从事件到用例事件%3a从意向性看歇后语生成 73页

FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionality从事件到用例事件：从意向性看歇后语的生成ADissertationSubmittedtotheGraduateSchoolofHenanUniversityinPartialFulfillmentoftheRequirementsfortheDegreeofMasterofArtsByLiHuiSupervisor:Prof.LiShujingMay,2013 AcknowledgmentsOncompletionofthisthesis,Iwouldliketoexpressmythankstothosewhohavegivenmetheirassistanceinpreparingandcompletingthisthesis.Firstandforemost,Iwouldliketoexpressmyheartfeltgratitudetomyrespectablesupervisor,ProfessorLiShujing,whohasgivenmesomanyvaluablesuggestionsduringtheprocessofwritingmythesis.Shehashelpedmeenormously.Withoutherpatienthelpandinspiringencouragementaswellasherinsightfulinstructionsandcriticismonthisthesis,itwouldbeimpossibleformetoaccomplishit.AlsoIamextremelygratefultoProfessorYangChaojun,whotaughtmehowtowriteathesisandgaveinstructionstoeverycrucialstepinwritingprocess.Hehashelpeduspreparewellforourthesisinadvanceandpaidmuchattentiontocultivateourwritingability.Thankstohishelp,Ihavemasteredmanyskillsonwritingathesisanddealingwithissuesofwriting.MysincerethanksgotothosewhohavetaughtmeinHenanUniversity,ProfessorXuShenghuan,ProfessorNiuBaoyi,ProfessorLiuChendan,ProfessorXuYouzhi,ProfessorZhangKeding,ProfessorJiangLingandalltheotherprofessors,fromwhomIhavelearntalotofprofessionalknowledgeandresearchmethodologiesaboutmymajor.Mygratitudealsogoestomyclassmatesandroommates,whohavegivenmealotofvaluablesuggestionsduringmywritingprocess.Thoughoccupiedwiththeirownthesis,theyarealwayshelpful.Iappreciatefortheirhelp.Lastbutnottheleast,thanksgotomyfamilywhohavesharedwithmemyworries,frustrationsandmyultimatehappinessineventuallyfinishingthisthesis.Withouttheirboundlesslove,supportandunderstanding,Icannotbearallthestressesinthewholeprocessofdatacollecting,researchingandwriting. AbstractThepresentstudyanalyzesthegenerationofXiehouyufromtheperspectiveofintentionality.Asauniquelanguagephenomenon,XHYs,withitscharacteristicsofbeingvivid,briefandhumorous,havearousednumerousscholars’interestandattentionandpromptedthemtomakeabundantdescriptionsandanalysesofChineseXHYs.However,thepreviousstudiesaremainlyrestrictedtothedescriptiveinvestigationsofitsdefinitions,nature,classificationsandfunctions,etc.fromdifferentperspectives.TheattentiononthedynamicgenerationmechanismofXHYsisfarfromenough.Recently,somescholarsbegantostudytheunderlyinggenerationmechanismofXHYsfromsometheoriesofcognitivelinguistics,suchas,Figure-GroundTheory,Conceptual-blendingProminenceModel(CPMforabbreviation)andConceptualIntegrationTheory(CITforshort),etc.Theirstudiessetasolidfoundationforthefurtherstudyofthisfield;however,theirstudiesdonotrevealunderlyinggenerationmechanismofXHYs,leavingmuchroomforafurtherexploration.Byvirtueoftheinadequacyofthepreviousstudies,thepaperexploresunderlyinggenerativemechanismofXHYsfromaquitedifferentview.IttriestoexplainhowXHYconstructseventintousage-eventundertheRuleofIntentionality.XuShenghuan(徐盛桓,2012)haspointedoutthattheprocessofcomingintobeingoftheinitialshapeofsentencerepresentationisaprocessofcuttingtheeventintotheusage-event,makingtheusage-eventsuitableforthepresentingoftheeventinthisparticularsituation.Theprocessofcuttingtheeventintousage-eventisachievedbyaGestalttransformation,whichisconstrainedbysubject’sintentionality.Intentionalityplaysapremiseroleintheprocessofthegenerationoflanguageexpressions.SotheRuleofIntentionalityneedstobeintroducedtomakeamoreI scientificexplorationofthegenerationprocessofinitialshapeofsentencerepresentation.ByapplyingtheRuleofIntentionalityfromeventtousage-eventtoexplainthegenerativemechanismofXHYs,theauthorshowsthattheprocessofgenerationofXHYsreliesonaproximity/similaritytransformationfromtheformerparttothelatterpart,meanwhile,intentionalityisrunningthroughthewholegenerationprocess.AccordingtoXHYs,theformerpartisareflectionoftheeventfilteredbypeople’sprimaryconsciousness;thelatterpartisthemanifestationoftheusage-eventelementconstructedbypeople’sreflectiveconsciousnessanditreflectsthespeakers’communicationintentions.Intheprocessoftransformationfromtheformerparttothelatterpart,theintentionalattitudeintheintentionalityframedetermineswhichlanguageexpressionsthespeakerwillchoosetoexpresshis/herintentionalcontent.AndthedifferentcharacteristicsofXHYsreflectthespeaker’sdifferentintentionalattitudes.Allinall,thispaperprovidespeoplewithanewperspectivetoexploregenerativemechanismofXHYs,whichishelpfulforpeopletocorrectlyunderstandthisspecificlinguisticphenomenon.Thispaperiscomposedofsixchapters.ChapterOneisabriefintroductionthatprovidesanoverallpanorama,inwhichthepaperintroducesthesignificance,researchquestions,themethodologyanddatacollectionofthecurrentstudy,aswellasthelayoutofthethesis.ChapterTwoisabriefliteraturereviewwhichgivesadetailedsurveyonpreviousstudiesofXHYs.Withrespecttotheinsightfulprecedingresearchesfromdifferentperspectives,thischaptermakesabriefcommentontheircontributionsandlimitations.ChapterThreeshowstheanalyticalframeworkofXHYs—undertheRuleofIntentionalityfromeventtousage-event,togetherwiththeintroductionofsuchusefulconceptsasprimaryconsciousnessandreflectiveconsciousness,GestaltTheory,andII intentionalcontentandintentionalattitude,whichwillbeadoptedinexploringthegenerativemechanismofXHYs.ChapterFourbeginswithageneralsurveyofXHYs,includingthecharacteristics,classificationsofXHYsaswellastheirpragmaticfunctions.ChapterFivegivesadetailedanalysisongenerationmechanismoftwotypesofXHYsonthebasisofframework—undertheRuleofIntentionalityfromeventtousage-event.ChapterSix,theconclusionofthispaper,presentsmajorfindingsandprovideslimitationsandsuggestionsforthefutureresearch.KEYWORDS:XHYs,intentionality,eventandusage-event,generativemechanismIII IV 摘要本文从意向性角度分析歇后语的生成过程。歇后语是一种特殊的语言现象。它以短小，精炼，幽默的语言特点受到学者们的广泛关注，引发学者们进行多方面研究。前人主要集中对歇后语的定义，特征，分类，语用功能等不同角度进行描述性研究而很少阐释其生成过程。最近一些学者开始从图形背景理论，隐喻理论，概念整合理论等认知的角度对其进行探究，但这些研究尚未能揭示歇后语的内在生成动因，为本文的进一步研究留下空间。鉴于以前研究存在的不足，本文尝试从新的视角对歇后语的内在生成机制进行研究，即歇后语如何在意向性主导下将事件转换为用例事件。徐盛桓指出，句子表达式雏形的形成过程就是要把事件裁剪为用例事件，使用例事件能在该特定情景下对该事件作出切合语境的表征的过程。这一生成过程需要通过格式塔效应的转换，而如何转换则要受到主体意向性的统制。意向性在表达式的生成过程中发挥重要作用。因而，本文依据从事件到用例事件的意向性法则框架对歇后语的内在生成机制进行研究，发现歇后语的生成依赖前后两部分之间的相邻相似转换，而意向性则贯穿整个生成过程。具体来说，歇后语的前部分是对原初意识所过滤事件的反映，后部分是对反思意识建构用例事件的表征，表征了说话人的交际意向。而在前后两部分的转换过程中，意向框架下的意向态度决定了说话人采取何种表达式来表达其意向内容。歇后语的不同语言特征正是说话人不同意向态度的具体体现。总之，本文为歇后语生成机制的分析和研究，提供一个全新的视角，帮助人们更好理解该语言现象的生成机制。本文共由六部分组成。第一章是引言部分，为本文提供总体框架，主要论述了本文的研究意义、研究问题、方法、语料的收集以及文章的整体布局。第二章是文献综述部分，主要回顾了前人对歇后语的研究，通过对前人不同角度研究的考察，评述研究成果并指出不足之处。第三章论述了本文的理论框架——从事件到用例事件的意向性法则框架，介绍了其V 相关概念——原初意识，反思意识，格式塔理论，意向内容，意向态度等，用于解释歇后语的生成。第四章分析了歇后语的特点，类型以及其语用功能。第五章基于从事件到用例事件的意向性法则框架分析两类歇后语的生成机制。最后一章是总结部分。总结本研究的发现，提出研究的不足和今后的研究方向。关键字：歇后语，意向性，事件-用例事件，生成机制VI ContentsAcknowledgmentsAbstract......................................................................................................................................I摘要.......................................................................................................................................VChapterOneIntroduction....................................................................................................11.1Lead-inRemarks...........................................................................................................11.2ResearchSignificance...................................................................................................11.3ResearchQuestions.......................................................................................................21.4MethodologyandDataCollection................................................................................31.5LayoutofthePaper.......................................................................................................3ChapterTwoLiteratureReview..........................................................................................52.1Introduction...................................................................................................................52.2PreviousStudiesofXHYs.............................................................................................52.2.1SemanticStudyofXHYs....................................................................................52.2.2PragmaticStudyofXHYs...................................................................................82.2.3CognitiveStudyofXHYs.................................................................................102.3Summary.....................................................................................................................12ChapterThreeTheoreticalFramework............................................................................153.1Introduction.................................................................................................................153.2EventandUsage-Event...............................................................................................153.2.1FromEventtoUsage-Event..............................................................................153.2.2PrimaryConsciousnessandReflectiveConsciousness.....................................173.3GestaltTheory.............................................................................................................183.4Intentionality...............................................................................................................21VII 