特征的认知对题目：比研究学科、专业：研究方向：英语语言文学语言学作者姓名：导师及职称：陈欧阳俊林娜副教授论文提交日期：2014年5月授予学位日期：安徽师范大学学位评定委员会办公室万方数据 学位论文独创性声明本人声明所呈交的学位论文是本人在导师指导下进行的研究工作及取得的研究成果，与我一同工作的同志对本研究所做的任何贡献均已在论文中作了明确的说明并表示谢意，除了文中特别加以标注和致谢的地方外，论文中不包含其他人已经发表或撰写过的研究成果。学位论文作者签名：签字日期：年月日学位论文版权使用授权书本学位论文作者完全了解安徽师范大学有关保留、使用学位论文的规定：学校有权保留并向国家有关部门或机构送交论文的复印件和电子版，允许论文被查阅和借阅。本人授权安徽师范大学可以将学位论文的全部或部分内容编入有关数据库进行检索，可以采用影印、缩印或扫描等复制手段保存、汇编学位论文。保密的学位论文在解密后适用本授权书。学位论文作者签名：导师签名：签字日期：年月日签字日期：年月日学位论文作者获学位后去向：工作单位：通讯地址：万方数据电话：邮编： ACorpus-basedCognitiveContrastiveStudyofProverbialMetaphorsinEnglishandChinese陈娜安徽师范大学硕士学位论文二○一四年五月万方数据 本论文经答辩委员会全体委员审查，确认符合安徽师范大学硕士学位论文质量要求。答辩委员会签名:主席:(工作单位、职称)委员:导师:万方数据 ACorpus-basedCognitiveContrastiveStudyofProverbialMetaphorsinEnglishandChineseByChenNaUndertheSuperstitionofProfessorOuyangJunlinAThesisSubmittedtoTheSchoolofForeignStudiesAnhuiNormalUniversityInPartialFulfillmentoftheRequirementsFortheDegreeofMasterofArtsMay2014万方数据 AcknowledgementsThecompletionofthisthesiswouldbeimpossiblewithoutthosewhoofferedassistance,supportandencouragementtomeinthecourseofcorpusstudyandthesis-writing.Iwouldliketoexpressmygratitudetothemthroughthisopportunity.Firstandforemost,Iwouldliketoexpressmygenuinethankstomydearsupervisor,ProfessorOuyangJunlin.Hehelpsandteachesmealotinthefieldofmystudyaswellasmylife.Ilearnedhowtodoacorporaresearchandhowtoovercomedifficultiesinlife.HiswordsalwaysgivemeacleardirectionwhenIgetconfused.Iwouldhaveneverbeenabletocompletemypaperwithouthisvaluableadvicesandpatientguidance.Whathehastoldanddonewillstillbemydirectionandguidanceinmyfuturestudy.Secondly,IwouldextendthankstoallteachersImetintheseyears.Theyhelpedmetoknowmoreaboutacademicworld.Igotlotsofinspirationintheirclasses.Thirdly,Iwouldsaythankyoutomydearfriendsandclassmates.Itisyouthatenrichmyuniversitylifeandsupportmetoachievemyacademicgoals.AllofyouaccompanymewheneverIfeeldisappointedandunconfident.Lastbutnotleast,Iwouldtoexpressmygratitudemydearparentswhosupportmebothfinanciallyandpsychologicallyandhelpmefinishthestudyandimprovemyself.I万方数据 AbstractChineselanguageisrichinmetaphors,especiallyChineseproverbs.Inrecentyears,proverbstudystartedtoresearchproverbialmetaphorsfromtheviewofcognitionandculturalmodelinsteadofrhetoric.Thethesiswillstandonthebasisofcognitivemetaphortheory,combinedwithculturalmodelandcognitivepragmatics,tocomparemetaphoricalproverbsinChineseandEnglish,soastoexploretheunderlyingworkingmechanismandpragmaticfunctionsofmetaphoricalproverbs.Differentfromtraditionalmetaphorviewandproverbresearch,thethesisisguidedbythecognitivemetaphortheoriesproposedbyLakoffandGibbs,andtheinteractivepatternsbetweenmetaphorandmetonymyconcludedbyRuizedeMendozaetal,todiscussthefollowingresearchquestions:1.Whatistheunderlyingworkingmechanisminproverbialmetaphors?2.IssuchmechanismcommonlyacceptedbyEnglishandChinese?3.WhatcausethesimilaritiesanddiscrepanciesintheselectionofthesourcedomainforthetargetdomainandintheinterpretationofthetargetdomainbetweenChineseandEnglishmetaphoricalproverbs?4.Isthereanyinclinationintheactualuseofmetaphoricalproverbsintwodifferentlanguages?Theresearchapproachesinthethesismainlyarequalitativeandquantitativeanalysisandparallelcomparison.Thedataherearedividedintotwosorts.Thoseinfirstsortarecollectedandcategorizedinaccordancewithfourconcepts：TIME,LOVE,CHANCE,FRIENDSHIP.Conceptualmetaphorsunderoneconceptwillbegeneralizedthroughdetailedanalysisoneachproverb.Then,theresultswillbecompared.ThesecondsortofdataarecollectedaccordingtosharedmeaningsbetweenEnglishandChinese.Then,allproverbswillbesearchedincorporaon-line,asCOCA,BNC,TIMEandCCL,tofindouttherealsituationofproverbsusedindailylanguage,tofigureoutthefrequencyindailyuse.Theresearchresultsare:(1)thereisageneralworkingschemaformetaphoricalproverbs;(2)culturalmodelsandcontextualinfluencescausethesimilaritiesanddifferencesintheselectionandinterpretationofthedomians;(3)accordingtothedatahere,therisaninclinationintheactualuseofproverbsindailylife.Thesignificanceofthispaperliesinimprovingthecognitivestudyofmetaphorsthroughfocusingonworkingmechanismofmetaphoricalproverbs,advancingthediscussionbeyondcognitiveleveltoincludecultural,contextualandpragmaticlevelsandII万方数据 movingawayfromindependentproverbsanalysistofocusonproverbsinrealusecollectedincorporaon-line.Keywords:metaphoricalproverb;cognitivemetaphorandcognitivepragmatics;workingmechanism;corpus;contrastbetweenEnglishandChineseIII万方数据 摘要汉语蕴含丰富的隐喻，其中谚语更是突出。近年来，对谚语的研究开始摆脱修辞学，尝试从认知视角重新看待谚语中的隐喻现象，也出现了对谚语文化模式的探讨。本文立足于认知隐喻视角，并结合文化模式和认知语用层面，对英汉隐喻性谚语进行对比研究，注重探讨隐喻性谚语的内在认知机制和认知语用功能。与传统隐喻观和传统谚语研究不同，本文以Lakoff和Gibbs的认知隐喻相关理论为指导，结合RuizedeMendoza等人总结的隐喻和借喻互动模式，探讨隐喻性谚语的下列四个问题：1谚语隐喻的内在工作机制是什么？2这一工作机制是否在英语和汉语中共享？3有哪些因素导致了英汉隐喻性谚语在源域的选择和目标域的映射方式上的异同？4英汉隐喻性谚语的实际使用情况反映了什么样的倾向性？本文主要采用基于语料库的定量定性研究方法和平行对比研究方法，研究的语料分为两类：第一类数据是围绕四种概念域：时间；爱；机遇和友谊，通过系统查找、筛选获得，再经过总结、归纳整理出这四种概念域下的谚语数据表现为几种概念映射方式。英语谚语和汉语谚语分开进行，最后列表对照。第二类数据为搜索到的享有共同隐喻意义的英汉谚语，成对排列。并借助语料库COCA,BNC,TIME和北京大学语言学研究中心，检索其在实际语言中的使用频率。本文研究的结果有：1.英汉谚语隐喻的内在工作机制是相同的；2.文化模式和语境影响了隐喻过程中源域和目标域的选择和映射方式；3.根据本文的研究数据，英汉谚语在使用频率上存在一定倾向性，汉语使用言语频率高于英语。本文的研究将首先为认知隐喻理论特别是关于隐喻内在工作机制方面的论证提供更多的实证依据；其次，较同类文章而言，语用和文化层面的涉及，扩宽了谚语隐喻认知研究的范围；最后，基于语料库的定量定性分析方法在问题阐释中更有说服力。关键词：隐喻性谚语；认知隐喻和认知语用；工作机制；语料库；英汉对比IV万方数据 ContentsAcknowledgements..............................................................................................................IAbstract..............................................................................................................................II摘要................................................................................................................................IVChapter1Introduction...................................................................................................1Chapter2LiteratureReview..........................................................................................42.1Cognitivemetaphorstudy........................................................................................42.1.1Relatedmetaphorstudiesabroad...................................................................42.1.2Relatedstudiesathome.................................................................................72.2Reviewsofcognitivestudyofproverbcomprehension..........................................92.2.1Thedefinitionofproverbs.............................................................................92.2.2Relatedstudiesabroad.................................................................................102.2.3Relatedstudiesathome...............................................................................122.3Summary................................................................................................................13Chapter3TheoreticalFramework..............................................................................143.1ConceptualMetaphorTheory................................................................................143.1.1Conceptualmetaphor...................................................................................143.1.2Conceptualmetaphorandculture................................................................153.2GreatChainMetaphorTheory...............................................................................163.2.1TheGenericIsSpecificMetaphor...............................................................173.2.2TheGreatChainofBeingandtheNatureofThings...................................183.2.3TheMaximofQuantity...............................................................................183.3CulturalModelsandICMs....................................................................................193.3.1CulturalModels...........................................................................................193.3.2ICMs............................................................................................................193.4ConceptualInteractivePatterns...........................................................................203.5Thecorpusandsearchmethodology.....................................................................23Chapter4SampleAnalysis...........................................................................................254.1Proverbsworkingschema......................................................................................25V万方数据 4.2Culturalpatternsreflectedinproverbsofthetwolanguages.......................................354.2.1Sampleanalysis1.........................................................................................364.2.2Sampleanalysis2.........................................................................................374.2.3Sampleanalysis3.........................................................................................404.3PragmaticanalysisofproverbsinEnglishandChinese.........................................414.3.1Theeffectofcontext.....................................................................................424.3.2Thecomparisonofproverbsdistributioninusebetweenthetwolanguages44Chapter5Conclusion.....................................................................................................495.1Majorfindings........................................................................................................495.2Limitationsandsuggestionsforfutureresearches.................................................50Bibliography.......................................................................................................................51AppendixⅠ........................................................................................................................56AppendixⅡ......................................................................................................................64附：本人读研期间发表科研论文及获奖情况一览表.........................................73VI万方数据 Chapter1IntroductionProverbsinviteextensivelinguisticresearchfortheiruniquefeaturesthatreflectingindirectlyanin-depthdidacticmeaningortruthwithinashortphraseorsentence,sometimesclothedinhumorousorculturalexpressions.Theyarecomplex,intriguingandimportantverbalentities(Merlin1991:VII).Therefore,theyattractavastnumberofstudiesfromdiversepointsofviews—rhetorical,cultural,cognitiveandliterary.Manypaperscouldbefoundtoexplicatetheproverbs’formalfeatures,classifications,functions,culturalelementsandinter-translationbetweenproverbsintwodifferentlanguages.Amongthesestudies,theexplorationintothecognitiveaspectstimulatesthepresentstudy.TherepresentativeworkinthisfieldisdonebyLakoffandTurner(1989)inMorethanCoolReason,inwhichtheydiscusstheworkingmechanismforproverbunderstandingonthetheoreticalfoundationofcognitivemetaphor.However,itneedsmoreempiricalstudiestoconfirmthattheworkingmechanismisvalidtoallproverbs,insteadofspeculationonselectedexamples.Inaddition,theinteractivepatternofmetaphorandmetonymy,proposedbyRuizdeMendozaIbanez(1999a)intensifiesthewriter’scuriosityabouttheworkingmechanisminproverbinterpretationprocess.Initiatedbythequestionwhethertheinteractivepatternisgenerallyaccessibletoproverbsindifferentlanguages,suchasChineseandEnglish,theimportancehasbeenattachedtolinguisticcomparison.Whiletheliteraturereviewdiscoversthatthereareinsufficientdomesticcomparativestudiesofproverbsintermsofcognition,especiallyshortofcorpusanalysis,amorereliableresearchapproachinrecentyears.Mostproverbsarebornwithmetaphoricalfeaturesastheymirrorimplicitmeaningbymeansofotherexpressions—theytalkaboutonethingbutmeananother.Thereflectionofimplicitmeaningthroughsurfacemeaning,essentially,isametaphoricalmapping.Proverbsofmetaphoricalnaturearemetaphoricalproverbs,whicharethemainresearchdatainthisthesis.Hence,metaphor,themainfigurativeformofproverbrepresentation,isthekeytoproverbstudy.Asformetaphorstudy,since1980s,thetremendousinterestsinitstem1万方数据 fromcognitivelinguisticresearches,prevailingover20yearsinthewesternworld.MainworksincludeLakoff(1980;1987;1989;1992),Fauconnier(1994;1997)andGibbs(1994;1996;1997).Atthattime,manyfamoustheorieshavebeenproposedandthendeveloped.AndsuchspurtofcognitivemetaphorstudiesalsobroughttheresearchpassiontoChina,wheremuchmoreevidenceshavebeenprovided,suchasShu(2000;2004),Lan(1999;2005),Li(2006),Hu(2004),etc.ItisnowonderthatJohnsonsaid“weareinthemidstofametaphorimania.”