基于语料库的英语谚语及其变体使用研究 75页

独创声明本人郑重声明：所呈交的学位论文是本人在导师指导下进行的研究工作及取得的研究成果，学位沦文的知识产权属于山西师范大学。除了文中特别加以标注的地方外，论文中不包含其他人已经发表或撰写过的研究成果，也不包含为获得山西师范大学或其他教育机构的学位或证书使用过的材料。本声明的法律后果将完全由本人承担。作者签名：书矾衙签字日期：弦侈．j-谓／u学位论文版权使用授权书本学位论文作者完全了解山西师范大学有关保留、使用学位论文的规定，有权保留并向BI,家有关部门或机构送交论文的复印件和电子版，允许论文被查阅和借测。本人授权LU西师范大学可以将学位论文的全部或部分内容编入有关数据库进行网络出版，可以采用影印、缩印或扫描等复制手段保存、汇编学位论文。(保密的学位论文在解密后适用本授权书)。作者签名导师签字签字日期：伽／；S谚签字日期：弘，，．．p-吨‰一鼬矽纩芦 AbstractTitle：ACorpus-basedStudyontheUsageofEnglishProverbsandTheirVariationsMajor：ForeignLinguisticsandAppliedLinguisticsName：LuFengjuanSupervisor：QinJieSignature：Aproverbisasimpleandconcretesayingpopularlyknownandrepeated．Itexpressesatruth，basedoncommonsenseorthepracticalexperienceofhumans．Generally,Englishproverbsareconsideredtohavefixedformsandcannotbechanged．However,mostproverbscanbetransformedinvariouswaysaccordingtothecommunicativeneedsofthespeakersincertaincontexts．Soproverbvariationshavecomeintobeingtoachieveeffectsofheighteningcertainatmosphere，humor,satireorevencompletelyoppositemeaning．Corpusisalanguagedatabankcontainingagreatnumberofinformationforstudyandanalysis．Amajorreasonforcompilinglinguisticcorporaistoprovidethebasisformoreandaccurateandreliabledescriptionsofhowlanguagesarestructuredandused．⋯tillsstudyisbasedontheCorpusofContemporaryAmericanEnglish(COCA)andtheSpokenandWrittenEnglishCorpusofChineseLearners(SWECCL)toexplorethephenomenonofEnglishproverbsandproverbvariations．SofarCOCAhasbeenthelargestcorpusofEnglishandcanbeusedforfree．Thecorpuscontainsmorethan450millionwordsoftextandisequallydividedamongspoken，fiction，popularmagazines，newspapersandacademictexts．Itincludes20millionwordseachyearfrom1990—2012andthecorpusisupdatedregularly．SWECCLconsistsofwrittenEnglishcorpusandspokenEnglishcorpus．ItcontainsaboutonemillionwordsofEnglishmajorstudentsfrom2003—2007．CorpusCanreflecttherealuseoflanguage．Basedontheprototypetheory,thisstudyrevealsthenamreofEnglishproverbsandproverbvariationsfromcognitiveperspective．Theprototypetheoryholdsthatprototypeisthecenterofthecategory,havingmuchdistinctionandmaximuminformation．Prototypeisthereferencepointforselectingothermembersanditprovidesbasisfor establishinganddistinguishingcategories．Thecategoricalbinaryisnotclearduetothecontinuit3"betweenobjects，Tosomedegree，ambiguityoftheobjectiveworldistherootofambiguityofcategories．Therearesomesimilaritiesamongthemembersinaf缢iaily,butthedegreeofsimilaritiesisdifferent．Thedegreeoffamilyresemblanceisreducingfromtherepresentativememberstoborderlinemembers．Indetail，thisstudydiscussesthecategoriesofEnglishproverbvariationsinLISe．Throughsearchingthefrequency,itfirstlyanalyzestheuseoftheoriginalproverbsandproverbvariationsinCOCAandthencomestoaconclusionthatthemaintypesofvariationsaresubstitution，deletionandaddition．Secondly,bycomparingthefrequencyoforiginalproverbswiththatofproverbvariations，thestudyfindsthat90％originalproverbsareusedflexiblywithvariantforms，Then，basedonSWECCL，itanalyzeshowChineselearnersuseEnglishproverbs．BycomparingthefrequencyofproverbsinCOCAandSWECCL，theresultisthatChineselearnersareusedtoemployingthefixedformproverbs。ThestudyhelpsEnglish[earnerslearnEnglishproverbsandbefamiliarwithproverbvariationsbyencouragingthemtouseEnglishproverbsandtheirvariations．ThestudyalsohelpsEnglishlearnersunderstandthewestemcultureandimprovetheirEnglishinterestandtheir1evels．[KeyWordsl：Englishproverbs；variation；COCA；SWECCL[TypeofThesis]：Application 摘要论文题目：基于语料库的英语谚语及其变体使用研究专业：外国语言学及应用语言学硕士生：芦风娟指导教师：秦杰签名：趁唆：谚语是r+泛流行于民间，由集体创造的、言简意赅的话语，在生活经验中反映了人们的丰富智慧。在形式上，谚语一般被认为是结构I同定的，在使Hj中是不可改动的。然而，在实际的使J{=l中，当传统的谚语不能适应某种情境时，使刖者可以根据需要对原谚语进多方面的改变，从而形成一个具有某种特定效果的全新的谚语。这就出现了谚语变体的现象。谚语变体的恰当使用可以达到渲染特定的气氛、突出某种感情、诙谐幽默，甚至意义完全相反的效果。语料库，即语言材料的仓库，反映语言使用的实际情况。本文借助丁．美国当代英语语料库COCk．和中国学生英语口笔语语料库SWECCL2．0，探究英语谚语在真实语料中的使川情况。COCk是最大的可免费使用的美国英语语料库，拥有4．5亿的词汇量，收集了1990-2012年且多个领域的语料。主要涵盖了口语、小说、流行杂志、报纸和学术期刊等基本呈均匀平街分布的五人类型语料。中国学生英语口笔语语料库(2．0版)由硒个子语料库构成，口语库和笔语库。此语料采集于2003—2007年英语专业学生的语料，约100万余词。时间跨度不同，所选学校也不同，较为忠实地记录中国学习者英语水平提高进程。本文以原型范畴理论为依据揭示英语谚语变体存在的认知本质。原型范畴理论具有以t-特点：(1)范畴成员的原型性。原型是建立范畴、识别范畴的重要依据；是确定其他范畴成员的参照物；含有最多的信息量，具有最大的区分性。(2)范畴边界的模糊性并II开放性。客观世界包罗万象，客体与客体之间通具有连续性，边界不明确：人的认识能力是有限的，认识主体在认识过程中具有模糊性。因此必然导致范畴边缘的模糊性。又因为边界的模糊性，范畴的范围则可以扩大或者缩小，范畴便具有开放性。(3)范畴结构的向心性。范畴以原型为中心，以家族相似性为纽带向外扩展。本文一方面，基于COCA着重研究英语谚语变体的种类。通过COCA语料库检索词频，首先分析原谚语和谚语变体在语料库中的使用，得出谚语变体的主要类型(替换、删减、扩展)。再对比原谚语和谚语变体的词频数，分析得出大部分的原谚语都被灵活运用，存在变体形式。另一方面，基于SWECCL2．0研究中国学生运用谚语的情况，通过对比谚语在COCA和SWECCL中的词频数，得出中国学生习惯于套用谚语的固定格式，仅有少量的灵活运用情况。本文的分析将 山西师范大学学位论文帮助英语学习者更好地熟悉英语谚语变体这一现象，进而能够灵活运用英语谚语及其变体。lV【关键词】英语谚语；变体：语料库【论文类型】应用型 ContentsContentsAbstractinEnglish．．．。．．．．．。．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．⋯．．．iAbstractfnChinese。。。．。．．。．．。。。．。。。．。．。，。．．．，。。．。，。。．．．．．．。．．。．．。。。。。．。。。。．．．。．。iiiTables．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．viiAbbreviations．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．j：)【1．Introduction．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．⋯】【1．1SignificanceoftheThesis．，．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．⋯．．．．11．2OrganizationoftheThesis．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．⋯．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．⋯．．．．．．．．．．⋯．．．．22．LiteratureReview．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．52．1PreviousStudiesonEnglishProverbs⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯52．2PreviousStudiesonEnglishProverbVariations．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．63．TheoreticalFramework．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．。．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．93．1PrototypeTheory⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯．93．1．1TheDevelopmentofPrototypeTheory．⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．93．1．2CharacteristicsofPrototypeTheory⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．113．2EnglishProverbsandProverbVariations．．．⋯⋯．．．⋯⋯⋯．．⋯．⋯．．⋯⋯⋯．．⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯113．2．1EnglishProverbs⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．113．2．2EnglishProverbVariations⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．143．3InterpretationofEnglishProverbs⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．163．4AdvantageofUsingCorpusforStudy⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．174．ResearchDesignandDataCollection．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．·．-194．1ResearchQuestions⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯194．2ResearchSubjects⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯．⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯194．3ItemCollectionandProcessing⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯195．DataAnalysis．。．。．。。。．。．．．。．。．．．．。。．．．．．．．．。。。．。．．．．．．．．。。．．．．．．。。。．．．。。。⋯．．．．215．1CategoriesofProverbVariations⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯2l5．1．1Substitution⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯215．1．2Addition．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯．⋯．．24V 山西师范大学学位论文5．1．3Deletion⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯Z45．1．4Antonym⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．：155．1．5Reversion⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．⋯⋯⋯⋯：155．2DistributionofFiveCategoriesofVariations⋯⋯．套⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．265．3AnalysisofFrequencyofProverbsandProverbVariations⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．275．3．1AnalysisinCOCA⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．275．3．2AnalysisinSWECCL⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．346．Conclusion．．⋯．．⋯．．．．．⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．．．．416．1SummaryofFindings⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯4l6．2Implications⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．．⋯⋯．⋯⋯．．z126．2．1ForEnglishLearners⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．z126．2．2ForEnglishTeachers⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯2136．3LimitationsandSuggestionsforFurtherResearch⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．⋯⋯．．43Acknowledgements．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．⋯．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．45Bibliography．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．47AppendixA．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．⋯．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．51AppendixB．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．⋯．．．．．．．．．．．．．55AppendixC．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．⋯．．．．．．59AppendixD．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．61Publications．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．⋯．．．．．．t；3Ⅵ Ta_blesTablesTable5．2．1DisWibutiondataofproverbvariations⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯27Table5．3．1．136originalproverbs(over10tokens)inCOCA⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．27Table5．3．1．224proverbvariations(over10tokenslinCOCA⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯29Table5．3．1．3Frequency(above10tokens)oforiginalproverbsandproverbvariationsinCOCA．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．，．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．⋯．．．．．．31Table5．3．2．132proverbsinSWECCL⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．35Table5．3．2．29ProverbvailationsinSWECCL⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯37Table5．3．2．3FrequencyofproverbsinCOCAandSWECCL⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．38Table5．3．2．4FrequencyofproverbvariationsinCOCAandSWECCL⋯⋯⋯⋯⋯．．39V11 山西师范大学学位论文 Abbreviations[n牛】[V半】[j牵】[P书】[d}】[Vb4】[mc木】COCASPoKFICMAGNEWSACADSWECCLSECCLWECCLanywordnoun．ALLverb．ALLadjective．ALLpronoun．ALLdeterminer．ALLverb．【BE]cardinalnumeralTheCorpusofContemporaryAmericanEnglishspokenfictionmagazinenewsp叩el"academicSpokenandWrittenEnglishCorpusofChineseLearnersSpokenEnglishCorpusofChineseLearnersWrittenEnglishCorpusofChineseLearners 山西师范大学学位论文 Introduction1．Intl"oducfionI．ISignificanceoftheThesisLanguageisoneofthemostimportantmeansofcommunicationanditalwayskeepschanging．Englishproverbsareofcoursenoexception．Sometimesaproverbmayhavedifferentvariousforms．ThepresentstudyintendstoinvestigatetheflexibleusageofEnglishproverbs，torevealtheirdiversecolorsandtoletlanguageusersmastertheminsituandvivo．Proverbsaretheaccumulationandcrystallizationoflong-timehumanexperienceandwisdom．Theyarepasseddownfromgenerationtogeneration．Proverbsaleeasytorememberbutcontainprofoundwisdomandphilosophy．Proverbsmakeadifferenceinlanguage，justasMiedersaidthatevendebatedintheUnitedNations，proverbswereofteninterspersed．Sinceproverbscouldbecomeverbalweaponsthatweredifficulttoargueagainst．Insuchdebatestheproverbstookonseriousmeaningsandwereusedbyintelligentpeopletostrengthentheirargumentswithstrongemotionsandspiceoftraditionalwisdom(1993)．Therefore,thestatusofproverbscannotbeignored．ComparedwithstudiesOnthebaseformsofproverbswhichhavemadegreatachievementsathomeandabroad，studiesonproverbvariationsarefarfromenough．ForEnglishproverbs，muchpastworkonproverbsoftenfocusedattentionontheformorfunctionoracomparativetranslationwithChineseproverbs．Asforproverbvariations，classificationofdifferentwaysintranslationWasinitiatedbyresearchers．