3.5IntentionalContentandIntentionalAttitude...............................................................233.6GenerativeMechanismBasedontheRuleofIntentionalityfromEventtoUsage-event.................................................................................................................263.7Summary.....................................................................................................................30ChapterFourRevisitingXHYs..........................................................................................314.1Introduction.................................................................................................................314.2CharacteristicsofXHYs..............................................................................................314.3ClassificationsofXHYs..............................................................................................334.3.1TraditionalClassifications.................................................................................334.3.2MetonymicalXHYs..........................................................................................354.3.3MetaphoricalXHYs..........................................................................................394.4FunctionsofXHYs......................................................................................................414.4.1ElicitingHumorousEffect.................................................................................414.4.2BreakingIcetoBuildHarmoniousPersonalRelation......................................424.4.3SofteningConflict.............................................................................................424.4.4VentingEmotionstoReinforceTone................................................................434.5Summary.....................................................................................................................43ChapterFiveGenerativeProcessofXHYs.......................................................................455.1Introduction.................................................................................................................455.2TheGenerativeMechanismofMetonymicalXHYs...................................................455.3TheGenerativeMechanismofMetaphoricalXHYs...................................................505.4Summary.....................................................................................................................53ChapterSixConclusion......................................................................................................556.1MajorFindings............................................................................................................556.2LimitationsandSuggestions.......................................................................................57Bibliography...........................................................................................................................59VIII ChapterOneIntroductionChapterOneIntroduction1.1Lead-inRemarksXiehouyu(歇后语,forshortXHY),alsocalledwisecrack,isashort,wittyandvividsentence.Itisasimplestructurebutcanexpressabundantmeanings.XHYisapervasivelinguisticphenomenonwhichderivesmostlyfrompeople’sabundantlifeexperienceandiswidelyusedinbothliteratureworksandcolloquialcommunication.AsaspeciallinguisticformexclusivelypossessedbyChinese,XHYsaretruereflectionsoftheculture,customandthoughtsofChinesepeople.AsacrystallizationofChinesepeople’swisdom,ithasarousedalotofattentionofscholarsforitswideapplicationvalueandresearchsignificance.Mostofscholarsbegintoprobeintotheissuefromdifferentperspectives.Theirstudiesmainlyfocusonthesuperficialproperties,suchasthenature,classificationsandfunctionsetc.ofXHYs.ThestudyontheinnermechanismofXHYsisstillablank.Butfortunately,duringrecentdecades,cognitivelinguisticsbecomesaninevitablestudyingtrend;andmoreandmorescholarstendtoapplycognitivetheoriestostudytheunderlyingmechanismofXHYs.Theyhavegainedabundantachievements.Theirpreviousachievementshavelaidasolidfoundationforthepresentfurtherstudyandwillbebrieflypresentedinthefollowingsections.Butduetotheshortcomingsofsomecognitivetheoriesandthelackofacomprehensiveperspective,theirstudiesarealsounsatisfactory.Therefore,itcallsforfurtherexploration.Tosolvetheaboveproblems,wetrytomakeatentativeexplanationonXHYsfromanewangle.ThispaperaimstomakeasystematicdescriptionandexplanationonitsgenerativemechanismfromtheRuleofIntentionality.1.2ResearchSignificance1 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionalityThispaperaimstotakethegenerativemechanismofXHYsastheobjectofourstudy.XHY,asaspeciallanguageform,hasbeenusedabundantlyinbothspokenandwrittenlanguageforalongtime.Theauthorhopestoachievethefollowingsignificance.Firstly,thispapertriestoseekanewperspectivetoexplainwhyXHYsispossible,thatis,ananalyticalframeworkofXHYsbasedontheRuleofIntentionalityfromeventtousage-event.Ifsuchananalyticalframeworkisacceptableandreasonable,itcanprovideanewalternativetotheexplorationofXHYs.Wehopetorevealtheunderlyingmechanismuponwhichwerely,aswellastoprovethefeasibilityandrationalityoftheframework.Secondly,sinceitisanewperspectivetoconductthestudyoflanguageagainstthebackgroundoftheRuleofIntentionality,itmightprovidesomenewtheoriesaswellasmakesomebreakthroughinlinguisticsstudy.Thisisofgreattheoreticalbenefits.Thirdly,XuShenghuan’sresearchesonintentionalityplayasignificantroleinanalyzingthegenerationmechanismandmeaningconstructionofvariouslanguageexpressions.WiththeanalysisongenerationmechanismandmeaningconstructionofXHYs,thisstudyishelpfultoprovethepervasivenessandimportanceofintentionalityinotherlanguageresearchesandtohelppeopleunderstandandusethisspecificlanguagephenomenonbetterintheirdailycommunicationthroughthedetailedanalysis.1.3ResearchQuestionsInordertogiveareasonableandsatisfactoryexplanationofthegenerativeprocessofXHYs,thefollowingspecificresearchquestionsneedtobefurtherelaborated.WehopethatanswerstothesequestionscouldhelppromotethediscoveryoftheinnermechanismforthedynamicgenerationofXHYs.(1)WhatistheunderlyingrelationshipbetweenthetwopartsofXHYs?(2)WhatrolesdoesintentionalityplayinthegenerationprocessofXHYs?2 ChapterOneIntroduction1.4MethodologyandDataCollectionMethodologically,thispaperisaqualitativestudy.QualitativeapproachwillbeusedfortheapplicationoftheRuleofIntentionalitytoworkoutthegenerativemechanismofXHYs.Theoretically,theauthortriestomaketheresearchonXHYsfromacognitive-pragmaticperspective.Tobeexact,thegenerationofXHYscanbeexplainedbyPros.Xu’sexplanationontheRuleofIntentionality.Thatistosay,thispaperaimstorevealconceptualoperationforthegenerativeprocessofXHYsandtogivethereasonwhythestructureiswhatitis.Itisinevitablethatintrospectionisneededintheprocessofanalysis.ThedatausedinthepresentstudyarecollectedmainlyfromanauthoritativedictionaryACompleteCollectionofChineseXiehouyu(温端政,2004).Someofdatacomefromliteraryworks,essays,articlesordailyconversations.Besides,somenewlycreatedXHYsarecollectedfromtheInternet.Mostofthedataarefromtheauthor’sowncollectionandsomeothersarefromstudiesbyotherauthors,whicharecrucialtoillustratethislanguagephenomenonandareanalyzedinthepresentpaperfromviewpointsdifferentfromtheoriginals’.Theyareusedhereinthisstudyforquitedifferentpurposesandanalyzedfromquitedifferentperspectives.Forthecreditconsideration,wewilllisttheauthorsfromwhoseworkstheexamplesentencesaredrawninthebibliographyattheendofthispaper.1.5LayoutofthePaperThepaperiscomposedofsixchapters,namelyintroduction,literaturereview,theoreticalframework,revisitingXHYs,itsgenerativeprocessandconclusion.ChapterOneisabriefintroductionthatprovidesanoverallpanorama,inwhichthepaperintroducesthesignificance,researchquestions,themethodologyanddatacollectionofthecurrentstudy,aswellasthelayoutofthethesis.ChapterTwoisabriefliteraturereviewwhichgivesadetailedsurveyonpreviousstudies3 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionalityofXHYs.Withrespecttotheinsightfulprecedingresearchesfromdifferentperspectives,thischaptermakesabriefcommentontheircontributionsandlimitations.ChapterThreeshowstheanalyticalframeworkofXHYs—undertheRuleofIntentionalityfromeventtousage-event,togetherwiththeintroductionofsuchusefulconceptsasprimaryconsciousnessandreflectiveconsciousness,GestaltTheory,andintentionalcontentandintentionalattitude,whichwillbeadoptedinexploringthegenerativemechanismofXHYs.ChapterFourbeginswithageneralsurveyofXHYs,includingthecharacteristics,classificationsofXHYsaswellastheirpragmaticfunctions.ChapterFivegivesadetailedanalysisongenerationmechanismoftwotypesofXHYsonthebasisofframework—undertheRuleofIntentionalityfromeventtousage-event.ChapterSix,theconclusionofthispaper,presentsmajorfindingsandprovideslimitationsandsuggestionsforthefutureresearch.4 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewChapterTwoLiteratureReview2.1IntroductionAsmentionedabove,XHYisafrequently-usedlanguageformcreatedbyChinesepeopleduringtheirdailylifeandwidelyspreadforitsuniquelanguageform,livelylanguagecharacteristicsandwittyexpressioneffects.ItisgenerallyacknowledgedthatXHYiscomposedoftwoparts:theformerpartandthelatterpart.Thetwopartsarecombinedtogethertoexpressanintegratedsemanticunit.Forexample,猫哭耗子—假慈悲.猫哭耗子istheformerpart;假慈悲isthelatterpart.WhenweuseapieceofXHY,weusuallyspeakouttheformerpartandomitthelatterpart,butthefundamentalmeaningofthewholeXHYconveyedbythelatterpartstillcanbecomprehendedandfiguredout,henceXHYnamed.AsinterestingandwidespreadChinesesayings,XHYhasdrawntheattentionofnumerousChineselinguistsformanyyears.DifferentlinguistsstudiedondifferentaspectsofXHY,suchasitsclassifications,characteristics,functionsandgenerativemechanisms,whichwillbeintroducedinthefollowingchapters.Inthischapter,thepreviousstudiesofXHYswillbepresented,firstfromasemanticperspective,thenwithintheframeworkoftwoclassicalpragmatictheories,andatlastfromacognitiveperspective.2.2PreviousStudiesofXHYs2.2.1SemanticStudyofXHYsAlthoughitisacknowledgedthatXHYiscomposedoftwoparts,whatkindofrelationshipexistsbetweenthetwopartsremainsacontroversialissue.ThesemanticstudyofXHYsmainlydiscussestheirrelations.Differentresearchershavedifferentopinionsaboutthe5 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionalityrelationshipofthetwoparts.ThescholarQiYucun(戚雨村)inhisworkLinguisticsCyclopedia(1998)tooktherelationshipofthetwopartsinXiehouyuastherelationshipof“metaphor”and“explanation”.ThescholarWenDuanzheng(温端政)inhismasterpieceXHYs(2000)explainstherelationshipasthatof“introduction”and“explanation”,namely“Yinzhuyu”.TheContemporaryChineseDictionary(2005)explainstherelationshipas“questionofariddle”and“answeroftheriddle”.WenDuanzheng’sexplanationiscomparativelymoreinfluentialandwidelyaccepted.WangQin(王勤,2001)inhisworkadvocatesthatXHYconsistsoftwopartsthatbearintroduction-explanationrelationsbetweenthemandpresumesthatXHYshavebothasurfacestructureanddeepstructure.Thesurfacestructurecanbedividedintotwoparts,theformerpartisthedescriptivepartwhichdescribessomeevents;thelatterpartistheexplanatorypartwhichexplainstraits,attributesandfunctionsofthedescribedeventoftheformerpart.Inhisopinion,thetwopartscanformtwodifferentkindsgrammaticalstructures:oneisthesubject-predicatestructurewiththeformerpartasthesubjectwhilethelatterpartasthepredicate,forexample,没有骨的伞——支撑不开and外甥打灯笼——照舅（照旧）;theotheristhesubjective-objectstructurewiththeobjectoftheformerpartasthesubjectofthelatterpart,forinstance,聋子放炮——散了and狗撵鸭子——呱呱叫.Inhispaper,heclaimsthat“thetwopartsinthedeepstructureconstitutesthecontradictoryunity”(王勤,2001:56).Thatistosay,thetwoparts,thougharedifferentinthesurfacestructure,expressthesamemeaninginthedeepstructure.Heassertsthatthereexists“identity”betweentheformerpartandthelatterpartthatkeepsXHYsvital.The“identity”inthedeepstructurehasthefollowingfivecharacteristics:(1)thewayofexpressingtheformerpartandthelatterpartcanbeinterchangedandbeconstruedasajudgmentsentenceingrammarormetaphorinrhetoric.Take没有骨的伞——支撑不开and稻草人救火——自身6 ChapterTwoLiteratureReview难保asexamples.