英语动物谚语的隐喻研究 84页

学校代码：10270分类号：学号：122200361上善岬汔夫签硕士学位论文英语动物谚语的隐喻研究学院：外国语学院专业：外国语言学及应用语言栄研究方向：i人知i吾言学研究生姓名：JeLh言指导教师：蔡龙本又完成日期2015年5月 本论文经答辩委员会全体委员审查，确认符合上海师范大学硕（博）士学位论文质量要求。答辩委员会签名:主席（工作单位、职称):委员：n导师： 论文独创性声明本论文是我个人在导师指导下进行的研究工作及取得的研究成果。论文中除了特别加以标注和致谢的地方外，不包含其他人或机构已经发表或撰写过的研究成果。其他同志对本研究的启发和所做的贡献均已在论文中做了明确的声明并表示了谢意。作者签名乂巧辟曰期：r论文使用授权声明本人完全了解上海师范大学有关保留、使用学位论文的规定，I卩：学校有权保留送交论文的复印件，允许论文被查阅和借阅；学校可以公布论文的全部或部分内容，可以釆用影印、缩印或其它手段保存论文。保密的论文在解密后遵守此规定。作者签名：/二虑导师签名:<」 AMetaphoricalStudyofAnimalProverbsinEnglishAuthor:HeTingSupervisor:CaiLongquanAThesisSubmittedtoForeignLanguagesCollegeShanghaiNormalUniversityInPartialFulfillmentoftheRequirementsforTheDegreeofMasterofArtsinForeignLinguistics&AppliedLinguisticsMay2015 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAbstractAbstractMetaphorinhumanlifeisveryimportant,itcanbesaidthatmetaphorexistseverywhereinlife,ontheonehand,itreflectstheworldpeoplewhoarereadytoknow.Ontheotherhand,itplaysanimportantroleasalanguageform,whichinfluencespeople’sthinkingofrealworld.Inthispaper,theauthorstudiestheanimalproverbsbasedonthetheoriesofConceptualMetaphor,especiallythetheoryof“Humanbeingsareanimals”.Fromthisperspective,toanalyzehowitsappearances,behaviors,featuresandotheraspects,whichcanberegardedassourcedomains,aremappedintopartsofhumanbeingswiththemetaphoricalmeaningsinsuchkindofanimalproverbs.Thispaperhasfiveparts.Generally,thebriefintroductionabouttheobjective,thereferredmethodologyandtheoutlineofthepaperhavebeenshowedinchapterone;Chaptertwoshowstheliteraturereviewathomeandabroad,tobeclearer,allthestudiescollectedherehavebeendividedintofourtypes,thatisculturalaspect,cognitiveaspect,literaryaspectandsemanticaspect;Chapterthreeisthestatementoftheoreticalbackground.Itcontainsthehistoricaldevelopmentfromclassicalmetaphortoconceptualmetaphor,especiallythe“GreatChainofBeing”proposedbyLakoffandTurner.What’smore,thetheoryof“HumanBeingsAreAnimals”anditsmappingmechanismaredescribedindetail.Basedontheconceptualmetaphorandothertheories,inchapter4,morethan200animalproverbshasbeencollectedfromADictionaryofEnglishProverbseditedbyXuZhusheng.Alltheanimalproverbshavebeendividedintothreetypes:domesticanimalproverbs,wildanimalproverbsandimaginedanimalproverbs.Theauthorspecificallyanalyzeshowthemechanismworkswellfromsourcedomain(animals)totargetdomain(humanbeings)andhowtheexpressionshavethemetaphoricalmeanings.Furthermore,thecontributionofthepaperisthatdifferentanimalshavedifferentusingfrequency,animalsofthesametypeaswell.Fromthisaspect,somepossiblereasonshavebeenallegedinthispart,suchasthereasonsofhumanbeings,thereasonsofanimalsandthecorrelationsbetweenhumanbeingsandanimals;Atlast,chapterfiveistheconclusionandthelimitationofthispaper.Keywords:conceptualmetaphor；animalmetaphor；animalproverb；differentfrequencyi 摘要上海师范大学学位论文摘摘摘要要要隐喻在人类的生活中极其重要，可以说生活中隐喻无处不在，隐喻一方面反映要认识的世界，另一方面，也发挥了其作为语言形式的作用影响人对世界的认知。本文以概念隐喻以及“人即动物”的隐喻理论为理论基础，从动物谚语的角度，分析了在这样特殊的谚语类型中，是如何把动物的外貌，行为特征以及习性作为始源域，通过跨域映射到作为目标域的人的外貌，行为等方面，从而形成谚语的直接和间接隐喻意义。具体来说，第一部分对文章的总体框架和结构进行了概述，并介绍了涉及到的研究方法；第二部分是对国内外学者关于动物隐喻的研究综述，对不同学者的研究从文化、认知以及文学等角度进行了分类；第三部分是对本文主要的理论基础进行了阐述，其中包括概念隐喻的发展历史，认知隐喻理论以及“宇宙巨链”理论，并详细地介绍了“人即动物”理论的隐喻映射机制；第四部分基于以上述的的理论，从《英语谚语字典》（徐竹生）中，收集的超过200个英语动物谚语作为语料，具体地分析家畜类动物谚语，野生类动物谚语和想象类动物谚语是如何作为始源域，映射到作为目标域的人及其体现的隐喻意义。同时，本文基于对动物谚语的分析，创新地发现不同类型的动物谚语的使用频率大不相同，即使是同类型的动物谚语内部也存在着不同的使用频率。本文尝试从人和动物的自身以及相互关系提出可能产生不同频率的原因。第五部分是对研究结果的总结并陈述了文章的局限性。关键词关键词：关键词：：：认知隐喻；动物隐喻；动物谚语；动物谚语的使用频率ii ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsContentsContentsAbstractinEnglish··········································································································iAbstractinChinese········································································································iiChapter1Introduction..................................................................................................iii1.1ObjectiveoftheThesis.....................................................................................11.2MethodologyandDataCollection....................................................................21.3SignificanceoftheThesis.................................................................................21.4StructureoftheThesis......................................................................................3Chapter2LiteratureReview..........................................................................................42.1PreviousStudiesonAnimalMetaphors..........................................................42.2PreviousStudiesonAnimalProverbs...............................................................7Chapter3TheoreticalFramework.................................................................................93.1MajorViewsofMetaphor.................................................................................93.1.1ClassicalStudiesofMetaphor................................................................93.1.1.1Aristotle’sViewofMetaphor.........................................................93.1.1.2SubstitutionTheorybyQuintilian..............................................113.1.2CognitiveStudiesofMetaphor.............................................................123.1.2.1RichardsandBlack’sViewofMetaphor....................................123.1.2.2TheTheoryofConceptualMetaphor..........................................133.1.2.3LakoffandTurner’sViewofMetaphor......................................143.2CognitiveMechanismof“HumanBeingsAreAnimals”...............................163.2.1TheGreatChainofBeing.....................................................................163.2.2MetaphoricalMapping...........................................................................17Chapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtotheAnimalProverbsinEnglish........214.1Introduction.....................................................................................................214.1.1TheDefinitionoftheProverbs.............................................................214.1.2DataCollection.....................................................................................234.2MetaphoricalStudyofAnimalsProverbs.......................................................234.2.1DomesticAnimalsforMeat..................................................................244.2.2DomesticAnimalsforSafety................................................................314.2.3DomesticAnimalsforTools.................................................................354.3ProverbsofWildAnimals...............................................................................414.3.1WildAnimalsintheWood.....................................................................41 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsContents4.3.2WildAnimalsintheSky........................................................................464.3.3WildAnimalsintheWater.....................................................................484.4ProverbsofImaginedAnimals........................................................................484.5MainFindingsandDiscussion........................................................................504.5.1TheDifferentFrequencyofDifferentAnimalMetaphors....................504.5.2TheReasonsCausetheDifferentFrequency........................................514.5.2.1ReasonsofAnimals.....................................................................524.5.2.2ReasonsofHumanbeings...........................................................54Chapter5Conclusion...................................................................................................565.1MajorFindings................................................................................................565.2LimitationsandSuggestionsfortheFurtherStudy........................................575.2.1Limitations............................................................................................575.2.2SomeSuggestionsfortheFurtherStudy..............................................58Bibliography................................................................................................................59Appendix......................................................................................................................62攻读学位期间取得的研究成果..................................................................................75ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.........................................................................................76 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter1IntroductionChapter1IntroductionInthenaturalhistory,humanbeingsandanimalsarethetwomainpartsoftheworld.Theyhavethecloserelationshipwitheachother.Animalsareourfriends,toolsandfood.What’smore,humanbeingsareevolvedfromtheanimals.Sincetherearemanysimilaritiesbetweenhumanbeingsandanimalsintheappearances,behaviorsandcharacters,manyanimalwordshasbeencreatedwiththemetaphoricalmeanings.AsDegler(1989:13)hassaidthatthereappearstobe“somanyanimalphrasesandexpressionsthatabooklistingthemallwouldbeasmalldictionary”.Animalproverbisatypicalpartamongallofthemetaphoricalanimalwords.Proverbsisnotonlythecrystallizationofhumanwisdom,butalsonationalculturalheritage.TherearenumerousproverbsaboutanimalsinEnglish,forinstance,“Awilyharehasthreeburrows”,“Ifyounotenteratiger’sden,youcan’tgethiscubs”,“Wedon’tkillapigeveryday”andsoon.Themetaphoricalmeaningofanimalsattractslotsofscholars’attentionathomeandabroad.Peoplestudytheanimalproverbsfromthedifferentperspective.Manyresearchersstudyproverbsfromatraditionalway,whichincludestheproverbs’origins,proverbs’culturefactorsorthecontrastivestudyofproverbsbetweenEnglishandChinese.Somescholarshavedoneresearchesfromtheperspectiveofcognitivelinguistics,andputforwardsomeviewsandapproachesonproverbs,butfewofthemhaveeverstudiedthecognitivemechanismofunderstandingproverbs.Therefore,basedontheconceptualmetaphortheoryofLakoffandJohnson,aspecificstudyofthemetaphoricalmeaningoftheanimalproverbsinEnglishiscarriedoutinthispaper.1.1ObjectiveoftheThesisAnimalmetaphorissoubiquitousandpervasiveinpeople’sdailylife.Asaculturalandlinguisticphenomenon,itdeservesadetailedstudy.Besides,therearemanydifferencesandsamenessbetweenhumanbeingsandanimals,withthestudyofanimalproverbs,whichrevealstheculturalmeaningrelatedtoourhumanbeings,wecanknowmoreaboutourselvesandeachother.Moreover,sincethespecificstudyoftheanimalmetaphorsinEnglishcanmakeusabetterunderstandingofEnglishhistoryandculture,whichcanbenefitthecross-culturalcommunication.1 Chapter1IntroductionShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsInall,thethesisisaimedtosolvesuchfollowingproblems:(1)HowthecognitivemetaphorworksinanimalproverbsinEnglish.(2)Towhatextenttheusingfrequencyofdifferentanimalsshowedinthedatacorpus.(3)Whythereexiststhedifferentusingfrequencyofdifferentanimals.1.2MethodologyandDataCollectionThisstudymainlyadoptsqualitativeapproach,whichmeansthestudyismostlytheory-driven.SuchastheconceptualmetaphortheoryproposedbyLakoffandJohnsonandthemetaphorhighlightingpresentedbyKovecses.Meanwhile,thequantitativeapproachisalsoapplied.Thequantitativeapproachmeansdata-driven,intheresearch,enoughdatahasbeencollectedfromthecorpusandtheworkingmechanismofanimalmetaphorsisestablishedbyanalyzing,thethesisisusedthedescriptiveandinterpretivemethodstoexplainthedata.DataofanimalproverbsinthisthesisismainlycollectedfromtheBigDictionaryofEnglishProverbs(XUZhusheng,2003).WhiletheoriginsandotherdescriptivestatementsaboutanimalproverbsareconsultedfromtheOED.Allcorpusforreferenceareauthoritativeandhavewidelyused,sothatthecollecteddatacanbeconvincingandbelievable.Dataweneedarefollowing:First,tocollecttwohundredormoreanimalproverbsfromtheBigDictionaryofEnglishProverbs.Second,tofindhowthecognitivemetaphorworksinanimalproverbsandtheanimalmetaphorseachcontained.Third,tocomparetheusingfrequencyofdifferentanimalsbasedonthecollectedanimalproverbs.Thecollectedanimalproverbshavethemetaphoricalmeaningfortheanalysisofanimalmetaphor,thedataisnotonlydenotedhumanbeings,andit’salsorelatedtootherobjects.1.3SignificanceoftheThesisAnimalproverbsplayanimportantroleinourlife.Fromthisthesis,wecannotonlyknowhowtouseitincertainways,butalsoknowitsorigins.Astotheanimalmetaphor,itisusedineverydaylife.AsLakoffandJohnsonsay“metaphoris2 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter1Introductionpervasiveineverydaylife,notjustinlanguagebutinthoughtandaction.“Ourordinaryconceptualsystem,intermsofwhichweboththinkandact,isfundamentallymetaphoricalinnature”(Lakoff&Johnson,1980:3).Besides,mostofthestudiesarepayattentiontothecross--culturalcommunication,languagetranslationandliteraturemeaningoftheanimalmetaphor,thisthesisisconductedfortheexposingtheinternalmechanismoftheanimalmetaphorbasedonnumerousanimalproverbs.Finally,fewscholarshavedonethestudiesfromtheperspectiveoftheusingfrequencyofdifferentanimals,whattheauthorhavedoneinthisthesiscanberegardedastheusefulreferenceforfuturestudy.1.4StructureoftheThesisThethesisconsistsoffiveparts.Chapteroneisabriefintroductionabouttheobjective,researchmethods,importanceandtheoutlineofthisthesis.Chaptertwoisageneralliteraturereviewaboutthepreviousresearchesonanimalmetaphorandanimalproverb,whichcontainsstudiesathomeandabroad.Chapterthreeisthetheoreticalfoundationrelatedtothisthesis,suchasthedevelopmentofthemetaphortheory,especiallytheconceptualmetaphorputforwardbytheLakoff&JohnsonandthelaterscholarKovecseshasproposedthemetaphoricalhighlightingbasedontheconceptualmetaphor.Chapterfourisadetailedanalysis;theauthorgetstheaccuratedefinitionofanimalproverbsonthedictionary,andthenclassifiesalltheanimalproverbscollectedfromthecorpusintothreeparts.Bycontrastingtheusingfrequencyofdifferentanimalsinanimalproverbs,wecanconcludethattherearesomereasonscausedsuchphenomenon,suchastheculturaleffectsanddifferentlivingenvironment.Chapterfiveistheconclusionofthethesis,whichcontainsthemainfindings,limitationsandsuggestionsforthefuturestudy.3 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter2LiteratureReviewChapter2LiteratureReviewSinceLakoffhadeverproposedtheperspectiveof“HumanbeingsareAnimals”.Somanyresearcherspaytheirattentiontotheanimalmetaphorsaswellastheanimalproverbs.Inthischapter,itwillgiveabriefreviewaboutthepreviousstudiesonthesetwopartsathomeandabroad.2.1PreviousStudiesonAnimalMetaphorsTherearemanyscholarsdodetailedanalysisonanimalmetaphors.Allofthestudiescanbedividedintothefollowingaspects:(1)TogettheculturaldifferencebetweenChinaandEnglishbyanalyzingtheanimalmetaphors.InChina,LiangGuangrong(2000),whohadmadeasystematiccontrastofculturally-loadedanimalwordsbetweenChineseandEnglish.Hecountstheculturally-loadedanimalwordsinthewholeanimalwordsandtheamountofthepolysemousculturally-loadedanimalwords.WhathehadmentionedisthatmanyChineseandEnglishculturally-loadedanimalwordsgetdifferencesinmeaningsduetotheculture,traditionalcustomsandpsychology,whichisdifficultforChinesestudentstounderstandandexpressEnglishwell.MaYan(2008)haselaboratedthefouranimalmetaphorsrelatedtothedenotingmeaningofhumanbeing,tofindtheculturaluniversalitiesandthevariationsinChineseandEnglish.Withthetheoreticalfoundationofthe“theGreatChain”ofmetaphorandtheprincipleofthe“MetaphoricalHighlighting”,XiangChendongandWangMao(2009),whohavehadacontrastivestudyontherepresentativeanimalmetaphorsoccurredinEnglishandChineseTheresultsshowthatthereexistssimilaritiesinanimalmetaphorsbetweenEnglishandChinese,butthereareculturalvarietyshowedinanimalmetaphorexpressions,whichisworthstudying.Inforeigncountries,WhaleyandAntonelly(1983)studythegenderdifferencesexistedinanimalmetaphors.Talebinejad&Dastjerdi(2005)makeathoroughcross-culturalcomparisonbetweenEnglishandPersianon55animalrelatedwordsandfindbothdifferencesandsimilarities.CabanillasandMartinez(2006)discussthedomesticfowlmetaphorsdenotinghumanbeingsinEnglishandintegratethetraditionalreasonsandtheirownviewstoexplainwhytheseanimalwordsareusinglessthanbefore.Theyconcludethatthesemantic4 Chapter2LiteratureReviewShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtschangesareinparticularresponsibleforthis.(2)TogetacognitiveanalysisoftheanimalmetaphorsinChineseandEnglish.QinYunyan(2006)investigatesthereasonsforsimilaritiesanddifferencesofanimalmetaphorsinChineseandEnglish.ShiPeijin(2007)analyzesmetaphoricalmeaningrelatedtotheChineseZodiacandtheexpressionsappliedtomenandwomeninChinese.SuYouling(2008)hasstudiedtheregistermappingofanimalmetaphorsinChineseandEnglish.Inancienttime,peopleusedthebodystructureofanimalstoparalleltheappearanceofhumanbeings.Thatistosay,animalsarethesourcedomain,whilehumanbeingsarethetargetdomain.Withthedevelopmentofhistoryandculture,sourcedomainsbasedonanimalsismappingtootherdomains,likeeconomicdomain,politicsdomainandcolordomain.WangQing,GaoYonggangandGanLu(2011)haveclassifiedtheanimalmetaphorsintoverbalmetaphors,adjectivemetaphorsandmetaphoricalexpressionsrelatedtoanimalorgansbasedonthecognitivetheory.Inabroad,Fontecha&Catalan(2003)comparetwowordpairsofanimalmetaphorsinEnglishandSpanishfromcognitiveperspectiveandgettheresultoftheworsequalitiesmetaphoricallyconnotemoreonfemalesthanmale.WhileAhren(1999)discussedtheanimalsasthesourcedomainreflectsitsdifferentpartstothetargetdomain.(3)Todiscoverthesymbolicmeaningofanimalimagesinnovelsorotherliteraryworks,ortoinvestigatethedifferencesandsimilaritiesofanimalmetaphorsexistinChineseandEnglishaimedathowtotranslateoneanimalwordoranimalphraseinonelanguageintoanotherlanguage.LiQiaohui(2004)investigatesanimalcharacterizationsinThomasHardy’snovels.LangDi(2005)andLiuYingying(2013)conductsthewolfimagesappearedinthenovelLangTuTengandexploresthemetaphoricalmeaningofthisspecialimage.AlotofscholarsstudiestheanimalmetaphorsinLuXun’snovel,suchasYeHeling(2010)hasprobedintotheanimalimagesinLuXun’swork.JinXinlai(2010)andhispaperEntanglementofHumanandBeast---AnimalImagesinLuXun.SongZhenhua(2013)hasstudiedthetranslationstrategiesofanimalmetaphorsinLuXun’sfictionfromthecognitiveperspective.WangYing(2003)comparesanimalmetaphorsinEnglishandChineseidiomsandanalyzedtranslationmethods.LiuTing(2011)explorestheanimalmetaphorsinShuiHuZhuan,comparingthetranslationofanimalmetaphorsfromtwodifferentEnglishversions.JiangJiao(2012)analyzeshowtotranslatethezodiacanimalnamesfromtheperspectiveofmetaphor.DaiNan(2013)studieshowto5 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter2LiteratureReviewtranslateChineseandEnglishanimalmetaphorswiththetheoryofNida’sdynamicequivalencetheoryandexplorestheconnotationsofanimalmetaphorsinEnglishandChinesewiththeframeworkoftheCMT.WhileforeignlearnerAdesolaOlateju(2005)studiesthestylisticandculturalfunctionofanimalmetaphors,hethoughtthatanimalmetaphorscouldmakethepoetrymorebeautiful.