Littleattentionamongstudieshaspaidonthecorpus-basedinvestigationontheproverbvariations．Thispapertriestomakeastudyonproverbvariationsinusebasedoncorpusfromthecognitiveperspective．IflanguageuserswanttospeakEnglishfluentlylikenatives，theyshouldconcernaboutproverbssinceproverbsarecrucialinmanyaspects．Nativespeakersaregoodatusingformulaicexpressions．Inthissense，proverbsreflectthespeakers’linguisticcompetenceofaforeignlanguagetotheextentthattheyCanmasterpreciseidiomaticusage．Withtimegoingon，variantproverbsaregettingpopularindailylife．Variantproverbs，alsocalledproverbvariations，stemfromtheoriginalform．Sometimestheyarenoteasytorecognize．ProverbvariationsalecreatedtofitintospecificcontextsandSOhelpachievelexicalcohesion．Overtimeproverbshaveundergonesomechangesinformandgrammar,whiletheirmainmeaningstillremainsunchangedonthewhole．NowadaysthevariantshavebeenacceptedandusedwidelybecausetheSOcalled 山西师范大学学位论文variationsarenotchangedarbitrarily．Proverbvariationsusuallydon’taffecttheirmainmeaningsandbasicstructures．Sotosomedegreethevariantsarefixedinbothstructureandmeaning．Categorizationisoneofthemostbasicbutvitalconceptincognitivelinguistics．Theproductionanddevelopmentofcognitivelinguisticsbenefitedformthediscussionforcategorization．Categorizationisacomponentpartofhumancognitiveability．Theresearchforprototypetheoryhasalonghistory．Prototypetheoryisoneofthemaintheoriesincognitivelinguistics．ItdevelopedfromAristoteliantheory．However,inmodemtimes，LudwigWittgensteinraiseddoubtsaboutAristotle’Sclassicaltheory．ThisWastheod西nofprototypetheory．Prototypetheoryexperiencedtwostages．Thefirststagewasthefamous‘‘familyresemblance"’．ThesecondstageWas‘"prototypetheory"’，whichWasputforwardbyMervisandRosch(1975)，basedon“familyresemblance"’theory．Thisstudywillexplainatfulllengthwiththehelpofexactexamples．Nowadays，corpuslinguisticshasbeenincreasinglyusedinmanyareasoflanguagestudyfarandwide．Thisstudyemphasizesonlanguageusefromadifferentperspective---corpus-basedanalyses．ThroughdetailedsearchingandanalyzingforEnglishproverbsandproverbvariations，itwillgiveinsightintoEnglishlearningandteaching．1．2OrganizationoftheThesisThispaperconsistsofsixchapters．Chapteroneistheintroduction，whichprovidessomeinformationaboutthetopicandthecurrentbackgroundandpointsoutmaincontentsofeachchapterbriefly．Chaptertwogivesaliteraturereview．Inthischapter,theoriesaboutEnglishproverbsandlanguagevarietyathomeandabroadwillbeintroduced．Thischapterwilllistmainresearchachievementsaboutproverbsfromdifferentperspectives，likefromculturalpointofview,fromlexicalpointofviewandfromsyntacticpointofview．Chapterthreeistobuildupthetheoreticalframeworkforthisstudy．Thefirstsectionofthischapterwillpresentageneralin仃oductiontotheprototypetheory,includingitsdevelopmentanditsopinion．Sectiontwowilldescribeitscharacteristics．Sectionthreewillfocusonsomecharacteristicsofprototypetheorywhicharecloselyrelatedtothestudy,providingtheinterpretationforEnglishproverbsandvariations．Inaddition，definitionsofproverbsandproverbvariationsandadvantagesofusingcorpusaregiveninthispart．2 IntroductionChapterfourpresentstheprocedureoftheresearchincludingtheresearchquestions，researchsubjects，datacollectionanddataprocessing．Chapterfiveisthemajorpartofthestudy．Itgivesdetailedanalysisofdata．Thisstudyemploysacorpus—basedapproachtoexplorethedifferenttypesofvariations，andthenanalyzethefrequencyoforiginalproverbswiththatofproverbvariations．Thelastchapterreachesaconclusionoftheresearch，givingabriefreviewofthepreviousfindings．Atthesametime，italsomakessomesuggestionsandlimitationsforthefurtherstudies3 山西师范大学学位论文4 2．LiteratureReviewGenerallyspeaking,eachnationhasitsownlanguage，andeachlangragealsoincludesanumberofproverbs．Proverbsarecollectivework,easytounderstand．Whatpeoplehavelearnedfromlifeandsomeotheraccumulatedexperiencehavebeenpassedonfromgenerationtogenerationorally．Aftercontinuousevolution，proverbshaveformedwithrefinedlanguagebutprofoundmeaning．Proverbsaretheessenceofthelanguage．McMordieclaimsthatproverbsareofgreatvalueeveninthemodernsociety(1954)．However，Englishproverbvariationsformedduringthedevelopmentofthelanguage．Inthischapter,theoriesaboutEnglishproverbsandlanguagevarietyathomeandabroadwilIbeintroduced．2．1PreviousStudie、sonEnglishProverbsA10tofresearchaboutproverbshasbeendonefromdifferentperspectives．1ikefromculturalpointofview,fromlexicalpointofview,fromsyntacticpointofviewandSOon．In1965，F．L．Lucaspublished“TheArtofProverbs”，inwhichhedistinguishedproverbsfromaphorisms．Lucasstatedthatitseemedthatproverbstodaymayhavelosttheirpopularity,butactuallyproverbsarestilluseful，becauseproverbsareanevaluationoftheminds．Andanotherforeignexpert，KatzandFodordistinguishedbetweennationalandinternationalproverbsandheldtheopinionthateveryoneshouldbeattemptingtodiscovernationalcharacteristicsinanation’Sproverbs(1963)．In2000，WangDechun，YangSuingandHuangYueyuanin廿oducedtheorigination，culturalmeaningsandfeaturesofChineseandEnglishproverbsinthebook“Chinese—Englishproverbsandculture”．LiuYah’S“AComparisononCultureValueConceptionbetweenChineseandAmericanProverbs’’comparesthedifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglishproverbsthroughculturetopointtheirdifferentculturevalueconception．(Liu，2007，p．1O)．LiuLinatriedtoanalyzethedifferencesofculturalfeaturesbetweenChineseandEnglishproverbsfromtheaspectsoforigin，geographghistoricalsettingandmoralconceptonthebasisofcorpus(2009)．Someprefertoanalyzeproverbsfromlexicalpoint．LinYuronghastheopinionthatEnglishproverbshaveuniqueartcharacteristics，likeharmoniousrhythmandvivid5 山西师范大学学位论文metaphor．Therearesomeexamplesinherpaper“OnCharacteristicsofEnglishproverbsanditsapplicationinteaching"’．Practicewhatyoupreach；乃∞msavingcomeshaving,andMarchcomesinlikelionandgoesoutlikealamb(2008，PP．98_99)．Withthedevelopmentofstudiesinlinguistics，someresearchesonEnglishproverbsareincreasinglyrich．Inrecentyears，agreatmanyoftheseshavebeenpublished．ButthesestudiedmainlyconcentrateOiltheproverbsthemselvesfromdifferentpoints．Seldomhavethestudiesbeencarriedoutonthebasisofcorpora．Letalonecomparisonsoftheproverbs’usagebetweennativespeakersandChineselearnersinspokenandwrittenaspect．Itwasnotuntilthe1990swhennewcorporacontainingspokentextsstartedtobecomeavailable，themajorcorpusforresearchonspokenEnglishandthecomparisonbetweenspokenEnglishandwrittenEnglishwereanalyzed．Svartvik(ascitedinGraemeKennedy,2000，PP．182-183)listedacomprehensivebibliographyofpublicationswhichreportedresearchbasedOntheLLC(London-LundCorpus)．Itshowedthattherewasagreatnumberofstudiesonprosodic，lexicalandgrammaticalaspectsofspokenEnglish．2．2PreviousStudiesonEnglishProverbVariationsThevariationsofproverbsalsohaveattractedtheattentionoflinguistsforalongtime．TheymakemeireffortstostudyEnglishvariationsfromdifferentaspects。NorrickandNealdiscussedproverbsandvariationsinhisbook，Howproverbsmean；SemanticstudiesinEnglishproverbs(1985)．HestatesthatproverbshavefixedformsSOtheycanberecognizedtomembersinsomelinguisticcommunity．Thespeakersuseproverbsontheconditionthatthehearersarefamiliartotheproverbs．Eventhoughthespeakersdonottotelltheoriginalproverbforms，hearersCanstillrecognizetheminlexicalorgrammaticalvariations．Seileremphasizedthatinsomecasesproverbvariabilityleadstotheexistenceofvariantsforproverbs、析出fixedforms．1ikeWhere／When／Asonedoorshuts／isshut,anotheropens／isopened；Allthatglittersisnotgold『／Allisnotgoldthatglitters；No／Neverpleasurewithoutpain／repentanceandmanyothersyouCanfindintheOxfordDictionaryofEnglishProverbs．Norriekexplainedseveralsourcesofproverbvariationsforfixedproverbs，aslistedbelow(1985)：First，potentiallyfixedproverbsmayexistinmultiplevariants．Soitisimpossibletosaywhetherspeakersutterastoredvariantofagivenproverb．Second，someproverbstructures，suchas“Youshould"’and“always"’Canbe6 LiteratureRenewaddedtomanyproverbs．Forexample，Lookbeforeyouleap．WecangetanotherproverbYoushouMlookbeforeyouleap．Third，underappropriatecircumstances，somestructuralchangesandlexicaladditionsdonotaffecttherecognizabilityofproverbs．Forexample．theproverbIt惫beingforewarnedthatmakesyouforearmedCanbeutteredasForewarned话forearmed．What’Smore，inaproverb，adjectivescanbeaddedbeforeanystressednounphrase，whichdoesn’tfailtorecognizeit．Lastbutnotleaskfo，rwellknownproverbs，whentouchingonsomekeyphrases，thehearerscanrememberthewholeproverb．Thekeyphrasesmaybeconsideredasthecoreoftheproverb．SuchasToomanycooksspoilthebrothCanbesimplifiedastoomanycooks．WolfgangandMiedermadeadeepstudyonproverbsfrom‘‘anti-proverbs”．Miederdefinedthemas‘"parodied，twisted，orfracturedproverbsthatrevealhumorousorsatiricalspeechplaywitlltraditionalproverbialwisdom(2004，p．28)”．WolfganggaveexamplesinhisbookProverb：ahandbooLHepointedthatcomparedwiththeoriginalproverbs，theanti—proverbshadbeenusedashumorous，satirical，orironicfunctionOilacertainsituation(2004，P．151)．Tohavefulleffect，aIlanti-proverbmustbebasedonaknownproverb．Proverbsandanti·proverbsarejustlikethetwosidesofthecoin．Someanti-proverbsarecreatedonthebasisoftraditionalproverbs．Indeedanti-proverbsexpressnewwisdomandgraduallyhavebeenacceptedbecauseofpeople’Sexperience．In2011，DengFee’SpaperOnVariationofAnimalProverbs：Anti-proverbsexplainedthevariationoftheanimalproverbsfromanimalproverbs’sonrcesandcharacters，Forexample,Theearlybirdcatchestheworm．／Theearlyworm西caughtbythebird．Thefirstoneisanoriginalproverb．Thesecondoneisallanti—proverb．Whenthesubjectandobjectareexchangedandtheactivevoicebecomesthepassivevoice，themeaningisalsoquitedifferent．Theoriginalproverbencouragespeopletogetupearlyandworkhard，whiletheanti-proverbmeansthattogetupearlyisnotnecessarilygood．7 山西师范大学学位论文8 TheoreficalFramework3．TheoreticalFramework3．1PrototypeTheoryThischapteristobuildupthetheoreticalframeworkforthissmd％Itisknownthatcategorizationisoneofthemostbasicbutvitalconceptincognitivelinguistics．Theproductionanddevelopmentofcognitivelinguisticsbenefitedfromthediscussionforcategorization．Categorizationisacomponentpartofhumancognitiveability．LyonsJohnclaimedthatonecouldn’tmakeadifferenceinsociallifeorinspirituallifewithouttheabilityofcategorization(1970，p．6)．Butwhenusedtoexplainmorenaturalphenomenonandsocialphenomenon，especiallysomedailyconceptswhicharereflectedbylanguage，thecategorizationisweak．Sotheprototypetheorywasputforward．Thefirstsectionofthischapterwillpresentageneralintroductiontotheprototypetheory,includingitsdevelopmentanditsopinion．Sectiontwowilldescribeitscharacteristics．SectionthreewillfocusonsomecharacteristicsofprototypetheorywhicharecloselyrelatedtothestudXprovidingtheinterpretationforEnglishproverbsandVall’ations．3．1．1TheDevelopmentofPrototypeTheoryTheworldconsistsofavarietyofobjectswithdifferentsubstance，shapesandcolors．Themosteye—catchingamongtheobjectsarepeople，animals，plantsandallkindsofeverydaystuffsuchaSCarS，pens，houses．Howdopeopletranslatethisvarietyintomanageablewordmeaningsinvolvesclassification．Andthismentalprocessofclassificationiscalledcategorization，anditsproductisthecognitivecategories．Ungerer,F．andSchmid，H．J．(1996)wrotethebookAnIntroductiontoCognitiveLinguistics，itreadlikethis：In1969，BrentBerlinandPaulKayfoundevidenceoffocalcolorsforcolorcategorization．Later,intheearly1970s，EleanorRoschsetouttoexplorethepsychologicalbackgroundoffocalcolors．ThenRoschreplacedBerlinandKey’S‘"focus’’with‘"prototype”，whichstoodforartificiallycreatedbestexamples．Theresearchforprototypetheoryhasalonghistory．Prototypetheoryisoneofthemaintheoriesincognitivelinguistics．