(citedinXu2000:1-2).Inrecentdecades,thestudyofcognitivemetaphorshasenteredaninter-disciplinaryfield,extendingtopragmaticlinguistics.Alongwiththedevelopmentaltraceofmetaphorstudy,proverbstudyshouldalsobreakthetraditionalrestriction,probingintotheunderlyingcognitivemechanismthatleadsuptotheinterpretationandunderstandingofproverbs,inwhichprocess,enormouscorporaarereliableevidences.1.1TheobjectivesofthestudyWiththemainstreamofcognitivestudies,thepaperaimsatanalyzingthecharacteristicsandfunctionsofmetaphorsinproverbsfromcognitiveperspective.Thisstudy,theoretically,seekstoinvestigatethepowerandvalueofLakoff’smetaphorstudiesofproverbsinterpretation(1987,1989),testifyGibbsetal’sConceptualMetaphorHypothesis(CMH)andprovetheinteractivepatternworkingintheprocessofproverbsunderstandingputforwardbyRuizdeMendozaIbanez(1999a).Beyondthetheoreticaldemonstration,thepaperpragmaticallydiscussestheculturalandcontextualelementsgroundedonthecorpuscomparisonbetweenChineseandEnglishproverbsinrealdiscourses.Thediscrepancyinusagefrequencyofproverbsoftwolanguageswillalsobearguedthroughanalysis.Thekeyresearchquestionsinthisthesisare:1.Whatistheunderlyingworkingmechanisminproverbialmetaphors?2.IssuchmechanismcommonlyacceptedbyEnglishandChinese?3.WhatcausethesimilaritiesanddiscrepanciesintheselectionofthesourcedomainforthetargetdomainandintheinterpretationofthetargetdomainbetweenChineseandEnglishmetaphoricalproverbs?4.Isthereanyinclinationintheactualuseofmetaphoricalproverbsintwodifferentlanguages?2万方数据 1.2TheorganizationofthepaperThisthesisconsistsoffiveparts.Thefirstchapterisabriefaccountoftheresearchobjectivesandsignificance,aswellastheresearchquestions.Thesecondchapterisaliteraturereview,dealingwithpreviouscognitivestudiesofmetaphorsandproverbsabroadandathome,aswellasdiscussingthedefinitionsofproverb,layingasolidfoundationforthepresentstudy.Chapter3buildsupthetheoreticalframeworkforthefollowingresearches,introducingtheConceptualMetaphorTheory,GreatChainMetaphorTheory,CulturalModelsandICM.Thosetheoriesareinteractedandintersectedwitheachother,makingupatheoreticalintegrity.Then,theconceptualinteractivepatternsinproverbsaredemonstrated.Finally,itexplicatesthecorpusandresearchmethodologyofthestudy.Chapter4analyzeshowproverbsworkonthebasisoftheinteractivepatterns,whattheculturalmodelsfunctionasinproverbsofbothlanguages,andhowoftenmetaphoricalproverbsareusedindailycommunication.Theresearchesaresupportedbysampleproverbs,exemplaryexplanationsandevidentdatarepresentation.Andthelastchapteristheconclusionofthewholepapercoveringmajorfindingsandresearchlimitations.1.3SignificanceofthestudyCognitivestudyofproverbscouldgivesomedeeperinsightsintotherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthought.Thesignificanceofthestudyhereliesinimprovingthecognitivestudyofmetaphorsthroughfocusingonworkingmechanismofmetaphoricalproverbs,advancingthediscussionbeyondcognitiveleveltoincludecultural,contextualandpragmaticlevelsandmovingawayfromindependentproverbsanalysistofocusonproverbsinrealusecollectedincorporaon-line.3万方数据 Chapter2LiteratureReviewInthischapter,previousstudiesofcognitivemetaphorswillbeintroducedandreviewedingeneral,withfocusoncognitivemetaphorstudy,andcognitivemetaphoricalresearchesonproverbcomprehension.2.1Cognitivemetaphorstudy2.1.1RelatedmetaphorstudiesabroadCognitivelinguisticssetoffanddevelopedgraduallyin1980s,characterizedbytwoworkspavingthepathforitsadvance,MetaphorsWeLiveBy(Lakoff&Johnson,1980)andWomen,FireandDangerousThings:WhatCategoriesRevealaboutMind(Lakoff,1987).Thetwoworksanalyzedmetaphorsfromabrand-newview.Accordingtocognitivelinguistics,metaphorsreflectawayofthinkingbesidesasawayofspeakingandafigureofspeech.InMetaphorsWeLiveBy,LakoffandJohnsonsaidthat…metaphorispervasiveineverydaylife,notjustinlanguagebutinthoughtandaction.Ourordinaryconceptualsystem,intermsofwhichweboththinkandact,isfundamentallymetaphoricalinnature.”(Lakoff&Johnson,1980).ExperientialRealismisthephilosophicalbasisofcognitivemetaphors(Lakoff,1987),stressingthesignificanceofphysicalinfluenceonourmind.Therefore,thecognitivemetaphortheoryhasbeenpushedforwardwiththephilosophicalfoundationstatingthatmeaningisembodiedandoriginatedfromphysicalandsocialexperiences,heretheexperiencesarenotlimitedtoindividualonesbutextendedtoallhumanbeing’sandthesociallysharedones.During1990scognitivemetaphorsobtainedboostandformedacompletesystem.OthercognitivescholarssuchasGeorgeLakoff(1992),GeorgeLakoff&Mark.T(1989),Turner,M.(1987),Fauconnier,G.(1994),Fauconnier,G.(1997),Steen,G.&R.W.4万方数据 Gibbs.(1999),andRaymondW.Gibbs.(2004)providedmoreevidencesandenrichedthetheoreticalsystemofcognitivemetaphor.Amongthosestudies,LakoffandMarkTurnerposedtheGreatChainMetaphorTheory(GCMT).Fauconnier,GandTurner,Mpaidmoreattentiontothestudyofworkingmechanismundermetaphors.Steen,G.etalfocusedonthefunctionofculturalmodelsinmetaphoricalinterpretationandhighlightedthephysicalbasisofmetaphorunderstanding.InMetaphorinCognitiveLinguistics,GibbsandSteenappliedtheempiricalstudies.Alongwiththespurtofcognitivemetaphorresearches,cognitivelinguistsfoundanotherwayofextendingmeaningbesidesmetaphoricalmapping,thatismetonymy.Metonymyisalwayscloselylinkedtometaphor.LakoffandJohnson(1980)mentionedthat“likemetaphors,metonymicconceptsstructurenotjustalanguagebutourthoughts,attitudesandactions.And,likemetaphoricalconcepts,metonymicconceptsaregroundedinourexperience.”(Lakoff&Johnson,1980).Underthisdirection,somescholarsbegantoconsidercognitivemetonymy.RuizdeMendoza,F.(2000)discussedthemetonymicmappingsbetweendomains.AntonioBarcelona(2000)examinedthehypothesisthatconceptualmetaphorisnecessarilymotivatedbymetonymy,throughthebriefsurveyofmetonymic-basedmetaphorsinliterature.KurtFeyaerts(2000)aimedatprovidingevidencesfortheassumptionthatatleastsomemetaphorsaregroundedinmetonymy,andsupposingthefourtypesofmetonymicdrivingforcesbehindmetaphors.OlgaIsabelDiezVelasco(2001)analyzedtheconceptualinteractivepatternsinwhichmetaphorandmetonymyinteractwitheachothertoconstructaconcept.Suchcombinationofmetaphorandmetonymycouldenhancetheexplanationandanalysisoftheworkingmechanismforproverbialmetaphorsunderstanding.Raymond,W.Gibbs(2006)hasconcludedthecognitivemetaphorsresearchesinpast20years.Hegeneralizedthedevelopmentalhistoryofcognitivelinguisticsandmetaphorresearches,presentedsomequestionsputforwardbyotherscholarsandoutlinedseveralfuturechallengescognitivelinguisticsmayface.AccordingtoGibbs(2006),ConceptualMetaphorTheory(CMT)hasbeenconfrontedwithmainlythreekindsofcritiques:(1)CMTlacksanexplicitidentificationprocedurecapableofdealingwithrealdiscourse/texts.5万方数据 (2)scientifictheoriesmusthavepredictivepowerandmustbecapableofbeingempiricallyfalsified.(3)CMTistoofocusedonenduringmetaphoricalknowledgeinlanguageuseandignoretheimportanceofotherconceptualandpragmaticinformationinhowpeopleuseandinterpretmetaphoricalmeaning.Basedonthosecritics,manycognitivelinguistssetaboutstudyingrealdiscoursesandtexts.What’smore,pragmaticfunctionofmetaphorshasbeenheatedincurrentresearches.Forexample,AnaIbanezMorenom(fromhttp://www.skase.sk/Volumes/JTL02/04.Pdf)comparedtheproverbscontaining“dog”inEnglishwiththoseinSpanish,fromtheviewsofcognitivemetaphor,pragmaticsandculture,takingpragmaticandculturalfunctionofmetaphorsintofullconsideration.Themetaphorresearchmethodhasalsobeenshiftedfromintuitivelyderiveddataanalysistocorpus-basedstudyinrecent10years.Theconstructionofmanycorporaimprovethecognitivemetaphorstudy,byvirtueofprovidingreliableandrichlinguisticresources.Someattemptshavebeenmade,suchasGillPhilip(2004),LauraCignoniandStephenCoffey(2000).Thecorpus-basedstudymethodisbeyondtraditionalonesinthreeaspects.Firstofall,corpus-basedstudyhasavastrangeofresources.Thehugeincreaseinthecapacityofcomputershasenhancedthevastincreaseinthesizeofelectroniccorporaon-line.Then,inaccordancewithAliceHelenDeignan(1997),therearethreewaysthevariousexistingEnglishcorporadiffer:“thegenreofthetextsincluded,theinclusionofeitherwholeorsampledtexts,andwhetherthecorpusisaddedtoovertime.”McCarthy(2004)summarized9questionswecouldanswerwithcorpora,includingwhatthewordsandphrasesinthehighestusefrequencyare,thedifferencesbetweenspokenandwritten,informalandformallanguages,whichtensepeopleusemostfrequentlyis,howoftenpeopleuseidiomaticexpressionsandsoon.Therefore,datacouldbemoresystematicandorganizedincorpora.And,corpuson-lineismucheasierandclearerthantheintuitioninanalyzingwordfrequencyandusagepatterns.Finally,AliceHelenDeignan(1997)pointedoutthedrawbackinmetaphorresearch6万方数据 approach“thelinguisticdatausedbymetaphorresearchershaslargelybeeneitherintuitivelyderivedortakenfromsmallhand-sortedcollectionsoftexts”.Whilecomputerizedcorporacouldsolvethisproblembyprovidingsampleslesssubjectiveandmoreobjective,persuasiveandauthentic.2.1.2RelatedstudiesathomeTherapiddevelopmentofwesterncognitivelinguisticsandcognitivemetaphorarousetheupsurgeofsimilarresearchesinChinain1980s.Furthermore,thoseoncognitivemetaphorsboomalot.Theworksofdomesticcognitivelinguistsonmetaphorscouldbeclassifiedintothreeareas:oneisintroducingwesterntheories,anotherisconcernedwiththecorpusstudysoastooffermoreevidences,especiallytheChinesecorpus-basedstudies,andthelastoneistheextensiontothefieldofcognitivepragmaticfunction.Shu(2000)absorbedandsortedoutthewesternmetaphoricaltheories.Inaddition,heanalyzedanddiscussedthecentralproblemsinthisarea,suchashowmetaphorsareproduced,howmetaphorswork,aswellastheessentialfeaturesandfunctionsofmetaphors.OthersimilarworksinvolveHuZhuanglin(2004),LuZhi(2006),LiFuyin(2006),etc.Beyondthedescriptionofthemaintheoriesofcognitivemetaphors,domesticscholarssetaboutapplyingthosetheoriesintopractice.Theytriedtofindmoreempiricalevidencessoastotestifythetheories.Thefar-reachinginfluenceoftheirstudiesisthatapartfromexistingEnglishcorpus,theyhavepaidmoreattentiontoChineseitself,noticingtherealexpressionsanddiscoursesusedindailylife.OneofthegreatestachievementswasundertakenbyLanChun(1999).HestudiedtheChinesecorpuscontainingspaceconceptsof“UP”and“DOWN”,then,gottheconclusionthattheconceptualmetaphorsconcernedwithspaceinChineseare:“Towardsalargerquantityisup;Towardsamoreimportantstatusisup;Towardsalatertimeisup;andTowardsamoredesirablestateisup”.