(4)Therearesomeotherarticlesrefertothesemanticderogationoftheanimalmetaphors.XinDan(2006),ComparedtheanimalmetaphorsbothinEnglishandChinese,findsthatthereexistsdifferentdegreeofconnotationdependsonthegenderdifference.Ontheonehand,animaltermsrelatedtofemaleshaveworseconnotationthanthosereferredtomales,ontheotherhand,differentanimalsconnotatedifferentdegreeofsemanticderogation.LiuLixiang(2010)analyzestheemotionalsignificancecontainedinanimalmetaphorsinEnglishandChinese,sheconcludesanimalmetaphorsinEnglishandChineseshowsmorenegativemeaningthanthepositivemeaningandthereasonscausedsuchemotionaldifferencearethesubjectivedifferenceoflifestyles,multipledifferencesofanimalfeaturesandpeople’sdifferentfocus,what’smore,theemotionalmeaningsofanimalmetaphorsarechangingallthetime.WeiLixia(2011)comparestheevaluationofthesnakemetaphoricalexpressionsinMandarinChineseandBritishEnglish,theresultshowsthatmostofthesnakeexpressionsinbothlanguagesarenegativeevaluationingeneral.Inabroad,Holmes(1992:332)devotesasectiontotheanalysisofsexisminlanguageandgivesanexampleofthechickenmetaphortoprovehow“animalimageryisoneexamplewheretheimagesofwomenseemconsiderablylesspositivethanthoseformen”.However,studiesinwhichthishypothesisisverifiedarescare,andfrequentlyrelatedtotheanalysisofslang,asistheinvestigationcarriedoutbySutton(1995),inwhichstrongconnectionsaremadebetweenwomenandanimalmetaphorsanddiscriminationtowardsfemales.Andconcerningthesemanticmeaningsofanimal,O’Donnell(1990)studiesthecommonandproductivefigurativemeaningsassignedtoanimalnamesandanimalmetaphorsindifferentlanguages.Summarizedallthearticlesrefertoanimalmetaphorsathomeandabroad,wecanfindthatChinesescholarsmainlyanalyzetheculturaldifferencesandculturalsignificanceinEnglishandChinese.Moreimportantly,theynotonlystudythecognitiveaspectofanimalmetaphors,butalsorefertootheraspects,suchastheperspectiveofliterarymeaningortranslationstrategy.Whileforeignresearchershavegotasystematicanalysisoftheanimalmetaphors,theypaymoreattentiononhowthe6 Chapter2LiteratureReviewShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsdifferentanimalexpressionsdetailthesexdifferenceandthenegativeconnotationappearedonfemales.2.2PreviousStudiesonAnimalProverbsProverbplayaimportantroleinourdailylife,astheresult,itisamainfactorinresearchfield,thesameasthemainpartofthelinguisticperspective.ThereisnoexceptinChina.InChina,researchershavepaidmoreattentionontheproverbsconsistofanimalproverbs.Differentscholarsstudythisaspectfromthedifferentperspective.Somepeoplefocusontheperspectiveofcontrastivelinguistics,somescholarsapplythepragmatictheoriesinanalyzinganimalproverbs,besides,andsomeotherspayattentiontothecognitivelinguisticandthecross-culturalcommunication.Furthermore,studiesonanimalwordsrefertoliteraryandotherscientificfield.ManyscholarshavedonesomeresearchofthecomparablemetaphorsbetweenEnglishandChineseanimalproverbstogenerateanexpressionofculturalgeneralities.Wecangiveanexamplethecognitiveexplanationofculturaldifferenceoridentityaboutanimalmetaphorsfromdifferentlevels.Linguisticformsaredifferentfromonelanguagetoanother.Semanticselectionsvaryacrossseparatelanguagesystems.Onethingyoucanconvenientlysayinalanguagemaynotbesoinanotherlanguage.Thisdifferencemakescross-culturalcommunicationnotaneasyjobtodealwith.Duetothedifferentculturallivingbackground,thereforedifferentanimalimagesareusedbydifferentpersons.Inordertogetaglobalcommunicationintheinternationalstage,ChinesescholarstrytodotheirbesttotranslatethetraditionalChineseintoEnglishorotherlanguagewiththesimpleexplanationandviceversa.Sothatwhenwetalkingabouttranslationoratleastthepragmaticmeaningequivalence,sometranslatorsmanagetheappropriatewaystogainthepragmaticandsemanticequivalenceintwolanguages,inaddition,theydowhattheycantofindoutthecloserelationitexists,whichcanbeusefultodealwiththetraditionalanimalimages.Themetaphoricalmeaningoftheanimalproverbsisapopularwayinstudyofthelinguistic.However,theconceptualmeaningsofsomeanimalproverbsdonotharmonizewiththeirpragmaticimplications.Theycausedifferenttranslationapproachesaccordingtothetranslationrequirement,forinstance,simileplusexplanation,annotation,adaptationandparaphrase.Asthedifferentculturalbackgrounds,therearegeneralandspecificfeaturesofanimalmetaphorswiththeanalyzingtheanimalproverbsinChineseand7 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter2LiteratureReviewEnglish.Sothatitisnecessarytogetaspecificstudyofcultureconnotation.Theculturaldifferencecanberevealedinanimalproverbs.Becauseofthevariedculturaldifference,communicationbetweentwolanguagecommunitiesislimited.Forexample,somescholarsmakecontributionstotheculturalconnotationsofEnglishandChineseanimalproverbsfromtheperspectiveoflexicon,forexample,crocodiletearsorabusybee.(quotedinQIAOTinghui,2012)Forinstance,Somescholarsinteresttheanimalproverbs,animalidiomsandotheranimalexpressionspeopleoftenuseindailylife.Itisreallyaspecialphenomenoninanimalmetaphors.FengXiaohui(2003)isoneoftheresearcherswhoexplorestheanimalproverbsinAComparativeStudyofEnglishandChineseProverbsContainingAnimalandPlantWords,whichstudiesanimalandplantproverbsinarhetoricalandculturallevel,aswellthetranslationofanimalproverbs.StudyonanimalimagesinEnglishandChineseproverbscanalsobefoundinAComparativeStudiesofAnimalImagesinEnglishandChineseproverbs(2005)byWeiLijuanwhocomparedChineseandEnglishproverbsfromtheaspectofanimals.Theauthorclassifiesalltheanimalproverbsinbothlanguagesintothreekinds:image--identicalones;image-differentone;image-blankingone.Healsomentionsthetranslationofanimalimages.DengFeiandZhangJiandong(2011)analyzethedifferencesoftheanimalproverbsinEnglishandChinese,theyhavefoundthatsomeoftheanimalexpressionshavethesamemetaphoricalmeaninginbothculturalnations,whilemostoftheanimalphraseshavethevariedmeaningindifferentlanguages,whichisthereasoncausesthetranslationandleaningdifficulty.SomeotherresearcherscomparetheanimalproverbsinJapaneseandChinese.OneoftheresearchersnamedWangDechunisstudyingtheculturalmeaningsofChineseanimalidioms.Accordingtohisopinions,astheanimalnatureisfamiliarinChineseandEnglish,themeaningsoftheanimalidiomsaresimilartosomeextent.Someresearchesproposetheliteraltranslationtotheseanimalidioms.ZhaoSisi(2012)analyzesthemetaphoricalmappinginChinesewisecracksaboutanimals,Chinesewisecrackscancontainoneanimalimageandsometimesinvolvetwoanimalimages.Itisdifferentinformofexpression,relationshipoflocationandmeaningwhenitappearstwoanimalimagesinonewisecrack.Alloftheseshowthatthereexistssimilaritiesandvarietyinanimalmetaphorsastheresultofthedifferentlivingstyles,environmentandeventhedifferentbeliefs.8 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter3TheoreticalBackgroundChapter3TheoreticalFramework3.1MajorViewsofMetaphorMetaphorscanbeobviouslyfoundinourdailylife.Theyarepervasiveinourliteralororalcommunication.Differenttypesofmetaphorshavebeenusedwhenpeoplearetalking.I.A.Richards,anEnglishphilosopheroncepointedout,metaphoristheomnipresentprincipleoflanguage;wecanmeetametaphoralmostineverythreesentencesinourdailycommunication(Richards,1936).Whenpeopletrytodescribesomeabstractthingsorconcepts,foreasilyunderstanding,metaphorsareservedasactivetoolstohelppeopleunderstandtheoutsideworld.Animalmetaphorisonesubpartofmetaphor.Sothatitisnecessarytohaveaoverviewaboutthedevelopmenthistoryofmetaphoranditsachievementsscholarshavebeenmadeduringthepastdecades.That’swhatthefollowingwilltell.3.1.1ClassicalStudiesofMetaphorSinceAristotle,metaphorhasbeenapopulartopic,whichhascausedphilosophers,evenlinguistsinterests.Asaresearchpoint,itiscontroversialandworthy.Scholarstriedtomakesureitsdefinition,features,workingmechanism,functionsandotheraspects.Andtheoriesaboutmetaphorareabundantinquality.Generallyspeaking,thetraditionallinguistshavestudiedthemetaphorfromtheperspectiveofregardingitasalanguagephenomenonoranornamentoflanguage.Beforethecontemporaryconceptualmetaphorappeared,Aristotle’scomparisontheoryandQuintilian’ssubstitutiontheoryhasbeenviewsasthemainstreamtheoryandagreatnumberoflinguistsstudiedmetaphorsbasedontheirtheoriesforalongtime.Ithasbeenyearsbeforescholarsstudymetaphorsfromtheconceptualaspectandviewitasaconceptualtoolratherthanarhetoricaltool.(quotedinZHANGNi,2012)3.1.1.1Aristotle’sViewofMetaphorAsithasmentionedbeforethatthefirstpersonwhogivesthetheoreticalexplanationofmetaphorisAristotle.Tracedbacktoover2000yearsago,Aristotle9 Chapter3TheoreticalBackgroundShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtssaidthatmetaphorisamatterofwordsinthebookPoeticsandRhetoric.Andhehasdefinedthemetaphoras“metaphoristhetransferenceofanamefromtheobjecttowhichithasanaturalapplication;thistransferencecantakeplacefromgenustogenus,fromspeciestospeciesorbyanalogy”(LiFuyin,2002:66).Andtheconditionoftransferenceistofindoutthesimilaritiesamongdissimilarities,whichmeanssimilarityplaysanactiveroleinthetransference.Aristotlepointsthatthecomparisonorsimilarityexistsintheobjectsbelongtodifferentcategoriesismetaphor,andsimilesshouldberegardedasmetaphorsaswell,for“allsimilesbecomemetaphorswhentheexplanationisomitted.”Heclaimsthatthescopeofmetaphorishuge,fromsayings,thebestimages,proverbstosuccessfulhyperbolesasmetaphors.(quotedinHUANGXiaoping,2011)Aristotlethinksmetaphorisanactivelydecorativeadditiontoordinaryplainwords,andarhetoricaltoolwhichisusedinanytime,anywhereforthespecialeffects.AccordingtoAristotle,metaphorsdonotbelongtonormallanguageandrequiresspecialinterpretationforlistenersandreaders.Withsucharhetoricalsense,heclaimedthatonemarkofgeniusisacommandofmetaphor.What’smore,suchviewhasbeenusedintheliterallanguagetheory.Fromhisview,metaphorissomethingoutsideoftheliterallanguage,andhearerhastounderstanditwiththespecialformofinterpretationfromthespeakers.Aristotle’sviewaboutmetaphorhasbeengreatlyinfluenceinthepasttime.Andwecangetthreefeaturesofmetaphorbasedonhistheory:a.Metaphortakesplaceonlyinnouns;b.Metaphorisdefinedbymetaphor;c.Metaphorisatranspositionofname(Lan:2008).Accordingtothesethreehighlyspecialfeatures,wecaneasilyfoundthatmetaphorisarhetoricaldevice,especiallywhenitappearedinpoetryandliteraryworks.Thus,thebestwaytounderstandthemeaningtransferenceintheprocessofmetaphoricalmappingistodistincttheliteralmeaningandthenon-literalmeaningofthemetaphoricalexpression.AlthoughAristotlehasgivenascientificinterpretationofmetaphors,andthetheoryisreasonableatthattime.Itstillhasitslimitations,suchasmetaphorreferstowordsonly;metaphorismerelyusedinpoetryorliteralworks;metaphorisonlyaspeciallanguagephenomenonanditonlyreferstotheformsofnouns.Thelaterresearchersgetafurtherstudybasedonhistheoreticalefforts.AndthefollowingQuintilianisoneofthemostsignificantscholars.10 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter3TheoreticalBackground3.1.1.2SubstitutionTheorybyQuintilianAfterAristotle,theSubstitutiontheoryofmetaphorhasbeenbroughtupbyaRomanrhetorician,Quintilian.Hisunderstandingofmetaphoris“theartisticalterationofawordorphrasefromitspropermeaningtoanother”.Inhisview,metaphorisakindofthesubstitutionofonewordforanotherandafigurecanhardlychangetheorderandthemeaningofthewords.Thatmeans,metaphorisjustarhetoricaldeviceofusingawordtosubstituteanother.Forinstance,accordingtoQuintilian,themetaphoricalword“Lion”inthesentencelike“Johnisalion”,isobviouslyusedtosubstitute“acourageousman”,asheillustrated:“Itisacomparison,whenIsaythatamanhasdonesomethinglikealion;itisametaphor,whenIsayofamanthatheisalion”.(Quintilian:1953:Ⅷ,vi.8-9)SimilartoAristotle’scomparisontheory,Quintilian’ssubstitutiontheoryplacesmetaphorthesamepositionasarhetoricalusageinlanguagesystem,regardingitasanaccessional,dispensablelanguageornament.Andbothofthesetwotheoriesconsideredtheusingofmetaphorisactuallyanabnormaldeviationfromthenormalfunctionoflanguage(Shu,2001).Inthissense,metaphorhasitsownungrammaticalfeatureinliteralreadingandunderstanding.Itisaspeciallanguagephenomenonwhichshouldbeoutofthelinguisticfields.Togetadeeperunderstandingonmetaphor,we’dbetterapplydifferentgrammaticalandsemanticrulestoexplainit.AristotleandQuintilian’stheorieshavedominatedthemainstreamstudyofmetaphorforalongtime.Thesimilarityexistsbetweenthemismetaphorisinvolvedsimilarity,especiallythesimilarityofwords.LakoffandJohnsonintheirbookPhilosophyintheFlesh:theEmbodiedMindandItsChallengetoWesternThoughtsumupthemaincharactersofthetraditionaltheoryofmetaphoras:1.Metaphorisamatterofwords,notthought.Metaphoroccurswhenawordisappliednottowhatitnormallydesignates,buttosomethingelse.2.Metaphoricallanguageisnotpartofordinaryconventionallanguage.Instead,itisnovelandtypicallyarisesinpoetry,rhetoricalattemptsatpersuasion,andscientificdiscovery.3.Metaphoricallanguageisdeviant.Inmetaphor,wordsarenotusedintheirpropersenses.4.Conventionalmetaphoricalexpressionsinordinaryeverydaylanguageare“deadmetaphors”,thatis,expressionsthatonceweremetaphorical,buthavebecomefrozenintoliteralexpressions.11 Chapter3TheoreticalBackgroundShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArts5.Metaphorsexpresssimilarities.Thatis,therearepreexistingsimilaritiesbetweenwhatwordsnormallydesignateandwhattheydesignatewhentheyareusedmetaphorically.(Lakoff&Johnson,1999:119)3.1.2CognitiveStudiesofMetaphorIthasmentionedbefore,thelimitationofthetraditionalstudyaboutmetaphorislimitedtothefieldofrhetoricaspect.Thus,itisdeficientintherelevantresearchesaboutitsnature,featuresandfunction.RichardsandBlack’sInteractionTheorywillbetouchedinthefollowingpart.Tocertainextent,Richards’interactiontheoryhasbeenarrivedtothenatureofthemetaphorandrealizeditsinteractionfeatureinlanguageusage.Hestressedthat“theomnipresentprincipleoflanguage”ofmetaphor.Andsince1970s,thescopeofthestudyonmetaphorhasextendedfromarhetoricphenomenontoamulti-disciplinarysubject,suchaspsychology,semeiologyandcognitivelinguistics,etc.Manyscholarshadmadetheirprominentcontributionswiththeirremarkabletheoreticalworks,includingU.Eco,P.Ricoeur,J.SearleandG.Lakoff&M.Johnson.3.1.2.1RichardsandBlack’sViewofMetaphorIn1930s,RichardshadpublishedhisremarkableworkThePhilosophyofRhetoric,andproposedhisinteractiontheory.Accordingtohim,“inthesimplestformulation,whenweuseametaphorwehavetwothoughtsofdifferentthingsactivetogetherandsupportedbyasingleword,orphrase,whosemeaningisaresultantoftheirinteraction”(Richards,1936:90).Themainideaofhisinteractiontheoryisviewedthemetaphoricalprocessastheprocessoftheinteractionbetweentwowordsorphrases,whichherefersto“tenor”and“vehicle”,andfinallyreachestoanewmeaning.AccordingtoProfessorHuZhuanglin,Richards’interactiontheoryclaimsthatlanguageisnaturallymetaphoric;metaphoriscomposedoftwoelements:tenorandvehicleandtenorandvehiclehaveground(Hu,2004:38).ActuallyRichardschallengedAristotle’stheoryofmetaphor,abandonedtheomnipresentfeaturethatmetaphorreliesonsimilarityandusedasrhetoricdeviceinspeciallanguagesituation.Heregardedmetaphoras“Notonlyismetaphornotadivergencefromtheordinaryoperationoflanguage,butitistheomnipresentprincipleofallitsfreeaction”(Richards,ibid).Richards’interactiontheorycreatedanewangleforthestudyof12 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter3TheoreticalBackgroundmetaphor.Andaswell,therearestillsomeproblemsaboutmetaphorstillneedsdiscussion.Thecorecontroversialisthegroundofthetwoelementsinmetaphoricalprocess.BasedonRichards’contribution,MaxBlackfurtherdevelopedtheinteractiontheorywithhispropositionofcreationtheoryandfinallymadehisworksleadingaremarkableplace.Heappliestheterms“focus”and“frame”tosubstitute“vehicle”and“tenor”.Andtheinteractionprocess,underhisassumption,happensasthefollowing:theframestaystheoriginalmeaningjustasthetenordoeswhilethefocusisappliedtoreceivemetaphoricalmeaningtheuserdelivered.Metaphorcarriesthetransactionofthemeaningdeliveredbetweenthesetwoparts.Blackclaimsthisinteractionasaprocessofcreationandarguesthatametaphordoesnotexpresssimilarities,butcreatessimilarities(Black,1962).Themajorstandpointssummarizedfrominteractiontheoryarethefollowingthreeaspects:1)everymetaphoricalstatementhastwosubjects,aprincipaloneandasubsidiaryone;2)thesubsidiarysubjectshouldberegardedasasystem;3)themetaphoricalstatementachievesitsmetaphoricalmeaningbymappingasetofassociatedcommonplaceswhichformthesubsidiarysubjectontotheprincipalone.(Shu,2001:3)Inall,bothRichardsandBlackhasmentionedthatmetaphorisaprocessofcreatingnewmeaning,whichisgeneratedfromtheinteractionoftwosubjects.Comparingwiththetraditionaltheoriesofmetaphor,interactiontheorypromotedmetaphorasasemantictopicandadvisedusstudyingitsnature,meaningandfunctionfromthesentencelevel.3.1.2.2TheTheoryofConceptualMetaphorRichardspointedout,thebiggestdeficiencyoftraditionalmetaphoricaltheoriesisthattheyneglecttheessenceofmetaphorisbasicallytheintercourseofthoughts,isthetransactionoflinguisticcontexts(Richards,1936).Withthetimewentby,LakoffandJohnsonstudiedthemetaphorfromtheperspectiveofcognitivepointandhavegotsignificantachievements.InthebookMetaphorsWeLiveBy,LakoffandJohnsonstressedRichards’viewpointthatmetaphorisomnipresentinourlanguageandmind.Theyputforwardthatmetaphorsarepartofcognition,partofthewaypeoplethinkandreason.Metaphorsareintheconceptualsystem.Theirworkssymbolizedtherealbeginningofcognitivemetaphorstudy.Infact,intheprocessofrecognizingandunderstandingthestrangethingsor13 Chapter3TheoreticalBackgroundShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsabstractconcepts,wepossiblytrytoresorttothefamiliarthingsorconcepts.Withthebridgingfunctionheldbymetaphoricalprocess,thereformsthemetaphoricalconceptorconceptualmetaphor.What’smore,theypointoutthatmetaphorcannotonlybefoundinthepoetryorliteralworksbutinourordinary,eventhemostcommonandordinaryofexpressionscanhavemetaphoricalbasisandcanbefurthermetaphorical.Theideaofconceptualmetaphorisahighlyimportantpartintheirtheoreticalresearchofcognitivelinguistics.Basedonthecognitiveapproachtothestudyofmetaphor,theystatedthenatureofmetaphor.Metaphorisnotjustinlanguagebutalsointhoughtandaction.Ourordinaryconceptualsystem,intermsofwhichweboththinkandact,isfundamentallymetaphoricalinnature.Theydefinedmetaphorsasfollowing:“Theessenceofmetaphorisunderstandingandexperiencingonekindofthingintermsofanother”(Lakoff&Johnson,1980:5).Theyhavemademanyspecificandtypicalconceptualmetaphorsasexamples,like:ARGUMENTISWAR;HAPPINESSISUP;SADNESSISDOWN.Thesemetaphoricalexpressionsaresocommonthatwehardlyrealizedtheircognitivenature.Goingthroughthemajorsystematicpointsofviewinthedevelopmentofthecognitivesenseofmetaphor,wecansummarizethatthecorefeaturescognitivemetaphorasfollowing:1.Metaphoristhemainmechanismthroughwhichwecomprehendabstractconceptsandperformabstractreasoning.2.Muchsubjectmatter,fromthemostmundanetothemostabstrusescientifictheoriescanonlybecomprehendedviametaphor.3.Metaphorisfundamentallyconceptual,notlinguistic,innature.4.Metaphoricallanguageisasurfacemanifestationofconceptualmetaphor.5.Metaphorallowsustounderstandarelativelyabstractorinherentlyunstructuredsubjectmatterintermsofamoreconcrete,oratleastamorehighlystructuredsubjectmatter.