ItdevelopedfromAristoteliantheory,whichhadthefollowingopinions：(1)categoriesweredefinedbythegeneralfeatureswhichweresharedbyallthemembers；(2)featuresweredimidiate；(3)categorieshadclearboundaries；and(4)allmembersofacategorywereequalinstatus(Taylor,1995)．However,inmoderntimes，LudwigWittgensteinraiseddoubtsaboutAristotle’S9 山西师范大学学位论文classicaltheory．Thiswastheoriginofprototypetheory．Prototypetheoryexperiencedtwostages．Thefirststagewasthefamous“familyresemblance”whichWasputforwardbyWittgenstein(Taylor，1989)．Thesecondstagewas‘‘prototypetheory"’，whichWaSputforwardbyRosch，basedon“familyresemblance’’theory．Wittgensteincameupwithhis“familyresemblance”theorywhenhedefinedtheGermanyword“Spiel”．HelistedasetofmembersbelongingtothissemanticcategoryandfoundthatthebasisforbuildingthesemanticcategoryofSpielWasnotasufficientandnecessaryconditionofallthememberssharing，thatis，thebasiswasnotthegeneralcharacterbutthesimilarityamongmembers．EachmemberinthesemanticcategoryofSpielhadasimilarpointwithanothermemberinthiswayoranother,butthispointWaSnotnecessarilysharedbyothermembers．Wittgensteincalledthisrelationshipwithsimilarityfamilyresemblance．TheSO—calledfamilyresemblancereferredtothatthereweresomesimilaritiesamongthemembersinafamily,butthedegreeofsimilaritiesWasdifferent．Assoonasfamilyresemblancetheorywasputforward，itattractedgreatattentionintheacademicfield．UngereandSchmid(2000describedthatRoschexperimentedwithnaturalcategory．Itturnedoutthatmanycategoriesinnaturealsohadthefeatureoffamilyresemblance．LabovandRoschnamedthenaturalcategorywithresemblanceasprototypecategory．RoschheldtheviewthattheprototypeWaSagoodexampleofconceptsoitisarepresentationoftheconcept．Therefore，Roschthoughtthatconceptconsistedoftwofactors：prototypeanddegreeofcategorymembership．Itwasknownasprototypetheory．Accordingtoprototypetheory,acategoryisnotdefinedbythesufficientandnecessaryconditionswhichallthememberspossess，butbyprototype(gatheringthemostfeaturesofallmembers)，othermembers(havingsimilaritiestosomedegreewithprototype)andtheobscurebinary．Socategoriesincludethreeelements：prototype，othermembersandbinary(Coleman＆Kay,1981)．Prototypeistherepresentativememberofcategoriesanditisthecenterofcategories．Othermembers，whicharecalledborderlinemembers，areplacedatdifferentpositionsaccordingtothedegreeofsimilaritieswithprototype．Becausethedegreeoffamilyresemblanceisgraduallydecreasingfromthemostrepresentativememberstothemostborderlinemembers，membersarenotequalatstatus．AsGeeraers，D．notedthatmemberswhichwerethebestexamplesofacategorycouldbeconsideredtobethecenterinthecategory(1987)．Inasense，thecentralmembersofprototypesharethemostfeatures．10 TheoreticalFrameworkThusitcanbeseenthatprototypetheoryhasquitedifferentopinionswithAristotle’Sclassicaltheoryinthequestionsofhowtodefinecategory,howtodistinguishelementsofcategories，howtoclassthestatuesofmembersandhowtodrawthebinary．3．1．2CharacteristicsofPrototypeTheoryPrototypetheoryhasformeditsowncharacteristics．Themaincharacteristicsofprototypetheorycallbesummarizedasfollows：Prototypicalityofcategoricalmembers．Todefineacategoryisaccordingtomembersofprototype，thatis，representativemembers．Prototypeisatthecenterofthecategory,possessingtheidealvalueofthecategoryandhavingmuchmoredistinctionandmaximuminformation．Membersofprototypeareveryfamiliartopeople(Ungere&Sehmid，2001)．Soprototypeisareferencepointforselectingothermembersinthecategoryanditprovidesbasisforestablishinganddistinguishingcategories．Therearenocategorieswithoutprototype．Ambiguityandopeningofthecategoricalbinary．Thisisduetothesubjectiveandobjectivereasons．Theobjectiveworldisanall—embracingworld．Thereiscontinuitybetweenobjects，andthebinaryisnotclearSOwhentheobjectsarereflectedintothemind，itissuretocausecategoricalambiguity(Taylor1995)．Tosomedegree，ambiguityoftheobjectiveworldistherootofambiguityofcategories．Ontheotherhand，one’Scognitiveabilityislimited．Furthermore，languagesignsarealsofiniteanddiscontinuous．Iftheinfinitecontinuousworldisexpressedwithfinitediscontinuouslanguagesigns，itwillbeboundtoleadtotheambiguityofcategoricalbinary．Centralityofthecategoricalstructure．Thisfeatureiscloselyrelatedtothefirstone．Foracategory,itisknownthattheprototypemembersaleatthecentralplaceandhavetheidealvalue(Rieheman，2001)．Accordingtothetendencythatthedegreeoffamilyresemblanceisreducingfromtherepresentativememberstoborderlinemembers，itissafetosaycategoriesisakindofcontinuityspreadingoutfromthecenter,withprototypeasthecenterandfamilyresemblanceasthebond．JustlikeAB—BC-CD—DE．Infact，“categoriescompriseanumberofthingsorincidentsofthesameclass．’’3．2EnglishProverbsandProverbVariations3．2．1EnglishProverbs 山西师范大学学位论文3．2．1．1DefinitionsofEnglishProverbsEnglishproverbsaroanimportantpartoflanguageculture．AccordingtoLongmanModemEnglishdictionarygoesthataproverbisabriefmaximoffolkwisdom，usuallycompressedinform，andtheninvolvingaboldimageandfrequentlyajinglethatcatchesthememory(1976)．’Webster’SThirdNewInternationalDictionarysaysaproverbisabriefepigrammaticsayingwhichisapopularbywordanditisanoft—repeatedpithyandingeniouslyturnedmaxim(2000)．AndjustasCollinsLearner’SEnglish—ChineseDictionary,aproverbisashortsentencethatpeopleoftenquote，whichgivesadviceortellsyousomethingaboutlife(2008)．Wikipedia(thefleeencyclopedia)definesproverblikethis：aproverb(fromLatin：proverbium)isasimpleandconcretesayingpopularlyknownandrepeated，whichexpressesatruth，basedoncommonsenseorthepracticalexperienceofhumanityAproverbthatdescribesabasicruleofconductmayalsobeknownasamaxim．Manyotherauthoritativescholars，booksandexpertsalsogiveotherdefinitionsofproverbs，butitisdifficultto西Veanall—rounddefinitionforproverbsbecausetheyjustfocusoncertainpoints，suchasontheforms，oronthemeanings，oronthestructuresorso．Andsomelinguistsdefineproverbsfromthedifferencesamongidioms，setphrases，maximsandsayings．Eventhoughproverbsaredefinedfromdifferentperspectivesbydifferentresearchers，也eymoreorlessrefertothesanlelinguisticphenomenon．Sonomatterhowt11eydefineproverbs，essentialpropertiesofproverbscanbedealtwithinthefollowingpart．3．2．1．2PropertiesofProverbsYuFumingandGuoShanlian(1999)divideEnglishidiomsinthreeclasses：idiomaticphrases，proverbsandslangexpressions．LuoShiping(2005)holdstheideathatEnglishidiomsarecomposedofphraseidioms，clauseidiomsandsentenceidioms(includingproverbsandfrequently-usedexpressions)．WhileLuGuoqiang(1994)takesEn出shproverbsasoneindependentcategoryofEnglishidioms．Nomatterhowproverbsareclassified，proverbshavecommonfeaturesasfollows：1)Thelanguageissimpleandconcisewithharmoniousrhythm，easytoreadandremember．Itsharmoniousrhythmisembodiedinalliteration，assonance，andantithesis．Alliterationreferstotherepetitionofflparticularsoundinthefirstsyllablesofaseries12 TheoreticalFrameworkofwordsorphrases．Briefly,itistheuseinspeechorwritingofseveralwordsclosetogetherwhichallbeginwiththesameletterorsound．Forexample：Liveandlearn；PlentyisnoPlague；andPracticewhatyoupreach．Assonanceistherepetitionofvowelsoundstocreateinternalrhymingwithinphrasesorsentences，andtogetherwithalliterationandconsonanceservesasoneofthebuildingblocksofverse．Forexample：Fromsavingcomeshaving；Seeingisbelieving．Antithesisisacounter-propositionanddenotesadirectcontrasttotheoriginalproposition．Insettingtheopposite,allindividualbringsoutacontrastinthemeaning(e．g．，thedefinition，interpretation，orsemantics)byanobviouscontrastintheexpression．Forexample：Spendadime,saveyourtime；Greatboast,smallroast．2)Proverbsuserhetoricaldevicesinalivelystyle．Inrhetoric，arhetoricaldeviceorresourceoflanguageisatechniquethatanauthororspeakerUSeStoconveytothelistenerorreaderameaningwiththegoalofpersuadinghimorhertowardsconsideringatopicfromadifferentperspective．Somerhetoricaldevicesareusedlikesimile，metaphor,personification，andrepetition．Similedirectlycomparestwodifferentthings，usuallybyemployingthewords‘‘like”or‘‘as”．Asimilediffersfromametaphorinthatthelattercomparestwounlikethingsbysayingthattheonethingistheotherthing(HuZhnanglin，2006)．Forexample：Livingwithoutanaim如likesailingwithoutacompass；Amanwithoutreligionislikeahorsewithoutagirdle．Metaphordescribesasubjectbyassertingthatonsomepointofcomparison，itisthesameasanotherotherwiseunrelatedobject．Forexample：Breadisthestaffof螈；Confidence纽aplantofslowgrowth。Personificationistheattributionofpersonalqualities，especiallyrepresentationofathingorabstractionasapersonorbythehumanform(Femando，2000)．Forexample：Homersometimesnods；Wallhasears．Repetitionisthesimplerepeatingofaword，withinasentenceorapoeticalline，withnoparticularplacementofthewords，inordertoprovideemphasis．Forexample：Businessisbusiness；Doingeverythingisdoingnothing．3)Proverbsusuallyaccumulatesageadvice，expressingcommonplacetroths．ForEnglishlearners，graspingsomeproverbsCantellthemhowtobehaveinlife．Forexample：]Tmeandtidewaitfo，．noman；Asmallleakwillsinkagreatship；andSuccessbelongstothepersevering． 山西师范大学学位论文3．2．1．3FunctionofProverbsarethesymbolofhumanwisdomwhichhavebeenhandedonfromonepersontoanotherandwhichareappliedcontinuouslyeveninthemodemtechnologicalage．YuFumin(1999)pointsoutthatEnglishproverbsistheunityofaestheticfunctionandteachingvalue．ShethinksthebeautyofEnglishproverbsisembodiedinthesound，formandsense．LinYurong(2008：17)appliesEnglishproverbsinteaching．Inher“OnCharacteristicsofEnglishProverbsandItsApplicationinTeaching"’，shebelievesthatproperapplicationofEnglishproverbsinteachingwillhelpthestudentstounderstandthewesterncultureandimprovetheirEnglishinterestandtheirlevels．NidaEugeneA．saidthatthelanguageonemanspeaksiscloselyandinseparablyrelatedtotheidentificationofthespeaker(1998)．Nevalainen，TandRaumolin-Brunberg．H．(1994)alsostatesthatthemainfunctionofsocialcommunicationofusinglanguage(includingmanyidioms)istomakeone’Sidentificationinthegroup．ItispossiblethatinmostcasesEnglishproverbvariationsaretheflexibleusefororiginalproverbs．Infactspeakersemployproverbvariationsonthebaseofthehypothesisthatthelistenerpossessthesanaeculturebackground，understandtheinnermeaningoftheoriginalproverbandexpectthelistenercanrecognizetheformofthevariationandthendeduceitsmeaning．Therefore，inawayproverbvariationscanreflectsomecharacteristicsoftextualinteractionandatthesametimeⅡleyshowtheidentificationofthespeakerinthegroup(Hayes，1988)．Theuseofproverbcreatesthespecialatmospherewherethetwopartieshaveasenseofbelonginginthesameculturalcommunity．TheimmediateeffectistoclosethedistancebetweenthetwopartiesandSOstrengthentheirrelationship．3．2．2EnglishProverbVariationsAlthoughEnglishproverbshavefixedforms，justlikelanguageitself,proverbsarealsocontinuallychanging．KramschClaire(2000)drawsaconclusionthatspeechissubjecttoconstantvariation，otherwisecommunicationwouldbeimpossible．MaybethisCallexplainproverbvariations．3．2．2EnglishProverbVariations3．2．2．1ProverbandItsVariability14 TheoreticalFmmeworkThegeneralcharacteristicfeaturesofproverbshavebeendiscussedabove．Formostproverbs，oneCallnotchangeormodifythemathisorherwill．AccordingtoWangYing(2007：26)，proverbsparticularlyshowincertainsyntacticconstructions，whilesyntacticvariabilityappearsinothersequencesofwordsinmanyproverbs．Butitscoreformmustberecognizedtoallowthelistenersidentifythem．Ontheotherhand，asFemando(2000，P．43)putsit，mostproverbs“Canbemanipulatedortransformedinvariouswaysaccordingtothecommunicativeneedsofthelanguage-user．’’Soiftheoriginalimplicationoftheproverbsisnotchanged，somepartsofproverbsCanbechanged，suchassubstituted，deleted，ormodified．