(LanChun,2005:159).Hisstudyapproachisenlightening.MorescholarsfollowedhisexplorationintovariousChineselinguisticmaterials,includingtheresearchesonadvertising,politicalterms,idiomsandsoon.Suchas,cognitive7万方数据 metaphoricalresearchesonChineseproverbs:PeiChunTang(2009);onpoems:ShuDingfang(2009);onpoliticaltermsandtexts:ChenYongandLiuZhaoyun(2009),WangYiandChenZhengfa(2011),etc.TherewasgreatinterestincognitivecomparisonbetweenChineseandEnglish.Forexample,ChenYanfang(2009)comparedthespatialmetaphorsofshang(上)andupfromthecognitiveview,whichnotonlyprovidesmoreevidencesfortheories,butalsoindicatesuniquelinguisticfeaturesofChinese.Furthermore,thereareanincreasingnumberofresearcheswithaneyeonthecognitivepragmaticfunctionofmetaphors,ontherelationshipbetweenculturalmodelsandmetaphors,andonthemetonymicroleplayedinmetaphorunderstanding.Forinstance,HuangJinzhang(2010)discussedtheimportantfunctionofmetaphoractinginteachingbusinessChinesetospeakersofotherlanguages.OtherresearchesinvolveTianXuejun(2009),andChenXinren(2011).Asfortheresearchapproach,domesticscholarsnoticedtheapplicationofcorpus-basedanalysis.SunJianliandSunQiyao(2011)gaveareportaboutontologicalmetaphoracquisitionbyChineseEFLlearnersthroughacasestudyonWINDE,basedonChineseEFLlearners’scorpus.HeZhongqingandPengXuanwei(2011)generalizedthedevelopingprocessofcorpus-basedEnglishstudy,andproposedthatcorporawillbehugerincapacity,diversifiedinclassificationanddeeperinintegrationwithotherlinguistictheories.HuiJinglu(2012)retrieved101EnglishproverbsinCOCAandanalyzedproverbialvariantsappearinginthecorpusfrompragmaticview.Inaword,thedevelopingprocedureofcognitivemetaphorstudyathomekeepsabreastofthoseabroadingeneral.However,researchesathomelargelystressonintroducing,collectingandgeneralizingwesterntheories.Theystilllackenoughcorpusevidences,becausemostofthemstillstudyindividualtextslackinginvastauthenticdata.Asmentionedinsubsection2.1.1,corpus-basedstudyhasitsuniqueadvantages:itcouldprovidemuchmoreauthenticresourcesandmakeiteasiertodetectpatternsandfrequencyofmetaphors’usage.Thereforemorestudiesshouldbeundertakenonthebasisofcorpussoastoavoidsubjectivelyindividualtext-basedstudy.8万方数据 2.2Reviewsofcognitivestudiesofproverbcomprehension2.2.1ThedefinitionofproverbsAsdefinedbyTheNewOxfordDictionary(1998),aproverbisabout“ashortpithysayingingeneraluse,statingageneraltruthorapieceofadvice”.AndthedefinitiongotrevisedintheOxfordEnglishDictionaryon-line(2001)asashortpithysayingincommonandrecognizeduse;aconcisesentence,oftenmetaphoricaloralliterativeinform,whichisholdtoexpresssometruthascertainedbyexperienceorobservationandfamiliartoall.Then,inthe6thversionofthedictionary,proverbisdescribedas“awell-knownphraseorsentencethatgivesadviceorsayssomethingthatisgenerallytrue”.Throughthenuanceindefinitionofproverbsinjustonedictionary,wecouldgettheideathatitisnotaclearandeasyjobtogivesuchconceptionafixeddefinition.Inproverbstudy,howtodefineproverbsisstillanunresolvedproblem.Linguists’answersvaryfrompersontoperson.Tayler(1931)hasdiscusseditinmorethan200pages,andfinallyconcludedthatitisimpossibletogiveitameaningfuldefinition.AccordingtoWolfgangMieder,proverbisaconcisestatementofanapparenttruthwhichhascurrencyamongthepeopleandashort,generallyknownsentenceofthefolkwhichcontainswisdom,truth,moralsandtraditionalviewsinametaphorical,fixedandmemorizedformandwhichishandeddownfromgenerationtogeneration.(Mieder,1993:24)Grzybek(1994:227)summarizedthat“thereisnogenerallyaccepteddefinitionwhichcoversallspecificsoftheproverbialgenre”.TheresearchmadebyGibbsandBeitel(1995)hasprovedtheconclusion,inwhichtheyfoundthatempiricalattemptstodefineproverbshaveledtoasmanyas55kindsofdefinitions.Inspiteofdivergentdefinitions,thebasicfeaturesofproverbsareagreedon.Thereis9万方数据 auniversalagreementonwhatconstitutesaproverb.Peoplecouldinterprettheunderlyingmeaningofproverbsquicklyanddirectly,withtheaidofconceptualmetaphoricalmappings.Inotherwords,proverbsaremetaphoricalandconventional.LakoffandTuner(1989)offeredhelpfultheoreticalevidencestotheroleofconceptualmetaphorsplayedinproverbcomprehension.Inaddition,thecloserelationshipbetweenproverbsandcultureisalsofoundoutbylinguists.Tayler(1931)thoughtthatproverbsaretypicalaboutimportantepisodichumanconcernsandactivities,danger,food,interpersonal,notation,howtogetthingsdownandhowtohavethem.Soproverbsoriginatefromdailyexperienceswithacertainculturalmodel.Itistheculturalmodelthathelpstheinterpretationofsomeconceptualmetaphors.Culturalelementsaredescribedinsomedefinitionsas“generallyknownsentenceofthefolk”,“well-knownphraseorsentence”,“handeddownfromgenerationtogeneration”,etc.Obviously,culturalmodelisinstrumentalinproverbcomprehension.Tosumup,thereisnouniversalagreementonthedefinitionofproverbstillnow.Butmetaphorical,conventionalandculturalfeatures,aregenerallyaccepted.Hence,inthisthesis,thosefeatureswillreceivespecificanalysis.2.2.2RelatedstudiesabroadOntheleveloftraditionalrhetoricview,proverbisarhetoricaldevice,hence,thestudyofitusedtoemphasizetherhetoriccharacteristics.Somearecollectionasindictionaries,somearestudiesofindividualproverbsbutwithoutanalysisofproverbs’internalsystemandfunctions,liketheBookofProverbs(2007)byMarkA,collectingsermonandBiblestudies,instructingonthetruththatproverbsbringtopeople.Andsomerefertothetranslationofproverbsbetweendifferentlanguages.AzizollahDabaghi,ElhamPishbinandLeilaNiknasab(2010)presentexamplesofEnglishandPersianproverbscomparedonlinguisticlevel,soastosuggesttranslatingstrategiesforproverbsbetweentwolanguages,stressingonbothlinguisticandnon-linguisticfeatures.Differentfromtraditionalviewofproverbs,theunderlyingworkingmechanismofproverbsistheprincipalissueofcognitivemajorconcern.Cognitivelinguistsconcentrateontheroleofcognitioninproverbcomprehension.Raymond,GibbsandHoneck,Richard10万方数据 aretworepresentatives,however,theyholdoppositeviewsontheissueofhowpeopleprocessproverbs,whichoncecausedaheateddebate.ThisdebatewaspresentedintheirworksProverbandtheMetaphoricalMind(Gibbsetal,1996)andProverbandtheCompleteMind(HoneckandTemple,1996)andlaterinHowtoStudyProverbUnderstanding(Gibbsetal,1996)andAProverinMind:theCognitiveScienceofProverbialWitandWisdom(Honeck,1997).Honecketal(1997)persistinholdingtheviewofStandardPragmaticModel(SPM),whichisbuiltonthetheoreticalfoundofRelevanceTheoryandSpeechActTheory.Theymaintainthatliteralmeaningprecedestheunderlyingmetaphoricalmeaningduringtheprocessofproverbcomprehension.Theyalsofoundempiricalevidencesthroughexperimentstotestifytheassumption.WhileforGibbsetal,proverbsareinterpretedunderthemodelofGreatChainMetaphorTheory(GCMT),proposedbyLakoffandTurnerinMorethanCoolReason(1989).Gibbsputforward“basicmetaphoricalconceptualizationsofexperience.”(Gibbs,1994:8).Hemademanyexperimentstoclarifysuchworkingmodel,forexample,inMetaphorinIdiomComprehension(Gibbsetal,1997:141),hemadetwoexperimentstoshowthat:(1)peopleaccessconceptualmetaphorswhenunderstandingidioms,butsignificantlylesssowhenprocessingliteralparaphrasesofidioms;andthat(2)peopleaccesstheappropriateconceptualmetaphorsbutnotwhentheyreadidioms,whichhavesimilarfigurativemeaningsthataremotivatedbydifferentconceptualmetaphors.Thefindingsfromthesestudiesprovideimportantevidenceontheconstrainingrolethatcommonpatternsofmetaphoricthoughthaveinfigurativelanguageunderstanding.Inrecentyears,manyscholarsaredevotedtothestudyofhowproverbsworkalongthewayHoneckandGibbshavepaved,likeFreedaC.Wilson(2005),MartinBrqne*,LuiseBodenstein(2005).Furthermore,researchmethodsadoptedareenriched,especiallythecorpus-basedandparallelcontrastapproaches,asbyLauraCignoniandStephenCoffey(2000),AnaIbáñeMoreno(2004).Thisthesisismainlybasedonthetheoriesofcognitivemetaphors,proposedintheworksofLakoff,TurnerandGibbsetal,supportingtheideathatproverbisautomaticand11万方数据 simultaneousratherthanthatproverbialliteralmeaningcomesbeforemetaphoricalmeaning.2.2.3RelatedstudiesathomeDomesticstudiesofproverbcomprehensionshowaconsistenttrendwiththatabroad,touchingthefieldsasfollows:Firstly,somerefertocollectionanddefinitionofproverbs.SuchasXuZhusheng(2003)andZhiSi(2001)Secondly,therearesomepapersandbooksaboutdescriptionoftherhetoriccharacteristicsofproverbs.SuchasYangYuerong(2004)describedtheuniquefeaturesofproverbsthroughtheanalysisofindividualproverbsinChongqingdialect.Thirdly,therearesomeexplorationintotheculturalelementsinproverbs.CaiLiping(2001)highlightedtherelationshipbetweenproverbsandculture.Hestatedthatonlybyviewingproverbsfromculturalperspectivecanthereadersunderstandthemetaphoricalmeaningunderproverbs(CaiLiping,2001:40-46).Otherpublishedpapers,likeXieYoufu(2005),ZhongMingandDaiWeiwei(2008),KongChao(2008),etc.allhighlightedthediscrepanciesbetweenChineseandEnglishproverbsontheaspectofculturalvalue,religion,aestheticview,beliefandhistory.Somescholarsdiscussedtheproverbtranslatingstrategiesbetweentwolanguages.Forinstance,YangWanpeng(2006)consideredtheinfluenceofculturaldifferencesonproverbtranslationbetweenEastandWest.Andlastly,therearemanycognitiveresearchesonproverbsunderstanding.Forexample,ZhouHongyingandZhangHui(2009),concluded8majortypesofworkingmechanismmodelson-lineintheproverbcomprehensionprocess,whichconveytheelaborationofSPMmodelbyHoneckandGCMTmodelbyLakoff,TurnerandGibbsdiscussedinprevioussection.Thereareotherrelatedessayspublished,suchas,ZhaoYanchunandWangJuan(2008),PeiChuntang(2009),FengZongxiang,ZhouYanandYangGongjian(2010)andsoon,illustratinghowproverbsarecomprehendedincognitiveopinions,particularlythefunctionofmetaphoricalmetaphorsactinginthecomprehensionprocess.12万方数据 Toconclude,domesticscholarsshifttheirattentiongraduallyfromculturalbackground,socialvaluesandtranslationofindividualproverbstotheunderlyingcognitivemechanisminproverbcomprehendingandprocessing.However,suchresearchesarenotcompleteforthelackofenoughcorpusstudy.2.3SummaryThereviewsofmetaphorstudiesabroadandathomeindicatethegeneraltrendofcurrentcognitivemetaphorstudy—analyzingrealdiscourses,payingattentiontotheinfluenceofculturalmodelandcontextonmetaphorunderstanding,takinglinguisticpragmaticsintoconsideration,andapplyingcorpus-basedresearchapproaches.ProverbsarecontainedlargelyinbothChineseandEnglish,whicharethecarriersandemblemofeachculture.Studiesofthemcouldrevealthehiddenculturalfactorsandpeople’swayofcomprehendingmetaphoricalmeaning.Soaccordingtothecurrenttrendofmetaphoricalproverbstudy,thisthesiswillbeestablishedonthecognitivemetaphorview,alongwiththeculturalelementsandpragmaticfunction,tocompareChineseandEnglishproverbs,tryingtoutilizecorporaon-linetosearchandrecordtheusagefrequencyofproverbsinrealdiscourses,soastoprovidemoreresponsibledatatoinvestigatewhetherthereisasharedgeneralworkingmechanismofproverbsinChineseandEnglish,andthepragmaticfunctionofproverbsindailyuse.13万方数据 Chapter3TheoreticalFramework3.1ConceptualMetaphorTheory3.1.1ConceptualmetaphorGeorgeLakoffandMarkJohnson(1980)claimedthepervasivenessofmetaphorsinourdailylanguageandthedeeperfunctionofmetaphorthroughobservationandanalysisoflinguisticexpressions,settingupabrand-newviewonmetaphorthatmetaphorsstructureconceptualsystem,whichtheynamedConceptualMetaphor.Theyconcludedthataswewillshowdirectly,conventionalmetaphorsarepervasiveinourordinaryeverydaywayofthinking,speakingandacting.Wefeelthatanunderstandingofconventionalmetaphorandthewaythatmetaphorstructuresourordinaryconceptualsystemwillultimatelyprovideanewexperientialperspectiveonclassicalphilosophicalproblems,suchasthenatureofmeaning,truth,rationality,logicandknowledge.(1980:453).Theconceptualsystem,therefore,referringtobothourthinkingandacting,reflectingourthoughts.People’scognitioncouldbeinvestigatedbythewayofobservingmetaphoricalexpressionsintheirdiscourses.Inturn,human’scognitionlimitsthewayofmetaphoricaluseinspeaking.Intotal,thecognitiveviewonmetaphorpushesforwardtheexplorationofmindandlanguageissue.Theessenceofmetaphor,standingatthecognitivepoint,is“understandingandexperiencingonekindofthingintermsofanother.”Thewaytorealizetheunderstandingandexperiencingprocessisthroughcross-domainmetaphoricalmapping.Thestructureofmetaphorconsistsoftwodomains:sourcedomain,whichisrelativelyclearerandmoreconcrete;targetdomain,whichisrelativelymoregeneralandabstract.Themetaphoristhemappingbetweenthetwodomains.TheformisTARGETDOMAINISSOURCEDOMAINorTARGETDOMAINASSOURCEDOMAIN(e.g.LOVEISJOURNEY/14万方数据 LOVEASJOURNEY)(Lakoff,1980).Thewayofmappingissystematicandcorrespondent,allowingthecomprehensionofoneaspectofaconceptintermsofacorrespondentaspectofanother.Ithighlightsoneaspectwhilehidingothers.Thedirectionofmappingisfromsourcedomainstotargetdomains,frommoreconcretedomainstomoreabstractdomains.