(Lakoff,1993:202-251)3.1.2.3LakoffandTurner’sViewofMetaphorLakoffandJohnsonhaveproposedtheConceptualMetaphortheory,whichhasprovidedabrand-newideaforthestudyofmetaphor.Actually,GREATCHAINOFBEINGMetaphorTheoryisanextendingbranchdevelopment.LakoffandJohnsondefinedtheessenceofmetaphorisunderstandingandexperiencingonekindofthing14 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter3TheoreticalBackgroundintermsofanother.Actually,thesourceofmetaphoricalconceptscangobeyondtheconfinementofspecificsamplesandextendtomoregeneralclassifiedareas,forexample,fromhumanstoplants,fromhumanstoanimals.Andthat’sthebasisofGREATCHAINOFBEINGMetaphorTheory.InMoreThanCoolReason:AFieldGuidetoPoeticMetaphor,LakoffandTurner(1989)putforwardthatTheGreatChainMetaphorTheoryasaworkingamechanismonanimalproverbunderstanding,whichisanextendedbranchofconceptualmetaphor.AndKovecses(2002:126)pointsoutthat“theGreatChainofBeingisnotametaphorbutsimplyahierarchyofthingsandcorrespondingconceptsthatisstructuredfromthetoptothebottom.Andthissystembecomesametaphoricalsystemwhenaparticularlevelofthechain“(human,animal,etc.)isusedtounderstandanotherlevel.”Krzezowski(1997)proposedthat“ahumanbeingisanimal”(1997:161)isagoodwayforanalyzingmetaphor,andhealsodiscoveredthat“muchofhumanbehaviorseemstobemetaphoricallyunderstoodintermsofanimalbehavior”(Kocecses,2002:124),“Butitisnotonlyhumanbehaviorthatismetaphoricallyunderstoodintermsofanimalbehavior;peoplethemselvesarealsooftendescribedasanimalsofsomekind”.Thus,wehaveconceptualmetaphor“PEOPLEAREANIMALS”(Kovecses,2002:125).“PEOPLEAREANIMALS”isthetypicalexampleofontologicalmetaphor.Inthiskindofmetaphor,peopletreatabstractandvaguethoughts,emotions,events,situation,etcasconcreteandtangibleentity.Inthiswaypeoplecandiscuss,quantizeandidentifyfeaturesandcauses.Inthemetaphor“PEOPLEAREANIMALS”,humanbeingsarethetargetdomain,andanimalisthesourcedomain.Theattributesandcharacteristicsofanimalwillbeprojectedonthecharacteristicsofhumanbeingorhumanbeingwhichproducescognitivemetaphoricalmeaning.Andthisprojectionisnotcomeintobeingarbitrarilybutbasesontheexperienceofhumanbeings.Fromtheancienttime,animalshaveacloserelationshipwiththedevelopmentofhumanbeings.Theyhavebecometheindispensablepartnersofmankind.Withthefrequentandclosecontactwithanimals,peoplehaveunderstoodanimals’vividimages,prominentcharacteristics,uniquebehaviors,whichisendowedontheseriesofattributesofhumanbeings,creatinglotsofvividmetaphor.15 Chapter3TheoreticalBackgroundShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArts3.2CognitiveMechanismof“HumanBeingsAreAnimals”3.2.1TheGreatChainofBeing“ThebasicGreatChain”proposedbyLakoff&Turner(1989)isdefinedbyattributesandbehaviorsarrangedinahierarchy.Thehierarchystructureof“GREATCHAINOFBEING”showsasthefollowing:HUMANS:Higher-orderattributesandbehavior(e.g.,thought;character)ANIMALS:InstinctualattributesandbehaviorPLANTS:BiologicalattributesandbehaviorCOMPLEXOBJECTS:StructuralattributesandfunctionalbehaviorNATURALPHYSICALTHINGS:Naturalphysicalattributesandnaturalphysicalbehavior(Lakoff&Turner1989:172).ThefivelevelsofGREATCHAINOFBEINGhavebeenshowedabove.Whatwecalledthemetaphoricalsystemiswhenpeopletryingtoemploythingsofonelevelofhierarchystructuretounderstandorexplainthingsofanotherlevel,ofcourse,eachlevelitselfisnotmetaphorofthiskind.Thus,themutualmappingdirectionsofanytwolevelsmakepossibilityofcreatingagreatnumberofmetaphors:GREATCHAINOFBEINGmetaphors.Whenmetaphoricalmappingismappedfromthehierarchyofanimalstothehierarchyofhumanbeings,itispossibleforpeopletounderstandhumanbeingswithknowledgeaboutanimals.Also,LakoffandTurner(1989:172)pointoutthattheGreatChainofBeingMetaphoris“atoolofgreatpowerandscope”,and“itallowsustocomprehendgeneralhumancharactertraitsintermsofwell-understandnonhumanattributes;and,conversely,itallowsustocomprehendlesswell-understandaspectsofthenatureofanimalsandobjectsintermsofbetter-understoodhumancharacteristics”.Withrespecttothemetaphoricalmappingfromanimalstohumansinthehierarchystructureofthe“GREATCHAINOFBEING”,itcaneasilybesummarizedthathumanattributesandbehaviorsarenaturallyunderstoodmetaphoricallybyattributesandbehaviorsofanimals.Asthefeatureofmetaphoristousetheconcreteorfamiliarthingstoexplainordescribetheunknownthings.Forgreatlyunderstandinghumanbeingsthemselves,peoplewouldresorttootherobjects,likeanimals,plantstocomprehendthemselvesinametaphoricalway.TherearefourimportantpartsofGCMT:thegeneric-is-specificmetaphor,the16 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter3TheoreticalBackgroundgreat-chain-of-being,thenature-of-thingsandtheconversationalmaximofquantity.Thesefourimportantpartsworktogethertomakepeopleunderstandthefigurativemeaningofproverbs.LakoffandTurner(1989),pointoutthatthegeneric-is-specificmetaphorisamechanismthat“mapsasinglespecific-levelschemaontoanindefinitelylargenumberofparallelspecific-levelschemasthatallhavethesamegeneric-levelstructureasthesource-domainschema”(1989:162).Thatmeansthemetaphor“mapsspecific-levelschemasontothegeneric-levelschemastheycontain”(1989:163).Therefore,thegeneric-levelschemacanbeextractedthroughthe“generic-is–specific”metaphor.Thegreat-chain-of-beingstatesthatthewholethingsintheworldarearrangedhierarchically.Atthetopishumanbeings,theirthoughts,andcharacters,andthebottomareanimals,plantstocomplexobjectsandnaturalphysicalthings.Inthisscale,the“higher”beingsandpropertiesarepriortothe“lower”beingsandproperties.Itispervasiveinnature.Thus,itprovidesawayofunderstandingproverbwhichconcernpeoplebutoftenlooksuperficiallyasifconcernotherthings.Thenature-of-thingsisaconceptaboutdifferentformsofbeings.“Thattheyhaveessencesandthattheseessencesleadtothewaytheybehaveorfunction”(Lakoff&Turner,1989:169).Thismeansthattheessenceofonethingdeterminesitsbehaviororfunction,andessentialattributesleadtoessentialbehaviorandcontingentattributesleadtocontingentbehavior.Andthemaximofquantityrestrictsthemeaningsofproverbs,thuswecouldgettherelevantrequiredinformationintheunderstandingprocessofanimalproverbs.Generallysaying,themaximofquantityplaysaroleasabrakeonthegreatchainandgeneric-is-specificprocess,torestrictthemeaningsthataproverbcouldhave.ThefourpartsoftheGCMTarecombinedtoaffectasource-to-targetmapping.Whenpeoplecanhardlyknowthetopicofthecontext,itisnecessarytoconnecttheproverbwiththesituationbyusingthefourconcepts.However,notallofthesefourconceptsworkintheprocessofunderstandingproverbs.Andinrelevantcontexts,asthereceiversknowthetopicwell,theGCMTmovestoalowerlevelonthegreatchain.3.2.2MetaphoricalMappingWehavementionedabovethattheworkingmechanismofconceptualmetaphoristhemetaphoricalmappingfromthesourcedomaintothetargetdomain.17 Chapter3TheoreticalBackgroundShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsMetaphoricalmappingisthecorepartforunderstanding.However,itisimpossiblethatthewholepartofthesourcedomainismappedontothetargetdomain,forthereasonthatthetargetdomainititselfisanindependentsystem.Inmostofthecases,onlyapartofattributesorfeaturesofthesourcedomainismappedontothetargetone.Mostmetaphoricalmappingshappeninanimalmetaphorsarealsopartial.Mappingselectionisakeyaspectinmetaphoricalmapping.Ithintsthattheobvioussimilarfeaturespeoplewanttoemphasizeareonlypartofthemfromcertainangles.Twoimportantnotionsinmetaphoricalmappingaremetaphoricalhighlightingandmetaphoricalutilization.Kovecsesputsmetaphoricalhighlightingindefinitionas“whenametaphorfocusesononeorsomeaspectsofatargetconcept,wecansaythatithighlightsthatorthoseaspect(s)”andmetaphoricalutilizationsas“anotherpropertyofmetaphoricalmappingisthatspeakerstendtoutilizeonlysomeaspectsofasourcedomaininunderstandingatarget”(2002:80-81).Theydirectlyexplainwhichpartorpartsofthesourcedomainaremappedandwhichpartorpartsofthetargetdomainareinfluencedinmetaphoricalmapping.Withrespecttothis,thefollowingsectionwillshowamoredetailedexplanationofthesetwoconcepts.(quotedinZHANGNi,2012)(1)MetaphoricalhighlightInpracticalapplicationofformingametaphor,peopletendtomakechoicesinselectingandrejectinginformationthatcanbesourcematerialsinmapping.Highlightingmeansthefocusingofoneorsomeaspectsofaconcept,anentity.Incognitivelinguistics,highlightingmeanspeople’scognitiveintentionoffocusingoneorsomeaspectsofaconcept,anentityandanoccasionwithhidingotheraspects.Whenpeoplechoosetostartunderstandingsomethingfromonecertainaspect,thesalientpartofitishighlighted,andtheothersarehiddenfortheirrelevance.Yet,twoentitiesbetweentwodomainsarethoroughlydistinctfromeachother.Theycanbeconnectedjustbecausecertainaspectsorfeaturesaresimilartoeachother.Whenthesimilaritiesoftwoentitieswerehighlightedbymetaphorcreator,itwillattractpeople’scognitiveattention.Thus,intheprocessofmetaphoricalmapping,thesimilaritiesofametaphorisvirtuallythesimilaritiesoftwoentitiesinsourcedomainandtargetdomain;andthesimilaritiesofthesetwoentitiesareactuallythesimilaritiesofoneorsomeaspectsofthem,butnotthewholesystems.Ithasshowedthattherealizationofmetaphoricalconnectionisbasedonsimilaritiesbetweensourcedomainandthetargetdomain.18 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter3TheoreticalBackgroundTheexistingpossibilitiesofsimilaritiesbetweentwoentitiesmakethemetaphoricalhighlightingsuccessfullyworks.Afterobservationorexperiencing,thesimilaraspectshavebeenfoundandappliedintometaphoricalexpression.Wheretherearesimilarities,therearepotentialmetaphorscomeintobeing.Anothercontributingfactormakesmetaphoricalhighlightingworkishumanbeings’cognitivemotivation,thatis,humanbeingsaremotivatedtousesomethingsimilartoexplainanother.Thesetwofactorscanberealizedinmetaphoricalmappingonthebasisofhumanbeing’scognitiveefforts.Thatis,metaphoricalhighlightingisoriginatedfromthecognitiveactivitiesofhumanbeings.Assuchkindoffeature,themappingselectionandmeaninginvolvedeachmetaphorwouldbedifferentfrompersontoperson,fromonespeechcommunitytoanother,andfromoneculturetoanotherculture.Infact,itsfunctionishighlightingthesimilaritiesbetweenthetwodomainsofametaphor,whichmakesmetaphortrue.(2)MetaphoricalUtilizationIthasmentionedthatmetaphoricalhighlightinggenerallyappliestothetargetdomain.Onthecontrary,metaphoricalutilizationreferstothesourcedomain.Forinstance,whenwetalkaboutthemetaphorexpression:ARGUEMENTISABUIDING,we’vegottheframeworkthatargumentneedssolidfact,ifthefactisnotsolidenough,itwillcollapselikethebuilding.Strongargumentissupportedbythegroundwork.Suchkindsofexpressionsarecommonlyusedinourdailylanguage.Wecanseesomeaspectsofbuildingutilizedinthemetaphoricalmappingprocess.Andthestructureandstrengthofabuildingaretypicallyutilized.Theexpressionreferstheargumenttothebuildingwiththewordslikeframeworkandgroundwork;andstrengthwithwordslikesolidandstrong.Itobviouslygetsthefactthatthesourcedomainutilizessomeaspectsofbuilding,whilesomeaspectsarenotutilized.Tobesummarized,thesetwoaspectshavebeencloselyconnected.Metaphoricalhighlightingofthetargetandmetaphoricalutilizationofthesourcearepartialinthesameway.Onlyoneormoreaspectsofthesourcedomaincanbeutilizedoractivatedintheunderstandingofatargetone.However,itshouldbeemphasizedthat“althoughjustoneorafewaspectsofasourceandtargetconceptareutilizedandhighlightedinconceptualmetaphors,theprocessesofutilizationandhighlightingconcerningthoseaspectsworkaccordingtonormalprinciplesofmappings”(Kovecses,2002:82).Thus,thehighlightedandutilizedpropertiesareinvolvedinthemappingprocess19 Chapter3TheoreticalBackgroundShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsofoneormoreaspectsfromsourcedomaintotargetdomain.Andinanimalmetaphor,themetaphoricalmeaningisconstructedbythespecificmappingsystemoccurredfromtheelementsofsourcedomaintothetargetdomain.20 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoAnimalProverbsinEnglishChapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtotheAnimalProverbsinEnglish4.1IntroductionAsweallknow,manyconceptswiththedifferentmeaningscanhasdifferentreferencesindifferentlanguages.Suchasakindoffruit,redcolor,roundsizeandtastesweet,inChineseitiscalled“苹果”，whileitis“apple”inEnglish.Thereisnodoubtthatthesamedifferencesoccursinthedefinitionofproverbs,“谚语”inChinesecanbetranslatedinto“popularsaying”or“proverbs”,theauthorthinksthatthebesttranslationof“谚语”is“proverb”,while“popularsaying”canhaveamorereasonablewordsinChinese,thatis“习语”.SothatitisnecessarytogivetheprofessionaldefinitiontotheproverbsandthedifferentdefinitionofproverbsinEnglishandChinese,aswellasthedatacollectionpresentedinthefollowingsection.4.1.1TheDefinitionoftheProverbsItisreallyhardtodefinetheproverbs.Thedefinitionofthe“proverbs”inChineseismorecomplicatedthaninEnglish,Chineseisasophisticatedlanguage.TheproverbisatypeofChineseidiomaccordingtotheexplanationofLongmanModernEnglishDictionaryshowedabove.TheothertwotypesofChineseidiomarefolkadagesandtwo-partallegoricalsaying.Becauseofthecommonfeaturessharedbyfolkadageandproverb,itisverydifficulttodistinguishthemfortheyaresameinsomecases.ChinesescholarWangYingchuan(1981)saysthatbothproverbsandfolkadagearecreated,polishedandenrichedbytheordinarymasses,aswellascomefromandspreadamongthecommonpeopleandoftenhassometruth.Itreflectsthewisdomandprofoundmeaning.What’smore,itispowerfulandvivid.However,scholarsemphasizemoreonthedifferencebetweenthem.LiHongnian(1983)pointsoutthatonesalientdifferencebetweenthemisthatproverbisreasoningandinstructiveanditisalwaysacompletesentence;while,thefolkadageisdescriptive,mostoffolkadageisnotacompletesentence,instead,itisanobject,anattribute,anadverbialandapredictive,orevenafolkadage.WangYingchuan(1981)developshisideabetweenproverbsandfolkadage,thatis,onthecontrarytothefolk21 Chapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAnimalProverbsinEnglishadage,whichhasnoimmediateperorationandjudgment.Proverbsdescribesomecompleteideaorthoughts,includinginstructivemeaning.Inall,fromtheabovestatement,wecanseethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthetwotypesofChineseidiom.What’smore,wecangetthefeaturesoftheproverbsinChinese.Firstly,itisatypeofChineseIdiomwithafixedform.Secondly,itisusedtoexpresswarning,sententiousandinstructivemeaningbycommonpeople.Thirdly,itisusuallyanindependentsentence.Finally,proverbscomposeofacoupledclausetoformrhymeandparallelism.However,inEnglishAccordingtotheLongmanModernEnglishDictionary(1979:899),proverbisdefinedasthefollowing:“abrieffamiliarmaximoffolkwisdom,usuallycompressedinform,ofteninvolvingaboldimageandfrequentlyajinglethatcatchesthememory”,whileinWebster’sThirdInternationalDictionary(1976:1827),itreadsasfollow:“a.Abriefepigrammaticsayingthatisapopularbyword:anoft-repeatedpithyandingeniouslyturnedmaxim;b.AProfoundororacularmaxim,esp.:atruthcouchedinanobscurelanguage:”,aswelltheOxfordEnglishDictionary(1989:712)statesthattheproverbis“Ashortsayingincommonandrecognizeduse;aconcisesentence,oftenmetaphoricaloralliterativeinform,whichisheldtoexpresssometruthascertainedbyexperienceorobservationandfamiliartoall”.InUnabridgedDictionary(1913),Proverbisdesignatedas“anoldorcommonsayingespecially,asentencewhichbrieflyandforciblyexpressessomepracticaltruth,ortheresultofexperienceandobservation.”whatelse,amongvariousdefinitions,someofthemmaybeconfusingortrivial.Tosomeextent,itseemshelplesstodistinctproverbsfromsetphrases,sayings,maximsandexpressionsalike.Afterall,itisnecessarytodescribenotonlythesimilaritiesbutthedifferencesexistamongthem.(quotedinHUANGXiaoping,2011)Amongallthedefinitiongivenbytheauthorizeddictionary,thedefinitionofproverbgivenbytheLongmanModernEnglishDictionaryisthereasonableone.Itshowsthatthefeaturesoftheproverb.First,itassimpleasitcan,ithasbeencompressedandcontractedaslongasitused,sothatpeoplecaneasilyremember;second,itreferstothethingsclosedtous,aboldimagewearefamiliarto;third,itmustbemeaningful,whichhasbeenamaximandwidelyusedbypeople,andithassomeconnotations,whenpeopleuseittoexpresssomething,itcanbeeneasilyunderstood.Inthefollowingpart,theauthoradoptssuchadefinitiontodefinethemeaningof“proverb”.22 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoAnimalProverbsinEnglish4.1.2DataCollectionAsthedefinitionofproverbs,proverbhasthemetaphoricalmeaninganditisalwaysshowedinanindependentsentence,whichiseasilyforustoanalysis.SincethepaperisacasestudyofanimalmetaphorsinEnglish,manyanimalproverbswhichhasthemetaphoricalmeaningshouldbecollectedasthedata,classifiedandanalyzed.Inordertogetaclearanalysis,alltheanimalproverbsshowedinthispapercanbefoundintheADictionaryofEnglishProverbs(2003),editedbyXUZhusheng.ThefeaturesofthedictionaryisthatmostoftheEnglishproverbscanbetracedfromtheauthorizeddictionariesinwesterncountries,theOxfordDictionaryOfEnglishProverbs(Smith,WilliamGeorge,1982)andADictionaryofProverbsinEnglandintheSixteenthandSeventeenthCenturies(Tilley,MorrisPalmer,1950).Beforetomakesurealltheanimalproverbsarethemetaphoricalexpressions,animalproverbsshouldbecollectedandclassifiedamongthenumerousproverbsofthedictionary.Thenanimalproverbs,whichhavethemetaphoricalmeanings,shouldbechosenastheanimalmetaphorsforthefurtheranalyzing.Untilnow,allthedetaileddatahasbeendone.4.2MetaphoricalStudyofAnimalsProverbsIntheabovechapter,somerelatedtheoriessuchasconceptualmetaphorhavebeenshowed.Inthefollowingchapter,animalproverbsandanimalmetaphorswillbeanalyzedindetail.Asweallknow,alltheanimalexpressionshavethemetaphoricalmeaning,sothatitisnecessarytofindoutalltheanimalproverbsintheproverbspresentedintheabovementioneddictionary.AccordingtoEnglishProverbsDictionary,manyproverbscontainedanimalscanbefoundeasily.Bytheway,alltheexamplesshowedinthepaperareoriginallyquotedfromthedictionary,includingitsformation.Inthisthesis,theauthordividestheexistedanimalproverbsinthedictionaryintothreetypesbasedonthetraditionalviewaboutanimals.Onekindofanimalsisdomesticanimal,whichiskeptbyhumanbeingsforsomespecialpurpose,suchashorseandcattleareusedastools,whilechickenandpigforeating,hiskindofanimalissoimportantthattheyaretheimportantpartofourlifeandkeepcloserelationwithpeople.Anothertypeiswildanimals,comparedwiththedomesticanimals,thistype23 Chapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAnimalProverbsinEnglishofanimalsliveinwild,andtiger,monkeyandmousebelongtothistype.Thoughtheyliveonnature,theycanbefoundinreallife.Thethirdkindofanimalisimaginedanimal,whichiscreatedbypeople.Forinstance,AngelinBibleandanimal-dragonusedinwesterncountry,animalslikethisarenotreal,thatisso-calledimaginedanimals.4.2.1DomesticAnimalsforMeat1.Goose(1)Wheretherearewomen,andgeesetherewantsnonoise.