ThephenomenonofproverbvariationsisSOcommonthatmeyCannotbeignored．Riehernann(2001)didaresearchshowingthattherewereabout75％oftheoccurrencesoffixed-formproverbsand97％oftheoccurrencesofvariableforms，whichgaveenoughevidencethatproverbvariantswereusedfrequently．Flexibilityandcreativityofhumanmindenablelanguagespeakersmanipulatelanguagefreelywhichservesasatoolofcommunication．Moon(1998)investigatedthewidespreaduseofproverbvariationsinastudyofcorpuswith18millionwords，findingthat40％ofproverbsvariedregularlyinform。FEIs(Fixedexpressionsandidioms(includingproverbs))revealthatalthoughfixednessisthemostimportantfeatureofproverbs，yetabout40％ofdatabaseinFEIshavegrammaticalorlexicalvariationsand14％havetwoormorevariationsinforms(Moon，1998：120)．Moreover,DouglasBiber,SusanConradandRandiReppen(1994)alsodidresearchonacorpuswith330一millionwords，makingitclearthatthevariationsofproverboccurfrequentlymorethantheiroriginalform。GuiQingyang(1988)statedthatproverbsvariationstookdiversifiedforms，andhesummarizedvariousformsintoeighttypes．GuiQingyangbasedhisstudyonthefact，discardingthedrossandselectingtheessenceforthecomplicatedvariations．Fernando(1996，p．54)inhisbookIdiomsandidiomaticitypointedthatmostidiomscouldbechangedinmanywaystomeetlanguageUSerS’communicationalrequirement．Hesortedidiomvariationsintotwoclasses，thatis，normalvariationsandinnovativerule-breakingvariations．TheformerWasforcontextandthelatterwasshowinglanguageusers’skillsandwisdomindealingwithwords．Tosumuptheabovestation，becausethefixed—formofproverbsisnotabsolute，itisbeRertoconsidertheoriginalproverbsandproverbvariationsasarelativenotion． 山西师范大学学位论文3．2．2．2ProverbVariationsinThisStudyProverbvariationsarecreatedtofitintospecificcontexts，andSOtohelpachievelexicalcohesion．Overtimeproverbshaveundergonesomechangesinformandgrammar,whiletheirmainmeaningstillremainsunchangedonthewhole．NowadaysthevariantshavebeenacceptedandusedwidelybecausetheSOcalledvariationsarenotchangedarbitrarily．Proverbvariationsusuallydon’taffecttheirmainmeaningsandbasicstructuresSOtosomedegreethevariantsarefixedinbothstructureandmeaning．Inthisstudy,variationsrefertothevariantsoftheoriginalproverbswhichareintheformofprototype．Proverbvariationsnotonlyhavethedifferentformsfromtheoriginalproverbsbutpossessslightlydifferentsemanticmeaningsfromtheoriginalproverbs．3．3InterpretationofEnglishProverbsandVariationsEn幽shproverbsarecloselyboundupwithlife．Inthelightofthe10nghistoryandwidespreaduse，peopleuseproverbswithfacility．Astimepasses，someproverbswillbecomeclich6whenusedtoomuchwithoutanychange．Duetothechangesofthetimes，ifsomeproverbscannotbeadapttospecificsituations，peoplewillcreatenewproverbswithspecialeffects--humororsatire(Katz，&Fodor,1963)．Newformsofproverbsarebasedontheimitation，alterationoromissionoftheoriginalproverbs．ThenewformsarecalledthevariationsofEnglishproverbs，SOthevariationsalecreativeapplicationoftheoriginalproverbs．TheyCanmanifestpeople’Scognitiveabilitytotheall-embracingworld．Theprototypeofacategoryisalwaysthemostfamilialthingstohumanbeings．Forinstance，whenspeakingofbirds，peopleusuallyfirstthiIll(ofrobins，ratherthanostrich；whenspeakingofvehicles，carsalethefirstimageinthemind，ratherthanscooters；whenspeakingoffi-uits，peoplearemorefamilialtoapplesthantofigs．Becausetheformerismorefamilialthanthelater．“Allthemembersinacategoryalenotequal．PrototypicalmembersareinthecenterandSOtheyshalethemostfeatureswithothermembers．Thatmeans，prototypicalmembersarerepresentativeexamplesofthecategoryandothersbelongtoborderlinemembers．”(LiGui，2009)．Lookattheexample：Factsspeaklouderthanwords．TheoriginalproverbisActionsspeaklouderthanwords,whichmeanspeople’Sactionsaremoreconvincing TheoreticalFrameworkthantheirwordsare．ItsvariantformFactsspeaklouderthanwords．“Facts”hasthesamemeaningwith“actions”becausetheyallrefertoconcreteevidenceorbehaviortotestifyoralwords．AndithasanothervariantformActionsdon?alwaysspeaklouderthanwords．Itistheantonymousformtotheoriginal．Insomespecificsituation，itcallbeusedaSWordsoftenspeaklouderthanacHons．Allthevariantformsaresimilartotheoriginalproverbs．3．4AdvantageofUsingaCorpusforResearchCorpusislikealanguagedatebankcontainingagreatnumberofinformationforstudy,analysisanddescription．Materialsincorpusaretruematerialspracticallyusedinreallife，buttheyhaven’ttobeusefulandvaluablematerialsuntilafteranalyzedandprocessed，andthencomputerasacarrierwillprovidethissortofrefinedinformation(Zeng,2002)．Corporahavebeencompiledformanydifferentpurposes，whichinturninfluencethedesign，sizeandnatureoftheindividualcorpus．(GraemeKennedy，2000，P．4)．Theanalysisofhugebodiesoftext‘"byhand"Canbepronetoerrorandisnotalwaysexhaustiveoreasilyreplicable(GraemeKennedy，2000，P．5)．Nowadays，corpuslinguisticshasbeenincreasinglyusedinmanyareasoflanguagestudyfarandwide．“Indeed，corpus—basedresearchisinfluentialinmanyareasoflanguagestudy"’(Wu，2009)．Generallyspeaking，studiesoflanguageCanbedividedintotwomainfields：studiesofstmctureandstudiesofuse(GraemeKennedy,2000)．Thisstudyemphasizeslanguageusefromadifferentperspective--corpus-basedanalyses．Theadvantagesofthecorpus-basedapproachconsistintheuseofcomputers．“Computersmakeitpossibletoidentifyandanalyzecomplexpatternsoflanguageuse，allowingthestorageandanalysisofalargerdatabasenaturallanguagethancouldbedealtwithbyhand．Furthermore，computersprovideconsistent，reliableanalyses．”(DouglasBiber,SusanConrad＆RandiReppen，2000，p4)Theessentialcharacteristicsofcorpus—basedapproachincluding：-·Itisempirical，analyzingtheactualuseoflanguageinnaturaltexts；一Itgathersalargeandprincipledcollectionofnaturaltexts，knownasa“corpus”，asthebasisforanalysis；···-Itusesbothautomaticandinteractivetechniques；-一Itdependsonbothquantitativeandqualitativeanalyticaltechniques．17 山西师范大学学位论文ThecorporausedinthisstudyaretheCorpusofContemporaryAmericanEnglish(COCA)andthe勋D妇，zandWrittenEnglishCorpusofChineseLearners(SWECCL)．COCAisthelargestcorpusofEnglishandcanbeusedforfleeanditwascreatedbyMarkDaviesofBrigll锄YoungUniversityin2008．Everymonth，itisusedbytensandthousandsofusers，includinglinguists，teachers，learners，translatorsandotherresearchersandSOon．Thecorpuscontainsmorethan450millionwordsoftextandisequallydividedamongspoken，fiction，popularmagazines，newspapersandacademictexts．Itincludes20millionwordseachyearfrom1990-2012andthecorpusisalsoupdatedregularly．Itallowslanguageuserstoeasilylimitsearchesbyfrequencyandcomparethefrequencyofwords，phrases，andgrammaticalconstructions．AndanothercorpusisSpokenandWrittenEnglishCorpusofChineseLearners(SWECCL)，whichiscomposedoftwosub—corpus，thatis，SpokenEnglishCorpusofChineseLearners(SECCL)andWrittenEnglishCorpusofChineseLearners(WECCL)．A11thematerialsinSECCLarefromoralexaminationsinTEM4andTEM8from2003to2007．Anda11thewrittenmatedalsarechosenfromover20institutionsofhighereducationwithdifferentlevels，whichCanbetterreflectthelevelofEnglishwritingforEnglishmajors．Thereare27topicsinwritingpartand4,950compositionwriting．18 ResearchDesignandDataCollection4．ResearchDesignandDataCollectionThisstudyemployscorpus-basedapproach．Tofindouttheanswerstotheresearchquestions，theauthoradoptsacombinationofquantitativeandqualitativeanalysistostudythephenomenaofthevariationofEnglishproverbs．4．1QuestionsThestudywilltrytoanswerthefollowing3questions：(1)BasedonCOCA，whatcategoriesCanbefoundforproverbvariations?Whichtypesdothenativepeopleusemorefrequently7．(2)BasedonSWECCL，whatisthesituationaboutusingEnglishproverbsforChineselearners?(3)WhatsimilaritiesanddifferencesCallbefoundintermsofproverbvariationusebetweenthetwocorpo(a?4．2SubjectsInthisthesis，Englishproverbsareselectedfiomthebook101AmericanEnglishProverbs，whichiswrittenbyHarryCollisandMarioRissoandpublishedbyforeignlanguageteachingandresearchpress．Itistruethatthesubjectthispaperreliedonshouldbetypicalandaccurate；what’Smore，theselectedEnglishproverbsshouldreflecttheirrealuseinauthenticsituation．Those101proverbsareregardedasrepresentatives，becausethisbookcollectscommonlyusedproverbsineverydaywhichhasdirectinsightintoAmericanpeople，life，andcustomsandmore．Alltheproverbsoccurwithafrequencyofatleast10tokens，eitherfortheoriginalformorforthevariants．36proverbsarefoundtohavemorethan10tokensintheiroriginalformand24proverbitemsarefoundtohavemorethan10tokensinvariantforms．233variationsareselectedtoidentifythetypesofmodification．4．3ItemCollectionandProcessingInthisstudy,thefirststepistoidentifyrepresentativeproverbs．So101AmericanEnglishproverbsarethesubjectforthisresearch．Inordertoknowthefrequencyofalltheproverbsincludingtheoriginalproverbsandtheirvariations，thesearchingformulaswillbeused．AndthesearchingformulasCanmakesurethatallproverbvariationsarerelatedtotheoriginalproverbsandthusCanavoidoccurrencesunrelatedtotheproverbs．Therefore,itisnecessarytoidentifyasearchingformulaforeachproverb．Mostly,thesearchingformulasarethecenterofaproverb．Insomecases，thesearchingformula19 山西师范大学学位论文maybetheoriginalproverbforsomeshortproverbs．Forexample，Nopain,nogain；Leavewellenoughalone；YoureapwhatyouSOW．Insomecases，forlongproverbs，thesearchingformulamaybethefirstpartofaproverborthelastpartofaproverb．Forexample，thesearchingformulaforBirdsofafeatherflocktogethercanbeBirdsofafeather；forWheninRomedoastheRomansdocallbeWheninRome．OrnoplacelikehomeforThere如noplacelikehome；twototangoforIttakestwototango．However,puttingintothefirstpartorthelastpartisnotfitforalltheproverbs．ForStrikewhiletheironishot,ifputintothesearchingformulaofstrikewhile，theresultstodisplaymaybeunrelatedtotheoriginalproverb，likeKevorkianhasbeenOnahungerstrikewhileinjail．SotheproverbslikeStrikewhiletheironishotCallbesearchedbytheaidofthesiring／v—whiletheironishot,whichmeansotherverbscarlreplace‘‘strike"’toformanewproverb，thatis，avariantform，whilestillpossessingthesamestructure．Inthesameway,AfterthefeastcomesthereckoningcallbesearchedbyaftertheIn誓comesthe／n誓．Thetag[n阜】referstoallthenounsand[v半】referstoa11theverbs．Thus，someproverbscallbetaggedSOthatitislikelytoreduceoreliminatesomeproverbsunrelatedtotheoriginalproverbs．Otherexampleslike：OneswallowdoesnotmakeasummercallbesearchedbythestringOneln41—1n"t／notmakealn卑】：Twoheadsarebetterthanonecanbesearchedbyusingthestringld聿】headsaFebetterthan0月巴AnothersearchingaidisColligator．Collegatorhasbetterandsimpleuserinterface．Itisdividedintotwoparts．OneisSearch，whichprovidesthefunctionofchoosingtexts,settingsearchitemsandsettingspan．AndtheotherisResults．Itiseasyforoperation．Aslongastheusersetsthethreefunctionalregions--ChooseTexts，ItemandSpan，theresultswillbeshowedindialog．Settingthetextistotelltheprogramwheretosearchretrievalitems．Afterselectingtexts，thesearchcontentshouldbeset，whichdependsonthestudypurpose．Andthenthespanshouldbesetaftertheabovetwosteps．Thespanprovidescertaincontextswherethesearchitemsappear．Settingthespanistoobservethefeaturesofsearchitemsingrammaticalcontexts．Thecontextscanbedividedintothebeforecontextsandtheaftercontexts．Usuallytherealizationofobservinggrammaticalfeaturesisbysettingleftspanandrightspan．20 ——里塑墅坐!堡．一一．一一5．DataAnalysisThisstudyemploysacorpus-basedapproachtoexploretheusageofEnglishproverbs．BasedonCOCA，thestudyanalyzestheoriginalproverbsandproverbvariationsandfurtherexploresthedifferenttypesofvariations．MaterialsinCOCAcarlreflecthownativesuseproverbs．WhileforChineselearners，withthehelpofSWECCL，thestudymakesaresearchabouthowChineselearnersuseEnglishproverbsinspeakingandwriting．Thischapterwillpresentthefindingsofthestudyandprovidetheinterpretationsfortheresults．