“understandinglessconcreteexperiencesintermsofmoreconcreteandmorehighlystructuredexperiences.”(1980:486).Thoughmetaphorsstructureconceptualsystem,notallmetaphorsareconceptualmetaphors,ormetaphorsweliveby.LakoffandJohnsonemphasizedthat“exampleslikethefootofthemountainareidiosyncratic,unsystematicandisolated.Theydonotinteractwithothermetaphors,playnoparticularlyinterestingroleinourconceptualsystemandhencearenotmetaphorsweliveby.”(1980:473).Soconceptualmetaphorsmustbesystematicandcloselyrelatedtosurroundings.Actually,metaphorsaregroundedondailyexperiences.werelyonmodelsoftheconcreteworldtoconceptualizeabstractphenomena.Inotherwords,theconceptualizationofmodelsofabstractcategoriesis‘grounded’inourexperienceswithpeople,everydayobjects,actionsandevents.(F.Ungerer&H.J.Schmid,2003:121).MostproverbialmetaphorsinChineseandEnglishhavebeenconventionalized,sothatitiseasyforpeopletoperceivetheconnotativemeaningbeneaththeliteralone,inwhichconceptualmetaphorsplayacriticalrole.Hence,mostmetaphorsinproverbsstructurehowpeopleperceive,howpeoplegetaroundintheworldandhowpeoplecommunicate.3.1.2ConceptualmetaphorandcultureSinceconceptualmetaphorsaresystematicandrelatedtosurroundings,likevalues,beliefs,backgrounds,etc,LakoffandJohnsondidn’tignoretheculturalcoherenceinconceptualmetaphors.They(1980:465)argued“themostfundamentalvaluesinaculturewillbecoherentwiththemetaphoricalstructureofthemostfundamentalconceptsintheculture.”Proverbsareculturalcarriersaswellasmetaphoricalcontainersmosttime.So15万方数据 theculturaldiscrepanciescouldbesurveyedbythebi-lingualcontrastinproverbs.SuchlikethefollowingproverbsconveyingtheculturalinformationrespectivelyintheEastandWest:(1)乌有反哺之义，羊有跪乳之恩。Showingthekinshipbetweenparentsandchildren.Especiallythevalueof“Xiao”(孝)inChineseculture.(2)树高千尺，落叶归根。ReferringtothetraditionalfamilyvalueinChina.(3)精诚所至，金石为开。Statingthespiritofpersistence.(4)近朱者赤，近墨者黑。Describingtheimportanceofmakingfriendswithgoodpeople.(5)天不言自高，地不言自厚。ReflectingthehighpositionofheavenandearthinChineseculturewhichstandsfortheomnipotentpower.(6)Everydoghasitsday.ShowingthatdogssharehighrespectinEnglishculture,whichcouldbeusedtorefertohuman.(7).Manproposes,Goddisposes.ThebeliefinGodreflectschristianculture.Godistheomnipotentpower.(8).Nofishinglikefishinginthesea.Mirroringthesailingcultureofwesternworld.(9).Aprilweather,rainandshinebothtogether.DescribingthechangeableclimateinBritain(10)WheninRome,doasRomansdo.IndicatingthehistoricalrelationwithancientRomeandGreece.3.2GreatChainMetaphorTheoryConceptualmetaphorsexistinourlanguage,sodoinproverbs,buttheprocessofinterpretingproverbsiscomplex,dependingonasystematicmechanism.Suchmechanism16万方数据 isGreatChainMetaphor,claimedbyLakoffandTurnerinMoreThanCoolReason.Itismadeupoffourparts:theGenericIsSpecificmetaphor,theGreatChainofBeing,theNatureofThingsandtheCommunicativeMaximofQuantity.AsLakoffandTurnersaid,thoseingredients,thoughseemsindependentwithseparateidentities,are“employedinconcerttoprovideinterpretationsofproverbs.”and“sooftenplayedtogetherthattheiridentityasagroupismoreprominentthantheiridentitiesasindividuals.”(1989:172)Thefunctionsofeachingredientarealsospecific:GenericIsSpecificmetaphormakesthecontributiontoitsmetaphoricalcharacter;theNatureThingsplustheGreatChainofBeingmakeitinthefeatureofacommonsensetheory;andtheMaximofQuantityholdsapragmaticfunction,limitingwhatcanbeinterpretedincommunication.Inthissense,theGreatChainMetaphoractuallyis“arecurringconceptualcomplexmadeupofametaphor,acommonsensetheoryandacommunicativeprinciple.”(LakoffandTurner,1989:172).Thefourpartsworktogethercooperativelyandharmoniouslytointerpretproverbs.Thefollowingsubsectionswillpresentsuchworkingmechanisminproverbunderstandingprocess.3.2.1TheGenericIsSpecificMetaphorLakoffandTurnerdistinguishedtwosortsofmetaphorsintherespectofgeneralityandspecificity,whicharecalledgeneral-levelmetaphorsandspecific-levelmetaphors.“Generic-levelmetaphorslackspecificityintworespects:theydonothavefixedsourceandtargetdomains,andtheydonothavefixedlistsofentitiesspecifiedinthemapping.”butspecific-levelonesare“specifiedinthesetwoways.”(1989:81).Inmetaphoricalmapping,thecommongeneric-levelschemasarepickedoutfromspecificschemas,hencethegeneric-levelschemasareunderstoodintermsofspecificschemas.Proverbialmetaphorshavebothspecificandgeneralfeatures.LakoffandTurnerpointedoutthat“proverbsusebothkindsofpower:theyleadustogeneralcharacterization,whichneverthelessaregroundedintherichnessofthespecificcase.”(1989:165)Therefore,theunderlyinggeneric-levelstructureandproverbialmeaningcouldbeobtainedthroughtheliterallyspecificexpressions.17万方数据 3.2.2TheGreatChainofBeingandtheNatureofThingsMetaphoricalproverbsofferus“thewaysofcomprehendingthecomplexfacultiesofhumanbeingsintermsofotherthings.”(1989:166)HowproverbscoulddothisisattributedtotheGreatChainofBeing,aculturalmodelwithrespecttotheclassificationandpropertiesofbeingsputonaverticalscalefromlowertohigher.Thebeingsinhigherpositionconveyallthecharactersofthoseinlower,whichisconsistentwiththeGenericIsSpecificmetaphor.TheNatureofThingsuncoverstherelationshipbetweenwhatthingsarelikeandhowtheybehave,thatis,theattributesofbeingsleadtotheirbehavior.Thetheory,combinedwiththeGreatChainofBeing,coulddescribehowthingsworkintheworld.Justastheauthorsinthework(1989)claimedbylinkingtheGreatChainwiththeGENERICISSPECIFICmetaphor,itallowsustocomprehendgeneralhumancharactertraitsintermsofwell-understoodnonhumanattributes,and,conversely,itallowsustocomprehendlesswell-understoodaspectsofthenatureofanimalsandobjectsintermsofbetter-understoodhumancharacteristics.(1989:122)3.2.3TheMaximofQuantityIntheapplicationoftheGreatChain+GENERICISSPECIFICmetaphor,theMaximofQuantityprinciplefunctionsasalimitation,whichpreservesandguaranteesthecorrectmappingininterpreting.Heretheinfluenceofcontextoughttobenoticed.Thecontextdeterminestheexactmaximofquantities.Ifpeoplereadaproverbwithoutacontext,forexample,read“it’snousecryingoverspilledmilk”fromadictionary,then,theycouldgetthegeneralconnotativemeaningthat“it’suselesstoregretwhat’vebeendone”throughGENERICISSPECIFICmetaphor.Whilewhentheyheartheproverbwithinacertaincontext,assomeonesaid“it’snousecryingoverspilledmilk.I’llgetahigherscorenexttime”,itisnotenoughtoexplainthegeneralmeaningextractedfromspecificmatters.Theconnotativemeaningoftheproverbhereis“it’snousecryingoverthefailedexam.”Itis18万方数据 anotherspecific-levelexpression,butsharethesamegeneric-levelstructurewiththeproverb.Hence,thepathofmappinginthiscaseisfromspecific-leveltogeneric-levelandthentoanotherspecific-leveldomain,onwhichpath,acontextactsacentralrole.Thisthesisdoesn’tignorethepragmaticfunctionofmetaphoricalproverbsindailyuse,thusmorecorpusanalysisindetailwillbedemonstrated,takingintotheconsiderationofthecontextualinfluences.3.3CulturalModelsandICMs3.3.1CulturalModelsContextsmentionedabovetouchontheaspectofculturalmodel.Culturalmodelsareonekindofcognitivemodels,stressingonculturalaspects.F.UngererandH.T.Schmidexplainedclearlythatcognitivemodelsandculturalmodelsarethusjusttwosidesofthesamecoin,whilethetermcognitivemodelstressesthepsychologicalnatureofthosecognitiveentitiesandallowsforinter-individualdifferences,theterm“culturalmodel”emphasizestheunitingaspectofitsbeingcollectivelysharedbymanypeople.(2001:50)Culturalmodels,asawhole,representthecommonlysharedknowledgeinacertainsociety,controllingthewaysofspeaking,whileconveyedbyvirtueofthewaysofspeaking.3.3.2ICMsLakoffandJohnson(1987)holdthepositionthat“weorganizeourknowledgebymeansofstructurescalledIdealizedCognitiveModels(ICMs),andcategorystructuresandprototypeeffectsareby-productsofthisorganization”.EachICMisacomplexstructuredwhole,containingfourkindsofstructuringprinciples:19万方数据 Propositionalstructure,asinFillmore’sframes.Image-schematicstructure,asinLangacker’scognitivegrammar.Metaphoricmappings,asdescribedbyLakoffandJohnson.Metonymicmappings,asdescribedbyLakoffandJohnson.EachICM,asused,structuresamentalspace,asdescribedbyFauconnier.Infact,ICMsarethereflectionofthemosttypicalandbestexamples.Theproverbsinlanguagehavebeenconventionalizedandfixed,towhichextend,theyarethemosttypicalexamplestoconveysomemeanings.Forexample,peoplewouldprefertosaying“bigthunder,littlerain/光打雷不下雨”toexpressthat“greatpowerbutwithlittleeffect.”Suchnaturalphenomenonhasbeenfixedtomaponthemetaphoricalmeaningundertheconditionofproverbs.Toconclude,proverbsshowpeople’swayoforganizingknowledgeandunderstandingtheoutsideworldthroughthelinkwithICMs.Therefore,ICMcountsalotwhencontrastingproverbsbetweenEnglishandChinese.3.4ConceptualInteractivePatternsMetonymiesareusedprimarilyforreference,whilemetaphorsarenot,asLakoffandTuner(1989:103)said,metaphorsareusedforunderstanding.“bothareseenasbeingconceptualinnature,bothcanbeconventionalized,botharemeansofextendingtheresourcesofalanguageandbothcanbeexplainedasmappingprocesses.”(F.Ungerer&H.J.Schmid,2003:128)However,thetwomappingsaredifferentinsomeway.whilemetaphorinvolvesamappingacrossdifferentcognitivemodels,metonymyisamappingwithinonemodel.Themainfunctionofametonymicexpression,thenistoactivateonecognitivecategorybyreferringtoanothercategorywithinthesamemodelandbydoingthattohighlightthefirstcategoryorthesub-modeltowhichitbelongs.(F.Ungerer&H.J.Schmid,2003:128)Thesemanticextensionisbymeansofthetwomappings,sometimesdependingononeofthem,andsometimesontheirmutualinteraction.Theproverbialmetaphorical20万方数据 meaningsbelongtothelatter.RuizedeMendozaetalhavesummarizedandlabeledtwokindsofmetonymyassource-in-targetandtarget-in-sourcebothcontaininginteractionbetweenmetonymyandmetaphor.Source-in-targetmetonymyisthat“thesourceofthemappingisasub-domainofthetarget.”;target-in-sourcemetonymyrefersto“thetargetthatisasub-domainofthesource.”(1999a:24)Asaresultofsuchdistinction,therearetwointeractivepossibilities:theoneistheoutputofametaphoricmappingprovidethesourceforametonymy,andtheotherisametonymicmappingprovidesthesourceforametaphor.Inbothcases,themetonymyworkseitherinsidethetargetorthesourcedomainofthemetaphoricalmapping.Inthissense,atleastfourkindsofmappingschemasaboutinteractivepatternscouldbedemonstratedasfollows:SOURCECocept1metonymyConcept(1)metaphorTARGETConcept2Figure3-1.MetonymicreductionofametaphoricsourceInthiscase,concept1hasbeenreducedtoasmallerconcept(1)throughmetonymicmapping,andthenbeenmappedonthecorrespondenttargetdomaintorefertoconcept(2).21万方数据 SOURECCEConcept1metaphorTARGETConcept2metonymyConcept(2)Figure3-2.Metonymicreductionofametaphorictarget.Concept1firstlyismappedonthetargetdomaintogetconcept2,thenconcept2isreducedtoasmallercategoryconcept(2)throughmetonymy.SOURCECocept1metonymymetaphorTARGETConcept2Concept(1)Figure3-3.MetonymicexpansionofametaphoricsourceConcept(1)isextendedtoconcept1byvirtueofmetonymythenmappedonconcept2throughmetaphor.22万方数据 SOURCEConcept(1)metaphorTARGETConcept(2)Concept2metonymyFigure3-4.MetonymicexpansionofametaphorictargetConcept(1)ismappedontargetconcept(2)bymeansofmetaphoricmappingandthenextendedtoalargerdomainconcept2throughmetonymicmapping.“themetonymicexpansionofthesourceofametaphorprovidetherelevantmaterialfortheconstructionofametaphoricmappingwhichwillproduceagenericspace.”