(2)Itisnomorepitytoseeawomanweepthantoseeagoosegobarefoot.(3)Hecannotsaybotoagoose.(4)Goslingleadthegeesetowater,The.Thefirstsentencemeanswheretherearewomenandgoose,therearenoise,thereissomesimilaritiesbetweenwomanandgoose,thatistheyarenoisy,womanlikestalkingaffairstogether,whilegooselikessay“e....e....e.”allthetimes.Inthissentencewomenaregeese,allofthemarenoisy.Thesamemetaphorwomenaregeeseappearsinthesecondsentence,awomanweepandagoosegobarefootarethecommonsenseinourlife,soitisnopityforsuchkindsofphenomenon,thissentenceshowsanothersimilaritybetweenwomanandgoose,weepingisanatureofwomanjustlikegoingbarefootisthegoose’snature.Whilesentence3,goosemeanspersonwithoutanydangerorpersonyoucaneasilybeathim.Themeaningofthesentenceispeoplewhoiscowardlyenoughthatcannotsaynotoageese.Personwithoutanydangerisgeese.Insentence4,goslingisthesonofthegoosewhilethegoslingleadthegeesetodrink,themetaphoricalmeaningistitisfunnytheyoungteachestheold,toexpresstheyoungwhoisover-confidentandarrogant.(5)Hethateatstheking’sgooseshallbechokedwiththefeathers.(6)Hethathasagoosewillgetagoose.(7)Hethatturnsthegooseshouldhavetheneck.(8)Goosecannotgrazeafterhim,A.(9)Everymanthinkshisowngeeseswan.Sentence5to9isproverbswiththemetaphormeaninggoosemeansthings.Sentence5meanspeoplewhoeatstheking’sgeesewillbechokedbythefeathers.Metaphorically,King’sgeeserepresentsallthethingsownbytheking,suchkindofthingsarevaluableandkeptbyguards.Sothesentencecanbeexplainedthatpeople24 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoAnimalProverbsinEnglishwhostealtheking’sthingswillbecaughtintheend.Sentence6meanspeoplewhohasageesewillbegivenageesebyothers.Goosemeansthingspeoplelike.Themetaphoricalmeaningofthesentenceisifsomeonelikesomething,youcansentthatthingtomakehimhappy.Sentence7meanspeoplewhoturnsthegeesecaneatitsneck.Theconnotationispeoplewhodonothingcaneatnothing.Insentence8,goosemeanssmallthing.Themeaningofitisyoucannotgrazegeesebeforepeoplewhoaregreedy,anditusedtodescribepeopleisgreedythatwilltakeeverythingevengeese.Andinsentence9,goosestillmeansthingpeopleown,thesentencemeanspeoplealwaysthinkstheirowngooseisgood,thatispeoplethinkstheirownthingsarebetterthanothers.(10)Foxshouldnotbeofthejuryatagoose’strial,A.(11)Fox,thoughbonded,isabadguardforgeese,A.(12)Whenthefoxpreachesbewarethegeese.(13)Hesetsthefoxtokeepthegeese.Theabovefoursentenceshavethesamemeaning.Themetaphoritcontainedcomesfromtherelationsbetweengooseandfox.Asweallknow,theyareenemiesinnature,foxlivesbyeatinganimalslikegoose.Soallofthemhavethesamemeaningthatpeopleisstupidtoaskthefoxtojudge,guard,orpreachtothegoose,whichmeansitisfooltoasktheenemiesofeachothertostaytogether.What’smore,fromthesentence10to13,wecanseetheobviouschange,sentence10to13,theproverbsarestilljustusedthebehaviorofgooseandfoxtoexpressthemetaphoricalmeaning,whileinsentence13,thiskindofbehaviorhasbeenusedtodescribehumanbeings,whichmeanstheconnotationsofthesentence10to13havebeenrelatedtopeople,thatiswhatwecalled“HumanisAnimal”.2.Pig(1)Castnotpearlsbeforeswine.(2)Worsthogoftengetsthebestpear,The.(3)Learnedpigdidnotlearnitslettersinaday,The.Pigisthefamiliardomesticanimalsinourdailylife,andbecauseofitsownpersonalities--eatingandsleeping,pigalwaysisregardedasthefool,whichhavebeenshowedintheabovethreesentences.Thefirstsentencemeansdon’tcastthepearlsbeforetheswine,becauseitcannotappreciatethevalueofthepearl.Thesecondsentenceistheworstoneofallthepigssometimescangetthemostdeliciouspear.Aswellthethirdsentenceisifthepigisknowledgeable,itmeansthepighasmadeevery25 Chapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAnimalProverbsinEnglishefforttolearnthelettersforalongtime.Allthesentencesshowthemetaphorthefoolisthepig,whichiswhatwecalled“humanbeingsareanimals”.(4)Dirtytroughswillservedirtysow.(5)Hogneverlooksuptohimthatthreshesdowntheacorns,The.(6)Littlepigseatgreatpotatoes.Sentence4to6istheextendedmetaphorsofhumanbeingsareanimals.Insentence4,sowisthefemalepig,themeaningifitisthedirtysowwillliveinthedirtythrough.Thesentencehasbeenusedtodescribepeople,sothatdirtypeoplearesows.Insentence5,thesentenceshowsthebehaviorofthepigs,thepigsknownothingexcepteating,sotheywillneverbethankfultotheirownersorthefoodprovider.Nowthesentencehasbeenusedtodescribethepersonwhoarenotgratefulareequaltothebehaviorofhog.Therefore,theungratefulpersonsarepigs.Insentence6,theliteralmeaningisthepigsaretoolittletoeatthegreatpotatoes,soitisfoolifthelittlepigswanttoeatthewholepotatoes,theconnotationofitispeoplewhoareincompetence,don’tdothedifficultthings,whichwillcausethefailureinsteadofsuccess.Sothemetaphorcanbestatedthattheincompetenceorthegreedypersonisthelittlepig.Abovealltheanimalproverbsofpigarethenegativeaspectsofthepig,sothemetaphorsarenegative.Thefollowingsaretheneutralandpositiveaspectsofpig.Thesameasthemetaphorsitcontained.(7)EveryhoghathitsMartinmas.(8)Fullsowknownotthesqueakoftheemptyone,The.(9)Hehasagoodnosetomakethepoorman’ssow.(10)Wedon’tkillapigeveryday.Thefirsttwosentencesaretheneutralmeanings.Themetaphorsimpliedinthetwosentencesare“humanbeingsarepigs”.“Martinmas”appearsinsentence7isathfestivalholdson11oftheNovemberforCatholicism.Catholicwillkillallthepigsonthisday,sotothepigs,thisdayisthetimeofdeath.Thesentencemeanseveryhoghasitsdeathtime,aswellourhumanbeings.Thereisanexpressionwiththesamemeaningofsentence8,“Littleknowsthefatsowwhattheleandoesmean”.Bothofthetwosentencerefertothefullsowknowsnothingaboutthereasoncausesthesqueakofthehungrypigs.Themetaphoricalmeaningisthefullpeoplecannotunderstandthefeelingsofthehungrypeopleorpeoplewhohassomethinglikemoneyorhealth,cannotunderstandtheperson’sdesireformoneyorhealthorsomethingelse.26 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoAnimalProverbsinEnglishOfcourse,“humanbeingsarepigs”reflectsinthissentence,too.Besides,sentence9to10reflectsthepositiveaspectsofthepig.Insentence9,“make”inthesentencecanbeexplained“be”,sothesentencecanbeliterallyunderstoodthatpersonwhohasagoodnoselookslikethepoorman’ssow.Wecanfindonefeatureofthepig,pigshaveagoodsenseofsmelltothefood.Sothemetaphorcanbeunderstoodpeoplewhohavegoodnosearepigs.Whileinsentence10,anotherfeaturehasshowed,pigisusefulforhumanbeings.Peopleeatpork.Theexcretaofthepigscanbeusedasthemanure.Sothat“killthepigeveryday”isequaltoeatporkeveryday,theconnotationofthesentenceiswecannothaveafeasteveryday.Contrarytoalltheproverbsaboutpigsshowedabove,thisexpressionreflectsthemetaphorthingsareasgoodasthepigs.Inthissentence,agoodtimeorfeastiskillingapig.3.SheepSheeparethecommonanimalswecanseeinourdailylife,sotherearemanyanimalproverbsaboutsheeporgoatsorthelamb.Thefollowingexpressionsareallrelatedtothesheepproverbsanddetailedmetaphorswiththefrequentlyusing,andthefollowingcollectionsaboutsheepproverbscanbeanalyzedfromtheperspectiveofthesentencesrefertothesheepitselfortherelationsbetweenthesheepandthewolf.Andalltheproverbshavethemetaphoricalmeaningofhumanbeingsaresheep.(1)Goodmancannomorethanasheep.(2)Gentleeweissuckedbymanylambs.(3)Itisbettertobeashrewthanasheep.(4)Goatmustbrowsewheresheistied.(5)Leteverysheephangbyhisownshank.Accordingtothewaywehaveanalyzedbefore,theabovefivesentencespresentthegoodaspectsofthesheep.Thatis,thegoodnaturesofthesheepasthesourcedomainhavebeenmappedintothehumanbeings.Itisafactthatsheeparenotaggressiveanymoreandtheyaregentleinnature.Sosentence1to3refersthisaspectofthesheeptohumanbeings.Insentence1,goodmanissheepforthereasonthatgoodmanwillneverbeharmfultoothers.Themetaphor“goodmenaresheep”itcontainedcanobviouslybefound.Andthemeaningofthesentence2isallthelambswillbefullforthegentlenatureofthemothersheep,theconnotationsofitisthewomanisgentleenoughtobecheatedbyothers.Asthewomenwhoaregentlewillbeeasilycheated,itisbettertobeashrewthanagentlewoman,andthatisthemeaningofthesentencethree.Therefore,wecansaythatthemetaphorshowsinthetwo27 Chapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAnimalProverbsinEnglishsentenceisgentlewomenarethegentlesheep.Sentence4referstothebehaviorofthegoat,thegoatalwayseatsthegrassesaroundtheplacesheistied.Whentheexpressionhasbeenregardedastheproverb,themetaphoricalmeaningispeoplehadbetterbearthesehardshipstowhichtheyarebound,eitherbyforceorcompact,andmenaregoat.Insentence5,thelittlesheepneedtostandupbythemselves.Andthemeaningoftheexpressionhasbeenextendedtohumanbeingsastheproverb,thatis,peopleshouldbeself-independentandhavetheabilitytosolvehisownbusinessinsteadofrelyingonothers.(6)Godtempersthewindtotheshornlamb(7)Lazysheepthinksitswoolheavy.(8)Glorioussheepsaidtothegoat,givemesomeofyourwool.(9)Richandignorantaresheepwithgoldenwool.(10)Everylargefamilyhasatleastoneblacksheep.Sentence6tosentence10istheproverbswiththenegativeaspects.Insentence6,itisunluckyforthelambtobefleeced.ItissaidthateventheGodshowshissympathytotheshornlambbythewayoftemperingthewind.Sothatunluckypeoplearetheshornlambs.Onthecontrarytothesentence1tosentence6,whichhasregardedaspectsofsheepasthesourcedomains,sentence7tosentence10ishumanbeingsasthesourcedomainsandmappedintothesheep.Insentence7,theword“lazy”isusedtodescribehumanbeings.Whenitisusedtodescribethesheep,thesheepwillbepersonified.Themeaningofthesentenceisthesheepislazyenoughthatthinkshiswoolisheavy,andthemetaphoristhelazypeoplearethelazysheep.Insentence8,sheeparerichinwool.Itisridiculousfortheglorioussheeptoaskthegoatstogivehimsomewool.Themetaphoristhevauntingpeoplearetheglorioussheep.Themetaphorshowsinsentence9aremoreapparent.Sheepwithgolden-woolarerareandvaluable.Itisapitythattherichareignorant,thesameasthesheepknownothingaboutthevalueofhisowngolden-wool.Sothatpeoplewhoarerichandignorantarethegolden-woolsheep.Insentence10,itissaidthattheblacksheeparethebitingbeastanditrepresentsthedevilintheancienttime.Sothesentencemeansnotallthepeopleinalargefamilyaregoodguys,sothatthebadguysaretheblacksheep.(11)Heissheepinwolf’sclothing.(12)Deathofthewolvesisthesafetyofsheep.(13)Hethatmakeshimselfasheepshallbeeatenbythewolf.28 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoAnimalProverbsinEnglish(14)Twowolvesmayworryonesheep.(15)Lonesheepisindangerofthewolf.Innature,sheeparefedbyhumanbeings,whiletheenemyofthesheepiswolf.Sothattherearelotsofexpressionsrefertotherelationbetweenthesheepandthewolf.Sentence11tosentence15istheproverbsofsuchrelations.Comparedwiththewolf,sheepisweakandgentle.Sentence11meanspeoplewhoisweakorgentleinhisheart,andpretendstobefoxyorstrongwiththewolf’sclothing.Peopleofthiskindare“Wolfwithout,asheepwithin”.Sentence12iseasilyunderstoodthatsheepwillbebenefitfromthedeathofthewolves,forthereasonthattherelationofthemisthenaturalenemy.Whenitisusedtodescribepeopleastheproverbs,themetaphoricalmeaningisthedeathofthebadguysisthesafetyofthehonestmen.Sentence13ismanwhoisasgentleasthesheepwillbeeatenbythewolf,oritcanbeexplainedthatpeoplewhoaretooweakwillhardlysurvivetheworld.Sentence14hastheconnotationthattwobadguysbullytheweakone,justlikethetwowolvesbullythesheep.Whilesentence15meansnotonlythelonesheepisthewolves’food,butaswelltheloneman.Forthispart,wecanseethemetaphorstheweakpeoplearesheepandbadguysarewolves.Sheepcanalsobeusedtometaphorthings.Thefollowingsentencesareofsuchkind.Sheepandcowarevaluableandtheyarethesymbolsoffortuneinancienttime.Sothemetaphormoneyissheepshowinsentences“NowIhaveasheepandacoweverybodybidsmegoodmorrow.”and“Whowantswhomaykeepsheepanotherday.”Thephrasesrelatedtosheepcanalsobethemetaphor.Suchas“Don’tlookforaramwithfivefeet.”Inthissentencethephraseramwithfivefeetmeanssomethingimpossible.Soitisvaintolookfortheramwithfivefeet.Andthemetaphorisimpossibilityisaramwithfivefeet.Anothersentenceis“Hecastsasheep’seyetoher.”Sheep’seyeinthesentencemeansafondeye,theexpressiontypicallyappearsinlovers.Thatisthelover’seyeisthesheep’seye.4.Hen&Chicken&Cock(1)Heisachicken.(2)Cockisboldonhisowndunghill.(3)Twococksinoneyarddonotagree.(4)Blindhenscansometimesfindcorn.(5)Youngcockslovenocoops.Servantandacockmustbekeptbutayear,A.29 Chapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAnimalProverbsinEnglish(7)Heknowshowtocarrythedeadcockhome.(8)Eggscan’tteachthehen.Sentence1to8istheexpressionsaboutthechicken,hensandcocks.Fromsentence1tosentence4arethemetaphorsbasedonthesourcedomainofcocksorhenstothetargetdomainofhumanbeings.Itisafactthatchickenareeasilytobeshocked.Sothatpeoplewhoaretimidcanbecalledchicken.Thatisthemeaningofthesentence1.Aswell,cockisboldonhisowndunghillbecauseofitstimidnature.Sentence2stillhasthemeaningofmanwhoiscowardcanonlybebondinhisownplaces.Anotherfactaboutcocksisthatcomparedwiththehensandtheyoungchicken,cocksarethestrongone.Twocockswillfightwitheachotherfortheirownbenefits.Thesameashumanbeings,twoleaderswillnotbeallowedinoneteam.Sothattheconnotationofsentence3istwocapablepersonswillfightfortheirownbenefitsandthereisonlyoneleaderinoneplace.Themetaphorisstrongmenarecocks.Theexpressionsnsentence4,blindhenscansometimesfindthegreatfoodlikecorn.Theexpressionshavebeenusedtoexpresstheunluckypeopleortheunfortunatescansometimeshavetheirownday,whichmeanstheunfortunatesaretheblindhens.Sentence5showsthattheyoungcocksarekeenonplayingoutsideinsteadofstayingincoopsandtheyoungmenaswell.Then,youngmenareyoungcocks.Asweallknowhenslayeggsforhumanbeings,whilepeoplegetchickenfromcocks.Soayearisenoughforthegrowingofthechicken.Andsentence6saystheservantissimilartothecocks,oneyearisenoughforthemtoleave.Itmeansservantsarecocksinsentence6.Themeaningofsentence7ismanwhoareunderdogcanstilllivewell.Thedetailedmetaphorofitisthelosersarethedeadcocks.Henslayeggs.Soitisridiculoustosaytheeggsteachthehenssomething,whenitisusedtodescribehumanbeings,itmeansitisfunnythattheyoungteachtheeldersomething.Therefore,theelderarethehens.(9)Womenandhensarelostbygadding.(10)Ifthehendoesnotprate,shewillnotlay.(11)Scrapinghenwillgetsomething,thecrouchinghennothing,The.(12)Blackhenlaysawhiteegg.Sentence9tosentence12iscollectedtogetherforalltheseexpressionsreferhenstowomen.Sentence9sayswomenwillbelostthemselvesbywandering,justlikehens,sowomenarehensinsentence9.Thehenslayeggsaftertheyprating,themetaphoricalmeaningisthechatteringhousewifearegoodathouseworkthanthe30 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoAnimalProverbsinEnglishsilencewomen.Thatmeanswomenarehens.Whileinsentence11,itsaysthatthescrapinghenwillgetthefoodwhilethecrouchinghenwillgetnothing.Theconnotationoftheexpressionisonlythelaboriouswomencangetthingstheywantandcanlivebetter.Thelaboriouswomenarethescrapinghens.Andsentence12saysthehenlaysthewhiteeggswithoutconsiderationofhercolor.Whenitismappedintohumanbeings,thoughthewomenareugly,shecanstillhaveanicebaby.Themetaphorcanbeuglywomenareblackhens.Inadditiontothemetaphorhumanbeingsarehens.Cockistheclockintheproverb“Cockisthecountryman’sclock.”basedonthesamefunctiontheyhave.Andinsentences“Thereislittlepeaceinthathousewherethehencrowsandthecockismute.”,“Itisanadhousewherethehencrowslouderthanthecock.”thephrasesrelatedtohenshavethemetaphoricalmeaninginthesetwosentences.Thecrowedhensarethesymbolofadversityaccordingtotheancientsuperstition.Sothatsomethingbadwillhappenwhenthehencrowslouderthanthecock.Wecansaytheadversityisthecrowedhen.Hensarerearedinpens,anditisweirdtoseehenshavethepillows.That’sthesentence“Itisnotcommonforhenstohavepillows.”,andweirdnessisthe“henstohavepillows”.Insentence“Itisbettertohaveahentomorrowthataneggtoday.”asweallknowhenscanlayseggsandeggscanincubatehens.Soifyouwantmoreeggs,you’dbetterkeeponeeggtobethehen.Theexpressiontellsusthatweneedhavealong-termplaninsteadofpayingmoreattentiononthepresent.What’smore,themetaphorsofthebigbenefitsarehens,andthesmallbenefitsareeggsshowedinthisproverb.4.2.2DomesticAnimalsforSafety5.Dog(1)Dogdoesnoteatdog.(2)Barkingdogsdon’tbite.(3)Deaddogbitesnot.(4)Worstdogthatiswagshistail,The.(5)Dogthatfetcheswillcarry,The.(6)Dog’slife,hungerandease,A.Sentences1to6aretheanimalproverbsofdog.Itiswellknownforusthatdogsareourfriends.Sothatiscommontoexpresshumanlifeorbehaviorwithdogproverbs.Thefirstsentencemeansalthoughsometimestheyfightwitheachotherthe31 Chapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAnimalProverbsinEnglishdogsnevereatdogs,thesameasthehumanbeings,sointhissentencehumansaredogs.Thesecondsentencemeansthoughthedogsarebarking,theyarenotfiercealot.Theyjustpretendtomakepeopleafraid.WecansaypeoplewhopretendtobefiercearebarkingdogsThethirdsentenceisthedeaddogwillnotbarkorbiteanymore,theyhavenothreattopeople.Wecanregardpeoplewhoarenotharmfultoothersaredeaddogs.Thefourthsentenceisanothernatureofthedog,thatis,comparedwiththefirstthreesentences,thefourthsentenceistodescribetheoppositenatureofthedogs,theexpressionisthedogwhowaghistailtoyouistheworstdog,fortheyjustwanttomakeyouhappytogetwhattheywant,theyareonpurpose,justlikethepeoplewhohopetogetthingshewantstocatertootherpeoplewithoutanyhonesty.Themetaphoritcontainsispeoplewhocatertoothersarethetail-waggeddogs.Theaboveexpressionscanberegardasthedescriptionsofthedog’snature,whilesentence5andsentence6aretheexpressionsofdog’sbehavior.Sentence5isdogscanfetchandcarrythingstheyhavemetoryouhavegiven.Andthemetaphoricalmeaningofthesentenceisatalebearerwilltelltalesofyou,aswellastoyou,thatis,talebearersaredogs.Inthesentence6,thedog’sonlyresponsibilityistowanderaroundtheneighborhoodtoguardthehouseandthedogs’foodisprovidedbyhumanbeings,thatmeans,thedogshavenochoicetofood.Thatisthecausetothehungerofthedog.Peoplewholoveeaseandhateworkarewanderandhungryallthetime,thesameasthedog.Themetaphoristheindolencepeoplearedogs.Theabovesentencesaretheexpressionstoexpressthedog’snatureandbehavior,withthefurtherstudy,wecanseethepersonalpronounhasbeenusedinthefollowingsentences,whichrepresentsthemetaphorsismoreobviousthattheabove.