没有骨的伞——支撑不开canbeinterpretedas支撑不开是没有骨的伞and稻草人救火——自身难保as自身难保是稻草人救火.(2)Therelationshipoftheformerpartandthelatterpartcanbechangedintotherelationshipofcauseandeffectandbeexpressedasacause-effectsentenceingrammar.Forexample,大水冲了龙王庙——一家人不认识一家人canbeexplainedas因为大水冲了龙王庙，所以一家人不认识一家人.(3)Theeventdescribedbythetwopartsisthesame.兔子的尾巴——长不了.Thetwopartsdescribethesameevent—rabbit’stail.(4)Becausetheeventdescribedbythetwopartsisthesame,sothesubjectmatteroftheeventexplainedbythelatterpartmustbecontainedintheformerpart.Thustheformerpartandthelatterpartshouldbemutuallyfused.骑驴看唱本——走着瞧.百年松枝五月芭蕉——粗枝大叶.粗枝isthetypicalpropertyof百年松枝and五月芭蕉ischaracterizedby大叶.(5)Duetothe“identity”betweentheformerpartandthelatterpartinthedeepstructure,thehearercandrawthefundamentalmeaningofthewholeXHYonlybyreceivingtheformerpart.Thus,that’swhywecallit歇后语.Forexample,黄鼠狼给鸡拜年——没安好心.Thespeakeronlysaysthefirstpart黄鼠狼给鸡拜年,theintendedmeaning没安好心canbeinferredbythehearer.JiangXiangyong(蒋向勇,2006)alsoexplainstherelationshipofthetwopartsas“introduction”and“explanation”.Heassertsthat“theformerpartofaXHYisanallusiveexpressionwhichleadstotheexplanationprovidedinthelatterpart,andthelatterpartisthefundamentalmeaningofthewholeXHYandannotationofthefirstpart”(蒋向勇,2006:18).HegivesanexplanationondifferentsemanticrelationsofXHY.HeassertsthatsomeXHYssharefundamentalmeanings,whileotherscontrastwitheachotherandstillsomehavemultiplemeanings.HestudiesthreekindsofsenserelationsofXHY:synonymousXHYs,antonymousXHYsandpolysemousXHYs.SynonymousXHYsmeantwoormoreXHYs7 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionalitythatsharethesame“explanation”whiledifferin“introductions”or“introductions”and“explanations”aredifferentbuttheirfundamentalmeaningsaresimilar.Hegivesthefollowingexample:“城门里扛竹竿——直入直出”and“袖筒里插棒槌——直入直出”,theyaredifferentin“introductions”butsharethesame“explanation”;“瞎子点灯——白费蜡”and“丈母娘管外甥——白费劲”,theyaredifferentin“introduction”,but“explanations”aremoreorlessthesame,withsimilarfundamentalmeanings.ThesecondtypeisantonymousXHYs.AntonymousXHYsrefertotwoormoreXHYs’fundamentalmeaningsareoppositenomatterwhetherornottheir“introductions”arethesameordifferent.“黄连树上吊苦胆——苦上加苦”and“糖里掺蜜——甜上加甜”.ComparedwithsynonymousXHYs,thenumberofantonymousXHYsismuchsmaller.PolysemousXHYsmeanthatthelatterpartofaXHYhasmorethanoneinterpretations.Hegivesthefollowingexample:(1)友布知道老陈的话是“铜铃打鼓——另有音”。（《号声燎亮》P.68）(2)办花会是铜铃打鼓——另有音，谁还有心思去玩花会？所以，往年那种热闹劲没有了，今年却只有“官盐店”的一个小班子，在镇上扭来扭去。（《中州风雷》P.65）Intheabovesentences,althoughthesameXHYisused,theinterpretationsof“另有音”arequitedifferent.Inexample(1),“音”refersto“弦外之音”,whileinexample(2),“音”refersto“原因”,ahomophoneof“因”.TheaboveexamplestellusthemeaningsofpolysemousXHYsareambiguousandthemeaningofaXHYmustadapttoitscontextinwhichitisused.ThecontextwillbetterhelpustodisambiguateaXHYandgainitsimpliedmeaning.2.2.2PragmaticStudyofXHYsSomelinguistsstudyXHYsfromthepragmaticperspective.Pragmatics,astudyof8 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewlanguageuse,studiesthegenerationandinterpretationoflanguagephenomena.JiangXiangyong(蒋向勇,2006)makesatentativestudyofXHYsfromthepragmaticperspective,takingtwoclassicalpragmatictheories—Grice’sConversationalImplicatureTheoryandPenelopeBrownandStephenLevinson’sFaceTheoryasitsframework.ThetheoryofconversationalimplicatureisproposedbyH.P.Grice,whoadvancesandformulatesCooperativePrinciple,thereinafterlabeledasCP,whichregulatesthatthespeakermustsaywhathebelievestobetrueinabriefandclearmanner.“Conversationalimplicature,asatypeofimpliedmeaning,whichisdeducedonthebasisoftheconventionalmeaningofwordstogetherwiththecontext,undertheguidanceoftheCPanditsmaxims”(胡壮麟,2007:198).CP,apragmatichypothesis,isaboutthattheparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate;otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibletocarryonthetalk.Theprinciplehasfourmaxims,namely,maximofquality,maximofquantity,maximofrelationandmaximofmanner,eachofwhichconsistsofoneormorespecificsub-maxims.Generallyspeaking,peopleshouldbecooperativeinverbalcommunicationanddonotsaywhathebelievestobefalseinaprolixityorobscuritymanner.However,peopleusuallyviolatetheCPintheircommunicationonpurposeanddonotsaythingsdirectlybuttendtoimplythem.JiangXiangyong(蒋向勇,2006)assertsthattheuseofXHYsdeliberatelyandostentatiouslyisamanifestationofviolationofmannermaxim.Accordingtomaximofmanner,peopleshouldspeakbrieflyandavoidprolixityintheprocessofcommunication.Butpeopleusuallyviolatethemaximofmanneronpurposeandgenerateconversationalimplicature,whichthehearerneedstodomoreefforttocomprehendwhatthespeakerwantstoconvey.InXHY,asmentionedabove,theformerpartcarriesavividimagestatedindescriptive;thelatterpartisexplanatorytotheformerpartandconveysthefundamentalmeaningofthewholeXHY(李行建,2001).XHYnotonlycontainsthefundamental9 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionalitymeaningsbutalsoprovidedunnecessaryandprolixsecondarymeaningsintheirformerpart.SotheuseofXHYfloutsthesub-maxim“bebrief”,thusimplicaturesshouldbeinferred.However,infact,thespeaker’sintentionalviolationofthesub-manner“bebrief”ofmannermaximbyusingXHYdoesnotlieinproducinganimplicitmeaningbutaimsatcreatingplain,humorousandvivideffects.Grice’sconversationalimplicaturefailedtogiveaconvincingexplanationoftheparticularuseofXHY,leavingmuchroomfortheintroductionofLevinson’sFacetheorytofillthisgap.Then,hestatesthattheuseofXHYsfloutsthemaximofmannerisforsakeofpoliteness.Heexplainsanotherimportanttheory—FaceThreateningTheory,thereinafterlabeledasFTA,proposedbyBrownandLevinson.FTAmeansthatinterlocutorsintheircommunicationoftenthreateneachotherandtheirownfacebymakingrequests,suggestions,bycriticizing,advisingorbyexpressingguilt,thanksandsoonandsoforth.XHYs,asaspeciallanguagephenomenon,areusedtocreatehumorous,vividorwittyeffecttosoftenortominimizethefacethreattotheaddresseeor,ofwhich,agoodmanyarecreatedtoexpresstheaddressers’differentattitudetowhattheyaretalkingabout.Theaddressersmayexpresstheirloveandhatred,appreciationanddepreciationorsatireetc.byusingdifferenttypesofXHYaccordingly.AccordingtoJiangXiangyong(蒋向勇,2006),FaceThreateningTheoryhasmorepersuasivepowerinexplainingtheparticularuseofXHYs.2.2.3CognitiveStudyofXHYsAtthelatepartof20thcentury,cognitivelinguisticsbecomesaninevitablestudyingtrend;andmoreandmorescholarstendtoborrowthetheoryincognitivelinguisticstoexplainthegenerativemechanismoftheChineseXHYs.XieYanhong(谢艳红,2006)makesadetailedanalysisofcognitivemechanismongenerationandunderstandingofXHYwithapplyingFigure-GroundTheoryasthetheoretical10 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewframework.HestudiesontheidentificationoffigureandgroundinXHY,cognitivecharacteristicsandcognitivemotivationsforthegenerationandunderstandingofXHYaswellasitsgrammaticalsignificance.Figure-GroundTheory,asanewandefficientwaytostudylinguisticphenomena,possessespowerfulexplanatorypowerinexploringthegenerationandunderstandingmechanismofXHYfromtheperspectiveofhumancognition.Inthisstudy,XHYpresentsacognitivestructureasa“ground-figure”,inwhichthecommunicativefocusbeplacedatthelatterpartofit.WangShaohuaandWangPeng(汪少华,王鹏,2011)makeeffortstoapplyConceptualIntegrationTheory,labeledasCIT,toXHYanalysis.CITisfirstlyadvancedbyAmericanprofessorsFauconnierandTurner(1997)inthebookMappinginThoughtandLanguage.Asarelativelynewapproachstudyinglanguagefromtheaspectofcognitionandthinking,CITprovidespeoplewithanetworkmodelforthelanguage’son-linemeaningconstruction.ThispapertriestoexplorethecognitiveprocessandmeaningconstructionofXHYandexaminetheexplanatorypowerofCITbytakingthreepiecesofXHY,阎王爷怀孕——肚子鬼胎,张飞绣花——粗人有细劲and坐飞机吹喇叭——响(想)得高asexamples.WanMinzhen(万敏珍,2010)proposestheConceptual-blendingProminenceModel(CPMforabbreviation),whichisprimarilybasedonthelinguistictheoryoftheConceptualBlendingTheory(CBT),metaphtonymyandprominenceprincipletoexploretheunderlyinggenerationmechanismofChineseXHYs.UndertheguidanceofCPM,hegivesanexplanationofthemetonymy-productionrelationsbetweentheformerpartandthelatterpartofoneXHYitems.Hisachievementsgiveasolidfoundationforthepresentstudy,whichwillbepresentinChapterFour.GaoZhu(高竹,2010)makesametaphoricalconstrualofXHYbasedonMetaphorTheory.HeanalyzesLakeoffandJohnson’sclassificationonmetaphoranditsconstructionon11 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionalityXHY.Afteranalyzing,hegivesusafurtherexplanationontherelationshipbetweenmetaphorandXHY,howmetaphorrepresentedinXHY,thepropertiesofthesourcedomainofXHY,natureofphoneticmetaphorXHYaswellasmetaphorsinXHYanditspragmaticvalues.Attheendofhispaper,heborrowsCIT,proposedbyFauconnier,toexploretheunderlyingmetaphoricalgenerationmechanismofXHY.2.3SummaryWehavediscussedthreemainapproachestoXHY:thesemantic,pragmaticandcognitiveapproaches.Theseinsightfulworksprovideasolidfoundationforthefurtherstudyinthisfield,buttheystillhavetheirlimitations.Thesemanticstudyismainlyonthesurfacelevelasitonlyanalyzestherelationshipbetweentheformerpartandthelatterpart.ItfocusesonthestaticmeaningofXHYsbutcannotrevealthedynamicproductionprocessofitsmeaning.AlthoughWangQin（王勤,2001）putforwardtheconceptofdeepstructure,hedidnotdeeplyexploretheunderlyinglawswhichcontroltheformationofXHYs.Asforthepragmaticapproach,italsoneedsfurtherstudy.ItfocusesonthepragmaticprinciplesappliedinthegenerationofXHYsbutittellsnothingaboutthesemanticmeaningofthislanguageformanddoesnotrevealtheunderlyinggenerationmechanismofit.AndGrice’sconversationalimplicaturetheoryisnotsopowerfultoaccountfortheexplanationofXHYsandFaceThreateningTheoryisnotadequatetoexpoundthepragmaticfunctionofXHYsexactly.Thecognitivestudyalsohasitsowndrawbacks.Withheateddiscussionsandresearchesoncognitivelinguistics,someresearcherstrytoappealtosomecognitivetheoreticalframeworkstostudyXHYs,butasystematicandpersuasivestudyhasnotbeenformed.Meanwhile,eachtheoryhasitsowndisadvantages.CIT,asthemostpowerfultheory12 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewincognitivelinguistics,hasitsownshortcomings.AlthoughCIThasmorepowerfulinexploringcognitiveprocessandmeaningconstructionoflanguagephenomena,itneglectstheroleofintentionalityoftheaddresserorspeakerintheprocessofgeneratingnewlanguageforms.Tosolvetheaboveproblems,amorescientificandconvincingstudyfromanewperspectiveisbadlyneeded,sobasedonthoseachievementsandtoavoidthedefectsoftheirstudies,theauthorproposesanewmodelfromtheperspectiveofIntentionalitytoexplorethegenerativemechanismofXHYs.13 