5．1CategoriesofProverbVariationsAfterathoroughinvestigation，Englishproverbvariationscanbeclassifiedintofivetypes，thatis，substitution／replacement，deletion，addition，antonymandreversion．Ontheonehand，thesefivetypesareconsideredasthetransformationalwaysoftheoriginalproverbs；ontheotherhand，theyCanberegardedasthecharacteristicsofproverbvariations．Inthispaper,thestructureandthemeaningofproverbsarementionedrepeatedly．Thestructurereferstothesentencestructureoftheproverb．Manyproverbsconsistofasimplesentence．Asimplesentenceisasentencestructurewhichcontainsoneindependentclauseoronemainclausethatmakessensebyitself．Itismadeupofasubjectandapredicate(Katz&Postal．1964)．Thefivemaintypesofvariationswillbeexplainedatsomelength．5．1．1Substitutionreferstothelexicalsubstitutioninaproverbbutitssyntacticalstructureisnotchanged．Itisoneofthemajortransformationalwaystocreateproverbvariations．Thesubstitutionalelementsandtheoriginalelementsaresynonymoustosomeextentandthemeaningoftheproverbvariationremainsunchangedtotheoriginalproverb．Someelementsarelikelytobereplacedbynouns，verbs，adjectives，conjunctions，pronouns，prepositionsandevenarticles．Verbsandnounsaremostlikelytobereplaced．andadjectivesappearlessthannouusorverbs．Somespecificexamplesofsubstitutionsamongnouns，verbsandaajectiveswillbepresented，whicharechosenfromCOCA．5．1．1．1NounSubstitution(1)Familiarity／Closenessbreedscontempt．(2)Oneswallowdoesnotmakeasummer／spring．(3)Anapple／Asmileadaykeepsthedoctoraway． 山西师范大学学位论文(4)Shillings／Moneydon’t／doesn’tgrowontrees．Suchexampleslikegroup(1)aregreatinnumber．Familiarityandclosenessaresynonymous．Whenthewordfamiliarityisreplacedbythewordcloseness，themeaningoftheproverbisnotchanged．Theybothexpressthatwhenyouknowpeoplewellyouwilldiscovertheirweaknessesandyoumaycometoscornthem．Group(2)isdifferentfromgroup(1)．Inthisgroup，summerandspringarenotsynonyms，buttheysharesomesimilarities--theyare“CO—hyponyms”．Ahyponymisawordoraphrasewhosesemanticfieldisincludedwithinthatofanotherword，itshyponym．Summerandspringarebothhyponymsofseason，sharingatypeofrelationship．Unlikegroup(2)，whichbelongstothesamesemanticfield，group(3)bearsnosimilaritiesinthefield．Thereasonwhytheycanexchangeisthatincertainsituationstheypossesssimilarfeatures．Bothappleandsmileindicatesomewaysthathelpapersontokeephealthy．Onlyinthiscasecanappleandsmileexchangeeventhoughtheydon’thavesimilarliteralmeaning．Moreexamplesarelike：Love／Fame／Moneymakestheworldgoround．Group(4)hasitsowncharacteristics．Moneyandshillingsshowaspecialrelationship_-betweengeneralandspecific．Shrillingisonetypeofmoneyandismorespecificthanmoney．Otherexampleslike‘"Necessity／Anticipation／Desperationisthemotherofinvention”．Thefirstappears32timeswhileboththesecondandthethirdappear1time．Theonlydifferenceinthethreeproverbsisthesubject．Eventhoughwithdifferentsubjects，theinnermeaningisalmostthesalIle．Thethreewordsallexpressolle’ssubjectiveneedinvaryingdegrees．5．1．1．2VerbSubstitutionInEnglishproverbs，therearealargenumberofverbsandverbphrases，whichexplainsverbsubstitutionisoneofthecommonesttypesofsubstitutions．Mostoptionalverbsinproverbvariationsaresynonymouswithverbsintheoriginalproverbs．Eventhoughnot，afterthereplacement，themeaningoftheproverbisunchanged．Forexample，(1)Theproofofthepuddingisintheeating／tasting．(2)Look／t11i11l【beforeleaping／moving／acting．Obviously,ingroup(1)，eatingandtastingaresynonyms．Unlikegroup(1)，think DataAnalysisandlook,leapingandactingarenotsynonyms．Butthemeaningoftheproverbisstillthesame，whichmearlsconsideringallaspectsofasituationbeforeyoutakeanyaction．Otherexamplesareasthefollowing：(1)AndI"malittlesurprisedatJudgeJohnCarter,becausehe’Susuallytoughoncriminals．Andthereismorethanonewaytoskinacat．(COCA，2006，SPOK，CNN—Grace，FederalJudgeGreenlightsSexOffendersLivingNearSchoolBus)SidebarTHERESMORETHANONEWAYTOHOLDACATSidebarSmallcatfish，whichwigglecontinuously,canhedifficulttoholdandunhookforrelease．(COCA，1998，MAl3IFieldandStream，Fatcats．)(2)Don"tputallyoureggsinonebasket，asmanyEnronemployeesdid，onlytoloseeverything．(COCA，2002，MAG,TownCountry,Onyourown．)Neverkeepallyoureggsinonebasket．Keepjustenoughmoneyinonespottopaythecurrentbill．(COCA，2002，MAGConsumersResearchMagazine，VacationingSafely：TipsFromaPro．)5．1．1．3AdjectiveSubstitutionInEnglishproverbstherearefeweradjectivesSOthesubstitutionofadjectivesislessthanthesubstitutionofnounsandverbs．Insomecases，mostadjectivesubstitutionsaresynonyms；whileinsomeothercases，theoriginaladjectivesandthereplacedonesarenotsynonyms．Thefollowingexampleswillgiveexplanation．(1)Loveisblind／bold／powerful／selfish／magic／exhausting／kind，etc．(2)Little／big／Great／Good／hotthingscomeinsmall／large／big／littlepackages．Whenput“LoveisD木]’"“D幸】thingscomeinD木]packages”intotheDISPLAYcolumnofCOCA，theresultswillbeshowed．Thetotalfrequencyof／／*]thingscomein(i卑1packagesis17tokens．TheoriginalproverbGoodthingscomeinsmallpackagesappearswith9frequency,andotherformsappear丽m8frequency．“Loveis【j丰】”isalsosuchthecase．Thevariedformhasbeenacceptedandusedfrequentlyastheoriginal0ne．Replacedwordsingroup(1)arenotsynonyms，butthevariationsstilldependOrlthestructureoftheoriginalproverbs．SpeakersCanUSeanyadjectivesaccordingtowhattheywanttoexpress(KramschClaire，2000)．Underdifferentcontexts，ifkeywordsintheproverbsarereplacedbyotherwordsinthesanlecategory,newproverbsnotonlyCanreflectitsmeaningoftheoriginalproverbs，butalsohasvitalityandappeal(Cook，1994)．Butitisworthwhiletonotethat23 山西师范大学学位论文theflexibleapplicationofsubstitutionisextremelycomplicated．5．1．2Additionistoinsertanotherwordorphraseintotheproverb．TheinsertedpartCallbeputintoanyplace，includingauxiliaryverbs，theinfinitive，adverbsandevenclauses．Theeffectofadditionistoemphasizesomethingwithoutchangingitsmeaning．Actually,thereisnotanydifferencebetweenthetwoforms．Forexample：leavewellenoughalone．a．WeQ坠g丛垃leavewellenoughalone；alone；Youneedtoleavewellenou#alone．Directorscouldn’tleavewellb．No，itwouldbebettertojustleavewellenoughalone；Peopleleavewellenoughalone．c．—Rath—erthanlcavewellenouenougharecontenttoghalone，heprancedafterBobbyPreston，doingamonkeylmitation．Andotherexamples：d．Theproofofpuddingisintheeating．e．Wherethereissmoke，goesthesaying，thereisfire．Fortheaboveexamples，itiseasytodrawaconclusionthatadditionservesaSafurtherexplanationtotheproverb．Fromgroup(a)togroup(e)listfivedifferentwaysofaddition．Peoplecalleasilyrecognizethem．5．1．3DeletionDeletion，whichcaIlexpressitself,meansdeletinglessimportantelementsandjustkeepingthemostimportantpart(Femando，2000)．Thispartcarriesthekeyinformationoftheoriginalproverb．Sowhentheoriginalproverbsarechangedbydeletion，peoplestillcanacceptthevariedform．Forexample：(1)Arollingstonegathersnomoss．／Arollingstone．a．Marysaidsoftly．‘么rolBngstonegathersnomoss．’’She，doftensaidthisabouthiscounting．(COCA，2001，FIC，MichiganQuarterlyReview,TheAmoldProo￡1b．She’Sonlybeenhereforabouttwoyears．ShelivedinParisbeforet}lat．aIldNewYorkbeforethat，andthenCaliforniabeforethat，Lucillasaid．c“rollingJto刀口．，，(COCA，1990，FIC，September．)Thevariedformoftheoriginalproverbbecomesanounphrase．insteadofasentence．Themeaningofthevariation‘‘arollingstone”inthiscontextisthes锄e船t11eoriginalproverb．Theoriginalformaccountsfor8％，whilethedeletionfonnaccounts24 DataAnalysisfor54％．Obviously,thevariedformhasbeenwellacceptedandwidelyused．AsDengFei(2011)saidinhispaper,thedeletionforaproverbcallmakeiteasyandflexible，andwhat’Smore，itCanevokepeople’Sassociationforthestructureandsemanticmeaningofthecompleteproverb．Suchexamplesarelike：c．Treadonawormanditwillturn．／Awormwillturn．d．Neitherfishnorfleshnorgoodredherring．／neitherfishnorfowl．／redherring．Andantherspecialformofdeletionissimplification．justas‘‘Unityisstrength"’from“Inunitythereisstrength”，whichisdifferentform“afriendinneed’’from‘‘Afriendinneedisafriendindeed”．Simplificationmakesthelanguageeffectstrengthened．5．1．4AntonymIfthemeaningofthevariedformofaproverbistotallyoppositetotheoriginalone，itisanothertypeofvariation--antonym．Aparticularwaytoachievethiseffectistoaddoromitthenegativeword‘"not”．Forexample：(1)Dogdoesnoteatdog．／Dogeatdog．(2)Clothesmaketheman．／Clothesdon’tmakethemail．Ingroup(1)thefirstoneistheoriginalproverb，whichmeansoneshouldn’tattackorhurthisownkind．However,thesecondonewithout“not"’reflectsa“dog-eat—dog"’orcruelcompetition．Ingroup(2)“clothesmaketheman"’meansonecantellamarbytheclothesheWeals．Byhisclothes，histasteandqualitycanbemanifested．Thelatterdeniestheformeropinion．Oneshouldn’tjudgeapersonbyhisappear,includinghisclothes．Anothercaseistotransformitsantonymouswords，justlikethefollowingexamples：(3)abigfishinasmallpond／asmallfishinabigpond(4)ManyagoodCOWhasabadcalf．／ManyagoodCOWhasagoodcalf‘‘Abigfishinasmallpond”reflectsthatoneisaveryimportantpersononlyinalimitedscope．Onceindependentofthescope，hewillbecomeveryinsignificant．Thelatterreferstoasmallpotatoinabigcompany．5．1．5ReversionInstructure，reversionmayhappenwithinthecoordinateunits．Underthiscircumstance，themeaningremainstheSalTle．Ifsomewordsinaproverbchangeplaceswithotherwords，sometimesitsmeaningwillbeverydifferent．Forexample：Theearly25 山西师范大学学位论文birdcatchestheWOllTI．／TheearlyWOITniscaughtbythebird．Thesetwoproverbsexchangeitssubjectandobjectandatthesalnetime，theactivevoiceturnstothepassivevoice．Thenthemeaningisentirelydifferent．Theformerencouragespeopletogetupearlyandworkhardwhilethelatterpointsoutthattogetupearlyisnotalwaysgood．ExampleslikeDon?putthehorsebeforethecart．／Donzputthecartbeforethehorse；Miserylovescompany．／Companylovesmisery．，whichbearnodifference．5．2DistributionofFiveCategoriesofVariationsThispaperstudiedEnglishproverbvariationsbasedon101originalproverbs．Itshouldbenoticedthateachproverbhasmorethanonetypeofvariation，andsomeevenhavemorethanoneform，evenfourforms，whichCanbeseenfromthefollowingexamples：(1)WheninRome，doastheRomansdo．a．That’SachantthatyouhearatFenway,andIjustfeltwhen扬Rome,doa8theRomansdo．(COCA，2002，NEWS，HoustonChronicle，BRIANMcTAGGART,lzzosoaksupPatriots)b．1worriedaboutitmomentarily,butrecalledasentencefrommyelementary-schoolbookthatread，‘"／nRome,doastheRomansdo．”(COCA，2011，FIC，Raritan)(Deletion)C．Asamediawatchdoggroup，ReportersWithoutBorders，says，Yahoo’scompetitors，Google，MicrosoftandCiscoSystems，allnowworkinginChina,alsofollowtheaxiom：wheninChina,doastheChinesedo．(COCA，2008，MAG,Am舐c@(Substitution)d．Theicecreanlwaswonderful；thethinpastryholdingtheappleswastough，verytough．Betteryet，doastheItafiansdo．(COCA，1996，NEWS，ChicagoSun·Times)(Substitution，Deletion)(2)Actionsspeaklouderthanwords．a．Letyouraeaonsspeakforyou，takecareofyourbody．(COCA，1991，NEWS，NewYorkTimes)(Deletion)b．Riflesspeaklouderthanwords，shethought．(COCA，1990，FIC，BK：MigrantSouls)(Substitution)c．YetdollarfiguresintheoutlineindicatetheWorldBank’Swordsspeaklouderthanitsactions．(COCA，1990，MAGSierra)(reversion) DataAnalysisd．Actionsdon}alwaysspeaklouderthanwords，though．(COCA，1995，MAGPsychologyToday)(Antonym)Withtheaidoftag,101originalproverbshave233Englishproverbvariations．Afteranalyzingthemainfivetypesof233proverbvariations，theirdistributiondataCanbegottenasthefollowingtable：Table5．2．1DistributiondataofproverbvariationsTypesofvariationOccurrencenumberPercentageReverSion146．9％Antonym3215．8％Deletion4017．2％Addition4418．8％Substitution10344．2％Obviously,amongthefivetypes，substitutionisthemostcommontype，accountingfor44．2％，andthenisaddition，deletionandantonym．Thereversionaccountsfortheleastpercentage，just6．9％．5．