(7)Everydoghashisday.(8)Womenanddogssetmentogetherbytheears.Insentence7,wecanseethemetaphorunluckypeoplearedogs,theliteralmeaningisthedogwillnotunluckyallthetime,hewillbeluckysomeday,justlikehumanbeings,therearehighandlowinone’slife,butthelifeisfair.Andinsentence8,“bytheears”meansfightwitheachother.Sothemeaningofitisthereasoncausesthemenfightwitheachotherarewomenanddogs,whichmeanswomenarethescourge,dogsareaswell.Actually,themetaphorinthesentenceiswomenaredogs.(9)Calladogadog.(10)Blackdogisonone’sback.(11)Heknowsnotapigfromadog.32 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoAnimalProverbsinEnglish(12)Experienceistheblindman’sdog.(13)Follyisabonnydog.Theliteralmeaningofthesentence9iseasilyunderstand,whiletheconnotationisifsomeonecalladogadog,itmeansheishonestandpractical.Contrarytowhatwehavesaidbefore,inthesefivesentences,dogsinthesentencesdon’trepresenthumanbeings,instead,thingsaredogs.Therefore,insentence9,somethingistrueisdog.Insentence9,wecanseetheusageofdogexpressionshasbeenobviouslyrefertohumanbeingsinthesentence,andthemeaningofthisexpressionissomeoneisunhappyordepressed.Themetaphorof“depressionisblackdog”showedinthissentence.Insentence11,therearetwokindsofanimalsshowedinthissentence-piganddog.Itisacommonsensetherearegreatdifferencesbetweenpiganddog.Sothatifwesayheknowsnotapigfromadog,itmeanssomeoneisilliterateorheisignorant,andinthissentence,weusethemetaphorcommonsenseisdog.Itisclearerforustofindthemetaphorhavebeenusedinsentence12and13.Sentence12isexperienceisusefultoourhumanbeings,justlikethedogtotheblind.Thesentenceshowstheimportanceofthedog.Themetaphorinitisexperienceisdog.Whileinsentence13,follyisabonnydog.Follymeanssinorimmoralconductandbonnymeansattractive.Sotheconnotationissinisasattractiveasadog,whichisequaltothemetaphor:sinisbonnydog.Inall,asweanalyzesomeanimalmetaphorsaboutdogs.Wecanseethathumanbeingsaredogs,thingsaredogs.6.Cat(1)Allcatslovefishbutfeartowettheirpaws.(2)Catlovesfish,butshe’slothtowetherfeet,The.(3)Glovedcatcancatchnomice,The.Inourdailylife,dogsandcatshavebeenregardedasthefriendsofhumanbeings.Peoplefeedthemwellastheirfamilymembers.Therearemanyproverbsaboutcatsaswell.Theabovethreesentenceshasthesameliteralmeaning.Itissaidthatthecatscleanlylicktheirhair,whichisthenatureofthecat.Thefirsttwosentencesaretheexpressionswiththemeaningofthecatslikeeatingfish,whilefeartowettheirclaws.Sentence3showsthenaturesofthecat,catlikesthecleanbodyandcatandmousearetheenemieseachother.Thethirdsentencemeanscatscannotcatchthemicewiththegloves.Theconnotationofthesethreesentencescanbeexplaineditisimpossibleforpeoplewhowanttogetwhathewantswithoutanypains.Themetaphoroftheseispeoplewhogetthingswithoutanyeffortsarecatsorgloved33 Chapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAnimalProverbsinEnglishcats.(4)Beforethecatcanlickherear.(5)Cathasninelives.Ashasmentionedabove,catslikelicktheirbodies,whileitisimpossibletolicktheirear.Sosentence4toexpresssomethingcannotbetruelikescatcannotlickherear.Inthissentence,thephrasesrelatedtocat’sbehaviorhavethemetaphoricalmeaning.Insentence5,itissaidthatcatshasninelives,becausecatscaneasilytolandfromahighplacewithnohurt.Sotheexpressionscanbeusedtodescribethepersonwhoisluckyenoughthatavoiddeathindanger.Thatisthemetaphorpeoplewhoareluckytoavertacatastrophearecats.(6)Catmightydignifiedtillthedogcomeby.(7)Lionarenotterrifiedbycats.(8)Whenaweaselandacatkissandmakeup,thefutureisnotverybright.(9)Catshidetheirclaws.Sentences6tosentence9aretherelationsbetweencatsandotheranimals,comparedwithdogandlion,catsaretheweakones.Sothemetaphor“weakpeoplearecats”existsinthetwosentences,thedogisthestrongone,andthecatistheweakoneinsentence6,whichmeansifthereisnodog,catwillbemorepowerful,thesameasthesentence7,lionisstrongerthancat,solionwillnotfeartocat.Comparedwithsentence6andsentence7,sentence8notonlyreflectsthattheweakpeoplearecats,butthekindpeoplearecats.Weaselhasbeenregardedasthecunningorthebadone,therefore,ifthefoxypersonlikeweaselmakesfriendswiththekindpersonlikethecat,itmustbeonpurposeanddangerous.Sentence9“Catshidetheirclaws.”,beforecatscatchthemice,theywillhidetheirclawstopretendtobefriendly.Later,theconventionalmeaningofthesentenceispeopleneedtohideandtrainthemselvesuntiltheyarestrongenoughtogetsuccessorhidethearmsyouhaveinordertoattacksomeonesuccessfully.Themetaphorispeoplewhocanhidethemselvesarethecats.(10)Catshutsitseyeswhileitstealscream,The.(11)Catmaylookattheking.(12)Helivesunderthesignofthecat’sfoot.(13)Liquorishcathasmanyarap,The.Inadditiontothesentencesrelatedtothenaturesandthebehaviorofthecat,andtherelationsbetweencatandotheranimals.Sentences10tosentence13havethe34 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoAnimalProverbsinEnglishmoreobviouslymetaphoricalmeaning.Sentence10meanswhencatstealsthecream,itwillshutitseyes.Theconnotationofthesentenceispeoplewhodeceivehimselfisthecatshutstheireyes.“Catmaylookattheking”canbetranslatedasthecathastherighttoseetheking,thoughthekingissacred.Themetaphorinthissentenceispeoplewhoaresmallpotatoesarecats.Insentence12,“thesignofthecat’sfoot”referstothecontrolofthewife.Whenitisusedtohumanbeings,itmeansmanwhoisunderthecontrolofthewifeishenpecked,sothatwomenarecatsisshowninthissentence.Andinsentence13,liquorishmeanslustful,themeaningislustfulcatswillbebeatenmore,therefore,peoplewhoarelustfularecats.(14)Catknowswhoselipsshelickswellenough,The.(15)Flattersarecatsthatlickbeforeandscratchedbehind.Thelasttwosentencesrefertocatproverbshavethesamemeaningofcatsknowwhotoflatter,sentence14meanscatslickthemanwhohavefood.Sentence15meansflatterslikecats,lickbeforeandscratchpeoplebehind,especiallythedirectmetaphorexistsinsentence15,thatisflattersarecats.4.2.3DomesticAnimalsforTools7.Cow&bull&cattle&ox(1)Ox,whenheisloose,lickshimselfatpleasure,An.(2)Driveacowtothehallandshewillruntothebyre.(3)Cowthat’sfirstgetup,getsthefirstofthedew,The.Therearedifferencewordstoexpresscattle,bullandoxarethewordsaboutthefemalecattle,andcowisfemalecattle.Thefirstthreesentencesshowedabove,basedonthebehaviorofthecattle.Sentence1isthattheoxisusedtomakefurrowforpeasants,andthesaddleisneededinordertoeasilycontroltheox,oxwillbehappyifheisloosenistheliteralmeaningofthesentence,asanproverb,thesentencehasbeenusedtodescribethemanwhoareunmarriedwillbefreeandhappy,sothemetaphorshowsinsentence1isthesingleistheloosenox.Insentence3,“byre”meanscowshed,accordingtothedictionary,spokewhenpeopleofmeanbreeding,andloweducationdonottaketo,orbecome,amorehonourablestation.Asweallknow,theoxhasabigandstrongbody,andbecauseofsuchakindofbody,theoxlooksmoreclumsythanotheranimals.Thesentencemeanspeoplewhoareloweducationwillbeuncomfortableinanoblerplace,sothatthemetaphoriscommonpeopleorpeoplewithloweducationareoxen.Insentence3,theexpressionscanbe35 Chapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAnimalProverbsinEnglishexplainedthatthecowgettingupearlycangetthedew,themetaphoricalmeaningispeoplewhoarelaboriousarecows.(4)New-borncalvesdon’tfearwolves.(5)Oldoxwillfindashelterforhimself,An.(6)Oldoxmakesastraightfurrow,An.(7)Oldcowwillneveradmitthatshewasonceasillycalf.Sentences4to7aretheexpressionsrefertocalfandoldox.Sentence4hassaidthenew-borncalvesaretooyoungtoknowthecrueltyofthewolves.Peopleknow-nothingarefearless.Sowecansaythemetaphoristheyoungorthegreen-handarenew-borncalves.Onthecontrary,sentence5to7talkabouttheoldcoworoldox.Sentence5andsentence6havethesimilarmeaning,theexplanationofsentence5istheoldoxisexpertenoughtoencounterthequestions,whilesentence6meansoldcowhasexperiencethatcanmakestraightfurrow,comparedwiththefreshman.Themetaphorcontainedinthesetwosentencesistheexperiencedpersonistheoldox.Thelastsentenceshowedaboveisstilltalkabouttheoldcow,however,thissentenceshowsthenegativecharacteroftheoldcow,theexpressionsaysoldcowneveradmitstheirsillypast,aswelltheoldpeople,theoldneversayhowsillyhewas.Themetaphoristheoldpeoplearetheoldcows.(8)Naturedrawsmorethantenoxen.(9)Beautydrawsmorethanoxen.(10)Hetintneveracowthatgrateforaneedle.(11)Hethatwillstealaneggwillstealanox.(12)Hehasanoxonhistongue.(13)Oxistakenbythehornsandamanbythetongue,An.Exceptforthemetaphorhumanbeingsaretheoxen.Sentence8tosentence12aretheexpressionsthathavethemetaphorofoxen.Sentence8andsentence9havethesamestructure.Sentence8showsthepowerofthenature,whilesentence9showsthepowerofthebeauty.Themetaphorithasbeenusedwiththesourcedomainofthenatureoftheox,thatistheoxorthebullaremorestrongandpowerfulthanotheranimals.Sothemetaphorispowerisox.Thesameasthesentence10andsentence11,thesetwoproverbssharethesamemetaphor.Asmentionedbefore,cowhasabigsizeandcomparedwiththeneedleandtheegg,theoxisnotonlyhugebutvaluable.Thatisthemetaphorwhatwesaythevaluablesortheimportantthingsaretheoxen.Thesamemetaphorshowsinthesentence“hehasanoxonhistongue.”Thissentence36 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoAnimalProverbsinEnglishcomesfromtheGreece,theexplanationofitispeoplewilldarenottospeakthetruthorwillnot,becausetheyhavereceivedmoneytoholdtheirpeace.Thelastsentencepresentedaboveisthebodypartofthecowcompareswiththebodypartofpeople.Thehornsofthecowareequaltothetongueofhumanbeings.Thesentencemeanstheweaknessofthecowishiscorn,orthecow’shornsarehisweaknessforpeopletoeasilycatch,thesameasthepeople,peoplesaysomethingwrongthatcausesthesufferings.Thesourcedomainsaretheoxandhishorns,andthetargetdomainsaremenandhistongue.8.Horse(1)Alllayloadonawillinghorse.(2)(2)Everybodylayshisloadonthewillinghorse.(3)Asscarriestheoatsandhorseseatthem.(4)Goodhorsebecomesneverajade.Abovearetheanimalproverbsrefertohorses,horsesarenotonlytheimportanttoolsfortransportation,butalsoareusedtodofarmingforfarmer.Moreimportant,ithasbeenregardedasarmsinwars.Thefeatureofthehorseisitisbiggerandstrongerthanotherdomesticanimals,thesameasitrunsfasterthanothers.Horsescanbedividedintotwotypes,oneisthetamedhorse,whoisfamiliartous.Theotheristhewildhorse,wholivesinnature.Soitiscommonforustoseethemetaphorsabouthorserefertohumanbeings.Sentences1tosentence4aretheexpressionsrelatedtothegoodaspectsofthehorse.Sentence1sayshorsesarealwaysusedforcarryingthingsintheancienttime,thewillinghorseorthegentlehorsewillcarryalltheload.Sentence2hasthesamemeaningasthesentence1,sodoesthemetaphoritcontained,thesentenceshavebeenusedtodescribepeoplewhoaregentleorkindwilldomostofthework,andwillbeaskedtohelpeveryonewithoutanycomplaint.Therefore,thekindpeoplearethewillinghorses.Andinsentence3,themeaningofitisassdothehardwork,whilethehorseenjoythefruits,actuallyhorsesaremoreusefulandvaluable,sothatthehorseshaveahighpositioninourdailylife.Asithasmentionedbeforeassisregardedasthefool,comparedwiththeass,thehorsesareconsideredasthewiseorthecleverpeople.Themetaphoricalmeaningisthefoolworkhardwhilethewiseenjoythefruits.Themetaphorsarethefoolsareasses,andthewisearehorses.Insentence4,thejadeisuselesshorse,thesentenceisthecomparisonbetweenthegoodhorseandthebadhorse,theexpressionmeansthegoodhorsewillbethegoodhorse,andneverwillbeabadhorse.Horsesarenotonlyusedfor37 Chapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAnimalProverbsinEnglishcarrying,butastheimportantarmsinthewar,whenitisusedtoexpressthehumanbeings,itmeansworthyfellowwillnevercoward,notknave.Itiseasilytogeneratethemetaphorworthyfellowsaregoodhorses,whilethejadesarethecoward.(5)Greymareisthebetterhorse,The.(6)Gruntinghorseadagroaningwifeneverfailtheirmaster,A.(7)Oneshallhaveone’smareagain.Thehorsescannotonlybeusedtodescribethemen,butthefemalehorseorthemarecanbeusedtowomen.Theabovethreesentencesarethetypicalexamplesaboutwomen.Sentence5meansthemareswiththegreycolorwillbebetterhorses,whichoriginatedformpeople’sexperience.Whenithasbeenusedastheproverb,itreferstowomanwhoisthemasterinherfamilyandwearsthebreeches.Sothatthemetaphorcanbeconsideredtothemasterwomenlikethegreymare.Insentence6,thesimilaritybetweenthegruntinghorseandthegroaningwifeisthatthegruntinghorsewillneverfailthemaster,aswellasthegroaningwifewillneverlethishusbandbethecuckold.Fromthisreason,thegroaningwomanisthegruntinghorse.Andsentence7,itstillreferstothewoman,themeaningisonecanfindhiswifeagain,theconnotationislovewillmaketheloverstogetherfinally,inthissentence,mareisloverorwife.(8)Oldfriendisamountforablackday,An.(9)Heisagentlehorsethatnevercasthisrider.(10)Best-shodhorsedoesslipsometimes,The.Accordingtothemetaphorhumanbeingsareanimals.Sentences8to10arestilltheanimalproverbswiththemetaphoricalmeaning.Thesethreesentenceshavebeencollectedtoanalyzeforthehorsesrefertothegoodmenorthegoodaspectsofhumanbeings.Therefore,insentence8,mountmeansgoodhorse,thesentencemeansoldfriendareusefulforpeoplewhenpeopleareintrouble.Themetaphormeansoldfriendsaremounts.Sentence9meansthegentlehorsewillnevercasthisrider,theconnotationistheloyalservantwillbeloyaltytohismaster,what’smore,itcanbeexplainedthattheloyalpeoplewillneverbetrayhiscountry.Thatmeanstheloyalpeoplearethegentlehorses.Thereisanotherdescription“Itisagoodhorsethatneverstumbles.”whichhasthesamemeaningasthesentence10,themeaningishorseswiththebestshodwillslipsometimes.Themetaphoricalmeaningiseventhewisestmanwillmakemistakessometimes.Sothatwisemenarebest-shodhorsesorgoodhorses.38 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoAnimalProverbsinEnglish(11)Blindhorseishardiest,The.(12)Heisaweakhorsethatmaynotbearthesaddle.(13)Horsethatwillnotcarryasaddlemusthavenooats.(14)Oratorwithoutjudgmentisahorsewithoutabridle,An.(15)Maninapassionridesawildhorse,A.Thehorsescannotonlybeusedtorefertothegoodmen,butthebadmen,theabovefoursentencesrefertothenegativeaspectsofhumanbeings.Sentence11istheblindhorsesarehardiestorrashest,nowtheexpressionshasbeenusedtorefertotheblindmenarerashestortheblinddarenothing.Sentence12relatedtothehumanbeingswhoareweakenoughtobearnothingwillbetheweakhorsethatcannotbearthesaddle.Sentence13hasthesimilarmeaningwithsentence12,thedifferenceissentence12referstheweakpeopletothehorseswithnosaddle,whilethesentence13refersthelazypeopletothehorseswithoutcarryingthesaddle.Asweallknowthehorsewithnosaddlemeansthehorsesareuseless.Themeaningofthissentenceisthehorseswithoutcarryingasaddlecaneatnothing,whentheexpressionisusedtodescribehumanbeings,itmeansthelazypeopledeservesnothing.Andsentence14showedabovemeanstheoratorsayssomethinguntruthfullikesthehorsewithnobridle.Thelastsentencehasthemeaningofmaninpassionisthewildhorse,forthesimilarityofthemistheyareuncontrollable.Inall,themetaphorsfromthesentence11tosentence15canbesummarizedastheblindaretheblindhorses;theweakpeoplearetheweakhorses;thelazypeoplearethehorsewithnosaddle;theoratorswithoutjudgmentarethehorseswithoutbridle;theangrymenarewildhorses.Exceptforthehumanbeingsarehorses,thingsarehorsesorrelatedtohorses,thefollowingthreesentencesreferthehorsestothedifferentthings.Itisthecommonsensethathorsesareusedfortransportation,horseshavearesteverywherewhenheneeded.Thatis,thereisnomare’snestintheworld,sothatinsentence16,themare’snestmeanssomethinginexistence.Whileinsentence17,theliteralmeaningoftheexpressionisnomatterhowfastthehorseruns,theycannotcatchthewordsonthetongue.Thatis,thewordyouhavesaidlikethepouredwater,whichcannotreturnagain.Theconnotationispeoplewhomakethepromiseneedtotryone’sbesttomakeittrue.Andthemetaphorhereisdozenhorsesissomethingfastlikehighspeed.(16)Don’tlookforthemare’snest,youwillneverfindit.(17)Dozenhorsescan’tovertakethetongue.9.Ass39 Chapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAnimalProverbsinEnglish(1)Heisanassthatbraysagainstanass.(2)Heisanassthathurthimself.(3)Heisanassthatgivesfleshforbones.(4)Heisanassthatcannotmakeuseofhisown.(5)Heisaveryassthatthinkstoliveever.Thispart,thecollectedproverbsareaboutass.Sincetheancienttime,theasshasbeenconsideredasthefool.Sowhenwesaysomeoneisafoolorisfoolish,wewillsayheisanass.Theabovesentences1tosentence5arethesentenceswiththestartof“Heisanassthat.....”Fromsentence1tosentence5,wecanseethevariedfoolishbehaviorlikebrayingagainstanass,hurtinghimself,givingfleshforbones,cannotmakeuseofhisown,thinkingtoliveever.Alltheactionsarefoolishdonebyhumanbeingsortheassesthemselves.Inaword,thefoolsareasses.(6)Letmehavearichhusbandthoughhebeanass.(7)Whenanassclimbsaladderwemayfindwisdominwomen.(8)Miserisanassthatcarriesgoldandeatsthistles,A.(9)Merescholarisamereass.