(AnaIbanezMorenom)Therefore,proverbialmetaphoricmappingismoresimilartowhatFigure3illustrates,inwhichawholemetaphorisconstructedonthebasisofametonymy,andwhichisinlinewithGenericIsSpecificmetaphoraswell.3.5ThecorpusandsearchmethodologyThecorporauponwhichthestudywillbebasedareBNC(BritishNationalCorpus),COCA(CorpusofContemporaryAmericanEnglish),TIME(TIMEmagazinecorpus)andCCL(CenterforChineseLinguisticsPKU).ThethreeEnglishcorporaareappliedtosearchEnglishproverbs,inordertoincludebothBritishEnglishandAmericanEnglish,whichareusefultorecordandfindongoingchangesincurrentEnglish.BNCisa100-million-wordcollectionofBritishEnglishfromthelate20thcentury.IthasbothwrittenandspokenEnglishsamplesfromsourcesinalargerangeoftexts.COCAisthelargestcorpusofAmericanEnglish,containingmorethan450millionwordsoftextand23万方数据 dividedintotextsofspoken,fiction,popularmagazines,newspapers,andacademic.From1990to2012,itisupdatedregularly.TIMEmagazinecorpusbelongtoCOCA,containingmorethan100millionwordsoftextofAmericanEnglishrecordedfrom1923tothepresent.Itismucheasiertoseehowwords,phrasesandgrammaticalconstructionshaveincreasedordecreasedinfrequencyandhowwords’meaningshavechangedduringtime.CCLcorpusbuildsthemodernChinesecorpus,recordingfrequencyandtypesofmodernChinesecharactersandwords,containing477millionwordsintypesasmodernChineseandancientChinese.Withthehelpofthosecorpora,wecouldcollectreliabledataabouthowproverbsareusedindailylanguage.Themetaphoricalproverbsthethesisstudiesandclassifiesmainlybelongtotwosorts,whicharecollectedbyvirtueofinternetlikewww.google.com,dictionarieslikeADictionaryofEnglishProverbs(2003),JiangHan(2009)andZhiSi(2007).Thedatainfirstsortarecategorizedinaccordancewithfourconcepts:friendship,love,timeandchance,selectingproverbsrelatedtothoseconceptsjustforthepurposeofreducingthescopeofproverbstoanalyze.BothEnglishandChineseproverbscontainingthefourconceptswillbecollectedanddifferentconceptualmetaphorsunderoneconceptwillbegeneralizedthroughdetailedanalysisoneachproverb.Then,theresultswillbecomparedinordertodrawuptablesinappendix1.Fromthefourtables,wecouldobserveboththesharedanduniqueconceptualmetaphorsunderthesameconceptbetweenEnglishandChineseproverbs.ThesecondsortofdataarecollectedonthebasisofsharedmeaningsbetweenEnglishandChineseproverbs.ThestudyinvolvesalltheEnglishandChineseproverbssharingthesamemeanings.Then,allproverbswillbesearchedincorporaon-lineintroducedabove,tofindouttherealsituationofproverbsusedindailylanguage,tofigureoutthefrequencyindailyuse.Thedataarecategorizedtodrawupalistofitemsinappendix2.Duringtheprocess,thepossiblevariantformsofproverbsaretakenintoconsideration.Foreachproverb,oneormorekeywords,whicharelearnedfromexperience,arelookedfor.Thesearchflexibilityofthistypecouldguaranteethedatabemoreclosetothereality.24万方数据 Chapter4SampleAnalysisProverbsarevastinimagerywithmetaphoricmeaning,familiarandeasyforpeopletolearn.Atthesametime,theyareinvolvedinacertainculturalrange,thusproverbsindifferentlanguagesmaydiffersuperficiallyevenwheninterpretingthesamemeaning.Fromtheprecedingchapter,we’vegotthegeneraltheoreticknowledgethatproverbsareworkingunderthesameschema.Whatvaryproverbssuperficiallyaretheculturalscriptsandnationalcognition,butnottheunderlyingworkingschema.Inthischapter,sampleproverbswillbeanalyzedfromcognitive,culturalandpragmaticviews.Amongthem,thecognitiveanalysisisthefoundation,provingwhetherproverbsinChineseandEnglishworkinthesamewayornot.Onthebasisoftheresultsobtainedincognitiveanalysis,theinfluencesofculturalelementsandthepragmaticuseofproverbsindailylanguagewillbediscussedanddescribed.Herethedatainappendix1arelimitedtothoserelatedtofriendship,love,timeandchance.Suchreducingofthescopeofproverbscouldprovidethesamplestudywithmoreaccuracyanddetailedexplanatoryanddescriptivepower.4.1ProverbsworkingschemaInaccordancewithsection3.4,fourinteractionalwaysbetweenmetonymyandmetaphorconstructthemetaphoricwaysofspeaking.Outofthefourpatterns,proverbialmetaphoricmappingsaremainlyattributedtothethirdone,inwhichawholemetaphorisconstructedonthebasisofametonymy.Theimplicationinmetaphorisbasedonthestereotypicalrepresentationoftheconceptinmetonymicexpansion.SuchconclusionisdrawnincombinationwithGreatChianmetaphortheory,especiallyinlinewithGenericIsSpecificmetaphor,duetowhich,themetonymicexpansionofthesourceofametaphorcouldprovidetherelevantmaterialfortheconstructionofametaphoricmappingsoastoproduceagenericspace.Accordingly,wecouldsupposethatthereisacommonworkingmechanismundertheproverbsbothinEnglishandChinese.Thissectionwillprovetheexistenceofsuchcommonlysharedworkingmechanisminproverbs,byvirtueofdetailed25万方数据 sampleanalysis.Itisknownthatbothmetonymyandmetaphorarecontainedinproverbialmetaphoricmapping.Hence,thefirststepofcasestudyistofigureout,inaproverb,whichpartsbelongtometaphoricmappingandwhichpartsbelongtometonymicmapping.ThemodelinFigure4-1isappliedtoclassifythemappingsintwosorts.METAPHORX--------------------------------------X’Y--------------------------------------Y’(S)METONYMY-----------------Z’(T)ZFigure4-1:TwotypesofmappingsinaproverbThesampleproverbsobservedherearepickedoutfrombothappendix1andappendix2.ThemappingsinthosesamplescouldbecategorizedasfollowsinaccordancewithFigure4-1.Sample1“挨金似金，挨玉似玉”METAPHOR金/玉--------------------------------Apersonofvaluableandcherishedqualities金/玉(S)METONYMY-----------------valuableandcherishedqualitiesingoldandjadeGoodqualities(T)挨(S)METONYMY-----------------beclosetoMakefriendswith(T)26万方数据 Sample2“Amanisknownbythecompanyhekeeps.”METAPHORcompany--------------------------------Apersonaccompanyingcompany(S)METONYMY-----------------keepingintouchwithTheactionofkeepingcommunicationwith(T)Sample3“爱情是一株苍松，不是一朵昙花”METAPHOR苍松----------------------------Arelationshipofpersistentandevergreenqualities昙花----------------------------Arelationshipoftransientquality苍松(S)METONYMY-----------------persistentandevergreenqualitiesinpinetreesQualities(T)昙花(S)METONYMY-----------------transientqualityinnight-bloomingcereusQualities(T)Sample4“Loveisthefruitofidleness.”METAPHORlove----------------------------thefruitofidlenessidleness------------------------akindofplantfruit(S)METONYMY-----------------aproductofsomeplantProductandresult(T)Sample5“岁月不待人”METAPHOR岁月----------------------------human待(S)METONYMY-----------------theactionofwaitingHuman’saction(T)27万方数据 Sample6“Timeandtidewaitfornoman.”METAPHORtimeandtide----------------------------humanwait(S)METONYMY-----------------theactionofwaitingHuman’saction(T)Sample7“得时不怠，时不再来。”METAPHOR时（机）----------------------------movingobjects再来(S)METONYMY-----------------theactionofreturningMovingaction(T)Sample8“Opportunitiescomebutnotlinger.”METAPHORopportunities----------------------------movingobjectscome(S)METONYMY-----------------theactionofcomingMovingaction(T)Sample9“以牙还牙”METAPHOR牙(1)----------------------------thesamethingastheoneapersonlostbefore牙(2)----------------------------thethingapersonlostbefore牙(1)/牙(2)(S)METONYMY----------------onekindofthingsThingsonbothlevelofconcreteandabstract(T)28万方数据 Sample10“Aneyeforaneye.”METAPHOReye(1)----------------------------thesamethingastheonehyapersonlostbeforeeye(2)----------------------------thethingapersonlostbeforeeye(1)/eye(2)(S)METONYMY----------------onekindofthingsThingsonbothlevelofconcreteandabstract(T)Afterobservingthetensamplesabove,wecouldgettheregulationinmappingprocess.Thesourceofametaphorisexpandedthroughmetonymicmappingandthentheexpandedsourcedomainismappedonthetargetdomainbymetaphoricmapping.Ineachproverb,metonymicmappingsprovideamoregenericresourceformetaphoricmappings,offeringalltheconceptualmaterialtothemetaphoricmappingandthenrealizethecentralexplicature.Takesample1andsample2asexamples.Inthecaseofsampe1,thematerials金/玉areexpandedtorefertocherishedandvaluablequalitiesinthedomainwithrespecttoqualities.Meantime,“挨”,anactionofbeingcloseto,isexpandedtotheactionofmakingfriendswithothers.Suchmetonymicexpansionoftheconceptsprovidethematerialsforthemetaphoricmapping,i.e.Metaphoricmappingisbasedonthestereotypicalrepresentationofbeingclosetothosewithvaluableandcherishedqualities.Insampe2,asamatteroffact,agenericconceptualmetaphorliesinit,thatis,APersonIsTheActionHePlaysmetaphor,whichuncoverstheNatureofThingstheorythatattributesleadtobehavior.Therefore,theactionofcompanycouldmapthepeoplewiththisaction.Ontheotherhand,companyisonepartoftheactionofkeepingaccompanyingwith.Hence,themetonymicmappingontheactionofkeepingaccompanyingwithsetupthefoundationforthemetaphoricmappingfromtheactiondomaintothehumandomain.Allinall,themappingsintwosamplescouldbedemonstratedmoredelicatelywiththehelpofinteractivepatternFigure3mentionedinprecedingsection.Theirdemonstrationareasfollows:29万方数据 SOURCETARGETmakefriendgoodqualitieswithmetaphorMakingfriendswithpeoplewithgoodqualitiesthenyou’llbeapersonjustlikethemmetonymy挨金似金，挨玉似玉Figure4-2.Metaphoricalschemaof“挨金似金，挨玉似玉”SOURCETARGETAmanisknownbytheactionofkeepingcommunicationwithmetonymymetaphorAmanislikethepersonwhohekeepsaccompanyingandcommunicationwithAmanisknownbythecompanyhekeepsFigure4-3Metaphoricalschemaof“Amanisknownbythecompanyhekeeps”Similarinteractionpatternschemacouldbeextractedfromothersampleproverbsinaddition.30万方数据 SOURCETARGETpersistentandevergreenqualitiesmetonymy苍松transientqualitymetonymymetaphormetaphorLoveequippedwithpersistentandevergreenqualitiesLoveequippedwithtransientquality昙花Figure4-4Metaphoricalschemaof“爱情是一株苍松，不是一朵昙花”SOURCETARGET(loveistheproductofsomeplantmetonymyfruitofmetaphor(Loveis)theproductandresultofidlenesssomeplantFigure4-5.Metaphoricalschemaof“Loveisthefruitofidleness”31万方数据 SOURCETARGETTimewillnottakethehuman’sactionofwaitingforothersmetaphorTimeislikeamanwhowillnotwaitforothers.metonymy岁月不待人Figure4-6Metaphoricalschemaof“岁月不待人”SOURCETARGETTimeandtidewillnottakethehuman’sactionofwaitingforothersmetaphorTimeandtidearelikeamanwhowillnotwaitforothers.metonymyTimeandtidewaitfornomanFigure4-7Metaphoricalschemaof“Timeandtidewaitfornoman”32万方数据 SOURCETARGETOpportunitieswillnottakethehuman’sactionofreturningmetaphorOpportunitiesarelikeamanwhowillnotreturnafterleavingmetonymy时（机）不再来Figure4-8Metaphoricalschemaof“得时不怠，时不再来”SOURCETARGETOpportunitieswilltakethehuman’sactionofcomingbutnotoflingeringmetaphorOpportunitiesarelikeamanwhowillcomebutnotlingerandwaitforothers.metonymyOpportunitiescomebutnotlingerFigure4-9Metaphoricalschemaof“Opportunitiescomebutnotlinger”33万方数据 SOURCE牙（1）TARGETmetonymyAllthingsincludingmetaphorthethingapersonlostbeforeandthesamethingasapersonlostbeforeconcreteandabstractonesmetaphor牙（2）metonymyFigure4-10Metaphoricalschemaof“以牙还牙”SOURCEeye（1）TARGETmetonymyAllthingsincludingmetaphorthethingapersonlostbeforeandthesamethingasapersonlostbeforeconcreteandabstractonesmetaphoreye（2）metonymyFigure4-11Metaphoricalschemaof“Aneyeforaneye”FromFigure4-2toFigure4-9,eachproverbpairactuallyisunderthesameconceptualmetaphorwithineachgroup.AndthegroupofFigure4-10andFigure4-1134万方数据 conveysthesameproverbialmeaning.Hence,whatthefiguresabovetellisthewayofcategorizationorstructuringaconceptsharedbybothEnglishandChineseproverbs,butscripts,theviewofrealityandthecategoriesarevarious,sothatthesuperficialexpressionsaredifferent.Bynow,allthedifferencesillustratedshowvariousperspectivesusedinthemetaphoricalconstructionsanddifferentculturalscripts,buttheysharethesameunderlyingin-depthmeaninginmostcasesandallofthemareinvariablycomposedthroughthesamementalmechanism:interactivepatternbetweenmetaphorandmetonymy.Toconclude,thereisageneralschemaforproverbs,consistingofbothmetonymyandmetaphor,bymeansofwhichproverbialmeaninggetacross.WhatmakesitpossibleformutualunderstandingandinterpretationofproverbsbetweenEnglishandChineseisthegeneralschemaforproverbspluscommoncognitivemodelsandwhatmakesthesamesocialfunctionsharedbytheproverbsintwolanguagesisthesimilarconceptualmetaphor.Thevarietyofthechosenwordsandexpressionsreflectthedifferencesinculturalmodelsratherthancognitivemodels.What’smore,suchworkingmechanismschemarevealstheessenceofGenericIsSpecificmetaphorinproverbs.4.2CulturalpatternsreflectedinproverbsofthetwolanguagesLakoff&Johnson(1980:5-6)madeameticulousresearchintoconventionalmetaphorsofconceptualmetaphor,pointingoutthathumanconceptualsystemislargelymetaphorical.Thisisbecausethewaysinwhichhumanbeingsthinkandactarelargelymetaphorical.Mostmetaphorsinproverbsareconventional.Soherewearguethatculturalmodelsconstraintheestablishmentofconceptualmetaphorsandresultintheseparatelinguisticexpressionssetonthegeneralschema.Metaphorsinproverbsareculturalandreflectacertaintypeofculturalpatterns.Thesamplestudiesconcernedwithculturalpatternsaboundinproverbswillconsistofthreearticulatecategories.Sampleanalysis1focusesonthoseproverbsintwolanguagesentailingthesameconceptualmetaphorswithinoneconcept,whileclothedindifferentlinguisticexpressions;sampleanalysis2highlightsthoseproverbsintwolanguagessharingthesameproverbialmeaningbutinterpretedindifferentwaysand35万方数据 