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionality14 ChapterThreeTheoreticalFrameworkChapterThreeTheoreticalFramework3.1IntroductionThesecondchapterhasmadeabriefdiscussiononthecontributionsandlimitationsofthepreviousstudies.Andinthischapter,weintendtointroducethetheoreticalframeworkofourcurrentstudy.XuShenghuan’s(徐盛桓,2012)explanationoftheRuleofIntentionality,whichconstrainsthetransformationfromeventtousage-event,willbepresentedindetailandouranalysisonthegenerativemechanismofXHYwillbecarriedoutbasedonthisframework.3.2EventandUsage-EventInordertomakeadeepunderstandingofwhatroleintentionalityplaysintheprocessofthegenerationmechanismofnewlanguageexpressionandhowthegenerationmechanismisprocessed,weshouldtakeintoconsiderationofeventandusage-event.Eventandusage-event,asetofconcept,isusedbyXuShenghuan(徐盛桓,2012)todescribetheprocessofthecomingintobeingoftheinitialshapeofsentencerepresentation.Eventandusage-eventalsohasastrongexplanationpowerinexplainingtheformingoflanguageform,becauseeverylanguageformcanfunctionasacomponentofsentencestructure.Now,let’slookattheimportantnotionsabouteventandusage-event.3.2.1FromEventtoUsage-EventAsweknowthateverythingisconnectedtogethertosomedegree,nothingcanexisttotallyindependentofothers.Whateverpeoplecansee,hearandtouch,orevenasentenceoccurredtothem,orwhatevertherelationshipbetweenthings,betweenthingsandevent15 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionalitypeoplecanfeel,thereisnotnecessarilyatotalboundaryamongthem.Thesameistruefortheformingofsentences.Sentencesarenotgeneratedindependently,butbasedoncertaineventwhichformsamentalimageinpeople’smind,thuswecangeneratethem.Fromthepracticalapplicationofsentences,wecansaythatasentencereflectsanevent;thatistosay,asimplesentencereflectsasimpleevent,acomplexsentencereflectsacompositeeventthatiscomposedbyseveralrelatedsimpleones.Inthisway,wecansaythatsentencesareconstrueddependingononeeventoraseriesofevents.ThisiswhatXuShenghuan(徐盛桓,2012)calls“sentences’event-dependency”.However,heretheso-called“dependentevent”isnottheindependenteventhappeninginournatureorsociety,butwhataspeakerconstructedbasedonhis/herownsubjectivity.Thatistosay,aneventconstructedbyaspeaker,whichisconvertedintosentences,isnottheoriginalevent,butaconstructedeventusedbythespeakerforsatisfyingspecificcommunicativepurposes.This“constructedevent”isnamedasusage-event.Actually,theconceptofusage-eventisfirstusedbyR.W.Langacker,inhisworkFoundationsofCognitibeGrammar,VolumeI,TheoreticalPrerequisites,publishedin1987.Hepointsoutthat“usage-eventisasymbolicexpressionassembledbyaspeakerinaparticularsetofcircumstancesforaparticularpurpose:thissymbolicrelationshipholdsbetweenadetailed,context-dependentconceptualizationandsometypeofphonologicalstructure(inthecaseofspeech,itistheactualvocalization)”(Langacker,1987:66).Theusage-eventconceptwetalkabouthereisinconcordancewithwhatLangackerstates.AccordingtoXuShenghuan(徐盛桓,2012),theemergingintobeingofaninitialshapeofsentencerepresentationcomesfromtheemergenceofprimaryconsciousnessintoreflectiveconsciousness;andthegenerationprocessoftheinitialshapeofsentencerepresentationisaprocessofcuttingtheeventintotheusage-event,makingtheusage-eventsuitableforthepresentingoftheeventinthisparticularsituation.Soanothertwonotions,thatis,primary16 ChapterThreeTheoreticalFrameworkconsciousnessandreflectiveconsciousness,needtobeclarified.3.2.2PrimaryConsciousnessandReflectiveConsciousnessPrimaryconsciousnessisatermcoinedbyAmericanbiologistGeraldEdelmantodescribetheability,foundinhumansandsomeanimals,tointegrateobservedeventswithmemorytocreateanawarenessofthingsintheworldaroundthem.Thisformofconsciousnessisalsosometimescalledperceptualorsensoryconsciousness.Putanotherway,primaryconsciousnessisthepresenceofvarioussubjectivesensorycontentsofconsciousnesssuchassensations,perceptions,andmentalimages.(Seehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primaryconsciousness)Reflectiveorself-consciousness,coinedbyGeraldEdelmanassecondaryconsciousness,isanindividual"saccessibilitytotheirhistoryandplans.Itisalsolooselyandcommonlyassociatedwithhavingawarenessofone"sownconsciousness.Theabilityallowsitspossessorstogobeyondthelimitsoftherememberedpresentofprimaryconsciousness.Primaryconsciousnesscanbedefinedassimpleawarenessthatincludesperceptionandemotion.Assuch,itisascribedtomostanimals.Bycontrast,secondaryconsciousnessdependsonandincludessuchfeaturesasself-reflectiveawareness,abstractthinking,volitionandmetacognition.(Seehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondaryconsciousness)Wehaveclarifiedthenotionofprimaryconsciousnessandreflectiveconsciousness,nowweturntolookathowtheeventiscuttedintousage-event.Theemergenceofusage-eventistheproductof“reflection”oftheprimaryconsciousnessintothereflectiveconsciousness.Here,theso-called“reflection”referstoaprocessinwhich,withtheaidofmemoryandlanguagecapability,thereflectiveconsciousnesseventtakesthememoryimagetheprimaryconsciousnesseventprecipitatesasitsexperiencecontent.Thatistosay,“theemergenceofusage-eventisfinallyrepresentedthroughaprocessofwhichwitnessestheexercisesof17 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionalityassociationandimaginationonthebasisofthepersonalmemoriesandexperiences,soastobringaboutaGestalttransformationconstrainedbytheintentionalityaswellasbythepresentcontext”(徐盛桓,2012:144).Here,therearetwointerfacedaspectsinvolvedintheprocessofemergenceofusage-event:oneisthememoryofprimaryconsciousnessimage;theotherisaGestalttransformationoftheprimaryconsciousnessimage.Theso-calledGestalttransformationisadescriptionandexplanationofmentalactivities.Whenpeopleobservetheexternalwordaroundthem,theymakeamentalprocessingofthephysicalstimulithepreviouseventsprovideincertaincontexts;thismentalactivitymaypossiblybringaboutaGestalttransformation.Nowlet’sturnourexplanationstowhatGestaltisandhowphysicalstimuliinthewordcanbetransformedintomentalimage.3.3GestaltTheoryAsfarasIknow,Gestalttheoryisoneofthemostimportantpsychologicaltheories.ItwasfoundedinGermanybyMaxWertheimerin1930s.Gestaltpsychologistsfocusonthecomplexperceptualphenomenaandendeavortofigureoutsuchissues:howpeopleperceivescenesandspaces;howtheysolvecomplexproblems;howtheyrelatedifferentcomponentsoftheirexperiencewithoneanotherwhateverthedomainoftheexperience.(Seehttp://cas.buffalo.edu/classes/psy).InGestalttheory,“gestalt”isadvocatedbythegestaltpsychologiststomean“unifiedandmeaningfulwhole”or“configuration”.Itisespeciallysuitedfortheunderstandingoforderandstructureinpsychologicalevents.AccordingtoGestaltpsychology,peoplenaturallyorganizetheirperceptionsaccordingtocertainpatterns.ThisiscalledGestaltPrinciples.Theyaregivenbelow:(1)PrincipleofProximity:“individualelementswithasmalldistancebetweenthemwill18 ChapterThreeTheoreticalFrameworkbeperceivedasbeingsomehowrelatedtoeachother”(Ungerer&Schmid,2001:33).Objectsneareachotherwilltendtobegroupedtogetherandperceivedasawholeentity.InthefollowingFigure3.1,thecirclesontheleftarelikelytobegroupedintwoverticalcolumns,whilethoseontherightaretendtobeperceivedastwohorizontalrows.Figure3.1PrincipleofProximity(2)PrincipleofSimilarity:“individualelementsthataresimilartendtobeperceivedasonecommonsegment”(Ungerer&Schmid,2001:33).Itemsthataresimilartendtogroupedtogether.Humanbeingsinclinetogroupsimilarelementstogetherandperceivethemasformingagestalt,withinalargeform.InFigure3.2,peopletendtoseethefollowingillustrationcontainsverticalcolumnsofcirclesandsquares.Figure3.2PrincipleofSimilarity(3)PrincipleofClosure:“perceptualorganizationtendstobeanchoredinclosedfigures.”(Ungerer&Schimd,2001:33).InFigure3.3,wecanseethreeblackcircles19 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionalitycoveredbyawhitetriangle,eventhoughitcouldjustaseasilybethreeincompletecirclesjoinedtogether.Thetendencyofperceptioninclosedfiguredrivesobserversviewthegappedfigureasawhitetriangleinsteadofthreeincompletecircles.Figure3.3PrincipleofClosure(4)PrincipleofContinuity:Peopletendtoregardthepictureasthetwocrosstheline,butnotfourperspectives.Figure3.4PrincipleofContinuity(5)PrincipleofFigure-GroundRelationship:fromdifferenttheperspectives,futureandbackgroundhaveadivision;thisalsodependsontheprocessofthinking.InFigure3.3,thefigureandgroundrelationshipschangeastheeyeperceivestheimageofavaseorthesilhouetteoftwofaces.Figure3.5PrincipleofFigure-GroundRelationship20 ChapterThreeTheoreticalFramework(6)PrincipleofCommonFate:thegroupingtogetherofobjectsthathavethesametrendofmotionandarethereforeonthesamepath.InFigure3.6,thereareanarrayofdotsandhalfthedotsaremovingupwardwhiletheotherhalfaremovingdownward,weperceivetheupwardmovingdotsandthedownwardmovingdotsastwodistinctunits.Figure3.6PrincipleofCommonFateInaword,itistheaboveprinciples,whichgovernhuman’sperceptiveprocess,thatmakepeoplegenerateassociationandimaginationreflectionstotransformphysicalstimuliintonewmentalimages.AsXuShenghuan(徐盛桓,2012)haspointedoutthattheoccurrenceofGestalttransformationmustbeconstrainedbytheintentionalityaswellasbythepresentcontext.Nowlet’slookatwhatroleintentionalityplaysintheprocessofthereflectionofeventintousage-event.3.4IntentionalityIntentionality,whichisofmedievalScholasticorigin,isfirstusedandexplainedbythephilosopherThomasAquinasfromtheperspectiveofmentalphilosophy.ThenthephilosophyFranzBrentanoreinterpretstheconceptofintentionalityinmodernphilosophyinhisbookPsychologyfromanEmpiricalStandpoint(1993)towardstheendofthenineteenthcentury.Heusestheword“intentionality”todistinguishpsychicalphenomenonandphysicalphenomenon.EdmundHusserl,aGermanphilosopher,extendsthisconceptandtransformsit21 