(10)Kingwithoutlearningisbutacrownedass,The.Theassescanalsobeusedtodescribedifferentkindofpeople.Sentence6andsentence7areusedtodescribewomanwiththeassproverbs.Womenwhohopetoberichmarryarichmannomatterheisafoolornot.Theassisthefoolishhusband.Andinsentence7,thereisacomparisonbetweentheassandwoman.Itisimpossibleforanasstoclimbaladder,thesameasthewomanhaswisdomherself.Sothatwomenareasses.Fromsentence8tosentence10,theasshasbeenusedtodescribethemiser,thescholarandtheking.Misersmakeeveryeffortstokeepmoneywithoutusingasfoolastheassescarrythegoldwhileeatthistle;Scholarsknownothingbutknowledgearenobody;Itispitythatthekingsareignorant.Therefore,misersareasses;merescholarsareasses;theignorantkingsareasses.Besides,theassescanbeusedtodescribethingsaswell.Suchas“Devilisanass.”and“Lawisanass,The.”Devilandlawareasses.Thephrasesofassalsohavethemetaphoricalmeanings.Insentence“Disputeabouttheshadowofanass.”,itisfooltodisputesomethingsmall,and“theshadowofanass”meanstrifleorsmallthing;“Didyoueverhearanassplayonaharp?”,itisimpossibletoheartheassplayonaharp,sothatimpossibilityistheassplayonaharp;“Goodservantshouldhavethebackofanass,thetongueofasheep,andthesnoutofaswine.”,thisexpression40 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoAnimalProverbsinEnglishalwaysisusedinourdailylife,asagoodservant,hisbackcanbearthingsasheavyaspossibleliketheass,eatsmallamountoffoodasthesheep,saynothingabouttheaffairsofthemasterastheswine.Therearethreemetaphorsintheproverbs,thatisthemeritsofagoodservant.Hisbackisass’sback;histongueisthesheep’stongueandhissnoutistheswine’ssnout.Aboveall,thedomesticanimalsanditsrelatedanimalproverbshavebeenpresentedandsimplyexplained.Alltheanimalproverbshavebeenusedforalongtime,sothattheyhavethedenotationsorconventionalmeaning.4.3ProverbsofWildAnimalsExceptforthedomesticanimals,somewildanimalsareshowedinanimalproverbs.Theyareclosedtohumanbeingaswell.Inancienttime,beforethebeginningofthehumancivilization,ancientpeoplehuntwildanimalsforfood.Thefollowingarethewildanimalexpressionshavebeenfrequentlyusedastheproverbs.Accordingtothedictionary,bird,crow,cuckold,hare,wolf,fox,lion,ape,bearandelephantarethemostfrequentlyusedamongallthewildanimals.Anditcanbedeeplydividedintotheanimalsintheforestsuchashare,wolf,fox,lion,ape,bearandelephant;animalsinthewatersuchascuckold;andanimalsintheskysuchasbirdandcrow.4.3.1WildAnimalsintheWood1.HareWhenwementionedtothehareortherabbit,wemaythinkofthefamousstoryintheAesop’sFables.Thatisabouttheracebetweenthehareandthetortoise.Thestorytellsusthatthehareissleepingintheracewhenthetortoiseiscrawling,whichcausethesurprisingresultthatthetortoisewinstherace.Sothereistheproverb“Tortoisewinstheracewhilethehareissleeping.”Becauseofthefamousstory,theharehasbeenusedtorefertopeoplewhoareignorant,whilethetortoisereferstothepersistentpersons.Inadditiontothisproverb,therearesomeproverbsbasedonthecharactersorthebehaviorsofhare.Thecharacterthatallthehareshavetheirowncavesshowsin“Findawomanwithoutanexcuse,andfindaharewithoutamouse.”.41 Chapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAnimalProverbsinEnglishExceptforthecharacteritshows,thereisthecomparisonbetweenwomanandhare.Itisanaturethatwomanalwayshasmanyexcusesjustliketheharehasitsownhome.sofromthenatureofthem,wecangetthemetaphorwomanishare.Itissaidthatharestaketheirhomeseriously.Theyliketoliveinoneplaceforalongtime.Sotheproverb“Harealwaysreturnstoherform.”isusedtoexpresspeoplewhoarereluctanttobeawayfromhome.Thebehaviorofhareappearsin“Haresleepswithhiseyesopen.”,thatis,haresleepswithoutclosinghiseyes.Whenitismappedtohumanbeings,itmeanspeoplewhoarediscreetorcautious.Inshort,cautiouspersonishare.Whentheharereferstothings,thereareproverbs“Youmustkissthehare’sfoot,orthecook.”and“Harehascrossedyourway.”Inthefirstexpression,theverbphrase“kissthehare’sfoot”meanstobestarve.Themeaningisyoumustcookoryouwillbehungry.Whileinthesecondsentence,itistheblindfaiththatsomethingbadwillhappenwhenharecrossyourdoor.Sotheconnotationoftheproverbisthereismisfortunebecauseoftheharehascrossedyourway.Misfortuneishare.2.WolfAsitmentionedbefore,therearemanyproverbsrelatedtotherelationsbetweentheenemies.Thetypicalrelationofthiskindisthesheepandthewolf,sothewolfproverbspresentedinthispart.Thenatureofthewolfismappedintohumanbeings.Forexample,thenatureofwolfisthatitwillnevereatothershowsin“onewolfwillnoteatanother.”Aswhatwesaid,wolvesareevilstothesheep.“badguysarewolves”showsin“WolfgoestoRomeandthereleaveshishairsandnothismanners.”,themeaningofitisnothingcanchangethebadnatureofthewolf.Andin“manmustnotmakeawolfhisexecutor.”manshouldn’taskabadguytobehisexecutor.Allthesetwosentencesshowthemetaphorthatbadpeoplearewolves.Notonlytheillnatureofwolfcanbemappedintohumanbeings,badpeoplearemappedtowolvesaswell.Thatisthereasoncausessuchexpressionsas“WolfdoessomethingeveryweekthathindershimfromgoingtochurchonSundays.”Peoplewhodosomanyevilthingswillbeafraidtogotothechurch.Asthebadnatureofwolf,thebadguysarewolfandtheexpressionexpressedlikethefirstsentence.Atlast,wecanseethemetaphor“manisawolf”obviouslyshowsintheproverb“Manisawolftoman.3.FoxFoxistheotherenemyofsheep.Comparedwiththewolf,onlythebadnatureofwolfismappedintohumanbeings.Peopleusedfoxtodescribedifferentnaturesof42 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoAnimalProverbsinEnglishfoxtorefertohumanbeingsexceptforthebadnatureoffox.Insentence“Cunningfoxhasabagofexcuses.”cunningfoxareusedtodescribethecunningperson,orwhatwesaythemetaphorcunningpersonsarefoxes.Insentence“Heisaproudtodthatwillnotscrapehisownhole.”themetaphorhumanbeingsarefoxareobviouslyshowed.Specifically,proudpersonisthefox.Themeaningoftheexpressionispeoplewhoaretooproudtodohisownbusiness.Andinsentence“Todneverspedbetterthanwhenhewenthisownerrand.”itsmeaningisthefoxiskeentohisownbusiness,andtheconnotationofitisthepeoplewhoareselfisharebusyindoingthingsforhimself.Sothemetaphorcanbesummarizedselfishpeoplearefoxes.Aswellasthewolf,foxisbadinnature.Soitisimpossibleforthemtochangetheirnature,thatiswhatwesaytod’sbairnsareilltotame,andinsentence“Youbreedofthetod’sbairns,ifonebegood,allaregood.”,itreferstohumanbeingswhobreedkidswiththeillqualitylikethetod’sbairns,sothekidswithbadnaturearefoxes.Besides,thereisgoodaspectofwolfmappedintohumanbeings.Sentenceslike“Itisgoodtofollowtheoldfox.”“Thereisnosaferwaytofollowthanoftheoldfox.”and“Oldfoxisnoteasilysnared.,theabovethreeexpressionspresentthegoodaspectoffox,thatisthefoxissocleverthathecanhardlybetrapped,especiallytheoldfoxwhohasmoreexperiencethantheyoung.Themetaphoricalmeaningsofthemarepeoplewhoareexperiencedoroldenoughwillnoteasilybetricked.Therefore,themetaphoristheelderisthefox.Alltheproverbspresentedherehavethemetaphoricalmeaningandprovethemetaphor“peoplearefoxes”intheproverb“Leteveryfoxworryaboutitsowntail.”4.LionLionsarethekingsoftheforest,theyarestrongenoughtocatchpreys,fierceenoughtokillpeopleandenergeticenoughtorunfast,oneofthecharacteristicofthelionpresentedin“Everymanisalioninhisowncause.”ishisenergeticandambitious.Themeaningispeoplealwaystrytheirbesttodosomethingforthemselvesandneglectorsacrificeotherperson’sinterest.Justlikethelion,whowillmakeeveryefforttocatchthepreyforfood.Intheseanimalmetaphors,ambitiouspersonwhoisactiveindoinghisownthingsislion.In“Lionsarenotterrifiedbycats.”theproverbshowsanotherfeatureoflion,thatislionisstrongenoughthatisthekingofthewood.Thoughlionandcatbelongtothesameanimaltype,theconnotationofthissentenceisthepowerfuloneswillnotbeafraidoftheweakones.Andthemetaphorcanbeconcludedasthepowerfulpersonorthestrongpersonis43 Chapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAnimalProverbsinEnglishlion.Comparedwiththecats,lionsarestrong,whilecomparedwithfoxes,lionsarenotasfoxyasthefoxes.Lionsarefair-mindedandupright,whichshowsin“Fox’swileswillneverenterintothelion’shead.”Themeaningoftheproverbisthatlionsarefair-mindedandstrongenoughthatwillnotgetthingsbytrippinglikethefoxes.Sothatfoxypersonisfox,anduprightpersonislion.Insentence“Lionsparesthesuppliant.”themeaningcanbeexplainedlionsshowthesympathyonthesuppliant.Themetaphorislenientpeoplearelions.Sothatthemetaphoricalmeaningisthelenientpersonwillnothurtothers,eventhepitifulones.Anotherfeatureofthelionwehavesaidbeforeisitsferocity.In“Lioninthefield,alambinthetown.”,thesentencehasbeenanimalmetaphor,theexpressionreferstohumanbeingswhoarethelionsinthewarfield,whilealambinthetown,whichmeanspersonwhoarefiercetotheenemiesinthewarfield,whilearekindtothefriends.Peoplewhoarefiercearelions,andkindpeoplearesheep.Aboveall,thecharacteristicsofthelionasthesourcedomaintobemappedintotargetdomaintodescribehumanbeings.Inadditiontothese,lioncanbereferredtothings.In“Destroythelionwhileheisyetbutawhelp.”thelionisdangerousfortheprey.Theconnotationisweshouldsolvetheproblemsbeforeitcomestrue,andthelionisthedangerthingordangersituation.Thismetaphorisalsopresentedin“Don’tstickyourheadintothelion’smouth.”thelion’smouthisthedangersituation.Anotheranimalmetaphorweoftenareusedtodescribetheexcellentdoctors,thatis“Goodsurgeonmusthaveaneagle’seye,alion’sheart,andalady’shand.”Surgeon’seyeshouldbeasacuteastheeagle,hisheartshouldbeasboldasthelionandhishandmustbeassmartasthelady.Lionisakindofboldquality.5.Ape&monkeyApeormonkeyisanothercommonwildanimal.Thereareproverbsrelatedtotheseanimals.Thesameasotheranimals,thecharacteristicsorthebehaviorsoftheapearemappedintohumanbeings.Insentence“Highertheapegoesthemoreheshowshistail.”thefeaturesofthemonkeyishisredassandhislongtail.Whentheapeclimbshigher,itismoreobvioustofindhislongtailaswelltheass.Thesentencehasbeenusedtodescribepeoplewhoareinthehigherpositionwillhardlycovertheirweaknesses.Whenitreferstohumanbeings,ithasbeenametaphor.Peoplewhoareinhighpositionareapes.Inancienttime,monkeysarealwaystrainedtoperforminthecircus.Sothereistheexpression“Everymonkeyhashistricks.”Assoonasitreferstopeople,itmeanseveryonehashisownadvantagesorstrongpoints.There44 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoAnimalProverbsinEnglishbehaviorsofhumanbeingshavebeenmappedontotheapes.Suchastheexpressions“Apekillsheryoungwithherkindness.”and“Everyapethinkshispuppythefairest.”Onlytheadultsorthemothersspoiltheirchildrenwhichcausethebadmaninthefuture.Andthesameasthemothersfeeltheirownchildrenarethebestintheworld.However,inthesetwosentences,thesubjectisape,soitstillprovesmotherisanape.Atlast,naughtykidsarejackanapesisshowedinthesentence“Jackanapeswillnevermakeagentleman.”themeaningisapeisnaughtyinnatureandwillneverbegentle.6.BearComparedtheaboveanimals,bear’sproverbsareless.Thefeaturesofbearareitsstrongbodyanditshugepower.Thesetwofeaturesshowin“Hewhoshareshoneywithabearhastheleastpartofit.”,whichhasthemeaningofpeoplewhosharehoneywithbearwillwinnothing.Thebearisthestrongerpersonorthepowerfulone.Andinsentence“Callthebear“uncle”tillyouaresafeacrossthebridge.”itreferstopeopleshouldshowthewhitefeatherbeforethepeopleasstrongasthebearforprotectinghimself.What’smore,becauseofitshugebody,thebearislumpish.Accordingtoit,thereisthesentence“Ifthebearwilllearntodancehemustgotoschoolearly.”Themetaphoricalmeaningispeoplewhoareasclumsyasthebearneedtospendmoretimetolearnthings.Theclumsypeoplearebears.Besides,thereisametaphororiginatedfromancientsaying.Forinstance,inancientEurope,peoplelikewatchingfightingbetweenpeopleandcruelanimalsinthearena.Forthem,theblackbearofArdenisthefiercestoneinthearena.SothatblackbearofArdenreferstotheterroristinthesentence“HeistheblackbearofArden.”Furthermore,thewordsusedinthearenahavebeencalledwordsof“BearGarden”.Therefore,intheexpression“HespeaksBearGarden.”,thewordexpression‘BearGarden’referstotheinelegantspeech.Atlast,Bearmeanspowerinthesentence“Hewouldbindbears.”,andthesentencemeanspersonisverypowerful.7.ElephantTherearesomeproverbsrelatedtoelephant.Elephantisveryhugeandseemspowerful,ontheonehand,inthesentence“Athomeanelephant,abroadacat.”,theexpressionisusedtodescribepersonwhoisthebigfigureastheelephantathome,whileheisasmallfishasthecatabroad.Inanotherword,everymanisakingofhisownfield.Ontheotherhand,inthesentence“Onlyanelephantcancarryanelephantsload.”thebigbodyoftheelephantreferstothegreatpeople,withthemeaningofthegreatmanhashisgreatresponsibilityastheelephanthashisownload.45 Chapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAnimalProverbsinEnglishWhat’smore,giantisanelephantintheexample“Invisiblemicrobecankillagiantandlaylowanelephant.”Anothercharacteristicpresentedinthesentence“Elephantneverforgets.”isthememoryoftheelephant.Thusthesentencereferstopeoplewhoneverforgetareelephants.Finally,thebigbodyoftheelephantcannotonlybeusedtodescribehumanbeings,butthings.Forexample,sentence“Hechangesaflyintoelephant.”showsthemetaphorthattheelephantreferstotheimportantthingscomparedwiththeflymeansthetrifles.Andtheconnotationismanthinksofthesmallproblemsasthebigmatters.4.3.2WildAnimalsintheSky8.BirdBirdsarethemostfrequentlyusedtodescribehumanbeings.Asweallknowthefeaturesofthebirds.Theyfreelyflyinthesky;theyhaveanicethroatandcansingwell;theygetupearlyandeatworms.Therefore,thefeaturesofsuchkindhavebeenmappedtohumanbeings.Wecanseethemetaphorfreebirdsarefreemaninsentence“Betterbeafreebirdthanacaptiveking.”themeaningofitisitisbettertobeafreemanthantobeakingkeptincaptivity.Asthebirdscansingwell,expressionsrelatedtothisfeatureare“Thebirdisknownbyitsnoteandamanbyhistalk.”and“Musiciansaretheparrotsofparadise.”Thereisacomparisonbetweenbirdsandhumanbeingsormusicians,thebirdsareknownbyitssoundandthesameashumanbeings,andmusiciansinlifecanplayandsingaswellastheparrotsintheparrots.Sothathumanbeingsarebirdsandmusiciansarebirds.What’smore,weusetheearlybirdtodescribepeoplewhoarehardworkingorwhoarenotlazy,becausetheygetwhattheywantbyworkinghard,whichisequaltothebirdsgotupearlytofindfood.Sothereisananimalproverb“Earlybirdcatchestheworm.”Anotherproverb“Mendieforgain,birdsperishtogetfood.”birdssometimesaredeadfortheirfood,whilemensometimesdieforwhattheywant.Soitprovesthemetaphorthathumanbeingsarebirdsagain.Thebirdscanbemappedintonotonlyhumanbeings,butthings,inproverb“Modestyisthesweetsong-birdwhichnoopencage-doorcantempttoflight.”modestyisbird,forthesimilarityisthepositiveprosperityofthem,modestyisagoodnatureofhumanbeingsandthebirdthatattemptsnottoflyevenwhenthecageisopen.Notonlymodestybutalsoloyaltycanbeexpressedasthebird,forexample,“Ihavesavedthebirdinmybosom.”Inthisexpression,birdmeanstheconscienceor46 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoAnimalProverbsinEnglishthehonesty.Moreinteresting,becausetheflyingnatureofthebirds,whenpeoplelosttheirwallet,theywillusesuchanexpression“Birdisflown.”tohumorouslyexpressthesamemeaning.Therefore,walletsarebirds.9.CrowAlthoughcrowbelongtothecategoryofbirds,crowproverbsstillbeshowedhereforthefactthattherearesomanyexpressionsrelatedtocrows,whichcannotbeignored.InEnglishcountry,crowexpressionsarefrequentlyusedtodescribehumanbeings.Thespecialtyofcrowisthatitisabirdwithblackcolor.Boththefeatherandthemouthareblack.Sothereisaproverb“Crowisneverwhiterforwashingherselfoften.”Theexpressionitselfmeanstheblackcolorofthecrowcannotbewashedanymore.Thecrowreferstowhorewhenitregardsasanimalmetaphor,andthemetaphoricalmeaningofitisthatitisveryhardforwomenwhoareprostitutestotrytobepurewomenagain,sothatthecrowisthewhore.Becauseoftheblackcolorofcrows,itisraretofindawhitecrowintheworld,andtheluckypeoplearerareaswell.Thiskindofmeaningshowsintheproverb“Luckydogisrarerthanawhitecrow.”Andthemetaphorusedinthisexpressionistheluckypeoplearewhitecrow.Comparewiththeeagle,whoisthekingoftheskyasthelionisthekingoftheforest.Thecrowisweakerthaneagle.Andanotherfeatureofthecrowisiteatsthedeadbody.Connectedwiththesetwocharacters,thereistheexpression“Whentheeagleisdeadthecrowspickouthiseyes.”.Itmeanswhentheeagledead,eventhecrowcaneatitsmeatwithoutanyhesitation.Themetaphoricalmeaningisthatevenasmallpotatocanteasehimwhenheisfailed.Sounimportantpeopleorthesmallpotatoesarethecrow.However,thoughthecrowseatthedeadbody,theynevereatanothercrow’smeat.Insentences“Onecrowneverpullsoutanother’seyes.”and“Crowsaresmartenoughnottopeckouteachother’seyes.”thiskindofcharacterisalsoshowedintohumanbeings,peoplewillnotfightwiththeirfriendsortheircompanions.Inall,humanbeingsarecrows.Sentence“Crowbidsyougoodmorrow.”isusedtorefertopeoplewhoareknave.Sotheknaveisacrow.Aswell,thecrowcanrefertothings.Somecrowphrasesintheproverbscanhavethemetaphoricalmeaning.“Crow’s-footgrowsunderhereye.”isasentencewithphraseofcrow’s-footanditsmeaningisthewrinklegrowsunderthewomen’eyes.Simplythecrow’s-footiswrinkle.Ravenisakindofcrow,itissaidthatthecroakingravensymbolizethemisfortune,sothereistheproverb“Croakingravenbodesmisfortune,The.”47 Chapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAnimalProverbsinEnglish4.3.3WildAnimalsintheWater10.CuckoldCuckoldastheanimallivedinwater.Itisusedtorefertohumanbeings,especiallytorefertohusbandwhohasashamedwife.Therearemanyproverbsaboutcuckoldtoexpresssuchkindsofmeanings.Suchas“Nogreatershametoamanthantoobeacuckold.”,“Betterbeacuckoldandnotknowitthanbenoneandeverybodysayso.”and“Itisbettertobeacoldthanacuckold.”.What’smore,mostofthehusbandswhoarecuckoldsareincowardnatureortookindtobebetrayedbytheirwives.ThiskindofnatureisalsoownedbyChristians.Sentence“CuckoldsareChristians.”showsit.Therefore,themetaphorhusbandsarecuckoldsareexpandedtoChristian,forthatistheChristiansarecuckolds.Besides,insentence“Todayisamantomorrowacuckold.”,“man”representsthegreatman,whilethe“cuckold”initrepresentsthemanofinsignificant.Themetaphoricalmeaningofthesentenceisone’sfutureisunpredictable,todayyouaregreat;youwillbeasmallfishsomeday.Tobesummarized,accordingtothedictionary,therearemanywildanimalproverbs,however,thepaperiscollectedthetoptenwildanimalstoanalyzehowthewildanimalsproverbsareusedtodescribehumanbeingsbasedonthecognitivetheory,what’smore,somewildanimalproverbscannotonlybeusedtodescribehumanbeingsbutthings,charactersandsoon.Besides,thedetailedmetaphorhasbeenstatedaftereveryexample.Inthenextpart,theimaginedanimalshavebeenanalyzed.4.4ProverbsofImaginedAnimalsAswhatwehavedividedbefore,exceptforthedomesticanimalsandthewildanimals,thereisimaginedanimals,aswhatitcalled,thereisn’texistthiskindofanimalsinthereallife,whiletheanimalsarecreatedbyhumanbeings.Thiskindofanimalsistheleastamongthethreetypes.Accordingtothedictionary,ithasbeenfoundthatbeastisthemostgreatlyusedinalltherareanimals.Thusthefollowingexamplesareallrelatedtobeast.(1)Womanisbeast,andthesimilarityofthemisbothofthemareterrifiedbymen.Forexamplethereistheexpressionlike“Heismadthatquarrelswithwomenorbeasts.”Themeaningofitisonlythemadpeoplewillfightwithwomenorbeasts.(2)Ifthemanismadorwithnoreason,hewillbeabeast,48 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoAnimalProverbsinEnglishorwhatwesay,madmenarebeasts.Suchas“Manwithoutreasonisabeastinseason,A.”.(3)Beastisdangerous,whilethereisdifferentdegreebetweenwildbeastsandtamedbeasts.Wildbeastsaredangerousinnature,andtheyattackhumanbeingswithoutanyreasons,comparedwiththewildbeast,tamedbeastsareobedientinfrontofyou,whiletheywillattackyoubehindyou.Forthefeaturesofwhatwehavesaid,wildbeastsareusedtodescribeslanderer,andtamedbeastsrefertoflatterers.Slanderersdefameotherswithouttellingthetruth,andflatterersarecompliantinfrontoftheman,whiledefamehimonhisback.Inshort,slandersarewildbeatsandtamedbeastesareflatterers,thatisthemetaphorpresentedintheproverb“Mostdangerousofwildbeastsisaslanderer;oftameonesaflatterer,The.”(4)Ifpersonisabeastasawhole,multitudeofpeoplejustlikemanyheadsofabeast.Theproverb“Multitudeofpeopleisabeastofmanyheads,A.”showssuchkindofmetaphor.(5)Asthehorribleofthebeast,ithasbeenusedtodescribethekingswhoarecruel,intheproverb“Awfulbeastisabeardedking.”thatis,kingisabeast.Orbeardedkingisworse,andheistheawfulbeast.