sampleanalysis3concentratesontheEnglishandChinesecontrastiveproverbspairs.4.2.1Sampleanalysis1Fromthe4tables,wecouldfindthatmanyproverbsofthetwolanguagescontainthecommonconceptualmetaphors.Intable1,intermsoftheconceptFriendship,thereare7sortsofconceptualmetaphorsforChineseproverbsand9sortsofconceptualmetaphorsforEnglishproverbs.Outofthem6sortsaregenerallyacceptedbythetwolanguages.Asfortable2,11sortsforChineseand10forEnglish,amongwhich10sortsareshared.Intable3abouttime,10forChineseand9forEnglishand8arecommon.Andintabe4,4sortsforChineseand3forEnglish,outofwhich,3aregenerallyaccepted.Thoseconceptualmetaphorsestablishthefundamentalframefortheexpandedwaysoflinguisticexpressionsinproverbs.Insuchaprocessoflinguisticexpansion,combinedwithmetonymyandmetaphor,culturalmodelsworkaswell.InWomen,FireandDangerousThings(1987),Lakoffhasinvestigatedthecognitivemodelspeopleuseeverydaywhenunderstandingandcategorizingtheworld.HeputforwardIdealizedCognitiveModel(ICM)inwhichhetriedtogivetheexplanationaboutsemanticcategorizationandconceptualstructures.Accordingly,ICMseekstoinvolvebothpeople’sencyclopedicknowledgeofaparticulardomainandtheculturalmodelaspartofit.Theconceptualmetaphorssharedunderaconceptshowpeople’sencyclopedicknowledgeofacertaindomain,whileculturalmodelsleadtosuperficialexpressionsinvariety.Takethetwoproverbsinfirstlineintable1asexplanatorysamples:theyhavethesameconceptualmetaphoraboutfriendshipandworkinthesameschema,however,theyselectdifferentsourcedomainsineachmetaphoricmapping.TheChineseonepicksup“金/玉”asthesourcedomainstomapthetargetdomain“apersonofhighqualities”.Duringtheprocedure,thequalitiesof“金/玉”ascribetoonepartofgoodqualitiesfortheircherishedvalue.Furthermore,basedonChineseculturalmodel,“金/玉”arethesymbolsofpowerandpricelessvalue,whichhavebeenconceptualizedinChinese.Therefore,itiseasytogetthetargetdomainof“金/玉”metaphoricandmetonymicmappings,ifonehasacquiredsomeknowledgeaboutChineseculture.Then,thewholeproverbmeansifyoumakefriendswiththepeopleofhighqualities,thenyou36万方数据 willbethepersonofsimilarhighqualities,inotherwords,youhavealotincommonwithyourfriends.ThecorrespondentEnglishproverbchoosestheconcept“company”asthesourcedomain,whichreferstothepeopleaccompanyingyou,underthemetaphorasAPersonIsTheActionHePlaysmetaphor.Itisbuiltonourdailyexperiencesthatpeopleaccompanyingeachotherusuallyinfluenceeachother,resultinginthesimilaritiesbetweenpeople,sopeoplehavingalotincommonaremorelikelytobefriends.Themetonymicmappingsfromthesourcecompanytothetargetrelatedtotheactionofkeepingcommunicationwithothers,broadeningthefieldofcompany.Peoplewhoareabletokeepcommunicationwillinfluenceoneanother.Themutualinfluencebringoutthepersonalsimilaritiesaswell.Therefore,FriendshipIsPeopleHavingALotinCommon.Inthisexample,Chineseproverbobtainsmoreimpactfromculturalinsteadofencyclopediccognition,whiletheEnglishoneisopposite.4.2.2Sampleanalysis2Proverbsincategory2,conveyingthesamemeaningbutclothedindifferentlinguisticexpressions,aretheextensionandsupplementofcategory1.Themutual,eventotallyequivalenttranslationbetweenChineseandEnglishproverbsarepossiblesometimes,thankstothecommonconceptualcognitionandculturalmodels.BothEnglishandChineseareinclinedtochooseafixedandspecificdomaintoprojectagenericone.Samplestudyinthissubsectionlistedinappendix2,inwhicheachtwoproverbs,onefromChineseandonefromEnglish,expressingasimilarmeaning,constructacontrastivepair.Intermsoftheseproverbpairs,twodistincttypescouldbedividedundertheconditionwhethertheyreflectthesamesourcedomainornot.Throughcomparativeanalysis,outof131pairs,only20pairsareattributedtothefirsttypethatproverbsoftwolanguagesapplythesamesourcedomaininthesamemetaphoricalmappings,theyare:1.AllroadsleadtoRome.条条大路通罗马。2.Knowledgeispower.知识就是力量。37万方数据 3Timeismoney.时间就是金钱4Bloodisthickerthanwater.血浓于水。5Earlybirdgetstheworm.早起的鸟儿有虫吃。6Inwinethereistruth.酒后吐真言。7Likefather,likeson.有其父必有其子。8Manyhandsmakelightwork.众人拾柴火焰高。9cannotseethewoodforthetrees.见木不见林/只见树木不见森林10Wallshaveears.隔墙有耳。11timehealsallwounds.时间能治疗一切时间是一剂良药12Unionisstrength.团结就是力量。13Troublesnevercomesingly.祸不单行。14Abirdinthehandis(worththantwointhebush).一鸟在手，胜过二鸟、十鸟在林15Allthatglittersisnotgold.闪光的不一定都是金子。16Cutyourcoataccordingtoyourcloth.量身裁衣。17Allriversrunintothesea.百川入海。海纳百川。38万方数据 18Amissisasgoodasamile.失之毫厘谬之千里。19Constantdrippingwearsawaythestone.滴水穿石。20Failureisthemotherofsuccess.失败是成功之母。Astothe20proverbpairs,someofthemillustratethesamecognitive,culturalmodelsandICMsinChineseandEnglish.Whentranslating,itisnothardtogettheconnotativemeanings.Fewofthemistheresultofmutualinfluence,suchasinproverbpairs1and5,theequivalentChineseproverbsareoriginatedfromEnglish.Theprominentroleplayedbyculturalmodelscouldberevealedmoreclearlythroughtheobservationoftheproverbpairsinthesecondtypethatshowsthediscrepancyofsourcedomainsmappingonthesametargetdomain,simply,thetwoproverbsinapairaresameinsemanticsbutdifferentinforms.Thelinguisticexpressionsdepictculturaltraitswhichsaturatetheproverbswithculturalfeatures.Forexample,theultimatepowerinChinesenationreferstoourheaven(天).ButinChristiannations,theultimatepowerisGod.Someproverbpairsrepresentsuchreligiousdiscrepancy:1.Manproposes,Goddisposes.谋事在人，成事在天。2.Godhelpsthosewhohelpthemselves.天助自助者。3.God’smillgrindsshowbutsure.天网恢恢疏而不漏。4.Breadisthestaffoflife.民以食为天。5.ThedangerpastandGodforgotten.过河拆桥。Someotherproverbsinpairsofthistypearedifferentiatedfromoneanotheronlyonthelevelofthesourcedomain,butthemetonymicandmetaphoricmappingsaresimilar,suchas:1.Aneyeforaneye.以牙还牙2.While/whenthecat’saway,themicewillplay.山中无老虎，猴子称大王3.Outofsight,ouofmind.眼不见，心不烦。39万方数据 4.Thereisnosmokewithoutfire.无风不起浪5.Beautyisintheeyeofthebeholder.情人眼里出西施。Otherproverbsbuildentirelydifferentcognitivemodelswhenexpressingthesamemeaning.Suchlike:1.Countyourchickensbeforetheyarehatched.打如意算盘2.Diamondcutdiamond.两虎相争，必有一伤。3.Romeisnotbuiltinaday.冰冻三尺非一日之寒。4.Sparetherod.玉不琢不成器5.Youcantakeahorsetothewaterbutyoucannotmakehimdrink.强扭的瓜不甜。Inthoseexamples,eachproverbconstructsauniquecognitiveimagetoreflecttheunderlyinggenericmeaning.Whenconfrontedwiththoseproverbs,itisalittlehardtogetaccurateunderstandingaboutproverbsfornon-nativespeakers.Althoughtheworkingmechanismabouttheinteractionbetweenmetonymyandmetaphoriscommonlyaccepted,thespecificimagesarevarious,whicharetheproductsofculturalmodelsandpatterns.4.2.3Sampleanalysis3Amongtheconceptualmetaphorsinthefourtables,therearein-correspondentphenomena.Intable1,4typesofconceptualmetaphorsexistinonlyonelanguage.Intable2,5typesoutof13;table3,5typesoutof12andtable4,1outof4.Theuniqueexistenceofsomeproverbscouldrevealthedeepseatedinfluenceofculturalmodels,mirroringwaysofthinkinginacertainlanguage.Forinstance,the7thtypeofconceptualmetaphorsintable1representtheviewthatFriendshipIsAGoodNeighborhood.ThereareatleastthreeChineseproverbsbuiltontheconceptualmetaphor,whilenoequivalentproverbsinEnglish.Suchphenomenonreflectsthedifferentculturalmodelsbeneaththesameconcept.40万方数据 METAPHORSOURCE比邻TARGET-------------------------------知己比邻neighborhood（S)METONYMY---------------harmoniousrelationshipPersonalrelationship（T）海内存知己，天涯若比邻InChina,relationshipwithpeoplelivingnextdoorisoneinfluentialfactoroftheharmoniousandpeacefullife,therefore,makingagoodfriendjustlikehavingagoodneighbourwhocouldmutuallycommunicatewithyou.ItistheICMaboutneighborhoodinChinathatprovidesthespaceformetonymy.ForthelackofsuchICM,thereisnocorrespondentEnglishproverbs.4.3PragmaticanalysisofproverbsinEnglishandChineseOnpragmaticlevel,proverbsareusedforcommunicativepurposes,functioningasinstruction,warning,suggestingandguidance.Proverbscouldguidepeopletoholdcorrectandpositiveattitudestowardslife,togetalongwellwithothersinaproperway,andtoknowwhatshoulddoandhowtodo.And,thestructureofaproverbisusuallynotverycomplex,onlyinaformofashortsentenceorevenaphrase,whichmakesiteasyforpeopletomemorizeanduse,adheringtocognitiveeconomyprincipleinlinguisticcommunication.Consequently,proverbsareconventionalizedindailytalks.Peoplewouldlovetousethemdirectlyandutterlytoexpresssomegenericmeaninghiddeninproverbs,withoutfurtherexplanation.Andthehearersalsocouldaccesstotheunderlyingmeaningviaproverbsstraightly.Suchsuccessfulinterpretationofproverbialmeaningsbetweenspeakersandhearersisestablishedonthefoundationofthegeneralschemaforproverbs,combinedwiththeinfluenceofculturalpatternsandmodelsdiscussedabove.Nevertheless,therealusageofproverbsindailylifewillfacemoreflexibilityandpossibilities.41万方数据 4.3.1TheeffectofcontextBothChineseandEnglishproverbsarecognitiveandconventionalized.Theyoftenappearinasentenceasawholetoconveymeaning.Forexample,whensearchingtheproverb“don’tcryoverthespiltmilk/泼出去的水；覆水难收”onCOCA,BNC,TIMEandCCLcorporaon-line,weget22sentencesentailingtheproverb,outofwhich9inEnglishand13inChinese.Furthermore,theEnglishsentencescollectedfrom5sortsofsourcematerials:fiction,spokenlanguage,magazine,proseandadvertisement.AndChineseonescollectedfromfiction,play,Beijingdialect,newsandmagazine.Hence,inaccordancewiththosedifferentsourcematerials,hereare10samplesareextractedtoofferexemplaryexplanation.1.[sourcematerial:spokenlanguage]Mr-TURNER:OuthereIdon"thavetoworryaboutthesevenbillionIlost.SAFER:Sevenbillion.Itmakesyoustopandthink.Mr-TURNER:Youknow,yougot--youcan"tcryoverspiltmilk,asIsaidbefore.Yougottopresson,myman.(Fishing)A-ha!Anotherniceone!2.[sourcematerial:fiction]…Congratulations,Betty!Anewbaby?""Notmine.Tayloe"s.She"sdonefoundoutshe"spregnant.""Oh."IlookdownatDoc"sprescription.Sureenough,it"sT.Slagle.Idon"tknowwhatmoretosay.Thisistragic.She"salittlegirl!"Canyoubelieveit?ShewasonthePill,too.Butit"stoolatetocryoverspiltmilk;it"sspiltandthat"sallthereistoit.Wegottocleanitupandmoveonhere."3.[sourcematerial:magazine]HebecameCEOin1998.By2001and2002,thecompanywasenduringrealhardships.Taurelwasbrutallyfrankabouttheadjustmentsthatwouldhavetotakeplace……"Itwasimportantforeveryonetoseemyoptimism,"hesays.Theshow"smainmessagewas"Don"tcryoverspiltmilk,"""Taurelexplains."Ithinkitempowerspeoplewhenyouaretransparent,tellingpeoplewherewe"regoingandwhy."42万方数据 4.[sourcematerial:advertisement]Tomakesureyoudon"tcryoverspiltmilk,Mielesealbaseunitsallround,includingthetopandthat"sbeforeputtingyourworktopon.Givingtotalstabilityandprotectionagainstmoisture.5.[sourcematerial:prose]Well,Iwon"tcryoverspiltmilk,"Karensaidasshefinallyrecoveredthelastsmithereenofdog."ButIthinkyououghttoseeapsychiatristIthinkyou"rehavingwhattheycallanervousbreakdown.6.[sourcematerial:fiction]列车就要到了，送走瞎子后，岂不要误了自己的计划？但出口的话是泼出去的水，那是收不回去的。何况他面对的是一个盲人7.[sourcematerial:play]这点事由便心生绝念不顾你我的往日情义再不想回头？""心灰意冷,覆水难收。"袁捷冷冷地说："紫玉望你三思而行不要逼我太甚。8.[sourcematerial:Beijingdialect]“…可这帮家伙干了多少坏事，杀了多少人，当时他们可没留什么情。”“过去的都过去了，覆水难收，再多杀一些人也不能使死者复生。…”9.[sourcematerial:news]婚姻出现危机时才会进行心理咨询,寻找解决方法,而此时往往已覆水难收。10.