3AnalysisofFrequencyofProverbsandProverbVariations5．3．1AnalysisinCOCALanguageisinastateofflux，SOdoEnglishproverbs．Overtimes，howdotheEnglishproverbshavebeenused?Forthdrvariations，whatabouttheirusage?BasedonCOCA，whichCallreflecttherealuseoflanguage，thisstudyanalyzedrespectivefrequencies．Firstly,thestudyresearchedthefrequencyofthe101originalproverbsandproverbvariations．Theresultshowsthat36proverbsareusedforcitationOVer10tokensand24proverbvariationsOVer10tokens．Theaimofthisstudyistoidentifythemostcommonusageofproverbsandtheirvariations．SodatacollectedOVer10tokenshaverepresentativeness．Amongthe101originalproverbs，36proverbsareusedforcitationOVer10tokens(thefigurebetweenbrackets)asshowedbelow：Table5．3．1．136originalproverbs(over10tokens)inCOCAProverbsFrequency1Leavewellenoughalone。99 山西师范大学学位论文282Betterlatethannever．773Practicemakesperfect．654Oldhabitsdiehard．625Thereisnoplacelikehome．596Actionsspeaklouderthanwords．587Bettersafethansorry．518Ittakestwototango．459Mightmakesfight．3510Necessityisthemotherofinvention．3211Beautyisintheeyeofthebeholder．3212Miserylovescompany．3013Loveisblind．2814Charitybeginsathome．2715Bloodisthickerthanwater．2216Nonewsisgoodnews．2417DoasIsay,notasIdo．2418Wherethereissmoke，thereisfire．2419Twohemsarebetterthanone．2320YoureapwhatyouSOW．2021Ifyoucall’tstandtheheat，getoutofthekitchen．1722L00kbeforeyouleap．1523Forewarnedisforearmed．1524Don’tputallyoureggsinonebasket．1525Familiaritybreedscontempt．14 26StrikeWhiletheironishot．1427Imitationisthesincerestformofflattery．1428Absencemakestheheartgrowfonder．1329Birdsofafeatherflocktogether．1330Curiositykilledthecat．1331Varietyisthespiceoflife．1232Hastemakeswaste．1233Thebestthingsinlifearefree．1134Youcall’tteachallolddognewtri文．1135Nothingventured，nothinggained。1136Hewhohesitatesislost．11Thereare24proverbvariationsOVer10tokens：Table5．3．1．224proverbvariations(over10tokens)inCOCAProverbV撕ationsFrequencylDoasIsay862Lookbefore[P率】[V牛]683Lookbefore【V·】674There[vb木】morethanonewayto[V牢]585Judgea／an【n车]by木[n书】496晒ellinRome417木isintheeyeofthebeholder408Birdsofafeather339Actionsspeak，ere2810Truthhurts 山西师范大学学位论文11Noplacelikehome，etc．2512Toomanycooks2l13Thecompanyhekeeps1814[n掌]／[p木][V木】n’t／notlivebybreadalone16lSDoas木do1416Bitethehandthatf．eed[P事]1417Putthecartbeforethehorse1418Takethebadwiththegood1419Familiaritybreeds【n幸]1320Allthatglitters1121Makehay1022Twototango1023Oldhabitsare／werehardtobreak1024Anappleaday8Fromaboveexamples，itcanbeconcludedthatproverbvariationsarecreatedinordertofitintospecificcontextsandSohelpachievelexicalcohesion(NidaEugeneA．1998)．Forexample：WheninRomeistheabbreviationformofWheninRomedoastheRomansdo．InCOCA，itsvariationsappear41timestofitintospecificcontexts．(1)SometimesIclapatthewrongtime，whichbringsareprimandfrommydaughters，whoaremusiciansandknowbetter．SoI"veleanedtofollowthe“WheninRome”principleandwaituntiltherestoftheaudiencestartsclappingbeforeIapplaud．(COCA，1996，MAG,FieldandStream)(2)“Well，Isupposethat’SsomethingthatneveroccurredtoUS．Because，yousee，weminorssitalmostconstantlyandmajorsseldomneedto．”Mikesaid，“Wdl，then，we’11stand．WheninRome⋯”(COCA，2007，FIC，AnalogScienceFiction&Fact)Inthefirstexample，thespeakercompressesWheninRomedoastheRomansdointo‘"theWheninRomeprinciple”．ItiswellknownforthelistenersSOitisnot30 DataAnalysisnecessarytospeakoutthewholeproverb．Andin(2)，itisadialogue．Thesituationis‘"weminorssitalmostconstantlyandmajorsseldomneedto”，SOMike’Ssuggestion--we’11standjustbecauseofthesituation．Thus，thepossibilitytoexplainthehi曲occurrenceofmanyvariationsisthatovertimeproverbshaveundergonesomechangesinformandgrammar,whiletheirmainmeaningstillremainsunchangedonthewhole(NealR．Norrick，1985)．Nowadaysthevariantshavebeenacceptedandusedwidelyasfrequentlyastheoriginalproverbs．Secondly,comparethefrequencyabove10tokensoforiginalproverbsandtheirvariedforms。Table5．3．1．3Frequency(above10tokens)oforiginalproverbsandproverbvadationsinCOCAProverbs／ProverbvariationsFrequencylDoasIsay,notaSIdo．24DoasIsay862Ittakestwototango．45Twototango103Familiaritybreedscontempt．14Familiaritybreeds[n幸]134Lookbeforeyouleap．15Lookbefore[p半】[V串】68Lookbefore【V木】675Wherethereissmoke，thereisfire．5Wherethereis幸．thereis木36Oldhabitsdiehard．62Oldhabitsarehardtobreak107Imitationisthesincerestformofflattery．14ImitationistheD木】formofflattery9 山西师范大学学位论文8Actionsspeaklouderthanwords．58Actionsspeak12[n掌]speaklouderthan[n丰】39Twoheadsarebetterthanone．23[me半]／[d木]headsarebetterthanone8ManyotherexampleslikethisCanbeeasilyfound．Fromthistale，itisobviousthatsomevariantformsofproverbsareusedmorefrequentlythantheoriginalforms．Thereismuchmoreevidencetoshowthatproverbvariationsareusedmorefrequentlythanthatoftheoriginalproverb．(1)a．Ourgodsays，‘"Hewholaughslastlaughsbest．”Haveaniceconquest，Eduardo．(COCA，2003，Fantasy&ScienceFiction，RobertSheckley,Legendofconquistadors)(1)b．‘"Buttheyalsotookallmyunderwear,thosepoorguys⋯．Hewholaughslast，right?”(COCA，2005，NEWS，Washin舀onPost，ThomasBoswell，TheLeaderWithoutTheLipService．)c．Mr-ICAHN：It’Salittlebitofhewholaughslast．Imean，well，youknow，maybeImadeamistakebutImade300milliononit，SOisthatSObad?(COCA，2008，60Minutes7：00PMESTCBS，TheIcahnLift)d．SureitWaSatoughstretchthere，buthecalTleoutofitwithMenrisingintheratingsandEmmysforthestarsofhisothertwohits，BigBangandMike&Molly．Hewho／a”ghs／ast⋯(COCA，2011，USAToday,RobertBianco，Theyear’Sbest，worstandmore)(2)a．Barkingdogsseldombite．(0)b．Alsodon’tassBIneadogwon’tchasejustbecauseit’Sacertainbreed，itlooksharmless，oryouheardthatbarkingdogsdon}bite．(COCA，1994，Bicycling，Mallett，It’Sadog-eat·cogworld．)(1)(3)Whenput“There[vb·】morethanonewayto[V木]""intoCOCA，theresultsshowthattheoriginalproverbthere妇morethanonewaytoskinacatappears8times，whileitsvariedformsappear58times．a．I"mfromtheSouth，andwehaveasayingthere，‘There"smorethanonewaytoskinacat．’(COCA，1996，SPOK,CBS_FaceNation，SENATORTRENTLOTT)32 DataAnalysisb．Proofpositivethattherewasmorethanonewaytolivea蜘．(COCA，2000，FIC，MassachusettsReview,Wood&Monica，TheNextTen)C．She’daskedmeif1wantedadivorce．Isaid，no，therewasmorethanonewaytoendamarriage．(COCA，2011，SPOK，CBS_Eady,ForJuly26，2011，CBS)d．Butinmanyinstances，there"smorethanonewaytodothings，andthebenefitsofdoingityourparticularwayaresominorthatit’Sprobablynotworthmentioning．(COCA，2005，MAGRedbook，JudyDutton，DOESHESPEAKYOURLANGUAGE?)e．Mostalsosaythereismorethanonewaytounderstandtheteachingsoftheirownreligion．(COCA，2008，NEWS，Houston)And吐lerealsoexiststhemostextremephenomenon，thatis，thevariantformisusedmuchmorefrequentlythantheoriginalform，whichhasnotbeenusedonceyetinCOCAfrom1991to2012．Take‘"Nothinghurtslikethetruth”forexample．Itsoriginalformhasnotbeenusedonce，whileitsvariantform‘‘Truthhurts’’appears26timesinCOCA．Althoughthetruthhurts，honestfriendsaretobetreasured．(COCA，2009，MAGEssence)乃Ptruthhurtstoomuch．AliceisnolongeraLegalAidattorney．(COCA，2008，FIC，BK：HowBeSingle)Sometimesthetruthhurts，buthe’Sgoingtogiveyouthetruth．(COCA，1994，NEWS，Chicago)BiberandFinegandescribedstudiesofstylisticsandtheoveralllinguisticcharacteristicsofanauthororperiodinthehistoryoflanguagealsoseemedtobehighlysuitedtothemulti-dimensionalapproach(1986)．Theyresearchedover80textsinacorpusof90．000wordsofEnglishproseformthe18mtothe20mcentury,andshowedhowtheselinguisticcharacteristicsofnarratives，essaysandpersonalletterschangedOVerthecenturies．However,researchondiachroniccorporahasnotbeenlimitedtovocabularyandsyntacticchanges．NevalainenandRaumolin—Brunbergprovidedevidenceoftheeffectofsociolinguisticfactors，includingage，gender,socialstatusandrelationship，whichmayhavecontributedtolanguagechange(1994)．Actually,alllanguageschangeanddevelopwhenculturesmeetandcommunicatewimeachother(MeMordie，1954)．Sodotheproverbs，whichhaveundergoneprocessofmodification．砀afcanexplainthelowoccurrenceofsomeoriginalproverbs，33 山西师范大学学位论文5．3．2AnalysisinSWECCLForthosewhohavepassedCollegeEnglishTestBand4or6，moststudentsarenotprofidentinEnglishbothoralandwrittencommunication．Andaftergraduatingfromcollege，thosewhoCanuseEnglishforgeneralcommunicationdon’texceed10％．Obviously,therehasbeenawidegapbetweenthisandreality(WangChenglu，2002)．Collegestudentshavetroubleinwritingbecauseofthefollowingdeficiency．1)Vocabulary．TheproblemofvocabularyisabigbarrierinEnglishwriting．Studentsfailtowidenvocabulary,whichcausesstudentsrepeatedlyusesomesimplewords(WangRongpei，1997)．Theamountofvocabularyremainedinthestagewheretheyhavelearnedinthemiddlesch001．Eventheyusethenewwordlearntatuniversity,thereoftenhavespellingerrors，collocationerrorsetc．2)Transformationofthethinkingmode．ThedifferencesbetweenEnglishandChineseleadtothedifficultyinwriting(Hayes，1988)．Mostcollegestudents’writinghabitsareinfluencedbytlleirmothertongue．StudentsgetaccustomedtotllinkinChinese．ratherthandirectlytothinkinEnglish．Inmostcases，studentsareusedtoorganizingsentencesinthewayofChineseandthentranslatethemonebyoneintoEnglish，whichmakeitdifficulttounderstand．3)Subjectivereasons．Fromtheponofviewofstudents，theydon’tlaysolidfoundationoflanguage(Luo，2005)．Furthermore，theyareinlackofmotivationtoimprovethewritingskills．Soforthewritingassignment，studentsarealwaysinapassiveattitudetocompletethetask．Readingandrecitingexcellentessaysisoneoftheefficientwaystoimprovewritingability(Nattinger&DeCarrico．1992)．Inaddition,morewritingpracticeshouldbedonetoreinforceasenseoflanguage．StudentsCanexperiencethewonderfulexpressionsbyrecitingthem．Otherwiseitisverydifficulttoapplythemtowriting．Practicemakesperfect．Thereisnoexceptionwithwriting．Writingmethodsandskillscanonlybeemptytalkswithoutalotofpractice．Teachersalwaysaskstudentstoremembersomefrequently-usedproverbsinordertousetheminwritingasthehighlights(Biber,D．＆．Finegan，E，1986，PP．19—46)Incompositiontherearealways9waystoquoteproverbs(Raimes，1983)：Aproverbgoes／says，-／Aproverbhasitthat-一／Asaproverbgoes，--／Asaproverbputsit,-一／Thereisaproverb：--／Thereisaproverbthatgoes，--／--goesaproverb，⋯／一haveaproverbthatgoes，一-／Thereexistsaproverb．Itgoes，⋯-．Firstly,thestudyresearchedthefrequencyof101proverbsinSWECCL．The DataAnalysisresultshowsthat32proverbsareusedasfollows：Table5．3．2．132proverbsinSWECCLProverbsFrequencylAnappleadaykeepsthedoctoraway．152Nopain，nogain．133Practicemakesperfect．124RomeWaSh’tbuiltinaday．1l5Actionsspeaklouderthanwords．106蹄乃eninRomedoastheRomansdoj97You’renevertoooldto1earn．98Afriendinneedisafriendindeed．9YoureapwhatyouSOW．810Twoheadsarebetterthanone．711Birdsofafeatherflocktogether．612Inunitythereisstrength．413Amanisknownbythecompanyhekeeps．414Lookbeforeyouleap，415Itneverrainsbutitpours．416StrikewhiletheironiShot．317Allthatglittersisnotgold．318Lovemakestheworldgoround．319Miserylovescompany．220Aleopardcannotchangehisspots．221Okriositykilledthecat．2 山西师范大学学位论文22Don’tjudgeabookbyitsCOVCL223Thefirststepisalwaysthehardest．224Hewhohesitatesislost．225Ifatfirstyoudon’tsucceed，try,tryagain．226Mandoesnotlivebybreadalone．227WhenthecatlSawaythemicewillplay．228Toomanycooksspoilthebroth．129Thewaytoaman’sheartisthroughhis1stomach．30MoneydoesnotgrowOiltrees，131Thespiritiswilling，butthefleshisweak。132Thebestthingsinlifearefree．1MiddleschoolstudentsalsoUSeproverbsinwriting．2005NationalMatriculationEnglishTest(Jiangsu)askedtowriteaninitiativeabouttheconstructionoftheharmonioussociety(LiGui&ZhouXiyong．2009)．Acandidatewrotewiththebeginningofaproverb．NowadaysallgovernmentscallonustosetupHarmonySociety,justliketheproverbsays，“harmonymakesbothafamilyandanationprosperous．