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionalityintoapurephilosophyterm,whichisusedinphenomenologystudies.Heanalyzesthreelinksinintentionalactivities:intentionalact,intentionalcontentandintentionalobject.Later,someotherscholarsstudyintentionalityfromotherperspectives.JohnR.Searle,anAmericanprofessorofphilosophy,improvesthetraditionaltheoryofintentionality.Searle(2004)makesasystematicresearchonintentionalityfromtheperspectiveofspeechact,stressingthatmeaningshouldbeinterpretedwithregardstotheintentionalityinthespeechacts.HeimproveshisparticulartheoryofintentionalityinthecontextofSpeechActTheory,whichisadevelopmentofBritishphilosopherJ.L.Austin’soriginalideaandcoupleitbacktoexplainingissuesoflanguage.Here,weshouldnotconfusethemeaningoftheword“intention”withthemeaningof“intentionality”.Heputsthat,“intendingtodosomethingisjustoneformofintentionalityalongwithbelief,hope,fear,desire,andlotsofothers…Intentionalityisdirectedness;intendingtodosomethingisjustonekindofintentionalityamongothers”(Searle,1983:3).Searledefinesintentionalityasthe“propertyofmanymentalstatesandeventsbywhichtheyaredirectedatoraboutorofobjectsandstatesofaffairsintheworld”(Searle,1983:1).InSearle’sword,DirectnessorAboutnessisthemostimportantfeatureofintentionality.BritishphilosopherH.P.Gricefirstrevealsthecloserelationshipbetweenintentionandcommunication.HisConversationalImplicatureTheoryconsistsoftwocomponents:Meaning-IntentionandTheCooperativePrinciple(CP).ThefirsttheoryofMeaning-Intentionisregardedasatheoryofcommunicationwhichmightbeachievedintheabsenceofanyconventionalmeansforexpressingtheintendedmessage.Thesecondtheory,CP,isessentiallyatheoryabouthowpeopleuselanguage.TheCPtheoryhasbeenmentionedabove,nowwewillinterprettheMeaning-Intentiontheory.Grice(1957)inhispaperMeaningmakesananalysisofcommunicativeintention.Heholdsthatthespeakernotonlysayssomethingbutalsoimplicatessomething.Inorderto22 ChapterThreeTheoreticalFrameworkclarifytheessenceofmeaning,hedrawsadistinctionbetweennaturalandnon-naturalmeaning.Naturalmeaningisfactiveornotinvolvingintention.Hegivesthefollowingexamples:(1)thosespotsmeanmeasles;(2)cloudsmeantitisgoingtorain.Non-naturalmeaningisnon-factiveandintentioninvolved;(3)Hisgesturemeantthathewasfedup;(4)Hiscoughmeantthatthesupervisorhadcometotheclassroombuilding.Grice’stheoryofMeaning-Intentionisconstruedasatheoryofcommunication.ForGrice,meaninghastobeinterpretedintermsofthehearerandsomeaningandintentionwerebroughttogetherinhisanalysis.3.5IntentionalContentandIntentionalAttitudeXuShenghuan(徐盛桓,2008)makesafurtherstudyofintentionalityfromtheperspectiveofphilosophyofmind.Hediscussestherelationshipbetweenlanguageandmind,emphasizingthatlanguagesaremeaninglessthemselves,buttheirmeaningscomefromintentionalitythatpeopleendowthemwith.“Whatcharacterizesalanguagecommunicationisthatthespeakerconveyshis/herintentiontothehearer,andtheheareridentifieshis/herintention”(徐盛桓,2008d:4).AccordingtoXuShenghuan,“Intentionalityisacorecontentofthehumanbeing’sconsciousness,beingtheconsciousness’sinitialstepandgoingthroughthewholeprocess”(徐盛桓,2013:6).“Beforethespeakersayssomethingtothehearer,he/shehastheintentionalcontentsinhis/herminds,whichwillbeexpressedoutvialanguage.Thespeakeralsohastomakesurewhatattitudehe/sheispronetotake,directorindirect,ironicorcomplimentary,appreciativeordepreciatory,etc.”(徐盛桓,2008d.assitedin宋杨,2012).Intentionalityisreflectedbyintentionalcontentandintentionalattitude.Theintentionalityframeincludesintentionalcontentandintentionalattitude,withthelatterbeingfurtherdividedintothreesub-categories,23 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionalitynamely,mannerofmentalstate,evaluationofmentalstateandorientationofmentalstate,eachofwhichhasitsowncharacteristics.Mannerofmentalstaterepresentsasamentalstate,suchas,believe,know,doubt,fear,hope,love,hate,etc.Mentalstatescanbecharacterizedbyapredicate,followedbyapropositionasitsobject.Thatmentalstatewillprobablyshowsubtledifferencesbyemployingdifferentpredicates.Forexample,MaryisvisitinginShanghai.Itrepresentsamentalstateofanevent,thatis,IknoworamsurethatMaryisvisitinginShanghai.BecausethespeakerpossessesthismentalstateofIknoworamsurethatMaryisvisitinginShanghai,sohe/shegeneratestheutterance,MaryisvisitinginShanghai.Evaluationofmentalstaterepresentsasmentalevaluationofthingsorevents.Differentperceiversmayperceivethingsoreventsdifferently.Forexample,athingmightbeperceivedtobemoreimportant(incontrastto,“lessimportant”)ormoreexplicit(incontrastto,“moreimplicit”)thanothers,oraneventmightbeconsideredtooccuraheadoforbehindotherevents.Forexample,(1)Iwasoncenturyduty.Isawtheenemyapproaching.Iopenedfire.Ibeatofftheattack.(1’)IopenedfireattheenemywhenIsawthemapproachingwhileIwasoncenturyduty.FinallyIbeatthemoff.(1’’)Ibeatofftheenemy’sattackbyopeningfirewhenIsawthemapproachingwhileIwasoncenturyduty.Theaboveexample(1)isarrangedaccordingtoachronologicalorderandcausalchains,whereas（1’-1’’）arereorderedbydisturbingitsoriginalchronologicalandcasualorder.Thisshowsthatthesubjectmakesamentalrejudgementofeverylinksoftheeventandremeasures24 ChapterThreeTheoreticalFrameworktheroleeverylinkplaysinthecourseofthedevelopmentoftheevent.Chronologically,“Iwasoncenturyduty”shouldantedatelatterpartsoftheevent,butin（1’-1’’）,itispostdated.Thesubjecthandlestheeventfromdifferentviewpoints,showinghis/herdifferentintentionalattitudestowardsthesameevent.Orientationofmentalstaterepresentsasamentalorientationtothingsorevents.Whenaspeakerobservesordescribesonethingorevent,he/sheispronetotakecertainattitudestothethingoreventhedescribes,suchas,neutral,euphemistic,humorous,exaggerated,kind/indifferent,condemnatory/complimentary,positive/negativeorbeautified/uglified,etc.Intentionalityisthestartingpointandendingresultofanyconsciousbehavior.Itcanbedividedintoindividualintentionalityandcollectiveintentionality.Individualintentionalityreferstotheintentionofanobjectoreventinnatewhichisdevelopedwithman’sinteractionwiththeworld;whilecollectiveintentionalityistheintentionofanobjectoreventthatpeopleinacommoncommunityacknowledge,acceptuniversally(刘景钊,2005).Individualintentionalityexistsinhumanmind,whichvariesfrompersontoperson.Collectiveintentionalityisrepresentedthroughhumanmutualactivities,whichisagreatdiscoveryofSearle.Searle(1990)extendsindividualintentionalitytocollectiveintentionalitywhichheregardsconnectssociety,language,consciousnessandmind.Heclaimsthat“collectiveintentionalityisthefoundationofallthesocialactivitiesunderwhoserestrictionpeoplesharecommonideasandfeelingstoachievecommunicationandcooperation”(Searle,1990:401-416).Withthefunctionofcollectiveintentionality,peopleformuniformedintentionalityinacommoncommunityoracountry,inwhichpeoplecanrespectandbetterunderstandeachother.Collectiveintentionality,whichconstrainsindividualintentionality,hasthefunctionofidentifyingandintegratingindividualintentionality;whileindividualintentionalitydevelopsonthebasisofcollectiveintentionality.Therefore,collectiveintentionalityplaysavery25 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionalitycrucialroleinhumandailylifeandtheapplicationoftheirlanguages.Infact,everynewlanguageformisinitiallygeneratedbyanindividualonthebasisofcollectiveintentionalitytoachievehis/hercommunicativeintention,butgraduallyafteritisacceptedbyacommunity,itwillbecomearepresentationofcollectiveintentionalityandwillbestoredinpeople’slongmemoriesandusedasthinkingtoolsofdirectnessundercertaincontext.3.6GenerativeMechanismBasedontheRuleofIntentionalityfromEventtoUsage-eventWeknowthefamousSemanticTriangletheoryproposedbyOgdenandRichardsintheirbookTheMeaningofMeaning,publishedin1923.Itisatheorywhichexplicitlyemploysthenotionof“concept”tointerpretthemeaningofaword.Theyarguethattherelationbetweenawordandathingitreferstoisnotdirect,butthroughthemediationbyconcept.ConceptWord------------------------ThingFigure3.7SemanticTriangleThistheoryprovidesanewangleforthestudyofthemeaningsoflanguageforms.ButtherearesomecriticismsonSemanticTriangle:(1)thoughthelinkbetweenwordandthingisviatheconceptsofpeople’smind,howtoidentifyconcepts?(2)Whydoesthesamewordexpressadifferentconceptforpeoplefromdifferentpartsoftheworld?(3)Andmorewidely,cananyoneguaranteethataconceptcomingtohis/hermindwhenhe/sheusesawordisgoingtobethesameastheonebroughttohis/herreader’smind?Therefore,aconceptemerginginthiswaycannotberegardedsimplyastheword’smeaning.Consequently,anothertriangular26 ChapterThreeTheoreticalFrameworkdiagram—Pierce’sSemioticTriangleisintroducedtosolvetheseweakpoints.TheAmericanfamousphilosopherandlogistCharlesSandersPierce(1839-1914)doessomecreativeresearchesonsemiosisandestablisheshisownsemiotictheory.HissemiotictheoryisdifferentfromSaussure’sconceptofbinarismsignifierandsignifiedconcept.Saussureclassifiessignsintotwoparts,signifierandsignified,andbelievesthatthelinkbetweenthemisarbitrary.WhereasC.S.Pierceputsforwardanotherdistinction.Hedividessignintothreeparts:representamen,objectandinterpretantandproposeshistriadicrelationtheory.HemodifiesthedrawbackofSaussure’sconceptofsign,addingtheinterpretantwhichisthesigninthemindintotherelationshipsbetweenrepresentamenandobject,signifierandsignified.Pierce’sconceptoftriadicrelationcanbedescribedgraphicallyasfollows:InterpretantRepresentamenObjectFigure3.8Pierce’sSemioticTriangleInthisdiagramform,therepresentamencanberelatedtoitsobjectviainterpretant.Thisthreefoldrelationshiptellsustheprocessoftheproductionandinterpretationofsigns.AccordingtoPierce,“semioticprocesseshavethreepartitions:(1)therepresentamenorthesign,somethingthatstandsforsomethingelsetosomeoneinsomeway;(2)theobject,whichisthe“somethingelse”orentity,stoodforbytherepresentamen,beitanabstractconceptoraconcreteobject;(3)theinterpretant,whichistheeffectcreatedbybringingtherepresentamenandobjecttogetherinthemindofaperceiver”(Peirce,1955:99).Peircemakesgreatcontributionstosemioticstudies.InterpretantiscreatedbyPeircehimself.Heimposesinterpretant,thatis,subjectivecolorsonpeople’sinterpretationofthingsand27 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionalityproposesthatthesignbecomesmeaningfulduetotheinterpreter’sinterpretationandtherecognitionthroughcertaincommunityorsocialnorms(卢德平,2002).ThekeydifferencebetweenSemanticTriangleandPierce’sSemioticTriangleisthatinFigure3.7,thedottedlineisusedbetweenwordandthing,whereasinFigure3.8,Pierceusessolidlinebetweenrepresentamenandobject.AccordingtoOgdenandRichards,therelationbetweenawordandathingitreferstoisnotdirect,whileinPeirce’stheory,therelationsbetweenrepresentamenandobjectcanbedividedintothreetypes:thesimilar,thecausalandthesymbolic;theirrelationshipiseithersimilarorcausal,butatanyrate,itwouldnotbearbitraryorrandom.BasedonPeirce’sTrichotomyofsign,wewillintroduceanothertriadicrelation,whichisusedtointerpretthegenerationofinitialshapeofsentencerepresentationonthebasisoftheRuleofIntentionality.Intheaboveparts,XuShenghuan(徐盛桓,2012)pointsoutthattheemergingofcomingintobeingofaninitialshapeofsentencerepresentationcomesfromtheemergenceoftheprocessofwhichcutstheeventintotheusage-eventbyvirtueofaGestalttransformationconstrainedbytheintentionalityaswellasthecontext.Thediagramformispresentedas:IntentionalityUsage-eventEventFigure3.9TrinityofInitialShapeofSentenceRepresentationInthisFigure,usage-eventstandsforanewimageryofunderlyingcharacterofevent,whichisconstructedbypeople’sreflectiveconsciousness;eventstandsforthepresentingcharacterofindependentevents,whichisfilteredbypeople"sprimaryconsciousness;andIntentionalityforthecontentandattitudeofthesubject’scommunicativeintention.Actually,28 ChapterThreeTheoreticalFrameworktheprocessofcuttingeventintousage-eventisachievedbysubject’sintentionality.Differentpeoplehavedifferentreflectionsonthesameevent,thusdifferentlinguisticexpressionswillbegeneratedaccordingtowhatcontentthesubjectwantstoconveyandwhatattitudethesubjecttakestowardsthesameevent.Fromtheaboveanalysis,wecancometotheconclusionthattheRuleofIntentionalitygovernsthegenerativemechanismoftheinitialshapeofsentencerepresentation.Nowlet’slookathowinitialshapeofsentencerepresentationisgeneratedundertheRuleofIntentionalityandexplorewhatmentalfactorsinfluencethegenerationandapplicationofanewsentencerepresentation.Thegenerativeprocessmightgothroughthefollowingsteps:(1)FacinganeweventandgeneratingaGestalttransformationofthisevent;(2)Transformingeventintousage-eventthroughGestalttransformationcontrolledbysubject’sintentionality.Theframeofintentionalityincludesintentionalcontentandintentionalattitude.TheRuleofIntentionalitygovernsthewholegenerationprocessofXHYs.Itoperatesinthefollowingsteps:(a)Thesubject/speakerperceivesandbelievestheexistenceofevent;(b)Thesubjectpossessescertainintentionalattitudestowardsevent.Thatistosay,threesub-categoriesofintentionalattitudeswillberepresentedinthisways.