[sourcematerial:magazine]后返娘家居住的妇女，一些村民持不欢迎态度，认为“嫁出去的女儿泼出去的水”，因此乡规中不分配她们责任田，并取消一切福利待遇Fromthosesamplesentences,wefindthatproverbsareusedinrealspeechdirectly,butwhethertheyreflectotherspecificmeaningsbeyondthegenericmeaningtheyproject43万方数据 stillneedfurtherconsideration.Thegenericmeaningoftheproverb“don’tcryoverthespiltmilk/泼出去的水；覆水难收”indicatesthatitisuselesstoregretwhathashappened.Ineachsentence,suchmeaninghasbeentransferred.However,itisnottheend.Thegenericmeaningismappedontoanotherspecificdomainagainwhichisattachedtothecontexteachsentenceisembeddedin.Thesentenceslistedabovearerealcasesofspeechutteredindifferentcontexts.Thespecificcontextsaremarkedoutbyunderlineineachsentence,duetowhichthespecificmeaningsoftheproverbaremultiple.Whenaccountingforthespecificcontext,theproverbineachsentencecouldbeinterpretedrespectivelyas:1.Nousecryingoverthelost7billion.2.Nousecryingoverthepregnantmatterhappenedonalittlegirl.3.Nousecryingoverthemistakesyou’vedoneinbusiness.4.Nousecryingoveranyliquidyouspilled.5.Nousecryingoverthepsychologicalillness.6.Nousecryingoverwhathavebeensaid7.Nousecryingoverwhathasbeendone.8.Nousecryingoverthekilled.9.Nousecryingoverthemaritalproblem.10.Nousecryingoverthemarrieddaughter.Insummary,thegenericmeaningofproverbswillbemappedontootherspecificmeaningsinthattheparticipationofthespecificcontextinuse.Thecontextisoneinfluentialelementinproverbspragmaticapplication,bothforChineseandEnglish.Inthisrespect,proverbsaccomplishunderstandingandinterpretationeventhoughtheoriginalspecificmattersdepictedinproverbsdon’thappenactuallyatthetimeofproverbialapplication.4.3.2ThecomparisonofproverbsdistributioninusebetweenthetwolanguagesAsshowninthewordlistinappendix2,therearenumbersontherightsideofeachproverb.ThenumbersbehindtheEnglishproverbsarethedataabouthowmanytimesthe44万方数据 proverbinfrontappearindailyspeechrespectivelyrecordedinCOCA,BNCandTIME.Dataareshowninbracketsandthelastnumbersoutofbracketsarethesumofthedataahead.ThenumbersinthebracketsbehindChineseproverbsareshowingthefrequencyoftheproverbsappearingindailyspeechrecordedinCCL.Andthefollowingnumbersoutofbracketsareminusbetweenthedataoffrequencyinthetwolanguages.Takeoneproverbpairasanexample:Aneyeforaneye（7inTIME.129INCOCA,10INBNC)146以牙还牙（144）2TheEnglishproverbappears146timestotallyincorpora,whilethecorrespondentChineseoneappear144times.Theminusbetweenthemis2.Therefore,thispairreflectsarelativelybalanceddistributioninuse.Accordingtothosedata,especiallytheminusdataoffrequencybetweenthetwolanguages,thewholelistcouldbeclassifiedintothreecategories.Thefirsttypeistheproverbpairswithrelativelysmallerminus,implyingthatthefrequencyofEnglishproverbsisalmostequaltothatoftheChineseones.Thereare19pairsinthiscategory.SuchasBirdsofafeatherflocktogether.（1inBNC,13inCOCA，1inTIME）15物以类聚人以群分。(13)2Betterthedevilyouknow.（12inBNC,4inCOCA）16明枪易躲，暗箭难防。（15）1Betterlatethannever.（16inBNC,77inCOCA,19inTIME）112亡羊补牢，为时不晚（122）10While/whenthecat"saway,themicewillplay.(2inTIME,4inBNC)6山中无老虎，猴子称大王。（6）0Doasyouwouldbedoneby.（3inBNC,2INCOCA）5己所不欲勿施于人。（5）0Thesecondcategoryistheproverbpairswithrelativelylargerminus.Thereare56pairs,like:Afriendinneedisafriendindeed(2inTIME).2患难见真情。(24)2245万方数据 clothesmakeaman(16inCOCA,6inTIME）22人靠衣裝。(4)18Nopain,nogain.（1inBNC,3inCOCA）4一分耕耘，一份收获。（64）60Beautyisintheeyeofthebeholder.（3inTIME）3情人眼里出西施。（31）28Breadisthestaffoflife.（1inBNC）1民以食为天。（172）171DoinRomeastheRomansdo.（1inBNC）1入乡随俗。（92）91Thelasttypeistheproverbpairswithunbalanceddistributionindailyuse,whereoneproverbineachpairdoesnotappearindailyspeechonthebasisofcorporaon-lineweconsulted.Thereare54pairsintotal,suchas:Agoodmaninanevilsocietyseemsthegreatestvillainofall.(0)众人皆醉我独醒。(10)10Aleopardcannotchangehisspots.(0)江山易改，本性难移(13)13Aliecanbehalfwayaroundtheworldbeforethetruthgetsitsbootson.（0）好事不出门，坏事传千里。(14）14Allarenotthievesthatdogsbarkat.(0)人不可貌相，海水不可斗量。（6）6Allgoodthingscometoandend.(0)天下无不散的宴席。(2)2Allriversrunintothesea.（0）百川入海。海纳百川。（82）。82Accordingly,conclusionsaredrawnasfollows:Firstly,thedatademonstratetheactualuseofproverbs,provingthatproverbsareusedtomapconnotativemeaningsintheformasawhole,withoutanyextraexplanation.TheyhavebeenconventionalizedastheIdealizedCognitiveModelstosomeconcepts,beingthemosttypicalexamplestoconveycertainmeanings,bearingpragmaticfunctions.46万方数据 Forinstance,inthesamplessentencesbelow,nocatandmicereallyexist,buttheproverb“while/whenthecat’saway,themicewillplay.”couldprojectdirectlythegeneraltargetdomain,withthehelpoftheICMitconstructed:themiceplayastheylikeifwithoutthecat’scontrolling,whichindicatesthatthepeopleinlowerpositionswillplayanimportantroleordowhatevertheywanttodoiftherearenotpeopleinhigherpositionstocontrol.Samples:1.Isaidyou"llsleepforabloodyweek!(pause)Mike"sbeenofftoday,it"sbeengood!(pause)Whilethe(pause)cat"sawaythemicewillplay!(pause)2.butwhenthecat"sawaythemicewillplay.Someonemightdosomethingbehindyourback.""You"reright."Hesmiledamirthlesssmile3.I"lltellyouanyway--"Whenthecat"saway,themicewillplay.""Heburstoutlaughingandmadebacktowardsthestables.4.AsIsaidthemorningofPeter"sdeparture,whenthecat"sawaythemicewillplay.Youthoughtyou"dplay--forhigherstakesthanthosehewasoffering.5.Whilethecat"sawaythemicewillplay.HisGovernment-sponsoredlecturetouroftheU.S.finished,ScientistHuxleywasawaitingashiptotakehimbacktoEnglandwhenwordcamethathehadbeenfiredasdirectoroftheLondonZoo.6.AnewspapereditorreportedonedaylastsummerthatwhilePremierAdnanMendereswasoffonatrip,somepoliticalscalawaggingwasgoingoninsidetherulingDemocraticParty."Whilethecat"saway,"wrotetheeditor,"themicewillplay."SodotheequivalentChineseone“山中无老虎，猴子称大王”Samples1:地区男足运动开展现状来看,依然会是欧洲和拉美球队唱主角,但山中无老虎,猴子称大王,人们不要忘记前两届奥运会非洲队伍捧杯的“冷门”2:山中无老虎,猴子称霸王。借中国奥运选手系统训练不足之机,目前活跃在羽坛。3:我衷心的希望有更多的人都来向"老虎"进化。切记：不要以为山中无老虎，猴子就可以称大王。"只有这样，中国才会有救，4:迎艾思奇等同志到延安来的大会上，毛泽东致欢迎辞：我们过去是山中无老虎，猴子称大王。如今艾思奇来了……”5:说应聘者寥寥，以至于一些会说不会写的应试者也被录用，直应了山中无老47万方数据“ 虎，猴子称大王的俗语。6:失者若是能不满足，他就能不停步。可惜有些人太容易满足了。山中无老虎，猴子称大王。这种人被现实生活束缚得牢牢的，是环境的奴隶。Secondly,theminusindicatethedifferencesbetweentheuseofEnglishandChineseproverbs.Thoseproverbsareequivalentinsemanticsineachpair,butthetendencyofapplyingproverbstoconveymeaningsisdifferent.Inthesecondcategory,outof56pairs,39pairsarethoseinwhichChineseproverbsareusedmorefrequentlythanequivalentEnglishones.Inthethirdcategory,only2outof54arethoseinwhichEnglishproverbsareappliedindailyspeechandChineseonesareout.TherestpairsinthiscategoryallshowthatChineseuseproverbstoexpressmetaphoricalmeaningsmorefrequentlythanEnglishunderthesimilarcondition.Forinstance,“Aleopardcannotchangehisspots”,aconceptualizedproverbinEnglish,doesn’tappearincorpora,while“江山易改本（秉）性难移”appears24timesindifferentmaterialsincludinghistoricalbiography,magazine,newsandfiction.48万方数据 Chapter5ConclusionThispaperdemonstratesacontrastivestudyofmetaphoricproverbsinChineseandEnglishfromacognitiveperspective,combinedwithculturalandpragmaticviews.Thischapterincludesareviewofmajorfindingsofthethesis,summarizingthemajorpointsraisedinthepreviouschapter,andthestatementofthoseconditionsconstrainedthisresearchandsuggestionsforfuturerelatedresearches.5.1MajorfindingsThemajorfindingsofthethesisinclude:Firstofall,thereisageneralschemaforproverbs.Suchschemareflectsbothmetonymicandmetaphoricmappings,bymeansofwhichthemetonymicexpansionofthesourceofametaphorcouldprovidetherelevantmaterialfortheconstructionofametaphoricmappinginordertoproduceagenericspace.Itisthewaythatproverbialmeaningsgetacross.ItisthegeneralschemaforproverbscombinedwithcommoncognitivemodelsthatmakesmutualunderstandingandinterpretationbetweenEnglishandChineseproverbspossibleandthesamesocialfunctionissharedbytheproverbsintwolanguagesbecauseofthesimilarconceptualmetaphors.Besides,thevarietyofthechosenwordsandexpressionsreflectthedifferencesinculturalinsteadofcognitivemodel.Culturalmodelsconstraintheestablishmentofconceptualmetaphorsandresultinthevariedlinguisticexpressionssetonthegeneralschema.Sometaphorsinproverbsareculturalandreflectacertaintypeofculturalpatterns.Furthermore,inpragmaticapplication,contextisapivotalfactor.Proverbsareusedinrealspeechsituationdirectly,buttheyreflectotherspecificmeaningsbeyondthegenericmeaningtheyproject.Thegenericmeaningofproverbswillbemappedontootherspecificmeaningsduetotheparticipationofthespecificcontextinuse.Finally,proverbs’distributioninrealdiscourseisunbalancedbetweenChineseandEnglish.Therearepreferencesindifferentnations.Thedatainthepresent-studyreveal49万方数据 thatunderthesamecondition,ChinesespeakersaremorelikelytouseproverbstoexpressmeaningsthanEnglishspeakers.5.2LimitationsandsuggestionsforfutureresearchesAsamatteroffact,thelimitationsoftheresearchareunavoidable.Thisthesispicksoutsometypicalsamplesfromcorporatoanalyze.Moresampleanalysisaddedcouldleadtoamorecompleteresearch.Thosecorpora,thoughcontainingalargeamountofdata,couldnotfullyreflectthereality.Itisimpossibletocollectallproverbsindailyuse,especiallyinspokenlanguage.Thedatagatheredinthethesisarelimitedtoacertainnumberofcorporaon-line,notinclusiveofallitems.Therefore,thefindingsinthisthesiscouldhardlyrepresenttotallytherealsituationofproverbsinuse,nevertheless,theycanrevealthegeneralregulationandtrendtosomeextent.Furtherstudieswilladoptamoredelicatelyquantitativemethod,takingthefrequencyandtendencyofproverbsusedindifferentgenreandhistoricalperiodsintofullconsideration,soastogoonefurthersteptotherealityofproverbsinuse.50万方数据 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代修辞学》，2010.6.第24-30页.惠景露(HuiJinglu):“基于COCA语料库的英语谚语变体的特征研究”，《哈尔滨学院学报》，第33卷,2012年第7页.蓝纯（LanChun）：认知语言学和隐喻研究》，北京:外语教学与研究出版社，2005.蓝纯（LanChun）：“从认知角度看汉语的空间隐喻”，《外语教学与研究》，1999年第4期，第233-263页.李福印（LiFuyin)：《语义学概论》，北京:北京大学出版社，2006.卢植（LuZhi）：《认知和语言》，上海：上海外语教育出版社，2006.束定芳（ShuDingfang）主编：《语言的认知研究-认知语言学论文精选》，上海:上海外语教育出版社，2004.束定芳（ShuDingfang）：《隐喻学研究》，上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000.孙建丽，孙启耀(SunJianli,Sunqiyao)：“基于语料库的中国英语学习者本体隐喻习得研究：基于WIDE的个案研究”。北京第二外国语学院学报》，2011,4.第1-8页.田学军（TianXuejun)：“隐喻功能性研究：空白和补阙。”《云南师范大学学报》，2009,4.第497-499页.王银娜(WangYinna)：“从认知角度看《论语》中的隐喻——考察孔子的思想体系及其对中国文化和哲学的影响”，《宁波大学学报》，2009年第22卷，第5期，第59-63页.王懿，陈正发(WangYi,ChenZhengfa)：“语气隐喻及其在政治语篇中的应用”，《安徽大学学报》，2011.2.第81-86页.徐丹(XuDan)：“从认知视角看汉语的两对空间词”，《中国语文》，2006,8第504-510页.徐竹生(XuZhusheng)：《英语谚语大词典》，南京：江苏教育出版社，2003.杨万鹏（YangWanpeng):“中英文化差异对谚语翻译策略的影响”,《长江大学学报》，第29卷，2006,10.于莹(YuYing)：“认知视角下的隐喻与翻译研究”，《集美大学学报》，2008年第11卷第2期，第80-84页.周红英，张辉（ZhouHongying,Zhanghui)：“言语理解和语义在线加工模式及影响其加工的因素”，《外语电化教学》，2009.5.第9-18页.止思(ZhiSi):《谚语》，武汉：崇文书局,2007,9.55万方数据《《 AppendixⅠTable156万方数据1.FriendshipIsPeoplehavingalotinCommon1.挨金似金，挨玉似玉。2.凤凰不入乌鸡阵，金鸡不入狐狸阵。3.门内有君子，门外君子至。4.欲知其人，观其朋友。5.欲知子弟成何品，但看何人共往来。1.Amanisknownbythecompanyhekeeps.2.FriendshipIsHelpinDifficulty.1.甘泉知于口渴时，良友识于患难日。2.患难见真情。3.患难是挚友，甘苦成知交。4.结交在未遇之先，施恩在贫窘之际。5.岁寒知松柏，患难见人心。6.一个篱笆三个桩，一个好汉三个帮。7.有福同享，有难同当。8.雪前送炭好，雨后送伞迟。1.Afriendinneedisafriendindeed.2.Afriendisonewhowalksinwhentherestoftheworldwalksout.3.Afalsefriendandashadowattendonlywhilethesunshines.3.FriendshipIsAGoodKinship1.是亲不是亲，非亲却是亲。2.四海之内皆兄弟。‘3.虽有兄弟，不如友生。4.在家靠父母，出门靠朋友。1.Abrothermaynotbeafriend,butafriendwillalwaysbeabrother.2.Afather"satreasure,abrother"sacomfort,a3.friendisboth.4.Betteronetruefriendthanahundredrelatives.4.FriendshipIsAGoodRelationshipinDistance1.君子交有义，不必常相从。1.Friendshipincreasesbyvisitingfriendsbutvisitingseldom.2.Ahedgebetweenkeepsfriendshipgreen.3.Thebestoffriendsmustpart.4.Don"tletthegrassgrowonthepathoffriendship.5.FriendshipIsOppositetoMoney. 57万方数据1.本以势力交，势尽交情止。2黄金万两易得，知心一个难求。3.交友莫交财，交财两不来。4.君子之交淡如水。5.钱财容易得，人意最难求。1.Atruefriendisthebestpossession.2.Lendyourmoneyandloseyourfriends.6.Friendshipisamirror.1.Thebestmirrorisanoldfriend.2.Afriend"seyeisagoodmirror.7.Friendshipisagoodneighborhood.1.海内存知己，天涯若比邻。2.相知无远近，万里亦比邻。8.Friendshipisanunityoftwo.1.Afriend--onesoul,twobodies.2.Friendshipisonemindintwobody.9.Friendshipisworksofsuperiorpower1.Afriendmaywellbereckonedthemasterpieceofnature.2.FriendsareGod"swayoftakingcareofus.3.Goddefendsmefrommyfriends;frommyenemiesIcandefendmyself.10.Friendshipisfewbutbestthing.1.