(6)Whenthebehaviorofhumanbeingsismappedintothebeast,thereistheproverb“Heabeastdoesdiethathasdonenogoodtohiscountry.”,whichmeanspeoplewhoarenogoodtohiscountryordonotdevotehimselftothecountryaredeadasthebeast.(7)What’smore,thereareanimalexpressionsthemselveshavenometaphors.Nevertheless,thesentenceshavebeenhighlyusedastheproverb,ithasthemetaphoricalmeaningaswellhasthehiddenmetaphor.Intheproverb“Wildbeastbecomestimidandtamewhenhemakeslovetohismate,The.”theexpressionitselfisjustadescriptionofthewildbeast,however,asaproverb,themetaphoricalmeaningitcontainedispeople,eventhetemperedpeople,aretimidandtamewhentheystaywiththeirlovers.(8)Anothersentence“Wolfknowswhattheillbeastthinks,The.”itselfisjustthecomparisonbetweenthewolfandtheillbeast.Asweallknow,wolfisbadandcruelinnature,thesameastheillbeast,sothattheyknoweachotherwell.Whenthesentencechangesintotheproverb,itreferstohumanbeingsandhasthemetaphoricalmeaningofthebadguysalwayshavethesamethinkingorthesimilarcunningtricks.Thus,illbeastsarebadguys.Also,thebeastcanbemappedtothings.Beastisacharacter,forexample,inthe“WhogoesabeasttoRomeabeastreturns.”thebeastintheproverbmeansaperson’snature,andsuchnaturecannotbechangedbytheenvironment.Inall,thisparttheimaginedanimal--beasthasbeenanalyzedwiththecognitivemechanism.49 Chapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAnimalProverbsinEnglish4.5MainFindingsandDiscussion4.5.1TheDifferentFrequencyofDifferentAnimalMetaphorsAstheproverbsofdifferentanimalshavebeenanalyzedindetail,severalexamplesofeachanimalhavethedirectmetaphorsshowintheexpressionsorhavetheindirectmetaphorswithitsownconnotations.Becauseofthesimilaritiesbetweenhumanbeingsandanimals,manyanimalproverbshavebeenusedtodescribehumanbeings,toexpresspeople’sfeelings,tostatepeople’sbehaviorsandsoon.Duringtheprocessofcollectingtheanimalproverbs,theauthorfindsthatthereexistsdifferentfrequencyofdifferentanimals.Someanimalsarefrequentlyusedandhavemanyrelatedproverbs,suchasdog,chicken,sheep,foxandwolf,etc.However,someanimalshavelessproverbs,forinstance,animalproverbsofduck,elephant,camelandsoon.Thereissomedifferencesamongthreeanimaltypes.Itisfoundthatproverbsofdomesticanimalsandwild-lifeanimalsareoccupiedthebigpartsofallanimalproverbs.Thevarietyofdomesticanimalsislessthanwild-lifeanimals,buteverydomesticanimalhasmuchmorerelatedproverbsthaneachwildanimal.Onthecontrary,wildanimalsarevariedandeachofthemhasmoreorlessrelatedproverbs.However,thelasttypehasboththeleastvarietyandtheleastrelatedproverbs.Theimaginedanimalsanditsproverbsappearedinthedictionarycanbecounted,beast,dragonandcockatrice.Inordertoprovewhatwehavesaid,theauthorchoosesthedomesticanimals,twowildanimalsandtwoimaginedanimalstogetacomparison.Thefollowingthechart:Geese/goose/gosling64DomesticDuck9animalsWildanimalsLion46Tiger3ImaginedBeast23animalsDragon250 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoAnimalProverbsinEnglishBasedontheentryinthedictionary,geeseandduckarechosenfromthedomesticanimals,lionandtigerfromwildanimalsandbeastanddragonfromtheimaginedanimals.Thereasonchoosesthesetwoanimalsisthat:firstly,geeseandduckarethesametypesindomesticanimals,bothofthesetwoanimalsarefedfortheirmeat.BothLionandtigerarethekingamongallthewild-life.Secondly,comparedwithotherdomesticanimals,thenumberofproverbsrelatedtogeesearemoderate,thesameasthenumberofthelionproverbsinthewildanimals.Thirdly,asithasmentioned,domesticanimalsarenotasvariedasthewildanimals,duckproverbsarecountable.Lionandtigerarethekinginthewood,buttigerproverbsarerareenough.What’smore,thevarietyandthenumberoftheimaginedanimalsarelimited.Fromtheabovechart,ontheonehand,amongthegeese,lionandbeast,thereare64geeseproverbs,46lionproverbsand23beastproverbs.Itisprovedthefactthatdomesticanimalshavemorerelatedproverbsthanwildanimals,orwhatwesayproverbsofdomesticanimalsarethemostfrequentlyused,whileproverbsoftheimaginedanimalsaretheleastused.Ontheotherhand,exceptforthecomparisonamongthethreedifferenttypes,differencesexistbetweenthesametype.Indomesticanimal,contrastthenumberofthesetwoanimalsanditsproverbs.Thenumberofthegeeseproverbsismoderate,whilethenumberoftheduckproverbis9.Inthewildanimals,comparedwiththelion,asthekingofthewood,thereareonly3tigerproverbsinalltheEnglishproverbs.Thesamephenomenonappearsintheimaginedanimals,thenumberofthedragonproverbsisrarerthanthebeast.Therearejust2proverbsofsuchkindanimal.Therefore,thereisnotonlydifferentfrequencyofdifferentanimaltypes,butdifferentanimalsofthesametypestillhavedifferentfrequency.4.5.2TheReasonsCausetheDifferentFrequencyInthispaper,manyproverbsarelistedandithasbeenprovedthatanimalmetaphorsareverypopularandcardinal.Aswehaveanalyzedtheanimalproverbsindetail,thefindingshavebeenstatedbefore,nowsomequestionsgenerateinourmind:Whytherearesomanyanimalproverbsintheproverbs?Andwhythereexistsdifferentfrequencyamongdifferentanimals?Manyresearchershavefoundsomeinfluentialfactorsleadtotheappearanceoftheanimalproverbsoranimalmetaphors,suchas,differentregions,culturaltraditions,localcustoms,minority,literary51 Chapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAnimalProverbsinEnglishmasterpieces,etc.Inall,diverseculturalbackgroundsandnationalcustomsmaygreatlyinfluenceonlanguageexpressionandtheimagesofanimalsreflectthecultureofthenations.Therefore,itisnecessaryforustostudytheanimalproverbsinEnglishforagoodunderstandingoftheEnglishcultureanditslanguage.However,inthischapter,theemphasiswillbegiventotheinfluentialfactorswhichresultinthedifferencefrequencyinEnglishanimalproverbs.4.5.2.1ReasonsofAnimalsProverbshavemanyfeatures,suchasfrequentlyusageandappropriatechoiceofwords,distinctandvividimageswhichleadstoitsliteralandelegantratherthanvulgar,what’smore,theyareexcelinsenseofrhythm.Animalproverbsareaspopularastheimagesofanimalsarevivid,aswellculturally-loadedvocabularyisimportantforustoexpressourideasandgetagreatcommunicationinalanguage.However,thereexiststhedifferentusageofdifferentanimals.Itispresentedabovechapterthattheanimalproverbshasthemetaphoricalmeaningsthatiswhatwecalledanimalmetaphors,andthemetaphortheoryhasbeenusedtoanalyzealltheanimalproverbs.Themaintheoryis“humanbeingsareanimals”.Fromtheanimalsitself,wecanfindtherearesomereasonsfromanimalsitself.(1)Correlationbetweenanimalsandhumanbeing:comparedwiththedomesticanimalsandthewildanimals,wecaneasilyfindouttherearemoreproverbsofeachdomesticanimalsthanofeachwildanimals.Thereisnodoubtthatcomparedwiththewildanimals,domesticanimalshaveacloserrelationwithhumanbeings,domesticanimalsarenecessaryforourdailylife.Peopleraisethemformanyreasons,theyarefamiliartohumanbeings,whilewildanimalsarefedbynature,andtheyliveinnature,inordertokeepsafety,theyalwaysfarawayfromhumanbeings.Sotherearemuchmoredomesticanimalproverbswithlessvarietythanwildones.Andithasbeenprovedabove,intheaboveparts,fifteentypicalproverbsofeachdomesticanimalshavebeenlistedforexamples,whileproverbsofwildanimalsareless.Thatisthereasonwhygeeseproverbsaremorethanduckproverbs,inEnglishcountries,duckarenotcommonandfewofthemfeedduckformeat,whiletheyliketoeatthegoosemeatandgooseliver.What’smore,ashumanbeingsaremorefamiliartodomesticanimalsthanwildanimals,peopleareeasilytoobservethebehaviorofdomesticanimalsorhumanbeingsaremoreaffectedbytheseanimals,andviceversa.Sothatitislikelytofindthesimilaritiesbetweenhumanbeingsanddomesticanimals.For52 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoAnimalProverbsinEnglishinstance,“Twococksinoneyarddonotagree”,toocockswillfightwitheachotherforplaces,rights,oreventhehensinoneyard.Thesameastwofemalepersonswillfightfortheirrightsorotherthingsinonelevel.Thetruthisthatthereiscompetitioneverywhere.Anotherexampleis“Youngcockslovenocoops”,tobeobserved,peoplefindtheyoungercocksliketostayoutside,whiletheoldonesregularlytogotohiscoopsatdusk.Thesimilarityexistsinyoungpeople.Youngpeoplearewillingtogooutside,toseedifferentthings,togettheirownsuccess,whileoldpeoplearemorelikelytostayintheirfamiliarenvironment,dothesamethings,lessambitious.Sothatyoungcocksareusedtodescribeyoungpeople.Therefore,wecanseethecloserrelationwithhumanbeingisoneofthereasonswhythereisdifferentfrequency.(2)DifferentFunctionoftheAnimals:Differentanimalshavedifferentfunctions.Itismoreobviousindomesticanimals.Forhumanbeings,theyraisethedomesticanimalsfortheirdifferentvalues.Forinstance,peoplefeedthemfortransportationlikehorseandass,forfarmworklikecattle,foranimalmeatlikehenorgeese,forhouseorfoodsafetylikedogandcatandsoon.Theirfunctionsareshowedintheproverbsaswell.Forexample,“Alllayloadonawillinghorse.”thehorseareusedforloadinglays;“Oldoxmakesastraightfurrow,An.”,oxenareusedformakingfurrow;“Cockisthecountryman’sclock.”inhissentence,cockhasthefunctionofclock,foritsingsatdown.Whilewildanimalsarehardlytohuntandtamefortheystayintheforest,andseveralwildanimalsaresofiercethattheyareterrifiedbyhumanbeings,suchaslion.Onlysomeofthewildanimalsarehuntedforfood.Inall,domesticanimalsaremoreusefulforusthanwildanimals.Sothatfromtheaspectsoffunction,domesticanimalshasmorerelatedproverbsthanwildanimals.(3)Thejudgmentfromtheart:thisaspecthasbeenareasonresultinthedifferentfrequencybasedonthedevelopmentofthehistoryandculture,withtheevolutionofhumanbeings,people’sviewfromthesurvivalofthefittestinnaturalselectiontohumanbeingsareharmonywiththenature,orevennow,humanbeingsshouldprotecttheenvironmentforwildanimalsorthenextgeneration.Animalshasahighpositionthanbefore,theyhavechangedfromthehumanbeings’toolstohumanbeings’friendsoreventhefamilymembers.Andthefactthatdomesticanimalsaremoreeasilytobethefriendsofhumanbeingsthanwildanimals,dogs,catsandevensomekindsofpigshavebeenregardedaspets.Forexample,thefunctionsofdogsandcatshavechangedfromkeepingsafetytobeingthefriendsofhumanbeings.Peopleraisethedogsandcatsaspets.“Dogsareourfriends”hasbeenthecommonsense.Whenitreflectsto53 Chapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAnimalProverbsinEnglishtheproverbs,wecanseetherearemoredogproverbsandcatproverbsthanotherdomesticanimals.Thus,fortheartjudgment,animals,especiallythedomesticanimalsaremoredocile,lovelyandeasilytogetonwellwiththem.Itispossibleforhumanbeingstomorefrequentlychoosetheseanimalsexpressionstoexpressthanotheranimals’anditcausestheseanimalproverbsaremoreusedasanimalproverbs.Furthermore,dogsandcatsarethemost.Ofcourse,thiskindofreasoncanbeexplainedthatthedifferentfrequencyexistsinwildanimals,comparedwithotherwildanimals,hares,birdsandcuckoldshavemoreproverbsthanotheranimalproverbs.4.5.2.2ReasonsofHumanbeingsFromtheabove,wediscussedthepossiblereasonsfromtheanimals,thispart,wetrytofindsomereasonsfromthehumanbeings.(1)Sexualdifference:Sincetheancienttime,therearediscriminationinallthecountries,likeracediscrimination,classdiscriminationandsexualdiscrimination.Inthesethreekindsofdiscrimination,sexualdifferenceisthemostcommoninourlife.Thereisnodoubtthatsuchkindofphenomenonshowedintheproverbs.Accordingtothesexualdifference,inalltheanimalproverbs,mostoftheproverbsareusedbymenortodescribemen.Thetypicalexampleiscuckold,allthecuckoldanimalsareusedtodescribehusbandwhosewivesareslats.Forexample,“Nogreatershametoamanthantoobeacuckold.”;“Itisbettertobeacoldthanacuckold.”;“Betterbeacuckoldandnotknowitthanbenoneandeverybodysayso.”Sothatthoughtherearemanycuckoldproverbsinallanimalsproverbs,whileitcanonlybeusedtodescribehusbandwhoarebetrayedbyhiswife.Thatistosay,themetaphoricalmeaningsofcuckoldproverbsarenotasvividasotheranimalsanditsproverbs.Exceptforthesexualdifference,sexualdiscriminationshouldnotbeneglected.Overviewalltheanimalproverbs,therearelessanimalproverbsforwomen.Mostoftheanimalproverbsaboutwomenarederogatory.Suchasthesentence:“Whenanassclimbsaladderwemayfindwisdominwomen.”;“Letmehavearichhusbandthoughhebeanass.”;“Womenanddogssetmentogetherbytheears.”;“Wheretherearewomen,andgeesetherewantsnonoise.”.Fromthisaspect,wecansayifthereisnodifferencebetweenmanandwoman,theremayexistsmoreanimalproverbsaboutwomen,whichwillexpandthenumberoftheanimalproverbsaswell.(2)Statusidentity:humanbeingshavedifferentimpressionsfordifferentanimals.54 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter4AnalysisoftheMetaphorRelatedtoAnimalProverbsinEnglishWhichkindsofanimalaremorefamiliar,theywillmorelikelytobeusedtodescribehumanbeings.Thecloserrelationbetweenhumanbeingsandanimals,themoresimilaritiestheyhave,whichcaneasilygetthesenseofstatusidentityfromhumanbeings.Thisreasoncanalsobeexplainedwhydomesticanimalsaremorefrequentlyused.Besides,amongmorefamiliaranimals,peoplehavematchedthevariedidenticalnaturestoman’spersonalitiesbasedonthestatusidentity.Forinstance,asthehugesizeofthebear,lionandelephant.Thesethreeanimalsarethesymbolofstrongpeopleorgreatthings,suchas“Lionsarenotterrifiedbycats.”;“Onlyanelephantcancarryanelephantsload.”Andforthecomparisonbetweenbearandlion,lionisthekingofalltheanimals,itismorepowerfulthanotheranimals,sothatpeopleareoftenusedliontodescribethestrongandthegreatman.However,whenpeoplewhoarecunningorgoodattricksaredescribedasthewolfandfoxfortheirfoxynature,whichshowsinthesentences:“Cunningfoxhasabagofexcuses.”;“Youbreedofthetod’sbairns,ifonebegood,allaregood.”;“WolfgoestoRomeandthereleaveshishairsandnothismanners.”Tosumup,inthispart,theauthorhasdiscussedthereasonscausedthedifferentfrequencyofdifferentanimalsanditsproverbsquantities.Thereasonshavebeendividedintotwoparts,oneisfromtheanimals,andtheotherisfromthehumanbeings.Fortheanimalpart,thedifferencesdependontherelationsbetweenanimalandhumanbeings,thevariedfunctionofdifferentanimalsandtheiraestheticjudgment.Ontheotherhand,fromtheperspectiveofhumanbeings,thereexistssexualdifferenceandstatusidentity.Ofcourse,theabovereasonsarethepossiblemainreasons,theremustexistotherpossiblereasonswhichhavenotbeenpresentedinthispaper.55 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter5ConclusionChapter5Conclusion5.1MajorFindingsProverbsareculturaltreasureinthelanguagefield.Andthereexiststheoverlappingaspectsbetweenproverbsandlanguage,whichisthebasisofthecross-culturalcommunication.Actually,theproverbsarethedevelopmentofourdailylanguage,fortheyareoriginatedandaccumulatedfromtheordinarylanguage.Oneofitscharactersisproductivewithtimewentby.Sothatwecansaymostproverbshaveitsculturalmeaning.Intheinterculturalandcross-culturalcommunication,hisownculturalawarenesswillbeimprovedbyhisknowledgeandtheemploymentofproverbs.ThepapertalksabouttheanimalimagesinEnglishproverbs.Sincethatanimalimagesreflectcertaincharacteristicsofgeography,religion,literatureandpsychology,whichshouldbethevaluabletreasureofthelanguageandculture.ThepaperhasanalyzedanimalmetaphoraboutEnglishproverbsbasedontheperspectiveofconceptualmetaphor,scholarshasfoundoutthatmetaphorisacognitiveactivityratherthanjustarhetoricaldeviceorafigurativespeechthatexpressespeople’simagination.Metaphorispervasiveinoureverydaylifeandhelpshumanbeingstogetaneasilyunderstandingofourthought,cultureandtheoutsideworld.Theauthorfoundthatallproverbsaremetaphorswhilesomeofthemarehavetheliteralmeaningandextensionmeaningwiththeworkingmechanismofsemanticextension.Theconceptualmetaphortheorypaysmoreattentionontheconstitutionofanimalwords,whichhasmetaphoricalmeanings.Then,thekeyfeatureofanimalproverbsismetaphorization.Itisthemetaphorizationthatmakestheseproverbsbeactivelyacceptedbypeopleandinfluencepeopleincognitivethinking.Besidesthese,animalproverbisoneimportantbranchoflanguageandculture.Andalsowiththeaspectstothestudiesofdifferentfrequencyindifferentanimalproverbs,ithasdiscoveredthatthiskindofdifferentfrequencyauthenticallyrepresentsreasonsinsuchaspectsasthecloserelationsbetweenanimalsandhumanbeings,thefunctionoftheanimalstothehumanbeings,andthejudgmentoftheart;whilefromtheperspectiveofhumanbeings,thereasoncanbestatedasthesexualdifferenceandthestatusidentity.Inshort,proverbscontainingtheanimalsauthenticallyrepresentcultureandthereasonscausedthedifferentusingfrequencycanbevaried.56 Chapter5ConclusionShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsInaword,thisresearchofanimalproverbinEnglishhasenlargedtheunderstandingofmetaphors:theworkingmechanismofanimalmetaphorsisbasedonthesimilaritiesbetweenhumanbeingsandanimal.Accordingtothemetaphoricalmappingandthetheoryof“HUMANBEINGISANIMAL”,animalsasthesourcedomain,whilehumanbeingsasthetargetdomain.Oneormoreaspectsofanimalscanbemappedontooneaspectofhumanbeing,whichresultsinthedifferentconnotativemeaningofoneanimal.Yetitshouldbementionedthefactthatsomeanimalproverbscannotonlyreflecthumanbeingsbutthings.5.2LimitationsandSuggestionsfortheFurtherStudy5.2.1LimitationsAlthoughanimalproverbshavebeenanalyzedfromtheviewpointofconceptualmetaphor,somelimitationsofthisresearchhavebeenlisted.First,sincetheproverbsmentionedinthepaperarecollectedfromoneortworemarkabledictionary,therearestillsomeproverbsarenotincluded.Thus,thedatacollectedhereisjustenoughforthispaper.Besides,asthesaying“thereisnothesameriverintheworld”,thereisnothesamedictionaryinthelibrary.Andlanguageslikeproverbscanhavethesamemeaningwithvariedexpressions.Withtherespecttothis,somesimilarexpressionshavebeenregardedasone.Second,duetothelimitationoftimeandthespaceofthethesisand,thereexistslimitationsofthestudy.OnlythecognitiveprocessesofanimalproverbsareexploredinEnglish:andtheotherperspectivesofEnglishproverbsarenotcompared.Andonlytheanimalswiththeproductiveproverbshavebeenexplained.Manyotheranimalswithlessproverbswhilecanbefoundinthedictionaryareoutofthisresearch.Third,becauseofthevarietyofproverbs,andproverbscanbeanalyzednotonlyonconceptualmetaphor,butalsocanbeanalyzedonthetheoryofmetonymy,andotherspeechoffigure.Allinall,thefindingsshowedabovearevaluableandcansupportafurtherstudy,atleasttheexampleshowedinthepapercanbecitedforreference.Besidesthelimitationsofthestudy,thereisstillmuchspaceforthefurtherstudy.57 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsChapter5Conclusion5.2.2SomeSuggestionsfortheFurtherStudySomesuggestionispresentedhereforthedeeperstudy.Ontheonehand,thescopeofthestudiesofanimalmetaphorsinproverbscanbeextended.Becauseofthevarietyofanimalsinnature,studiesonotheranimalsarevaluableandcanenrichthecorpus.Ontheotherhand,thedepthofthestudiesofanimalmetaphorsinproverbscouldbefurther.Metonymy,conceptualblendingcouldbeusedtotheanalysisofmorecomplicatedproverbs.ThecomparativestudyofanimalproverbsinEnglishandChinese,althoughtherearelotsofstudyfromthisaspect,proverbsrelatedtoculturalisstillworthresearching.Thestudyofanimalproverbsfromtheperspectiveofconceptualmetaphorisatipoficeberg.What’smore,asmetaphorsareabundantlyappearedinstudents’book,itispossibletostudytheanimalproverbsshowedinthebooksanditsfunctionasteachingstrategy.Aboveall,therearemuchroomforthefurtheranddeeperstudyinthefuture.58 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ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAppendixAppendix(AnimalProverbsintheADictionaryofEnglishProverbsEditedbyXUZhusheng)1.DomesticAnimalsGoose(1)Goodgoose,butshehasanillgansel,A.