2008NationalMatriculationEnglishTestrequiredcandidatestowritealettertoBritishfriendPeterabouthowtolearnChinesewell．Astudentwroteas“Goodwaysareimportanttolearnaforeignlanguage,justliketheproverbsays,“methodwillteachyouf0wintime．”InSWECCL，theproverbYouarenevertoooldtolearnisused9timesinall。Forexample：(I)Ithinktheyarebothright．YouarenevertoooldtOlearn．Manypeoplegototheuniversity,becauseitCallbeeasyforyoutofindawork．(STU2，ARG17，YEAR06，GRADEl，TIMED)(2)First，intheuniversity,wecangainmuchknowledge，especiallyaboutthesubjectthatwechoose．Ontheotherside，wecallalsolearnaboutsomeotherknowledge DataAnalysisbyourselves．Youarenevertoooldtolearn．(STU2，ARGl7，YEAR06，GRADEl，TIMED)(3)Iseducationalife—longprocess?Myansweris—Yes!Youarenevertoooldtolearn．(STU2，ARG02，YEAR07，GRADEl，TIMED)neproverbismostlyusedinthetopicabouteducationandlearning．Sometopicslikesports，health，andtheimportanceofhearingarecommoninwriting．Forexample，someproverbsareusedinthetopicHealth：Anappleadaykeepsthedoctoraway,’Healthisabovewealth,"Allworkandnoplaymakesjackadullboy；Eatinglittleandspeakinglittlecanneverdoharm；Everymanisthearchitectofhisownfortune；Thefirstwealthishealth；Peoplewhocannot∥ndtimeforrecreationareobligedsoonerorlatertofindtimeforillness．Andthereareonly9proverbvariationsinSWECCL．Table5．3．2．29ProverbVariationsinSWECCT，ProverbvariationsFrequency1Wherethereisawill，thereisaway．62Thinkbeforeyouact．53YouwillreapwhatyouSOW．54Moneymakestheworldgoround．45Leapbeforeyoulook．36WheninChina,doastheChinesedo．37ClOthesmakethemarl．28Goodnewstravelsfast．19Thefirststepisthetoughest．1SomeproverbsandproverbvariationsCanbefoundeasily．Forexample：Itisnousecryingoverthespiltmilk．／Itisnousetryingtopersuadehimtogiveupsuchafoolishplan；g"heninRome,doastheRomansdo．／WheninChina,doastheChinesedo：WherethereiswilLthereisaway／Wherethereisrubbish。thereareflies；Likefather,likeson／Likemother,likedaughter／liketeacher,likepupil／Likequestion,likeanswer．In2006TEM4OralText，task2requestscandidatestodescribealessontheyhaveleamedwhichhasenrichedtheirlifeexperience．Astudentdescribeslikethis：“Er．一Thesecond，theteacher．．．theteacher’Sclothesisnot，err,notverybeautifulandsomedirty,wealwaysthinkbecausethe，er，ayoungWO⋯ayoungwomanalways37 山西师范大学学位论文like⋯likebeautiful，SOeverydayheis．．．hewealsverygoodand⋯atthis⋯actwealllikeit，buttodayisdifferent．Sowe⋯wetalkedwitheachother,”Whyteacherwearsodirty．一clothes?”Theteacher,％．．，saw⋯my．．．sawUS⋯％hetoldme⋯”Look，％today1weal"dirtyclothesandyoudon"t⋯youdon’tunderstand．Solikethis，er．一，please⋯tryyourbesttomakeyourselflookverygood，andyou，youwillbe⋯youwillfeelverycon，convin，convinceand，er．．．，Clothesmaketheman．dosomethingontime，er,please．"(SPOKEN，TEM4，GRADE2，YEAR06，GROUP001，TASKTYPE2，RANK=1)AndanotherexampleisMoneymakestheworldgoround．OneChinesestudentuseditinwriting．Thecompositionrequestsstudentstoexpresstheiropinionsaboutwhetherthegovernmentshouldputmoneyonbuildingtheatersandstadiumsoronmedicalcareandeducation．Thestudentwrotelikethis：‘‘Ifthegovernmentpaysmoremoneyonthesethings．Oursocietywillbestronger,andeveryonewillhavealonglife．Justastheproverbgoes，moneymakesthewormgoaround．”(STUl，ARGl5，YEAR07，GRADEl，UNTIMED)Secondly,comparethefrequencyofproverbsandproverbvariationsinSWECCLandCOCA．Table5．3．2．3FrequencyofproverbsinCOCAandSWECCLFrequencyProverbshlItlCoCASⅥ，ECCLAmanisknownbythecompanyhelO4keeps．2Thefirststepisalwaysthehardest，023Aleopardcannotchangehisspots．02"Whenthecat’Sawaythemicewill404play．5ItneveTrainsbutitpours。26Inunitythereisstrength．247AfriendinneediSafriendindeed．298Practicemakesperfect．65129Actionsspeaklouderthanwords．581038 DataAnalysisTable5．3．2．4FrequencyofproverbvariationsinCOCAandSWECCLFrequencyProverbvariations(COCA)(SWECCL)lClothesmakethemart．162Moneymakestheworldgoround．323Thinkbeforeyouact．1054Leapbeforeyoulook．135Goodrlewstravelsfast．216WheninChina，doastheChinesedo．137Wherethereisawill，thereisaway．968Thefirststepisthetoughest．1l9YouwillreapwhatyouSOW,12Fromthecomparisonbetweenfrequencyofproverbsandproverbvariationsintable5．3．2．3andtable5．3．2．4，theusageofproverbsinnativenationsandChineselearnersCanbeeasilyobserved．Chineselearnersgetaccustomedtousingtheoriginalproverbs，andseldomchangethefixedform(Stern，1983)．Someproverbsarerarelyusedfornativelanguageusers，whileChineselearnersalwaysusethemincommunicationandwriting．TaketheproverbAleopardcannotchange矗括spotsforexample。Ithash’tbeenusedinCOCAwhileChineselearnershaveusedthisoriginazproverbfortwice．AnotherexampleisAman坛knownbythecompanyhekeeps，whichalsohash’tusedevenonceinCOCAwhileinSⅥ吧CLLithasbeenusedfourtimes．AndotheroriginalproverbslikePrac矗cemakesperfect；Actionsspeaklouderthanwords；YoureapwhatyouSOWallhavehi【曲frequencyinbothtwocorpora．SomeconcreteexamplesCanbelistedasfollows：(1)Practicemakesperfect．a．Youbelievethatpracticemakesperfectandarewillingtospendhoursandhoursbetweenthesheetspolishingyoureroticskills．(COCA，2004，MAGCosmoplitan)b。AndthemaximisPracticemakesperfect．Howdoyoudealwiththat,ifstressisanegativething，butyouneedtobeabletodealwithittobeabletodowell?(COCA，39 山西师范大学学位论文2005，SPOK，NPR_Science)．C．Whenastudentdescribedalessonwhichenrichedhislifeexperience．HesaidthathehadalwaysbeenveryshyinoralEnglishclassanddidn’tspeakveryoftenatclass．ButhisclassmateYangBospokemostofthetime．YangBotoldhimthatpracticemakesperfect．(SPOKEN，TEM4，GRADE2，YEAR06，GROUP001)(2)Actionsspeaklouderthanwords．a．Americansliketosaythatactionsspeaklouderthanwords，andactioniswhatweneednOW．(COCA，2010，NEWS，CSMonitor)b．Ithjnkshehasalottolearnasapolitician．Sheneedstorealizethatactionsspeaklouderthanwords．(COCA，1996，NEWS，Atlanta)Therefore，languageisalivingart．ReadingandrecitingdoplayapivotalroleinlearningEnglish．ButtheultimategoaloflearningalanguageistoBseitflexibly(Dai，1996)。FormanyChineselearners，learningEnglishhasbeenatoughexperience．Traditionally,learnersarerequiredtomemorizewords，studygrammarandlearnsentencestructuresinanon．interactiveenvironment．Mostlearnerscannotcombinetheoreticalknowledgewithpractice． Conclusion6．CondusionInthischapter，asummaryofmajorfindingswillbemade．Inaddition，thelimitationsofthestudyandthesuggestionsforfurtherstudywillbeintroduced．6．1MajorFindingsofThisStudyBasedoncorpusapproachandempiricalmethod，thisstudymadearesearchonEnglishproverbsandproverbvariations．Byusingtheexperienceofpreviousreferences，thestudyanalyzedanddiscussedthedata．Themajorfindingsarelistedasfollows：Fffstly,AccordingtothefindingsbasedonCOCA，90percentoftheoriginalproverbshavevariantforms．Among101AmericanEnglishproverbs，thereare90haVingvariantforms．ThismeansovertimeEnglishproverbshavechangedandsomenewformshaveappeared．ThephenomenonofproverbvariationsisbecomingSOcolnnlonandpopularthatpeoplehaveaccepted．Proverbvariationshavebecomeanindispensablepartoflanguage．Theycoexistwiththeoriginalproverbs．Insomecontexts，theoriginalproverbsCallbereplacedwiththevariedforms．What’Smore，sometimesvariedformsaregettingmorepopular．ThisevidenceCanprovethatnotalltheproverbsareusedasafixedform．Languagehasthepropertyofflexibilityandregularity．Butlearnerscannotchangeproverbsintoanyformsinreallife．Theyshouldobeysomerulesandbepreparedtorecognizetheminreading，writingorconversation．Secondly,therehave233Englishproverbvariationsfor101originalproverbs．MaintypesofproverbvariationsCanbeclassifiedintofivetypes．Substitutionisthemostcommontype，whichaccounting44．2％，andthenisaddition,deletionandantonym．Thereversionaccountstheleast．just6．9％．Andthereismuchmoreevidencetoshowthatproverbvariationsareusedhigherthanthatoftheoriginalproverb．Alllanguageschangeanddevelopwhenculturesmeetandcommunicatewitheachother．Proverbsalsohaveundergoneprocessofmodification，whichcallexplainthelowOCCUlTenCCofsomeoriginalproverbs．Thirdly,themeaningofEnglishproverbsandproverbvariationsshouldbeinferredaccordingtoitscontexts，insteadofitscomponentwords．Allthecollecteddataareselectedandanalyzedonthebasisofitscontexts，Muchefforthasbeenmadeto 山西师范大学学位论文makesurethatthevariantformsshouldberelevanttotheoriginalforms．AsISknowntoall，languageisatoolforcommunication，andallthecommunicativeactivitiesofpeoplearealwaysinacertainsocialenvironment．SotheanalysisofanylanguagephenomenonmustbedependentOnthecontext．Ifregardingalanguageasastaticandisolatedfragmentwithoutcontexts，itisoftendifficulttodeterminetherealstructureoflanguagemeaningandvalue．Moreover,Chineselearnersgetaccustomedtousingtheoriginalproverbs，insteadofapplyingthemflexibly．WhenlearningEnglishatearlierages，learnersareusuallyrequestedtorecitemuchmoreexcellentwordsandwonderfulexpressions，whichCanbeusedincommunicationorcomposition．Overtime，someexpressionsmaybechanged，andontheotherhand，Chineselearnersareexposedtoauthenticsentencesinalimitedenv扛onment．ThusthroughthecomparisonbetweenCOCAwhichreflectsnativespeakers’realusageoflanguageandSWECCLwhichstandsforChineseleamers’Englishlevels，Chineselearnersshouldlearnhowtoapplylanguageintoreallife．6．2Implications6．2．1ForEnglishLearnersStudentsCanbenefitfromlearningEnglishproverbs．First，toconsolidatetheknowledgeoflanguage．Vocabularyandsentencestructureisthecoreoflanguage．Havingacertainamountofwordsandmasteringthebasicsentencestructurelaythefoundationforlanguagelearning．ProverbsaregoodmaterialstOexpandvocabularyandunderstandthesentencestructure(Pincas，1982)．Languageinproverbsislivelyandvividandthestructureissimple．Soifproverbsareusedinlearning,theywillimprovelearners’interest．Afterrememberinglotsofproverbs，theyCallbeappliedtowriting．Second，proverbsarecarrierofculture．Proverbsempowerlearnersknowwesternculturebackgroundanddistinctthedifferencesbetweendifferentcultures．Proverbshaveacloserelationshipwithanation’Shistory,economy,culture，lifestyleandreligion，etc．Lookbelowthesurfaceofproverbstoexplorehowwesternersthjlll(．ItisawaytomasterEnglishdeeply．Lastly,proverbscanimprovelearners’moralaccomplishment．Proverbsprovideguidancetoappropriatebehavior．Goodmoralbehaviorplaysapivotalroleinbeinga42 Conclusionman．Learningproverbsfacilitatethedevelopmentofmantlehealth．6．2．2ForEnglishTeachersWiththefurtherreformoftheEnglishclasses，moreattentionhasbeenpaidonthecultivationofstudents’qualityeducation．Ifemployproverbsproperlyinteaching，teacherscannotonlyarousestudents’interestinlearningandpromotetheirlanguageability,butalsoexpandtheirhorizonsandthenfosterstudents’abilityofthinking．Goodeducationinstillsnotonlyknowledge，butalsohigIlmoralvaluesandprinciples．WhensomeEnglishproverbswithstrongencouragementareinstilleddaysandmonths，theywillinfluencestudents’character,promotingstudentstodevelopgoodhabitsandmoralquality．Thereisstillnounanimousconsensusonwhatconstitutesasoundteachingmethodology．Ontheotherhand，agoodeducationencouragesstudentsto虹liIlkindependentlyandcritically．Studentsareexpectedtohavetheirownideasandnotjustrepeatwhattheteacherhastoldthem．HowtouseproverbsflexiblyandknowwellaboutproverbvariationsCanhelpstudentsthinkactively．TheteachingofEnglishwritingisanimportantpartofEnglishteachinginuniversity．WritingisalwaysaweaklinkinEnglishlearning．LiuRunqing’Sresearchshowsthatthreeabilities，includingChinesewritingability,EnglishspokenabilityandtheabilityofusingEnglishvocabulary,haveadirecteffectonEnglishwritingability(1999)．Andotherthreeabilities，whichrefertolisteningability,readingabilityanddiscourseknowledge，haveindirectinfluenceonthewritingability．6．3LimitationsandSuggestionsforFurtherResearchEventhoughittakesgreateffortstoensurethevalidityandreliability,therestillexistsomeproblemsandlimitationsinthispaperbecauseofthelimitedtimeandtheauthor’Sresearchability．