(I’)Mannerofmentalstate:thesubjectpossessesthismentalstateofbelievingtheexistenceofevent;(I’’)Evaluationofmentalstate:thesubjectmakesevaluationofeventandhighlightsfeaturesofeventheperceived;(I’’’)Orientationofmentalstate:thesubjectanalyzeseventwithhumorous,condemnatory/complimentary,positive/negativeorbeautified/uglied,etc.orientationsofmentalstate;(c)accordingtointentionalattitudes,thesubjectfindsreasonstoexplaineventasusage-event.(3)Endowingtheusage-eventwithlanguageexpressionsbasedoncollectiveintentionality.Languageexpressionofusage-eventisthespeaker’sintentionalexplanation29 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionalityofeventanditreflectsthespeaker’sintentionalcontent.Throughsocialorverbalcommunication,certainlanguageexpressionscanbetransformedintoacommonknowledgeofalanguagecommunityandbecomearepresentationofcollectiveintentionality.Thislanguageexpressionwillbestoredinpeople’slongmemoriesandusedasthinkingtoolsofdirectnessundercertaincontext.Therefore,basedontheircommonknowledgeofthislanguageexpression,peoplecancommunicatemoresuccessfullyandavoidmisunderstandingwhentheyuseittocommunicatewitheachother.Actually,itisthecollectiveintentionalitythatensuresthesmoothlyconductofcommunicationamongthem.3.7SummaryInthischapter,wemainlyintroducesomeusefulconcepts,eventandusage-event,primaryconsciousnessandreflectiveconsciousness,Gestalttheoryaswellassomenotionsofintentionality,whichsetthetheoreticalgroundfortheanalyticalframeworkofXHYs.Theprocessoftransformationformeventtousage-eventisachievedundertheguidelineofsubject’sintentionality.Intentionpenetratesintothewholeprocessofcommunicationinvisibly,whichisusuallyneglectedbypeople.Itplaysapremiseroleintheprocessofthegenerationoflanguageexpressions.Sointentionalityneedstobeintroducedtomakeamorescientificexplorationofthegenerationprocessofinitialshapeofsentencerepresentation.Atlast,theauthordrawsatrianglediagramtointerpretthegenerationprocessofinitialshapeofsentencerepresentation,whichwillbeappliedintotheanalysisofthegenerationmechanismofXHYs.30 ChapterFourRevisitingXHYsChapterFourRevisitingXHYs4.1IntroductionSofarwehavealreadydiscussedthepreviousstudiesonXHYsinChapterTwoandpresentedtherelativetheoriesthatourresearchcouldbebasedoninChapterThree.Inthischapter,wearegoingtomakeanoverviewofXHYs,makeclearitsclassifications,characteristicsandfunctions.StudiesinthischapterwillsetasolidfoundationforexplainingwhypeoplegenerateXHYsandhowXHYsaregenerated.4.2CharacteristicsofXHYsItisacknowledgedthatXHYiscomposedoftwosegments.Theformeristhedescriptiveorintroductorypartwhilethelatterisexplanatorypart,butsometimesthelatterpartisomitted.Thetwopartsareoftenseparatedbyapauseinbetween.Now,let’sdiscussthecharacteristicsoftheelementsoftwoparts.TheformerpartofXHYusuallyemploysavividpictureoranimagethatistightlyattachedtoChinesecultureorpeople’slife.ItexhibitsareflectionofChinesecultureandfullyembodiesthecharacteristicsofvisualizationandhumor.Thefunctionoftheformerpartistoarousethehearerorreaders"associationandleadtotheintendedmeaningoftheXHYexpressedbythelatterpart.Forexample,黄鼠狼给鸡拜年—没安好心.(AweaselpaysacalltoachickonNewYear’sDaywithapresent—itharborsnogoodintention).TheformerpartofXHYrenderstheimageofaweaselpaysacalltoachickonNewYear’sDaywithapresent.Thelatterpartconveystheintendedmeaningthatitharborsnogoodintention.Theformerpartpresentsavividpictureorimagebeforeus.Thematerialsofitmay31 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionalityoriginatefrom(a)certainactionsrelatedtopeople’sdailyexperiences;打翻了五味瓶——酸甜苦辣咸，样样有(b)fairytales,literaryworksandhistoricaleventsorstories;范进中举——喜疯了(c)religionsandsuperstitions;阎王出告示——鬼话连篇(d)imagination;耗子上吊——猫逼的.MaterialsmentionedintheformerpartofXHYarethosewithvisualandlivelycharacteristicsandareconcernedwithavarietyoffieldsandthings,personsandactivities.Althoughmostoftheelementsintheformerpartarenotnecessarilyreal,theyarecloselyrelatedtopeople’sdailylifeandChinesehistoryandbearhumorousandexpressiveforce.Hence,theyareeasilyadoptedbypeopletoconveymeaningsmorevividlyandhumorously.Thoughsometimesomitted,thelatterpartofXHYisalsoimportant.ItelaboratestheintendedmeaningoftheformerpartandactsasafinishingtouchofaXHY.Forexample,(1)不要搭理他，他就是黄鼠狼给鸡拜年（——没安好心）.Inthiscase,fromtheformerpart黄鼠狼给鸡拜年,wecanseeitisimpossiblebecausethe黄鼠狼isthenaturalenemyofthechickanditneverpaysacalltoachickonNewYear’sDaywithagoodintention.Soevenwithouttheexplanationbythelatterpart,wecandrawtheintendedmeaningoftheformerpart—heharborsnogoodintention.Inmostcases,readers/hearerscanfigureouttheintendedmeaningaccordingtotheircommonsenseandthecontext.Thoughoccasionallyomitted,inmostcase,itshouldbestatedmoreoftenthannot.Actually,XHYisfirstgeneratedbyanindividualtoconveyhis/herintention.Inordertoexpressthespeaker"sintentionmoreeffectivelyandefficientlyandavoiddifficultyorobscurityinunderstandingtheintendedmeaning,thelatterpartmustbestated.TheauthorwilltakesomenewXHYsasexamples.Withthetransitionofagesandadvancementofsociety,newXHYshavebeencoined32 ChapterFourRevisitingXHYsandareonconstantmove,thusdisplayinggreatvitality.Beingareflectionofthemodernsocietyinlanguage,newXHYshowsthetrueviewofcommonpeoplenowadays.Thefollowingexamplesarecollectedfromthewebsites.(2)老鼠见了猫——拔腿就跑——慌了神儿——吓破胆儿(3)老鼠见了猫——不慌不忙（老鼠知道现在的猫是宠物，不会捉老鼠）——现在的世界谁怕谁(2)and(3)areantonymousXHYs.Theyhavethesameformerpartbutconveydifferentmeaningswhichcanbeseenfromthedifferentlatterparts.IfthelatterpartsoftheseXHYsareomitted,itwillbedifficultforreaders/hearerstounderstandtherealintendedmeaningsoftheseXHYsandthereforeutterancecontainingtheseXHYswillbecomepuzzlingandmisunderstandingmayoccur.Therefore,wecansaythatthetwopartsofXHYsaretwoinseparableelementsofanentiretyandthelatterpartisthefocusrevealingtheintendedmeaningoftheXHYandgenerallycannotbeomitted.However,withlong-termapplicationofthesenewXHYs,theirmeaningshavebecomefamiliartothemass,thusthelatterpartsofthemcanbeomitted.ThisisbecausethelatterpartsofthiskindofXHYshavebecomecommonknowledgeofthepeopleandcanbefiguredoutrightaftertheformerpartsarepresented.Butthecaseisnotcommonbecauseitshouldbebasedonthehearers’commonsenseandthemutualcontextthatthehearercanfigureouttheintendedmeaningofthewholeXHYs.4.3ClassificationsofXHYs4.3.1TraditionalClassifications33 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionalityThediscussionsontheclassificationofXHYhavenotreachedanagreementuntilnow.Differentscholarshaveproposedavarietyofclassificationfromdifferentperspectives.Inthefollowing,wewilllisttheviewpointsofMaGuofanandGaoGedong,WangQin,WenDuanzheng,SunWeizhangandTanYongxiang,andpresenttheclassificationadoptedinthispaper.Atpresent,thefirstwidelyacceptedoneisproposedbyMaGuofanandGaoGedong(马国凡,高歌东,1976).TheyclassifyXHYintotwotypes:metaphoricalXHYandhomophonicXHYaccordingtowhetherthelatterpartemployshomophonesornot.ForthetypeofmetaphoricalXHY,theformerpartspresentmetaphorsandthelatterpartsaretheexplanationsoftheformer.Forexample,狗拿耗子——多管闲事,老鼠钻进书箱里——咬文嚼字.HomophonicXHYreferstothosewhoselatterpartscontainhomophonesornearhomophonestoachievethepuneffects.Forexample,诸葛亮操琴——老生常弹（谈）,孔夫子搬家——尽是书（输）.Basedonthistypeofclassification,WangQin(王勤,1980)furtherdividesmetaphoricalXHYsintotwosubtypes:metaphoricaloneswithoriginalmeaningandmetaphoricaloneswithmetaphoricalmeaning.Forexample,狗拿耗子——多管闲事,黄鼠狼给鸡拜年——没安好心belongtothefirstsubtype;老鼠钻进书箱里——咬文嚼字,墙上挂竹帘——没门儿,泥菩萨过河——自身难保,兔子的尾巴——长不了belongtothesecondone.However,WenDuanzheng(温端政,2000)negatesthisview.Hearguesthatthetwotypesareoftenoverlapped,thatis,homophonicXHYsarecoinedonthebasisofmetaphoricalXHYsandthetwotypesareintherelationofinclusionratherthancoordination.Instead,heputsforwardhisclassification:homophonicXHYs—employinghomonymsinapunningsenseinthelatterpartandunhomophonicXHYs—withouthomonyms.34 ChapterFourRevisitingXHYsSunWeizhang(孙维张,1989)dividesXHYsintometaphoricalXHYsandpunnyXHYs.MetaphoricalXHYsconsistofexplanatoryones,revealingonesandassociatingones.PunnyXHYsrefertothoseemployinghomophonesandsynonyms.ThesubcategoryofpunyXHYsreferstothosewhoseintendedmeaningsarederivativemeaningsfromtheencoded.Infact,XHYsexpressingderivativemeaningsarenotonlymembersofthistypebutalsomembersofmetaphoricalXHYs.Hence,thisclassificationisalsounscientificandunconvincing.TanYongxiangmaintainsthatXHYscanbedividedintometaphoricaltypesandcomprehendingtypes(谭永祥,1984:108).ForMetaphoricalXHYs,theintendedmeaningscanbeunderstoodthroughmetaphors,whilethecomprehendingonescanbecommunicatedthroughthesharedbackgroundknowledge.Eachofthemhastwosubtypes.Theformerincludeshalf-metaphoricalandfull-metaphoricalonesandthelatterliteralandderivativeones.Onceagain,itisnoteasytodrawtheborderlinebetweenthetwo.Actually,inordertohaveasuccessfulunderstandingofmetaphoricalXHYs,wealsoneedtoknowthesharedbackgroundknowledge.Inshort,varietiesoftheclassificationofXHYmentionedaboveareinvestigatedfromastaticviewpointandarehardtowinitsfullsupportandsatisfaction.Soanumberofnewdivisionsareproposedbymanyresearcherstofillthisgap.Recently,someresearchersstarttomakeclassificationofXHYfromtheperspectiveofcognitionandthinking.Theirachievementsgiveilluminativelightforourfurtherstudy.Inthispaper,wewillreviewWanMinzhen’scognitiveclassificationofXHYsinthefollowingsectionandadopthisanalysistoexplorethegenerativemechanismofXHYs.4.3.2MetonymicalXHYsWanMinzhen(万敏珍,2010)inhispapertentativelydividesXHYintofivetypesviametonymyandmetaphor,namely,Category-PropertyMetonymyMapping,Causation35 