(鹅儿虽好，臊味难熬)(2)Allgeeseareswans.(自家的鹅塞天鹅，自己的东西样样好。)(3)BeforeSaintChadeverygooselays,bothgoodandbad.(圣查得节来到，好鹅坏鹅都下蛋。)(4)Don’tkillthegoosethatlaysthegoldeneggs.(鹅下金蛋，千万莫杀。不要杀鸡取卵)(5)Everymanthinkshisowngeeseswan.(人看自家鹅，只只像天鹅。)(6)Featherbyfeatherthegooseisplucked.(拔毛不停，鹅身终净。一砖一瓦，能砌大厦)(7)Foxshouldnotbeofthejuryatagoose’strial,A.(鹅儿受审时，莫聘狐狸任陪审员)(8)Fox,thoughbonded,isabadguardforgeese,A.(狐狸虽具保证，不可派去看鹅。)(9)Gooseandganderandgoslingarethreesoundsbutonething.(公鹅，母鹅，仔鹅都是鹅。)(10)Goosecannotgrazeafterhim,A.(此君所到处，不能再放鹅。贪婪之徒。)(11)Goosegibletsaregoodmeat,oldsackbetterthannew.(鹅杂似美肉，陈酿胜新酒。)(12)Goslingleadthegeesetowater,The.(小鹅引母鹅去吃草。儿子教老子。班门弄斧)(13)Goosearepluckedaslongastheyhaveanyfeathers.(只要鹅有毛，早晚被拔掉)(14)Hecannotsaybotoagoose.(见鹅不敢说“呸”，胆小如鼠，羞怯异常)(15)Hehathgoodskillinhorseflesh,tobuyagoosetorideon.(精于马术，却买鹅骑)(16)Hesetsthefoxtokeepthegeese.(叫狐狸看守鹅，引狼入室)(17)Hethateatstheking’sgooseshallbechokedwiththefeathers.(若吃国王鹅，羽毛堵咽喉。若盗皇家宝，大祸必难逃。)(18)Hethathasagoosewillgetagoose.(自家养鹅，人才送鹅。投其所好赢欢心)(19)Hethatturnsthegooseshouldhavetheneck.(烤鹅者吃鹅颈。谁劳动，谁享有。)(20)IfImaynotkeepgooseIshallkeepgosling.(老鹅可失，仔鹅必捉。若不能报复加害者，62 AppendixShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArts必不放过其子女亲友)(21)Itisagoodgoosethatdropsaye.(好鹅下蛋，偶有息日。鹅再好，难以终年下蛋不停)(22)Itisnomorepitytoseeawomanweepthantoseeagoosegobarefoot.(女人哭泣，鹅光脚，何须多同情。司空见惯不可怜)(23)Knowagoosefromacapon.(分清鸡鹅。)(24)Whenthefoxpreachesbewarethegeese.(狐狸在说教，鹅要看好。)(25)Wheretherearewomen,andgeesetherewantsnonoise.(哪有女人和母鹅，哪里就不会有安宁。)Dog(26)Everydoghashisday.(狗有走运时，)(27)Womenanddogssetmentogetherbytheears.(有了女人与狗，男人难免争斗)(28)Worstdogthatiswagshistail,The.(摇尾乞怜的狗最坏。)(29)Barkingdogsdon’tbite.(会叫的狗不咬人。)(30)Leandogtogetthroughahedge.(狗瘦可钻树篱。人瘦易病愈。)(31)Blackdogisonone’sback.(意志消沉。忧郁)(32)Calladogadog.(见了狗叫他狗，实事求是)(33)Deaddogbitesnot.(死狗不吠。死者不伤人)(34)Dogdoesnoteatdog.(狗不咬狗，同类不相残。)(35)Dogthatfetcheswillcarry,The.(狗能叼物来，也能叼物去，长舌者能对你说人，也能对人说你。)(36)Dog’slife,hungerandease,A.(犬的一生，饥饿与悠闲并存，懒人悠闲，饥饿一生)(37)Experienceistheblindman’sdog.(经验是盲人犬。)(38)Follyisabonnydog.(罪恶犹如诱人之犬。)(39)Heknowsnotapigfromadog.(他猪狗不分)Pig(40)Bestappleistakenbythepig,The.(最佳苹果反进猪嘴。鲜花插牛粪)(41)Castnotpearlsbeforeswine.(珍珠莫向蠢猪抛。)(42)Dirtytroughswillservedirtysow.。(脏猪只配用脏槽，)(43)Heismeanenoughtostealacornsfromablindhog.(橡子喂瞎猪，偷掉太卑鄙。)(44)Hogneverlooksuptohimthatthreshesdowntheacorns,The.(贪猪埋头吃，无视喂养人。63 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAppendix过河拆桥。忘恩负义。(45)Learnedpigdidnotlearnitslettersinaday,The.(如果猪有知识，识字非一日之功)(46)Everysowtoherowntrough.(猪饿总奔自己槽。)(47)Don’tbuyapiginapoke.(莫买袋中猪。别上当受骗)(48)Draffisgoodenoughforswine.(渣滓育肥猪。人吃粗食反健壮)(49)EveryhoghathitsMartinmas.(猪都过圣马丁节。死期难逃)(50)Fullsowknownotthesqueakoftheemptyone,The.(饱猪不知饿猪在叫啥。饱汉不知饿汉饥)(51)Littleknowsthefatsowwhattheleandoesmean.(饱汉不知饿汉饥，肥猪不知瘦猪事)(52)Littlepigseatgreatpotatoes.(小猪常吃大土豆，贪心不足蛇吞象。)(53)Hehasagoodnosetomakethepoorman’ssow.(好比穷家猪，鼻子特别灵。)(54)Wedon’tkillapigeveryday.(人不能日杀一猪，人不能每天寻欢作乐)(55)Worsthogoftengetsthebeatpear,The.(劣猪常吃甜梨，傻人有傻福)Cow(56)Oxistakenbythehorusandamanbythetongue,An.(抓牛抓角，抓人抓舌。牛有脚挨抓，人说话遭殃。)(57)Bullmustbetakenbythehorns,The.(对付公牛，必抓其角，知难而进。)(58)Ox,whenheisloose,lickshimselfatpleasure,An.(公牛未上鞍，悠闲自在，单身汉自得其乐。)(59)Oldoxwillfindashelterforhimself,An.(老牛遇麻烦，自有躲避处。老人经验多，有事自筹谋。)(60)Oldoxmakesastraightfurrow,An.(老牛耕田沟垄直。姜还是老的辣。)(61)Oldcowwillneveradmitthatshewasonceasillycalf.(老牛从来不承认自己幼时蠢。人老从不承认年轻时干蠢事。)(62)New-borncalvesdon’tfearwolves.(初生牛犊不怕狼。)(63)Naturedrawsmorethantenoxen.(自然之力超群牛。大自然神力无边。)(64)Beautydrawsmorethanoxen.(美貌之力胜公牛。)(65)Manyagoodcowhasanillcalf.(好牛产坏犊，父贤子不孝。)(66)Iftheoxfallwhetyourknife.(老牛一倒，赶紧磨刀，胜机莫失。)64 AppendixShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArts(67)Hetintneveracowthatgrateforaneedle.(丢针尚且哭，岂能再丢牛。)(68)Hethatwillstealaneggwillstealanox.(能偷鸡蛋，就能偷牛。今日偷针，来日偷金。)(69)Hehasanoxonhistongue.(人受贿，嘴难言。吃人的嘴软，拿人的手短。)(70)Driveacowtothehallandshewillruntothebyre.(赶牛进大厅，牛逃归小棚。分明平庸之辈，何必吹捧太高。D480)(71)Cowthat’sfirstgetup,getsthefirstofthedew,The.(母牛早起，先得甘露，人贵勤奋。)(72)Kingsarekittlecattletoshoebehind.(君王莫依靠)Horse(73)Dozenhorsescan"tovertakethetongue.(十二匹马追不上舌头，一言既出，驷马难追)(74)Alllayloadonawillinghorse.(老实的马驮得最重。人善被人欺，马善被人骑。)(75)Everybodylayshisloadonthewillinghorse.(人人都把担子压到驯马上，同上引申义。)(76)Asscarrytheoatsandhorseseatthem.(驴驮燕麦成马料。愚人出力，智者享用。)(77)Goodhorsebecomesneverajade.(骏马岂能变驽马，勇士不会当懦夫.)(78)Heisaweakhorsethatmaynotbearthesaddle.(马鞍也嫌重，此马不中用。此人已无用，)(79)Heisaproudhorsethatwillnotcarryhisownprovender.(傲慢的马不驮自己的料。)(80)Maninapassionridesawildhorse,A.(人发怒，如骑野马。)(81)Horsethatwillnotcarryasaddlemusthavenooats.(马不挂鞍，莫未燕麦。懒汉不配喂食。)(82)Greymareisthebetterhorse,The.(灰母马真厉害。妻子对丈夫管得严。)(83)Gruntinghorseadagroaningwifeneverfailtheirmaster,A.(妻子咕哝，马儿呻吟，永为主人尽忠心。)(84)Oneshallhaveone’smareagain.(母马可复得。破镜可重圆。)(85)Oratorwithoutjudgmentisahorsewithoutabridle,An.(演说无判断，如马无笼头。人信口开河，如脱缰之马。)(86)Heisagentlehorsethatnevercasthisrider.(驯马不摔骑马人。忠仆惟主命侍从。)(87)Oldfriendisamountforablackday,An.(老友如好马，逢凶便骑它。)(88)Fromthehorsestotheasses.(每况愈下，越来越糟糕。)(89)Best-shodhorsedoesslipsometimes,The.(马蹄铁再好，也难免滑跤。智者千虑，必有一失。)(90)Itisagoodhorsethatneverstumbles.(良马也有漏蹄时。)(91)Blindhorseishardiest,The.(瞎马最莽撞.瞎子不怕崩。)65 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAppendix(92)Mettleisdangerousinablindhorse.(瞎马强壮反危险。瞎马逞强，不堪设想。无知者瞎起劲，处处是危险。)(93)Don’tlookforthemare’snest,youwillneverfindit.(切莫寻马巢，世上无处寻。不要异想天开。)(94)Fliesgotoleanhorses.(苍蝇专检瘦马叮，人善被人骑。)Ass(95)Heisanassthatbraysagainstanass.(驴子对着驴子叫，傻瓜才对傻瓜叫)(96)Heisanassthathurthimself.(自我伤害真傻瓜。)(97)Heisanassthatgivesfleshforbones.(以肉换骨真傻瓜。)(98)Heisanassthatcannotmakeuseofhisown.(愚者不能利用自身条件。)(99)Heisaveryassthatthinkstoliveever.(人想永生，天大愚笨。)(100)Didyoueverhearanassplayoaharp?(观驴弹琴。无稽之谈)(101)Toomuchofnothingbutoffoolsandasses.(除了傻瓜和蠢驴，样样都是多多益善。)(102)Whenanasskickyou,nevertellit.(一朝被驴踢，千万莫声张。)(103)Whenanassclimbsaladderwemayfindwisdominwomen.(一旦驴能登梯，妇女就有智慧。)(104)Miserisanassthatcarriesgoldandeatsthistles,A.(守财奴好比笨驴，驮着黄金吃草。)(105)Merescholarisamereass.(十足书生，十足笨驴。)(106)Letmehavearichhusbandthoughhebeanass.(只要富丈夫，哪怕是蠢猪。)(107)Lawisanass,The.(法律无异于笨蛋。)(108)Kingwithoutlearningisbutacrownedass,The.(无知国王无异于戴冠之驴。)(109)Hethatdoesaseriousbusinessinhasteridespostuponanass.(仓促办大事，等于骑驴想奔驰。欲速则不达。)(110)Goodservantshouldhavethebackofanass,thetongueofasheep,andthesnoutofaswine.(好仆必须背如驴，舌如羊，嘴如猪。负重如驴，沉默如羊，进食如猪。)(111)Everyasslovestohearhimselfbray.(驴子爱听自己吼叫。)(112)Everyassthinkshimselfworthytostandwiththeking’shorses.(驴子自以为配和御马并驾齐驱。)(113)Everyanasswon’tfalltwiceinthesamequicksand.(同一流沙地，笨驴不会跌二回。蠢驴66 AppendixShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArts也会吸取教训。)(114)Disputeabouttheshadowofanass.(为小事而争执。)(115)Devilisanass.(魔鬼蠢如驴。)(116)Ifyoumakeyourselfanassdon’tcomplainifpeoplerideyou.(如把自己变成驴，有人骑上别抱怨。)Hen&chicken&cock(117)Hencracklesinoneplaceandlayseggsinanother,The.(母鸡此处下蛋彼处叫)(118)Womenandhensarelostbygadding.(母鸡乱跑要失踪，女人闲荡要迷途)(119)Scrapinghenwillgetsomething,thecrouchinghennothing,The.(母鸡觅食必有食，原地不动无所获。)(120)Servantandacockmustbekeptbutayear,A.(仆人一年必换，公鸡一年必杀。)(121)Thereislittlepeaceinthathousewherethehencrowsandthecockismute.(公鸡不响母鸡蹄，一家不太平。母鸡啼鸣家有祸。)(122)Itisaadhousewherethehencrowslouderthanthecock.(母鸡叫声盖公鸡，当心房子要出事。)(123)Heknowshowtocarrythedeadcockhome.(斗败依然大丈夫。)(124)Twococksinoneyarddonotagree.(一圈容不得两只公鸡。一山不容二虎。)(125)Youngcockslovenocoops.(小公鸡不恋笼。少年在家关不住。)(126)Ifthehendoesnotprate,shewillnotlay.(母鸡咯咯叫，鸡蛋才来到。主妇若爱唠叨，持家井井有条。)(127)Keepyourthankstofeedyourchickens.(还是把感激拿去喂鸡吧。空口言谢，分文不值。)(128)Itisnitcommonforhenstohavepillows.(母鸡用枕头，世上真少有。荒诞至极)(129)Itisnogoodhenthatcacklesinyourhouseandlaysinanother’s.(坏鸡在家叫咯咯，却把鸡蛋下人家)(130)Itisbettertohaveahentomorrowthataneggtoday.(今日有鸡蛋，不如明日有母鸡。眼光放长远)(131)Heisachicken.(胆小者。)(132)Eggscan’tteachthehen.(鸡蛋焉能教训母鸡。班门弄斧)(133)Cockisthecountryman’sclock.(公鸡是乡下人的报时钟。)(134)Cockisboldonhisowndunghill.(公鸡总在自家粪堆上逞英雄。自家门前凶。)67 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAppendix(135)Blindhenscansometimesfindcorn.瞎鸡偶能找到谷粒。(136)Blackhenlaysawhiteegg.(黑鸡也下白壳蛋。丑妇生俊儿。)(137)Betterbeacockforadaythanahenforayear.宁做公鸡活一天，不做母鸡活一年。Sheep(138)Heissheepinwolf"sclothing.(披着狼皮的羊)(139)Blacksheepisabitingbeast.(黑羊是危险的动物，是害群之马。)(140)Bylittleandlittlethewolfeatsthesheep.(一口一口，狼把羊吃光。千里之行，步步走完。)(141)Deathofthewolvesisthesafetyofsheep.(狼一死，羊平安。恶狼不死，羊无宁日)(142)Deathofwivesandthelifeofsheepmakemenrich.(妻子死亡羊猛增，贫穷丈夫成富人。)(143)Deathtothewolfislifetothelamb.(狼死羔羊存。)(144)Don’tlookforaramwithfivefeet.(不要寻找五腿羊。别徒劳无功。)(145)Dreadtheangerofthecorneredsheep.(要堤防羊陷绝境时激怒。)(146)Everylargefamilyhasatleastoneblacksheep.(每个大家庭至少会出个败家子。)(147)Everysheepwithhisfellow.(羊儿不离群。)(148)Gentleeweissuckedbymanylambs.(母羊温顺，羊羔受益。女人太善众人欺。)(149)Glorioussheepsaidtothegoat,givemesomeofyourwool.(绵羊虚荣嫌毛少，要求山羊送些毛，人好虚荣，缘木求鱼。)(150)Goatgivesagoodmilking,butshecastsitalldownwithherfoot.(山羊下奶多，脚踏等于无。成事不足败事有余。)(151)Goatmustbrowsewheresheistied.(山羊吃青草，只限栓绳处。人贵随遇而安。)(152)Godtempersthewindtotheshornlamb.(小羊新剪毛，上帝送威风。上帝同情不幸者。)(153)God’slambwillplay.(上帝羔羊贪玩耍，青春放荡。)(154)Goodmancannomorethanasheep.(好人若危害，超不过绵羊。好人如绵羊，决不把人伤。)(155)Hecastsasheep’seyetoher.(看人脉脉含情，频送秋波。)(156)Hethathasonesheepintheflockwilllikealltherestthebetterforit.(自家宠羊入羊群，顿时众羊皆可爱。子女所在处，兴旺又称著。)(157)Hethatmakeshimselfasheepshallbeeatenbythewolf.(甘当绵羊，只好喂狼。人软弱，受人欺。)68 AppendixShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArts(158)Itisasillyflockwheretheewebearsthebell.(母羊挂铃铛，羊群要遭殃。)(159)Itisbettertobeashrewthanasheep.(宁为泼妇，不做绵羊。)(160)Lazysheepthinksitswoolheavy.(懒羊嫌毛重。)(161)Leteverysheephangbyhisownshank.(吊羊也得靠羊腿。人贵自立。)(162)Lonesheepisindangerofthewolf.(人孤单，变狼餐。)(163)NowIhaveasheepandacoweverybodybidsmegoodmorrow.(一旦有牛羊，个个招呼忙。有钱是亲兄弟，无钱是路人。)(164)Onescabbedsheepmarsswholeflock.(一羊生鲜，殃及一大群。害群之马)(165)Whowatswhomaykeepsheepanotherday.(咱们走着瞧，他日见分晓。)(166)Wolfwithout,asheepwithin,A.(外表是狼，内心是羊。面恶心善)(167)Richandignorantaresheepwithgoldenwool.(富而无知之人，好比金毛之羊。)(168)Thereareblacksheepineveryflock.(羊群之中黑羊难免。败类难免。)(169)Twowolvesmayworryonesheep.(两狼咬一羊不费劲。两个坏蛋欺侮一个老实人，毫不费事。)(170)Duckwillnotalwaysdabbleinthesamegutter.(鸭子爱戏水，不在同一沟)2.WildAnimalsCrow(171)Whentheeagleisdeadthecrowspickouthiseyes.(一旦老鹰死，乌鸦啄其眼。虎落平阳被犬欺)(172)Onecrowneverpullsoutanother’seyes.(乌鸦不啄乌鸦眼，同类不相残。)(173)Luckydogisrarerthanawhitecrow.(白乌鸦罕见，幸运儿更罕见。)(174)Ihaveacrowtopluckwithyou.(我有事要和你弄清楚。)(175)Hewillsaythecrowiswhite.(硬说乌鸦皆白色。颠倒是非，混淆黑白。)(176)Crow’s-footgrowsunderhereye.(女子眼梢已有鱼尾纹。)(177)Crowsaresmartenoughnottopeckouteachother’seyes.(乌鸦虽凶残，不啄同类眼。同类不相残。)(178)Crowisneverwhiterforwashingherselfoften.(乌鸦洗千遍，浑身还是黑。)(179)Crowbidsyougoodmorrow.(乌鸦也会说祝君晚安。)(180)Croakingravenbodesmisfortune,The.(乌鸦呱呱叫，必有灾祸到。)69 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAppendixLion(181)Clippingatiger’sclawsnevermakeshimlosehistasteforblood.(老虎砍掉爪子，嗜血本性不变。江山易改，本性难移。)(182)Destroythelionwhileheisyetbutawhelp.(杀狮应在幼时，消灭于萌芽，防患于未然。)(183)Don’tstickyourheadintothelion’smouth.(不要把头伸进狮子嘴里，不要轻易冒险。)(184)Everymanisalioninhisowncause.(为自己办事，个个如狮子。私字当头干劲足。)(185)Fox’swileswillneverenterintothelion’shead.(狐狸诡计多，不入狮子脑。正大光明者不玩诡计。)(186)Goodsurgeonmusthaveaneagle’seye,alion’sheart,andalady’shand.(好外科医生须眼尖如鹰，胆大如狮，手巧如妇。)(187)Ifyouhandbeinalion’smouthgetitoutasfastasyoucan.(手在狮子嘴，缩回莫迟疑。身处险境快脱身。)(188)Lionamongsheepandasheepamonglions.(羊群中如狮，狮群中却似羊。欺软怕硬。)(189)Lionfearsnobugs.(狮子不怕小虫。)(190)Lioninthefield,alambinthetown.(战场如猛狮，进城如羔羊。对敌凶狠，对友和善)(191)Lionputsonthefox’sskinwhencunningismorefruitfulthanforce.(狡猾如比狮子强，狮子也会穿狐装。)(192)Lionsparesthesuppliant.(狮子不伤求情人。宽大为怀。)(193)Lionsarenotterrifiedbycats.(狮子不会被猫吓到。强者不怕弱者。)(194)Wakenotasleepinglion.(切莫惊醒睡狮。无事易安分，切莫惹是非。)(195)Soharesmaypullthedeadlionsbythebeard.(兔子敢抓死狮须。猫不在，鼠称王。)(196)Kingandthepope,thelionandthewolf.(国王和教皇，犹如狮子与豺狼，苛政猛于虎。)Bear(197)HeistheblackbearofArden.(他是阿登黑熊，恐怖对象。)(198)HespeaksBearGarden.(说话用斗熊场语言。说话粗野无教养。)(199)Hewhoshareshoneywithabearhastheleastpartofit.(熊口分蜜，所得极少。与强者相争，必难为赢家。)(200)Hewouldbindbears.(力大无比，巨熊可缚。)(201)Ifthebearwilllearntodancehemustgotoschoolearly.(熊若学跳舞，早点上学校。)70 AppendixShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArts(202)Kingsandbearsoftenworrytheirkeepers.(侍君侍熊，忧心忡忡。伴君如伴虎。)Elephant(203)Athomeanelephant,abroadacat.(在家如象，外出如猫。)(204)Elephantneverforgets.(大象的记性特别好。)(205)Invisiblemicrobecankillagiantandlaylowanelephant.(细菌虽小看不见，巨人大象能送命。)(206)Hechangesaflyintoelephant.(视蝇为象。小题大做。)(207)Onlyanelephantcancarryanelephantsload.(特重之物，惟象可驮。伟大之人方能挑重担。)Ape(208)Apekillsheryoungwithherkindness.(母猴爱小猴，紧抱反而死。溺爱多祸害。)(209)Everyapethinkshispuppythefairest.(猴子认为自己的小猴最好看。)(210)Everymonkeyhashistricks.(猴子玩把戏，各自显本事，人人都有自己的一套拿手戏。)(211)Highertheapegoesthemoreheshowshistail.(猴子爬的高，尾巴露的更清。人居高位，缺点难掩。)(212)Jackanapeswillnevermakeagentleman.(猿猴成不了绅士。)(213)Newlaws,newmonkey-business.(有了新法律，就有新对策。)Fox(214)Balkedfoxcalledtheelusivegrapessour.(狐狸吃不着葡萄说葡萄酸。)(215)Cunningfoxhaabagofexcuses.(狐狸最狡猾，借口一大堆。狡猾之人借口多。)(216)Hegavehimaflapwithafox-tail.(他以狐尾打人，温和的指责。)(217)Heisaproudtodthatwillnotscrapehisownhole.(狐狸耍骄傲，自己洞不刨。)(218)Todneverspedbetterthanwhenhewenthisownerrand.(狐狸忙私事最有劲。人为私利奔波最热情。)(219)Tod’sbairnsareilltotame.(狐崽难驯。)(220)Youbreedofthetod’sbairns,ifonebegood,allaregood.(败家子女如狐崽，一个坏个个坏。)(221)Ifyoudealwithafox,thinkofhistricks.(与狐狸交往，当心其诡计。)(222)Itisgoodtofollowtheoldfox.(狐老经验多，紧跟准没错。)71 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAppendix(223)Oldfoxisnoteasilysnared.老狐狸不易入陷阱，人老经验多。(224)Thereisnosaferwaytofollowthanoftheoldfox.老狐之路最安全。(225)Leteveryfoxworryaboutitsowntail.(狐狸尾巴自己管，个人自扫门前雪。)(226)Wemustfelldownbeforeafoxinseason.(面对强者必须低头。)(227)Whenthefoxhasgotinhisheadhewillsoonmakethebodyfollow.(狐狸伸进头，身子必跟后，得寸进尺。)(228)Whenthetodgetsintothewood,hecaresnotwhokeekinhistail狐狸一旦入树林，不怕有人观其尾。坏人一旦逃脱，不在即有否跟踪。(229)Wolfandthefoxarebothofthesamemind.狼与狐狸心相通。Bird(230)Betterabirdinhandthanavultureflying.(一鸟在手，胜过一鹰在飞。)(231)Betterbeafreebirdthanacaptiveking.(宁为自由鸟，不做囚中王。)(232)Ihavesavedthebirdinmybosom.(良心，忠诚，忠心)(234)Birdisflown.(钱包已飞。)(235)Thebirdsisknownbyitsnoteandamanbyhistalk.(闻声知鸟，闻言知人。)(236)Birdsofafeatherflocktogether.(凡属同林鸟，常在一起飞。物以类聚人以群分。)(237)Eachbirdloveshearhimselfsing.(鸟儿爱听自己的歌。文章是自己的好。)(238)Earlybirdcatchestheworm.(早起鸟儿有虫吃。)(239)Illbirdlaysanillegg.(恶鸟下坏蛋，有其父必有其子。)(240)Mendieforgain,birdsperishtogetfood.(人为财死，鸟为食亡。)(241)Modestyisthesweetsong-birdwhichnoopencage-doorcantempttoflight.(谦虚好比温情鸟，打开鸟笼不飞跑。)(242)Musiciansaretheparrotsofparadise.(乐师好比天堂鸟。)(243)Tametongueisararebird.(温顺之舌好比稀世之鸟。)Cuckold(244)Betterbeacuckoldandnotknowitthanbenoneandeverybodysayso.(宁做乌龟不知情，被冤枉人笑话。)(245)Cuckoldisthelastthatknowsofit.(妻子有外遇，丈夫难知情。)(246)Cuckoldwasverycunningbuthewascunningerthatcuckoldedhim.(乌龟虽狡猾，奸夫更72 AppendixShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArts狡猾。)(247)Nogreatershametoamanthantoobeacuckold.(男人带绿帽，耻辱第一号。)(248)CuckoldsareChristians.(乌龟都是基督徒。)(249)Cuckoldsarekind.(男人当乌龟，心地多慈善。)(250)Itisbettertobeacoldthanacuckold.(宁忍独身寒，不当乌龟汉。)(251)Todayisamantomorrowacuckold.(今日伟人，明日乌龟。)Hare(252)Findawomanwithoutanexcuse,andfindaharewithoutameuse.(哪有妇女无借口，哪有野兔没洞穴。)(253)Harealwaysreturnstoherform.(人恋故居，兔恋老窝。)(254)Harehascrossedyourway.(野兔人前过，当心要有祸。)(255)Haresleepswithhiseyesopen.(兔子睡觉不闭眼。人贵警觉。)(256)Youmustkissthehare’sfoot,orthecook.(要么挨饿，要么做饭。)(257)Tortoisewinstheracewhilethehareissleeping.兔子睡大觉，乌龟胜赛跑。骄兵必败。Wolf(258)Growingyouthhasawolfinhisbelly.(青年在猛涨，胃口好似狼。)(259)Hethatgoestolawholdsawolfbytheears.(人若忙诉讼，等于拽狼耳。进退两难。)(260)manmustnotmakeawolfhisexecutor.(人不能委托狼去执行遗嘱。)(261)Manisawolftoman。(人对人，恶如狼。)(262)onewolfwillnoteatanother.(狼不吃狼，同类不相残。)(263)Onemusthowlwiththewolves.(身在狼群中，就得学狼嚎。)(264)WolfdoessomethingeveryweekthathindershimfromgoingtochurchonSundays.(狼干坏事多，就怕做礼拜。)(265)WolfgoestoRomeandthereleaveshishairsandnothismanners.(狼去罗马只留毛，恶性未改半分毫。本性难移。)(266)Strangerisforthewolf.(人在异乡，正好喂狼。外乡人受欺负。)3.ImaginedAnimalsBeast73 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsAppendix(267)Heismadthatquarrelswithwomenorbeasts.(疯子才跟女人吵，狂人才跟兽类斗。)(268)Itisastrangebeastthathasneitherheadnortail.(兽类再怪异，总有头和尾/怪兽岂能无头尾)(269)Manwithoutreasonisabeastinseason,A.(人无理智，好似发情之兽。/无理智者与禽兽无异。)(270)Mostdangerousofwildbeastsisaslanderer;oftameonesaflatterer,The.(野兽危险莫过于诽谤者，驯兽危险莫过于奉承者。)(271)Multitudeofpeopleisabeastofmanyheads,A.(群氓好比多头兽。)(272)Heabeastdoesdiethathasdonenogoodtohiscountry.(活着于祖国无异，死时与畜生无异。)(273)Everybeastbutmankeepstoasingledish.(与人不相同，兽类食物只一种。)(274)Beastthatgoesalwaysneverwantsblows.(牲口肯走，何用鞭策。)(275)Beastwithtwobacks,The.(交姘)(276)Allbeastsofpreyarestrongortreacherous.(天下食肉兽，体壮或狡诈)(278)Goodbeastwillgethimselfaheatwitheating,A.(牲畜壮，食欲旺。/牛强马壮，食欲自旺。)(279)WhogoesabeasttoRomeabeastreturns.(兽性十足去罗马，归来兽性仍照旧。/本性难移。)(280)Whenthelionroarsfewbeastsdaretosaythejustthinginhispresence.(狮子怒吼威风凛凛，哪有野兽当面直言。)(281)Wildbeastbecomestimidandtamewhenhemakeslovetohismate,The.(野兽发情时，胆怯又温驯。)(282)Wolfknowswhattheillbeastthinks,The.(恶兽所思狼尽知。同类相通。)(283)Awfulbeastisabeardedking.(大胡子国王是最可怕的野兽。)74 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArts攻读学位期间取得的研究成攻读学位期间取得的研究成果攻读学位期间取得的研究成果果果待发表论文：何婷.从模因论角度分析“微××”强势模因[J].山西师大学报（社科版）.（已接收）75 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofArtsACKNOWLEDGEMENTSFirstly,IshouldliketogivemydeepestgratitudetoProfessorCaiLongquan,mysupervisor,withoutwhosekindencouragement,strictandpatientguidanceonaffairswhichrangefromthetheoreticalconstructiontothespecificsofpresentation,thefulfillmentofthispaperwouldhavebeenimpossible.BecauseshealwaysshowsgreatconcernfromstarttofinishsothatIthinkofmypapernotbeingachievedsowellintimewithouthereffectualguidance.Secondly,Iwanttothankallmyhonorableteachersfortheirteachingandguidanceduringmygraduatestudies.Here,Prof.Bu,Prof.Ming,andsoon,towhomIexpressmyheartfeltandgenuineappreciationbothfortheirearnestandinstructiveteachingsandfortheirintellectualandmoreinfluenceonme.Finally,Iwanttogivethankstomyclassmatesandmyfamilywhohavesharedwithmyworriesandmufrustration,andmyultimatehappinessineventuallypassingthisthesis.76