First，thenumberofsubjectsisrelativelyfewer．Thisstudycollects101itemsfromAmericanproverbsastheresearchsubjects．Itisrelativelyfewerfortheanalysisbasedonthecorpus．Thisisthelimitationoftheresearchsize．Moreaccurateresultsmaybeacquiredifmoreproverbsareinvolvedforthestudy．Second，itispartialandincompletetoanalyzetypesofproverbvariations．Inthelimitedtime，itisdifficulttofindandanalyzealltheproverbvariations．Fortheoriginal 山两师范大学学位论文proverbs，sometimesthereisnotverycleardividinglinetodefineproverbvariationsrelativetothem．Sothispaperjustselects233proverbvariationsasasampletoanalyzethemainclassificationsofproverbvariations．Toacertaindegree，itisimpossibletomakesureallthevariationswhichhavebeenfoundarefullyconsidered．Thatisalsothelimitationoftheanalyticaltoolandtheauthor’Sanalyticalability．ThisstudyisabriefprobeintothevariationsofEnglishproverbswiththehelpofcorpus·ThepresentstudyprovidesanobjectiveaccountondifferenttypesofEnglishproverbsandproverbvariations．Andthefindingsofthestudyareinaccordancewiththeuseofthelanguage．ThestudyisbasedonCOCAandSWECCL．whichCallfullyreflecthownativespeakersandChineselearnersuseproverbsandproverbvariationsintheirreallife．Moreresearchisthisareashouldbedoneinthefuturetoacquirecomprehensiveexplanationsonproverbsandproverbvariations． 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AppendixAA：101AmericanEnglishProverbs1．Birdsofafeatherflocktogether．2．Inunitythereisstrength．3．Ittakestwototango．4．Amanisknownbythecompanyhekeeps．5．Misery10vescompany．6．There’snoplacelikehome．7．Toomanycooksspoilthebroth．8．Twoheadsarebetterthanone．9．Two’Scompany,butthree’Sacrowd10．Anappleadaykeepsthedoctoraway．11．DoasIsay,notasIdo12．Ifyoucan’tbeatthem，jointhem．13．IfyouCall’tstandtheheat，getoutofthekitchen．14．Leavewellenoughalone．15．Lookbeforeyouleap．16．MakehaywhiletheSUllshines．17．StrikeWhiletheironiShot．18．Thewaytoaman’sheartisthroughhisstomach19．WheninRomedoastheRomansdo．20．Allthatglittersisnotgold．21．Curiositykilledthecat．22．Don’tbiteoffmorethanyoucallchew．23．Don’tbitethehandthatfeedsyou．24．Don’tcountyourchickensbeforethey’rehatched．25．Don’tcryoverspiltmilk．26．Don’tjudgeabookbyitscover．27．Don’tjudge8．malluntilyou’vewalkedinhisboots．28．Don’tlooka百flhorseinthemouth．29．Don’tputallyoureggsinonebasket．30．Don’tputofffortomorrowwhatyouCandotoday31．Don’tputthecartbeforethehorse．32．Amissisasgoodasamile．51 山西师范大学学位论文33．Theroadtohellispavedwithgoodintentions．34．珊lerethere’Ssmoke，there’Sfire．35．Thefirststepisalwaysthehardest．36．Forewarnedisforearmed．37．HewhohesitatesiS10st．38．Ifatfirstyoudon’tsucceed，try,tryagain．39．Necessityisthemotherofinvention．40．Nopain，nogain．41．Nothingventured，nothinggained．42．Thepenismightierthanthesword．43．Practicemakesperfect44．Romewasn’tbuiltinaday．45．nesqueakingwheelgetstheoil．46．You’renevertoooldto1ealTl．47．BeggarsCan’tbechoosers．48．Clothesdonotmakememail．49．Aleopardcannotchangehisspots．50．Mandoesnotlivebybreadalone．51．Moneydoesnotgrowontrees．52．Oneswallowdoesnotmakeasunqmer．53．Toomanychiefs，notenoughIndians．54．YouCanleadahorsetowater,butyouCan’tmakehimdrink．55．Youcarl’thaveyourcakeandeatittoo．56．Youcall’tteachanolddognewtrick．57．Theappledoesn’tfallfarfromthetree．58．Barkingdogsseldombite．59．Betteralivecowardthanadeadhero．60．Afoolandhismoneyaresoonparted．61．Hewholaughslast，laughsbest．62．0ldhabitsdiehard．63．Onemall’sgravyisanothermall’spoison．64．111espiritiswilling．butthefleshisweak．65．Thereisnohonoramongthieves．66．There’Smorethanonewaytoskinacat．52 AppendixA67．。Ihere’snofoellikeanoldfoel．68。Varietyisthespiceoflife．69．Whenthecat’Sawaythemicewillplay．70．Absencemakestheheartgrowfender．71．Beautyisintheeyeofthebeholder．72．Bloodisthickerthanwater．73．Familiaritybreedscontempt．74．AfriendinneediSafriendindeed．75．AfriendwhosharesiSafriendwhocares．76．Imitationisthesincerestformofflattery．77．LoveiSblind．78．Actionsspeaklouderthanwords．79．Betterlatethannever．80．Bettersafethansorry．81．AbirdinthehandiSworthtwointhebush．82．Charitybeginsathome．83．Hastemakeswaste．84．Lovemakestheworldgoround．85．Onegoodturndeservesanother．86。Youhavetotakethegoodwiththebad。87．YoureapwhatyouSOW．88．Afterthefeastcomesthereckoning．89．Badnewstravelsfast．90．Thebestthingsinlifearefree．91．Thebiggertheyare，thehardertheyfall．92．Goodthingscomeinsmallpackages．93．Thegrassisalwaysgreenerontheothersideofthefence．94．Hindsightisbetterthanforesight．95。Itneverrainsbutitpours．96．Lightningneverstrikestwiceinthesameplace．97．Mightmakesfight．98。Nonewsisgoodnews．99．Nothinghurtslikethetruth．100．PossessioniSnine-tenthsofthe1aw．53 山西师范大学学位论文101．Theproofofthepuddingisintheeating． AppendixB27ArgumentativeWritingTopicsinWECCL2．001．“Educationisexpensive，buttheconsequencesofafailuretoeducate，especiallyinanincreasinglyglobalizedworld，areevenmoreexpensive．’’Writeanessayofapproximately300wordsonthisissuetostateyourownopinion．02．Somepeoplet11inkthateducationisalife-longprocess，whileothersdon’tagree．Writeanessaytostateyourownopinion．03．Nowadays，peoplehavepaidmoreandmoreattentiontodegreecertificates．Forexample，inmanyinstitutions，one’Spromotionisprimarilydecidedbywhetheronehasobtainedagraduatedegreeornot．Agrowingnumberofcriticssaythatifthistendencygoestotheextreme，youngpeoplemaybemisled．Adegreecertificatecanreflectonlyone’Sacademicachievementsbutnotallabilitiesessentialforsuccessfulcareer．Writeallessaytostateyourownopinion．04．AnAfricanproverbsays‘‘ifyoueducateaboy,youeducateallindividual；ifyoueducatea酬，youeducateafamilyandanation．”Doyouagreewiththisproverb?Writeanessaytostateyourownopinion．05．Computergamesareverypopularamongchildren．However,somepeoplethinl(thatcomputergameshaveproducedmorenegativeeffectsthanpositiveonesonchildren’Sphysical，intellectualaswellaspsychologicaldevelopment．Therefore，theysuggestthateffectivemeasuresshouldbetakentopreventchildrenfromplayingthem．Writeanessaytostateyourownopinion．06．Doesmoderntechnologymakelifemoreconvenient，orwaslifebetterwhentechnologywassimpler?Writeanessaytostateyourownopinion．07．Somepeoplethinkthatanimalsshouldbetreatedaspets．whileotherstllillkthatanimalsareresourcesoffoodandclothing．What’Syouropinion?08．Inthewesternworld．ifafamilymemberhasgotacancer,his／herfamilymembersmusttellhim／heraboutitfrankly．Ifnot，itwouldberegardedasbeingillegal．ButintheChineseculture，acolTIITIOnpracticeisnottotellthepatientthetruth．Somepeoplet11i11kthatthistraditionalpracticemustbechangedalongwiththedevelopmentofmodernization．Writeallessaytostateyourownopinion．09．ItisrightthatcollegegraduatedeaFnhighersalariesthanlesswell—educatedinthecommunity．Buttheyshouldalsopaythefullcostoftheirstudy．Doyouagreeordisagree?10．Somepeoplethinkthatfamouspeoplearetreatedunfairlybythemedia，and也eyshould55 山西师范大学学位论文begivenmoreprivacy,whilesomeothersthinkthatthisisthepriceoftheirfame．Writeanessaytostateyourownopinion．11．Manypeoplesaythatwehavedevelopedintoa“throw-awaysociety"’，becausewearefillingupourenvironmentwithSOmanyplasticbagsandrubbishthatwecannotfullydisposeof．Writeanessaytostateyourownopinion．12．Manypeoplethinkthatworknowadaysismorestressfulandlessleisurelythaninthepast．Whatisyouropinion?13．Nowadaysmenarebecomingmoreandmoregreedyandselfish．Weshouldreturntoolder,traditionalvaluesandshowrespectforfamilyandlocalcommunity．Towhatextentdoyouagreeordisagree?14．Nowadays，weareadvisedbyenvironmentaliststouseelectroniccardsinsteadofpapercardsforholidaygreetings．However,somepeoplethinkthatelectroniccardsdonothavethesanleflaverofpapercardsanddonotdisplaythesamefunction，either．Writeanessaytostateyourownopinion．15．Somepeoplesaythegovernmentshouldn’tputmoneyonbuildingtheatersandsportsstadiums；也eyshouldspendmoremoneyonmedicalcareandeducation．Doyouagreeordisagree?Writeanessaytostateyourownopinion．16．nowadaysseniorhighschoolstudentsaretotallytiredofvariouskindofexaminationsgivenbytheirteachersinpreparingforthefuturecollegeentranceexamination．Itisgenerallyagreedthatthiskindofexaminationsystemhasdestroyedstudents’creativethinkingabilitiesandhinderedtheirall-rounddevelopment．However,theviewsonhowtoremedythesituationarevarious．Somepeoplesuggestthatthistypeofexaminationsystemshouldbeabolishedcompletelywhileotherst11iIll【theabolishmentoftheexaminationsystemwillbringaboutmoreproblemsthansolutions．Forexample，withoutanationalentranceexamination，wewillhaveproblemsofprivilegesanddiscrimination．Writeallessaytostateyourownopinion．17．Somepeoplet11inktheuniversityeducationistopreparestudentsforemployment．Othersthinkithasotherfunctions．Writeanessaytostateyourownopinion．18．SomesporteventssuchastheWordCupmayhelpreducethetensionandbiasbetweendifferentcountriesandkeepthepeaceofthewodd．Writeanessaytostateyourownopinion．19．Thebraindrainisaseriousproblemindevelopingcountries．Somepeoplethinkthereasonforlosingthemostpreciousresourcesisthegovernments’poorpolicy．Ifthegovernmentsinthedevelopingcountriesfaceuptothenewreality,thisproblemCanbe AppendixBalleviated．However,somepeoplethinkthatthebraindrainisauniversalphenomenon．Nomatterwhatevermeasuresthegovernmenttakes，theproblemofthebraindraincannotbesolved．Writeallessaytostateyourownopinion．20．Trafficandhousingproblemsinmajorcitieswouldbesolvedbymovingbigcompanies，factoriesandtheiremployeestothecountryside．Writeanessaytostateyourownopinion．21．WhichskillofEnglishismoreimportantforChineselearners?Somepeople也iI出thatweshouldgiveprioritytoreadinginEnglish，whileothersthinkspeakingismoreimportant．Writeanessaytostateyourownopinion．22．Nowadays，electronicdictionaries(E-dictionaries)havebeenincreasinglypopularamongstudents．However,teachersthinkthattheovelq．1seofE·dictionariesmighthavemoredisadvantagesthanadvantagesforEnglishlearning．Forexample，liketheuseofcalculatoraffectingtheskillofcalculating,relianceonE—dictionariesmayleadtothedeterioratingofourspellingability．Writeanessaytostateyourownopinion．23．Somepeoplethinkchildrenshouldlearntocompete．butothers吐linkthatchildrenshouldbetaughttocooperate．Writeanessaytostateyourownopinion．24．Willmodemtechnology,suchastheintemeteverreplacethebookorthewrittenwordasthemainsourceofinformation?Writeallessaytostateyourownopinion。25．Youngpeoplealeimportantresourcestotheircountry．ButgovernmentsmayignoresomeproblemsfacedbyyoungpeopleinrunningthecoHlltry．Byyourexperience，whatdothegovernmentneedtodoforsupportingorhelpingyoungpeople?Showtheseproblemsandgiveyourideasorsuggestionstosolvethisissue．26．Nowadays，moreandmorecollegestudentsrentapartmentsandliveoutsidecampus．Isitappropriate?Stateyouropinionaboutthis．57 山西师范大学学位论文58 AppendixCTEM4-OralTextQuestions(2003-2006)1．2003TEM4．OralTask1：RetellastoryTaSk2：Talkingonagiventopic：Tellastorythatillustratestheneedforlove．Task3：Role-playing2．2004TEM4一OralTask1：RetellastoryTask2：Talkingonagiventopic：Describeoneofthemostunpleasantdreamsyou’veeverhad．Task3：Role-playing3．2005TEM4．OralTaskl：RetellastoryTask2：Talkingonagiventopic：PleasetellUSoneincidentinwhichsomeonewastryingtohelpothersdangertohisownsafety．Task3：Role-playing4．2006TEM4．OralTaskl：RetellastoryTask2：Talkingonagiventopic：Describealessonyouhavelearnedwhichhasenrichedyourlifeexperience．Task3：Role-playing59 山西师范大学学位论文60 AppendixDD、WECCL2．0中的学习者变量变体类型变体含义标记作文篇数专业类型英语专业STUl4，359非英语专业STU2591入学年份2003钲YEAR03682004定YEAR043072005盔YEAR051，6722006盆YEAR062，4502007正YEAR07453写作时所在年级一年级GRADEl1，549二年级GPADE22，172三年级GRADE31。108四年级GPADE4121作文题目议论文第×题ARG)()(4，680是否限时作文限时作文TIMED2，499非限时作文UNTJMED2，45161 山西师范大学学位论文62 PublicationsPublicatiOIlS[1】芦风娟．(2013)．基于COCA语料库的英语词汇自主学习[J】．才智(2)．吉林省