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionalityMetonymyMapping,EventMetonymyMapping,ActionMetonymyMappingandMetaphoricalMappingofPhoneticMetaphors.Basedonthedetailedanalysisanddiscussionof3,181itemsofXHYcollectedinthecorpusunderthetheoreticalframeworkofCPM,WanMinzhennotonlypointsoutthecharacteristicsofthetwopartsofXHYrespectivelybutalsorevealsthemetonymy-producingrelationsbetweenintroductorypartandexplanatorypart.Now,wewillreviewhowtheunderlyingrelationshipbetweenthemisrepresentedinthegenerativeprocessofXHYs.4.3.2.1AnIntroductiontoMetonymyMetonymyhasalsobeentraditionallyseenasafigureofspeech,inotherwords,asornamentaldevicesusedinpoeticimaginationandrhetoricalstyle.FengCuihuadefinesitas“afigureofspeechthathastodowiththesubstitutionofthenameofonethingforthatofanother”(冯翠华,2005:195)fromtheperspectiveofrhetoric.Butwiththedevelopmentofcognitivelinguistics,linguistsgraduallystudymetonymyfromthecognitiveview.Lakeoffregardsmetonymyasacognitivetoolforourconceptualizationofabstractcategories.Radden&Kövecsesdefinemetonymyas“acognitiveprocessinwhichoneconceptualentity,thevehicleprovidesmentalaccesstoanotherconceptualentity,thetarget,withthesameidealizedcognitivemodel”(Radden&Kövecses,1999:21).Metonymyisaconceptualprojectionwherebyoneexperientialdomain(thetarget)ispartiallyunderstoodintermsofanotherexperientialdomain(thesource)includedinthesamecommonexperientialdomain(Barcelona,2003:4).Here,thedomainofmetonymicmappingisadomain-internal.JustasUngererandSchimdstatesthatmetonymy“involvesarelationof‘contiguity’(i.e.nearnessorneighborhood)betweenwhatisdenotedbytheliteralmeaningofawordanditsfigurativecounterpart”(Ungerer&Schimd,2001:115).So,lawofproximitywhichsourcesfromtheGestalttheorycanbeemployedbycognitivelinguiststoanalyzetheunderlyingrelationshipbetweentwopartsofXHYs.36 ChapterFourRevisitingXHYs4.3.2.2Category-PropertyMetonymyMappingAsisalreadypointedoutthattheeventdescribedbythetwopartsisthesame.Theeventdescribedbytheintroductorypartservesasthevisualizationoftheexplanatorypart.Thatistosay,thelatterpartistheprototypicalcharacteroftheeventdescribedintheformerpart.“Categoriesareintentionallydefinedbyasetofproperties,thesepropertiesarenecessarilypartsofthecategory”(Kövecses,2002:153).Categoriestypicallyevokeandmetonymicallystandforoneoftheirdefiningoressentialpropertiesorviceversa.AccordingtoLakoff,mostofthemetonymicmodelsdiscussionsaremuchcharacterizableassalientproperties.Sobasedonproximityofinclusion,XHYconstructsacategory-propertymetonymicrelation.Take兔子的尾巴——长不长forexample.Asweallknow,兔子的尾巴isprototypicallycharacterizedbyshortness,whereasshortmeansthatitisnotlong.兔子的尾巴and长不长aresupplementaryandcomplementarytoeachother.Otherexamples,suchas芝麻开花——节节高,百年松枝五月芭蕉——粗枝大叶,蝎子的尾巴——毒,etc.4.3.2.3Cause-EffectMetonymyMappingAsWangQin(王勤,2001)pointedoutthattherelationshipofthetwopartsofXHYcanbeexpressedasrelationshipofcauseandeffect.Accordingtometonymicmapping,metonymiescanbedividedintotwocategories,thewholeforthepartorapartforthewhole,andapartforanotherpart.Thesecondcategoriesapartforanotherpartinvolveasubcategories—causationmetonymy.Entailmentisdefinedas“therelationbetweenpropositionsoneofwhichnecessarilyfollowsfromtheother”(Matthews,2000:115).Causeandeffectaresocloselyinterdependentthatoneofthemtendstoentailtheother.Inprinciple,thecausationmetonymyinvolvestworeversiblemetonymies:cause-effectmetonymicrelationandeffect-causemetonymicrelation.Thecause-effectmetonymicrelationshipseemstobemorewidespread.SoXHYsbasedonproximityofentailmentcanbeviewedasthe37 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionalitypresenceofcause-effectmetonymicrelation.Bearingthisexplanationinmind,wecantreattheintroductorypartasthereason,andtheexplanatorypartastheresult.Forexample,雪入烘炉——不点自化.Tocapture不点自化from雪入烘炉isaprocessinwhichtheresultdevelopsfromthereason.4.3.2.4ActionMetonymyMappingWanMinzhen(万敏珍,2010)inhispapercategorizesaconsiderableportionofChineseXHYsasactionmetonymymapping.Hemakesanalysisofspecificrelationshipssuchasmannerforaction,resultforaction,instrumentforaction,objectforaction,timeperiodforactionandagentforactionandsoon.Instancescanbeprovided:(a)mannerforaction,撑蒿竹进屋——直出直入(b)resultforaction,掉进冰窟窿里——从头到脚都凉(c)instrumentforaction,程咬金上阵——三板斧(d)objectforaction,张飞吃豆芽——小菜(e)timeperiodforaction,清晨吃晌饭——早呢(f)agentforaction,在老虎头上打苍蝇——谁敢.4.3.2.5EventMetonymyMappingAsamatteroffact,aconsiderableportionofXHYscanbetracedbacktoaspecifichistoriceventorstory,afairytale,aliteraryworkorahistoricalfigure,etc.Sincemostofthemareconventionalizedinmeaningsandcanbeaccustomedtoageneralcircumstance,theimplicaturesofthiskindofXHYsarenaturallygraspedaslongasweunderstandtheirbackgroundknowledge(万敏珍,2010:45).Forexample,姜太公钓鱼——愿者上钩.Therefore,giventheholisticknowledgeaboutacertainhistoricevent钓鱼launchedby姜太公thathasbeenintegratedintoChineseculture,italmostdoesn’ttakeasecondthoughttospottherelatedsubeventsspontaneously.姜太公isafamoushistoricalfigure;theverbphrase,whichcontainstheverbfish,willcoercethereadingthatsomethingtookonby姜太38 ChapterFourRevisitingXHYs公.Theeventdomainforfishingincludesaseriesofsubevents.Theabovecitedexampleisanemploymentofoneofitssubevents,swallowingthebaittorepresentthewholeevents.Therefore,WanMinzhenlabelsthiskindaseventICM.Here,thenotionofeventinthistypeofmetonymicmappingXHYdoesn"tmeanwhatwehavetalkedaboutinthetheoreticalframework,thelatterreferstoaconceptrelatedtousage-event,theformerreferstothehistoriceventorstory,afairytale,etc.4.3.3MetaphoricalXHYs4.3.3.1AnIntroductiontoMetaphorMetaphorisusuallyconsideredasakindofrhetoricaldevice,butLackoffandJohnsonintheirmasterpieceMetaphorsWeLiveBy(2003)assertsthatitisakindofthinkingoraction.Theyfindthatmetaphorispervasiveineverydaylife,notjustinlanguagebutinthoughtandaction.Actually,weusemetaphortodo,toact;wecannotlivewithoutmetaphor.Lakeoffprovidesanewperspectiveforthestudyofmetaphor.“Theessenceofmetaphorisunderstandingandexperiencingonekindofthingintermsofanother”(LackoffandJohnson,2003:6).Heproposesacross-domainmappingmodelasthemechanismofmetaphorandholdsthatmetaphorinvolvessourcedomainandtargetdomain.Barcelonainhisworkassertsthat“metaphoristhecognitivemechanismwherebyoneexperientialdomainispartiallymapped,i.e.projected,ontoadifferentexperientialdomain,sothattheseconddomainbeingpartiallyunderstoodintermsofthefirstone”(Barcelona,2003:3).“Thedomainthatismappediscalledthesourcedomain,andthedomainontowhichitismapped,iscalledthetargetdomain”(ibid).Here,thedomainofmetaphoricmappingisadomain-external.Likemetonymy,metaphoralsoinvolvesamentalmappingofourknowledgeofsourcedomaintostructureourknowledgeofatargetdomain.Butthekeydifferencebetweenthemisthatinametonymythemappingoccurswithinasingledomain,whereasinametaphoricmappingtwo39 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionalitydomainsareinvolved.Inotherwords,inmetonymythemappingtakesplacewithinthesamedomainonthebasisofproximity,whileinmetaphorwemappartofoneconceptualdomainontoaseparatedomainbasedonsimilarity.4.3.3.2PhoneticMetaphorsinXHYsThephoneticmetaphorinvolvesthemappingbetweentwodifferentdomainswhichsharecertainacousticsimilarity.“Phoneticmetaphor”wasinitiatedbyFónagyinhisarticleWhyIconicity.Fónagy(1999)putsforwardtheterm“phoneticmetaphor”mainlyaccordingtothemeaningandwaysofpronunciationoftheexpression.BesidestheabovefoursubtypesofmetonymiesemployedinChineseXHYs,aspecialtypeofXHYs——phoneticmetaphorsXHYalsofinditsgenerationwayonthebasisofmetaphor.AccordingtotheaboveclassificationofXHYs,wecanfindthatmostofclassificationsarebasedontheprincipleofwhetherthelatterpartofXHYsemployshomophonesornot.Morespecifically,thelatterpartofthiskindofXHYmakesfullyuseofthecharmofhomophonytoachievethepunnyeffects.Casesareillustrated,suchas照舅（照旧）,无发（法）无天,糊途（涂）,书（输）,etc.Actually,thegenerativeprocessofthiskindofXHYalsoinvolvesametonymymapping.Theformerpartandthelatterpartareconnectedbasedonproximity,butthereisaphoneticsimilaritytransformationbetweentheelementsofthelatterpart.Forexample,孔子搬家——净是书（输）.Fromthecause-effectmetonymymapping,wecanseethattherelationshipoftheformerpartandthelatterpartcanbeexplainedasthatofcauseandeffect.Theyaretransformedbasedonproximityofentailment.Here,输istheimpliedmeaningthespeakerwantstoconvey.Dependingonthesimilarityofsoundyetadisparityofmeaning,theoriginalwordform书standsforthehomonymy输inChinese,andwecanderivetheword输throughthephoneticsimilarity;Thatistosay,输isderivedby书throughthephonetic40 ChapterFourRevisitingXHYsmetaphor.ThuswecandrawaflowchartwhichexplainstheprocessofthegenerationofmetaphoricalXHY孔子搬家——净是书（输）asfollow:PhoneticSimilarityProximity净是输——————净是书—————孔子搬家4.4FunctionsofXHYsManyresearchersregardXHYstobefigurativeexpressions,amongwhichhumorandsarcasmarethemostremarkableeffects(温端政,2000:102-120).XHYsarewidelyusedindailycommunication,sofunctionsofXHYsareusuallyrealizedinreallifeinteractions.Itiscommonlyusedineverydaytalk,especiallyinthesituationinwhichanaddresserstateshis/heropinionorfulfillshis/hercommunicativepurposes.WewillmakeadiscussionofpragmaticfunctionsofXHYs.ThebelowfunctionshavebeenanalyzedbyZhangJibo(张激波)inhispaper.4.4.1ElicitingHumorousEffectXHYsareakindofChinesetraditionalidiomswhicharewidelyusedtocreatehumorouseffects,andrelaxingatmosphereiscreatedaccordingly.Thatistosay,thefundamentalfunctionofXHYsincommunicationistobringmorehumorouseffectforverbalexchange.ThehumorouseffectthatXHYselicitseemstospreadlubricantoncommunicationandhelpsrealizecommunicativegoalssuccessfullyinamorerelaxedway.Forexample:(4)凤姐儿笑道：“外头己经四更多了，依我说：老祖宗也乏了，咱们也该‘聋子放炮仗——散了’罢?”(《红楼梦》P.622)Inexample(4),WangXifengproposestoendthisfamilygathering,butatthesametimethefamilyisconcentratingoncelebratingtheLanternFestivalfullofenthusiasm.Soherproposalseemstoconflictwiththecurrentsituationandthreatensthefacesofthosepeople41 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionalitywhoareenthusiasticforgoingonhavingfun.ButbyapplyingtheXHY聋子放炮仗——散了inherutterance,ahumorousandenjoyableeffectisachievedinsteadofimpolitenessandoffensiveness.ItisevidentthattheXHY聋子放炮仗——散了effectivelyelicitsahumorouseffecttolowerthedegreeoftheimpositionofherproposal,easeoffacontradictionandfulfillhercommunicativegoal.4.4.2BreakingIcetoBuildHarmoniousPersonalRelationHomophonicXHYswillbeemployedtoeliminateinharmoniousrelationshipbetweenstrangersanddrawtheirrelationshipcloser.Forexample:(5)我没话找话问她：“你贵姓？”“不知道”“你叫‘不知道’啊？