春风满面皆朋友，欲觅知音难上难。1.Littlefriendsmayprovegreatfriends.2.Booksandfriendsshouldbefewbutgood. Table258万方数据1.LoveIsAPlant1.爱情是一株苍松，不是一朵昙花。2.强扭的瓜不甜。3.天涯何处无芳草，何必单恋一支花。4.宁在花下死，做鬼也风流。5.地生连理木，水生并蒂莲。6.豆角开花藤牵藤，石榴结子心连心。1.Loveisthefruitofidleness.2.LoveIsCompanionship.1.两情相洽，两心相惜。2.夫妻相恰好，琴瑟与笙簧。3.在天愿作比翼鸟，在地愿为连理枝。4.夫妻本是鸳鸯鸟，一对栖时一对飞。5.海枯石烂两鸳鸯，只合双飞或双死。6.地生连理木，水生并蒂莲。7.豆角开花藤牵藤，石榴结子心连心。1.AllshallbewellandJackshallhaveJill.2.Loveshouldnotbeallononeside.3.LoveIsNotCommodity.1.易求无价宝，难求有情郎。2.爱情不是金钱的奴仆。3.钱财买不来爱情。1.Loveisneitherboughtorsold.2.Loveisnotfoundinthemarket.3.Lovewillnotyieldtoallthemightofwealth.4.LoveIsBlindfold1.情人眼里出西施。2.爱情使人盲目。3.爱情使人对缺点视而不见。1.Affectionblindsreason.2.Affectionisblindreason.3.Loveblindsamantoimperfections.4.Lovercoversmanyinfirmities.5.LoveIsWater/Food.1.山高不如男人的志气高，水深不如女人的爱情深。2.有情饮水饱，无情食饭饥。3.年年东流水，相思流不尽。4.一日夫妻百日恩，百日夫妻似海深。1.Loveisathirstthatneverslaked. 59万方数据6.LoveIsTaste.1.只要情投意合，清水无糖也甜。2.强扭的瓜不甜。1.Loveisasweettorment.2.Loveisabitter-sweet.3.Loveisasweettyranny,becausetheloverendureshistormentwillingly.4.Loveissweetinthebeginningbutsoarintheending.5.Loveisthesaltoflife.7.LoveIsFire.1.喷泉的水堵不死，爱情的火扑不灭。2.爱就像冬天里的一把火。1.Love’sfireheatswater,watercoolsnotlove.8.LoveIsMagicPower.1.爱情可以使弱者变得勇敢。2.百年修来同船渡，千年修来共枕眠。1.Loveconquersallthings.2.Lovegothroughstonewalls.3.Loveovercomesall.4.Lovemakesallhardheartsgentle.5.Lovemakesmenorators.6.Lovemakesobedienceeasy.7.Lovemakesonefitforanywork.9.LoveIsMovingObjects.1.Asgoodlovecomesasgoes.2.Lad’sloveisabuskofbroom,hotawhileandsoondone.3.Lovecomesinatthewindowandgoesoutatthedoor.4.Loveofladsandfireofchatsissooninandsoonout.10.LoveIsSubstances.1.Lovecannotbecompelled(orforced)2.Lovecannotbehid.11.LoveIsUnique.1.曾经沧海难为水，除却巫山不是云。12.LoveIsMetal.1.真正的爱情越久越生锈。13.LoveIsEternity.1.爱情要海枯石烂不变。 2.天不老情难绝。60万方数据 Table361万方数据1.TimeIsHuman.1.春光不自留，莫怪东风恶。2.岁月不待人。3.时间能说明一切。1.Timeandtidewaitfornoman.2.Timebringseverythingtothosewhocanwaitforit.3.Timebringsthetruthtolight.4.Timechangestheoaktreetoacoffin.5.Timedevoursallthings.6.Timeunderminesus.7.Timeworksgreatchanges.8.Timeisahardtaskmaster.9.Timeistheriderthatbreaksyouth.10.Timeistruefriendtosorrow.11.Timerevealsallthings.12.Timewillteachtheeallthings.2.TimeIsSubstance.1.Timeandwordscanneverberecalled.2.Timewillshow.3.Timelostcannotberecalled.3.TimeIsMovingObjects.1.白日莫闲过，青春不再来。2.百年光阴，如驹过隙。3.窗外日光弹指过，席间花影座间移。4.青春易逝，分秒必争。1.Timefleesawaywithoutdelay.2.Lifeisshortandtimeisswift.4.TimeIsEvidence.1.时间能证明一切。1.Timetriesthetruth.2.Timetriesallthings.3.Timetriesfriendsasfiretriesgold.5.TimeIsAHealer.1.时间能治疗一切。2.时间是最好的良药。1.Timedressesthegreatestwounds.2.Timeandthoughttamethestrongestgrief.3.Timeisthebesthealer.4.Timecureseverydisease.6.TimeIsAnArrow.1.白日去如箭，达者惜分阴。2.光阴似箭催人老。1.Timeflieslikeanarrow,andtimelostneverreturns. 62万方数据7.TimeIsAMetal.1.日月如梭不待人。2.日月如梭催人老，光阴不觉暗中消。1.Timeisastillfile.8.TimeIsMoney.1.尺璧非为贵，寸阴如黄金。2.一寸光阴一寸金，寸金难买寸光阴。3.春宵一夜值千金。1.Wastingtimeiswastingone’slife.9.TimeIsFlowingWater.1.岁月不居，时节如流。2.逝川如流光，飘忽不相待。3.时间好似东流水，只见流去不见回。4.流水源泉千年在，光阴一去不回来。5.人间沧海朝朝变，莫遣佳期更后期。10.TimeIsCommodity.1.一头白发催将去，万两黄金买不回。2.有钱难买二八月，黄金难买少年时。3.难把黄金买黑头。11.TimeIsPlants.1.人生一世，草木一春。2.花开花落年年有，青春一去不回头。12.TimeIsSand.1.Footprintsonthesandsoftimearenotmadebysittingdown. Table463万方数据1.ChanceIsMovingObjects.1.得时无怠，时不再来。2.有了满腹才，不怕运不来。3.运到时来，铁树开花。4.运来推不开，倒霉一齐来。5.运去黄金失色，时来铁也生光。6.运去金成铁，时来铁似金。7.运退遭人弃，时来得意多。1.Opportunitiescomebutdonotlinger.2.Outofadversitycomesopportunity.2.ChanceIsSubstance.1.志不可慢，时不可失。2.千载一时，不可失也。3.信不弃功，知不遗时。4.东方不亮西方亮。1.Theopportunityofalifetimeisseldomsolabeled.2.Iftheeyesdidn’tsee,thehandswouldn’ttake.3.Onewhowaitsforchance,maywaitayear.4.Careanddiligencebringluck.deliberating.5.Theopportunityisoftenlostby3.ChanceIsHumanBeing.1.此处不留人，自有留人处。1.Blindchancesweepstheworldalong.2.Chancedispenseslifewithunequaljustice.3.Achangeinfortunehurtsawisemanwhomorethanachangeofthemoon.4.Opportunitiesdonotwait.5.Opportunitymakesthe(ora)thief.6.Chancecontrivesbetterthanweourselves.4.ChanceIsEnergy.1.向阳石榴红似火，背阴李子酸透心。2.一湾死水全无浪，也有春风摆动时。 AppendixⅡCategory11.Aneyeforaneye（7inTIME,129inCOCA,10inBNC)146以牙还牙（144）22.Birdsofafeatherflocktogether.（1inBNC13,inCOCA,1inTIME）15物以类聚人以群分。(13)23.Betterthedevilyouknow.(12inBNC,4inCOCA)16明枪易躲，暗箭难防。（15）14.Betterlatethannever.(16inBNC,77inCOCA,19inTIME）112亡羊补牢，为时不晚。(122)105.While/whenthecat"saway,themicewillplay.(2inTIME,4inBNC)6山中无老虎，猴子称大王。（6）06.Doasyouwouldbedoneby.(3inBNC,2inCOCA）5己所不欲勿施于人。（5）07.Actionsspeaklouderthanwords(10inBNC,58inCOCA,9inTIME).77事实胜于雄辩。(54)238.AllroadsleadtoRome.（10inOCOA，2inTIME）12条条大路通罗马。(21)99.Don"tcryoverspiltmilk.(7inCOCA,2inBNC)9覆水难收。(13）410.Liedownwithdogs,wakeupwithfleas.(2inCOCA)2近朱者亦；近墨者黑。(2)011.Knowledgeispower.(15inBNC,117inCOCA,8inTIME)140知识就是力量。(97)4312.Seeingisbelieving.(4inBNC,62inCOCA,10inTIME)76百闻不如一见（99）2313.Timeismoney.(22inBNC,88inCOCA,18inTIME)128时间就是金钱（117）1164万方数据 14.Outofsight,outofmind.(6inBNC,2inCOCA)8眼不见，心不烦。(15)715.Thegrassisgreenerover/ontheotherside.(19inCOCA,9inTIME)28这山望着那山高。(14)416.(Thereis)nosmokewithoutfire.(2inCOCA,18inBNC)20无风不起浪（13）717.Oncebitten,twiceshy.(8inBNC,7inCOCA,4inTIME)19一朝被蛇咬，十年怕草、井繩。（17）218.Badnewstravelsfast.（5inCOCA)坏事传千里。（8）319.countyourchickensbeforetheyarehatched.(1inTIME)1打如意算盘。(3)2Category21.Absencemakestheheartgrowfonder.（6inBNC,13inCOCA,1inTIME)20小别胜新婚（5）。152.Afriendinneedisafriendindeed.(2inTIME)2患难见真情。(24)223.Allthatglittersisnotgold.(7inCOCA)7金玉其外败絮其中。(21)144.Twoheadsarebetterthanone(8inBNC,三个臭皮匠赛过诸葛亮。（13）2527inCOCA,3inTIME)385.clothesmakeaman.(16inCOCA,6inTIME)22人靠衣裝。(4)186.Nopain,nogain.（1inBNC,3inCOCA）4一分耕耘，一份收获。（64）607.Asyoumakeyourbedsoyoumustlieonit.(2inBNC）2搬石头砸自己的脚。（6）48.Beautyisintheeyeofthebeholder.（3inTIME）3情人眼里出西施。（31）2865万方数据 9.Bloodisthickerthanwater.（7inBNC,22inCOCA,4inTIME）33血浓于水。（119）8610.Bloodwillout.（1inBNC，1inCOCA，）2紙包不住火。（17）1511.Breadisthestaffoflife.(1inBNC）1民以食为天。（172）17112.DoinRomeastheRomansdo.(1inBNC）1入乡随俗。（92）9113.makeamountainoutofamolehill.(4inBNC,2inCOCA,1inTIME）7小題大做。（99）9214.putthecartbeforethehorse.(4inBNC,20inCOCA,3inTIME)27本末倒置。(99)7215.Throwoutthebabywiththebathwater.（1inBNC,11inCOCA）12一棒子打死（4）816.Don"twashyourdirtylineninpublic.（1inBNC）1家丑不可外扬。（37）3617.Earlybirdgetstheworm.（2inTIME,9inCOCA）11早起的鸟儿有虫吃。（1）1018.Everydoghashisday.(4inBNC,2inCOCA,3inTIME)9风水轮流转。(26)1719.Firstcomefirstserved.(9inBNC,2inCOCA,1inTIME)12近水楼台先得月。(68)5620.Hastemakeswaste.(12inCOCA,4inTIME)16欲速则不达。(93)7721.Hisbreadisbutteredonbothsides.(1inTIME)1左右逢源。(152)15122.Inwinethereistruth.(1inBNC)1酒后吐真言。(21)2023.Laughteristhebestmedicine.(2inBNC,16inCOCA,1inTIME)19笑一笑，十年少。(3)1666万方数据 24.Likefather,likeson.(4inBNC,5inCOCA,1inTIME)10有其父必有其子。(22)1225.Lookbeforeyouleap.(12inBNC,3inTIME,15inCOCA)30三思而后行。(58)2826.Makehaywhilethesunshines.(5inBNC,2inTIME,8inCOCA)15未雨绸缪。(291)27627.Manproposes.Goddisposes.(1inBNC,1inCOCA)2谋事在人成事在天。(25)2328.Manyhandsmakelightwork.(2inBNC,2inCOCA,1inTIME)5众人拾柴火焰高（37）3229.Nothingventure,nothingwin.（1inBNC）1不入虎穴，焉得虎子。（28）2730.Shareandsharealike.(3inBNC,17inCOCA,6inTIME)26有福同享，有难同当（10）1631.cannotseethewoodforthetrees.(1inBNC)1见木不见林（4）、只见树木不见森林（8）1132.Sparetherod,(spoilthechild).(15inTIME,33inCOCA,5inBNC)53玉不琢不成器（7）。4633.Talkofthedevil(andheissuretoappear).(11inBNC,1inTIME,14inCOCA)26说曹操曹操就到。（11）1534.Therearetwosidestoeveryquestion.(2inCOCA,1inTIME)3公说公有理，婆说婆有理。（37）3435.Wallshaveears.(7inBNC,10inCOCA,1inTIME)18隔墙有耳。（30）1236.(Everymanforhimself,)andthedeviltakesthehindmost.(1inCOCA)1人不为己，天诛地灭。(14)1337.Godhelpsthosewhohelpthemselves.(4inBNC,13inCOCA,3inTIME)20天助自助者（9）1138.Itiseasytobewiseaftertheevent.（2inBNC）2事后诸葛亮好当。（22）2067万方数据 39.Ittakesthreegenerationstomakeagentleman.（1inBNC,1inTIME）2十年树木，百年树人。（32）3040.Thedieiscast.(8inTIME,17inCOCA)25木已成舟。(48)2341.Themorewit,thelesscourage.(1inCOCA)1初生牛犊不怕虎。(89)8842.Timeflies.(12inTIME74inCOCA)86时光如白驹过隙。(23)6343.timehealsallwounds.(28inCOCA,1inTIME）29时间能治疗一切。（2）时间是一剂良药。（2）2544.Whilethereislife，thereishope.(1inTIME)1留得青山在不愁、怕没柴烧。（52）5145.Afishalwaysrotsfromheaddown.（2inCOCA）上梁不正下梁歪。（27）2546.Aleopardcannotchangeitsspots.（3inBNC,9inCOCA2inTIME）14江山易改本性、秉性难移。（24）1047.Unionisstrength.(3inBNC,1inCOCA,)4团结就是力量。(75)7148.Toerrishuman.（4inBNC,36inCOCA,11inTIME）51人非圣贤，孰能无过。（30）2149.Troublesnevercomesingly.(1inBNC,2inTIME）3祸不单行。(133)13050.Ittakestwotoquarrel.(1inBNC）1一个巴掌拍不响。(15)1451.Abirdinthehandis(worththantwointhebush).(11inBNC,20inCOCA,3inTIME)34两鸟在林，不如一鸟在手。(1)一鸟在手，胜过二鸟、十鸟在林(4)2952.Arollingstonegathersnomoss.(7inCOCA,2inBNC）9流水不腐，户枢不蠹。（28）1968万方数据 53.Allthatglittersisnotgold.（7inCOCA）7闪光的不一定都是金子。（1）654.Adropinthebucket.(4inBNC,178inCOCA,35inTIME)217沧海一粟。（53）16455.Artislong,lifeisshort.(1inCOCA)1学海无涯苦作舟。（27）2656.Cutyourcoataccordingtoyourcloth.（2inBNC）2量身裁衣。(76)74Category31.Agoodmaninanevilsocietyseemsthegreatestvillainofall.(0)众人皆醉我独醒。(10)102.Aleopardcannotchangehisspots.(0)江山易改，本性难移。(13)133.Aliecanbehalfwayaroundtheworldbeforethetruthgetsitsbootson.（0）好事不出门，坏事传千里。(14）144.Allarenotthievesthatdogsbarkat.(0)人不可貌相，海水不可斗量。（6）65.Allgoodthingscometoandend.(0)天下无不散的宴席。(2)26.Allone"sgeeseareswans.（0）王婆卖瓜，自卖自夸。(7)77.Allriversrunintothesea.（0）百川入海。海纳百川。(82)828.Allshallbewell,JackshallhaveJill.(0)有情人终成眷属。(50)509.Allthingsareobedienttomoney.（0）有钱能使鬼推磨。（42）4210.Amissisasgoodasamile.（0）失之毫厘谬之千里。（4）469万方数据 11.Aquietconsciencesleepsinthunder.(0)夜半不怕鬼敲门。(5）512.Asyousow,soshallyoureap.（0）种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆。（5）513.Awordtothewiseisenough.（1incoca）智者一言足矣。（0）114.Beggarsmustnotbechoosers.（0）饥不择食。（95）9515.Betterbetheheadofadogthanthetailofalion.（0）宁为鸡头不为凤尾。（3）316.Bitterpillsmayhaveblessedeffects.（0）良药苦口。（9）917.Constantdrippingwearsawaythestone.（0）滴水穿石。（28）2818.Achainisnostrongerthanitsweakestlink(0).0一着不慎，满盘皆输。(9)19.Curiositykilledthecat.（7inBNC,13inCOCA,2inTIME）22好奇害死猫（0）2220.Desperatediseasesmusthavedesperatecures(remedies).（0）死马当活马医。（9）921.Diamondcutdiamond.（0）两虎相争，必有一伤。（3）322.Diseasescomeonhorseback,butstealawayonfoot.(0)病來如山倒，病去如抽丝。（11）1123.changehorsesinmid-stream.（0）临阵换将。（12)1224.Don"tcrossabridgeuntilyoucometoit.=Don"tcrossthebridgetillyoucometoit.(0)船到桥头自然直。(11)1125.Dountoothersasyouwouldhavedonetoyou.（0）将心比心。（100）10070万方数据 26.EastorWest,homeisbest.(0)金窝银窝不如自己的狗窝。(18）1827.Evenawormwillturn.(0)狗急跳墙。(53)5328.Giveknavesaninchandtheywilltakeayard.(0)得寸进尺。(122)12229.God"smillgrindsslowbutsure.(0)天网恢恢疏而不漏。(44)4430.Goodwordswithoutdeedsarerushesandreeds.(0)口惠而实不至。(25)2531.Helpalamedogoverastile.(0)雪中送炭。(305)30532.Hewholivesbytheswordshalldiebythesword.(0)玩火自焚。(28)2833.Ifyourunaftertwohares,youwillcatchneither.(0)赔了夫人又折兵。(44)4434.Newbroomssweepclear.(0)新官上任三把火。（47）4735.Oneturnip,onepit.(0)一個蘿蔔一個坑。（19）1936.Pennywise.(1inTIME21inCOCA,4inBNC)26捡了芝麻，丢了西瓜（0）2637.Sixofone,halfdozenoftheother.、Thepotcalledthekettleblack.(0)五十步笑百步。（15）1538.Toteachafishhowtoswim.(0)关公面前耍大刀。（1）139.Whatissauceforthegooseissauceforthegander.(0)依葫芦画瓢。（19）1940.Everymanhashishobbyhorse.(0)萝卜青菜，各有所爱。(3)371万方数据 41.Failureisthemotherofsuccess.(0)失败是成功之母。(21)2142.Foolsgrowwithoutwatering.(0)朽木不可雕。(12)1243.Greatbarkersarenobiters.(0)好狗不挡道。(2)244.Loveme,lovemydog.（0）爱屋及乌。(51)5145.Manythingsgrowinthegardenthatwereneversownthere.(0)有心栽花花不发，无心插柳柳成荫。(26)2646.Neverfishintroublewater.(0)混水摸鱼。(53)5347.Romeisnotbuiltinaday.(0)冰冻三尺，非一日之寒。(86)8648.ThedangerpastandGodforgotten.(0)过河拆桥。(34)3449.Theeyeisbiggerthanthebelly.(0)贪多嚼不烂。(12)1250.Thefoxpreysfarthestfromhome.(0)兔子不吃窝边草。(15)1551.Youcantakeahorsetothewaterbutyoucannotmakehimdrink.(0)强扭的瓜不甜。(25)2552.Truebluewillneverstain.（0）真金不怕火炼。(24)2453.Twodogsstriveforabone,andathirdrunsawaywithit.（0）鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利。(26)2654.Ahedgebetweenkeepsfriendshipgreen.（0）君子之交淡如水。（32）3272万方数据 附：本人读研期间发表科研论文及获奖情况一览表73万方数据序号标题刊物名称、期号本人排序备注1汉语谚语的认知隐喻研究牡丹江大学学报2012第9期独撰省级22014年荣获“优秀研究生”二等奖