，看来你是自行车下坡一一不踩(睬)”“什么啊你真会逗人”(《往事散记》P.28)Inthisexample,thehearerisobviouslyunwillingtotakepartinthetalkandanswersmyquestionwith“Idon’tknow”.Consequently,theconversationcannotgoonwell.ThenthespeakerintentionallyusesthehomophonicXHY自行车下坡一一不踩(睬)toarousethehearer’sinterest.InChinese,睬meanstotakenoticeofsomeone.踩and睬arehomonyms.ThisXHYisusedtobreakthedeadlockbetweenthemandbeginanewroundoftalkwithanewunderstandingoftheirrelationship.4.4.3SofteningConflictIncommunication,conflictplaysanegativeeffectanddestroysverbalinteraction.Ifconflictbreaksout,communicatorsnormallywilltrytosoftenittoensurethesmoothprocessoftheexchange.TheuseofXHYsisoneofusefullinguisticstrategiestoeaseconflict.(6)钟跃民带着一打啤酒邀请朋友去饭店吃饭，但在门口被服务员拦下了。服务员“按照我店老规矩，客人禁止自带酒水。”42 ChapterFourRevisitingXHYs钟跃民“乱说，上星期我们来都是这样的。按我看，你们的规矩是小乌龟的屁股一新龟腚(规定)。不管是老规矩还是新规矩，都是乌龟上厕所一臭龟腚（规定）。”服务员忍不住笑了，就让他们进去了。(《血色浪漫》P.267)Inthisexample,ZhongYueminisdissatisfiedwiththerulesbutisnotwillingtoattackthemdirectly.Hemakesacomparisonoftherulestotortoise’sbuttockinordertosoftentheconflictwiththewaitress.Inthisway,anypossibleconflictwillbeeliminatedandthespeaker’sdemandwillbesatisfied.4.4.4VentingEmotionstoReinforceToneLanguageisatoolweusetoconveyfeelings.XHY,asalinguisticform,isusedtogivefullventtofeelingsandreinforcetone.(7)他气势汹汹：“老袁，你太胆小，怕什么。那个流氓就是披着虎皮的驴子——外强中干。”(《百炼成钢》P.33)Inthisexample,thespeakerutterstheXHY披着虎皮的驴子——外强中干toconveyhisfuriousmoodandemphasizewhathesaysisconvincing.Atthesametime,heviolentlydenunciatesYuan’scowardiceandcriticizestherogue.Here,theuseofthisXHYistoventhisanger.4.5SummaryInthischapter,wemainlydealwiththeclassifications,characteristicsofXHYsaswellasthecognitiverelationshipsbetweentwopartsofXHYsandtheirpragmaticfunctions.Andtheyareallcloselyrelatedwithourresearch.Inthefollowingchapter,wewillcometothecoreofthispaper,generativemechanismofXHYs.43 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionality44 ChapterFiveGenerativeProcessofXHYsChapterFiveGenerativeProcessofXHYs5.1IntroductionThecognitiverelationshipbetweentwopartsofXHYsismetonymicinnature,whichisalreadyexplainedabovevialawsofGestalttheory.Inthischapter,twotypesofXHYswillbechosenforanalyzinggenerativeprocessofXHYsbasedontheRuleofIntentionalityfromeventtousage-eventsoastogiveamorereasonableexplanationofthegenerativemechanismofXHYs,hopingtoshedanewlightonfurtherstudiesofXHYs.Now,let’scometoseehowXHYisgeneratedundertheRuleofIntentionality.5.2TheGenerativeMechanismofMetonymicalXHYsWanMinzhen(万敏珍,2010)categorizesXHYsintotwotypesonthewhole:metonymicalXHYsandmetaphoricalXHYs.HisclassificationisbasedonwhetherthelatterpartsofXHYsemploysaphoneticsimilaritytransformationornot;thatistosay,whetherthelatterpartsmakefullyuseofthecharmofhomonymytoachievepunnyeffectornot.Generallyspeaking,themetonymicalXHYsshowthatthereisametonymicalmechanismbehindthegenerationofXHYs.ThemetaphoricalXHYsshowthatsomeoftheXHYsaregeneratedbasedonmetonymyandmetaphortogether.Actually,itishardtodistinguishbetweenmetonymyandmetaphorsincetheyarebothpartofoureverydaywayofthinkingandgroundedinourexperienceandtheboundarylinesbetweenthemareoftenfuzzy.SoinlightoftheuniquecharacteristicofXHYs,wecansaythatfivetypesofXHYsaregeneratedfromthepatternsofmetonymy-productionrelations.WecanuseAisBtorefertotherelationshipbetweentheformerpartandthelatterpart.FromtheaboveexamplesillustratedinChapterFour,wecanseethatAisBdoesnotmean45 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionalityA=B.ItmeansthataspeakerpicksuppartsofcontentsofA,whichistakenasB;thatistosay,itmeansB=partofA,notentirely.Theselectionisbasedonthespeakers’intentionality.Intentionalityframeincludesintentionalcontentandintentionalattitude.InXHYs,weuseAtodescribeB;Bistheintentionalcontentthespeakerwantstoconvey.ButhowcanAbeconnectedwithB?TheintroductionoftheRuleofIntentionalitycangiveanswerstothisquestion.Takecategory-propertytype懒婆娘的裹脚——又长又臭(thefoot-bindingofaslattern——longandsmelly)forexample.ForthistypeofXHYs,thereisaone-to-onerelationshipbetweentheformerpartandthelatterpart.Thatistosay,oneeventmatchesoneusage-event.Here,theemergenceofusage-event又长又臭involvestwointerfacedaspects.Oneisthememoryoftheimageof懒婆娘的裹脚primaryconsciousnessfiltered;theotherisaGestalttransformationoftheimageof懒婆娘的裹脚;whilethetransformationfrom懒婆娘的裹脚to又长又臭iscontrolledbyintentionality.Inourconventionalknowledge,又长又臭isapropertyof懒婆娘的裹脚.InthispieceofXHY,懒婆娘的裹脚isusedtostandforthepropertyithas,又长又臭.Wecansay懒婆娘的裹脚是又长又臭.Theformerpart懒婆娘的裹脚isevent;whereasthelatterpart又长又臭isusage-event.Therelationshipbetweentwopartsismetonymy.TheRuleofIntentionalityoperatesthewholegenerationprocessofthisXHYinthefollowingsteps:(a)Thesubject/speakerperceivesandbelievestheexistenceofevent懒婆娘的裹脚;(b)Thesubjectpossessescertainintentionalattitudestowards懒婆娘的裹脚.Thatistosay,threesub-categoriesofintentionalattitudeswillberepresentedinthisways.Mannerofmentalstate:thesubjectpossessesthismentalstateofbelievingtheexistenceofevent懒婆娘的裹脚;Evaluationofmentalstate:thesubjectmakesevaluationof懒婆娘的裹脚andhighlightsfeaturesof懒婆娘的裹脚he46 ChapterFiveGenerativeProcessofXHYsperceived;Orientationofmentalstate:thesubjectanalyzes懒婆娘的裹脚withhumorous,condemnatory,negativeorugliedorientationsofmentalstate;(c)Accordingtointentionalattitudes,thesubjectfindsreasonstoexplain懒婆娘的裹脚as又长又臭.Thesubjectexpresseshis/herintentionsbyusingexpressions又长又臭.又长又臭isthespeakers’intentionalexplanationof懒婆娘的裹脚.Itreflectsthespeaker’sintentionalcontent.Here,theusingoflanguageexpression又长又臭isbasedonpeople’collectiveintentionality.Thatistosay,itisbasedonthehearers’commonsenseandthemutualcontextthatthehearercanfigureouttheintendedmeaningofthisXHY.Thus,asuccessfulconveyancecanbeachievedandtheintendedmeaningcanbecomprehended.TheaboveistheanalysisofXHYitself.FromthewholegenerativeprocessundertheRuleofIntentionality,wecanseethatitistheintentionalattitudethespeakertakesthatdeterminestheemergenceoflatterpartandatthesametimedeterminestheintentionalcontentthespeakerwantstoconvey.However,thecharacteristicsofthistypeofXHYsisthatthereisaone-to-onerelationshipbetweentheformerpartandthelatterpart.Thelatterpartsofthemcanbeomitted.Theyaregeneratedbasedonpeople"scommonknowledge.Eveniftheyaretakenoutofcontext,themeaningofthewholeXHYsstillcanbeperceived.Otherexamples,suchas黄鼠狼给鸡拜年——没安好心,狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心,狗拿耗子——多管闲事etc.Ingeneral,formostXHYs,oneeventmatchesoneusage-event,butforotherXHYs,oneeventmaymatchwithmorethanoneusage-event.Forexample,(1)张飞穿针——粗中有细;(2)张飞穿针——大眼瞪小眼;(3)张飞穿针——有劲无处使.Tothesameevent张飞穿针ZhangFeithreadinganeedle,thespeakergeneratesdifferentusage-event.Let’slookatwhyevent张飞穿针cangoperfectlywiththreedifferentusage-event.47 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionalityWhenpeoplefaceevent张飞穿针ZhangFeithreadinganeedle,theywillmakeamentalprocessingofthephysicalstimuli张飞穿针provided.First,severalcharacteristicsofZhangFeiwillcomeintothemindofthespeaker.(a)ZhangFeiisafamoushistoricalfigureandamilitaryofficer;(b)ZhangFeihastwobigeyes;(c)ZhangFeiiscrude;(d)ZhangFeiisgoodatfighting;(e)ZhangFeiisloyal;(f)ZhangFeiisbraveandstrong;etc.Andthen,thebehaviorofthreadinganeedlecanbeinterpretedas(a)threadinganeedlerequirescarefulness;(b)threadinganeedlerequiresskills;(c)threadinganeedleisaneedleworkwhichmaydangerousforclumsyhandsbecauseneedles’eyeisverysmall;(d)threadinganeedleisusuallyperformedbyawoman;etc.Next,wecombinetheconceptofZhangFeiandthebehaviorofthreadinganeedleandgoonwiththeinferenceofZhangFeithreadinganeedle.(a)ZhangFeicandotheneedlework.Sohemustbecircumspectivetoo;(b)ZhangFeimustbeextremelycarefultocarryoutthethreadinganeedlework.;(c)ZhangFeis’bigeyesisincontrasttoneedles’smalleye;(d)ZhangFeiisbraveandgoodatfighting,buthedoestheworkofthreadinganeedlewhichisperformedbywomen.ThephysicalstimuliofeventZhangFeithreadinganeedlearetransformedintoamentalprocessingandprocessedbythementalstateofthespeaker.Sothesethreegroupsofassumptionswillinteractwitheachothertoexpressthespeakers’differentintentionalityandgeneratedifferentcontextualeffects.(1)张飞穿针——粗中有细(beingcrudeinmostmattersbutsubletinsomeothers)(2)张飞穿针——大眼瞪小眼(bigeyesglaringattheneedle’seyelet)(3)张飞穿针——有劲无处使(notknowinghowtoexerthisstrength)Actually,hundredsofnewassumptionswillbegeneratedaccordingly.Whichoneistherelevantone?Itdependsonthespeakers’intentionalityandthecontextitisused.ConcerningthisXHYs,generationstartsfromeventZhangFeithreadinganeedle,furtherinferenceis48 ChapterFiveGenerativeProcessofXHYsmadewith粗中有细,大眼瞪小眼,有劲无处使basedonproximity.TheintentionalityisenlargedfromtheformerpartofthisXHYtothewholepiecewiththeadditionoflatterparts粗中有细,大眼瞪小眼,有劲无处使.Inthiscase,intentionalcontentsarepresentedinthelatterpartsoftheseXHYs.Theyareperceivedasusage-event.Butthereinvolvesanotherquestion.WhycanthesameeventZhangFeithreadinganeedlegeneratethreedifferentusage-event?Toanswerthisquestion,weshouldtakeintoconsiderationofintentionalattitudethespeakertakes.Intheseexamples,first,thesubjectpossessesthismentalstateofevent张飞穿针;then,thesubjectmakesevaluationof张飞穿针andhighlightsdifferentfeaturesof张飞穿针heperceived;third,thesubjectanalyzes张飞穿针withpositive/neutral/negativeorientationsofmentalstate.InthegenerationprocessofthisXHY,thespeakermakesdifferentevaluationandorientationsofthementalstateofevent张飞穿针,thusgeneratingthreetypesofusage-event.TheyhighlightandingeniouslyassociatedifferentfeaturesofZhangFeiwiththebehaviorthreadinganeedle.Inexample(1),theprudentaspectofthewell-knowncrudemanaswellaspatience-demandingofthreadinganeedlegetshighlighted;orientationofthementalstateispositive.Whileexample(2)stressesZhangFei’spairofbigeyesandthesmalleyeofaneedle;orientationofthementalstateisneutral.Andexample(3)strengthensZhangFei’sgreatstrengthanddexterity-demandingofthreadinganeedle;orientationofthementalstateisnegative.Sowecansaythatthementalselectionofusage-eventtothesameeventisdecidedbythespeakers’intentionalitytohighlightandassociatewhichfeaturesoftheobjectwiththewhole.Thatistosay,itistheintentionalattitudethatdetermineswhichlanguageexpressionsthespeakerwillchoosetoexpresshis/herintentions.WehavemadeanexplanationofthegenerationmechanismofmetonymicalXHYs,nowlet’slookatthegenerationmechanismofmetaphoricalones.49 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionality5.3TheGenerativeMechanismofMetaphoricalXHYsMetaphoricalXHYsreferstothosewhoselatterpartsemployhomonymicwordstoachievepunnyeffect.LikethetypeofmetonymicalXHYs,thesameeventmaygenerateoneormorethanoneusage-eventaccordingly,butthedifferenceisthatforthistypeofXHYs,theso-calledusage-eventisnottheoriginalusage-event,butaninterimcomponentwhichgivesaderivationtousage-event.Theauthorcallsitquasi-usage-event.Thatistosay,usage-eventisderivedfromquasi-usage-eventthroughanotherGestalttransformation—phoneticsimulatedsimilarity.Thegeneratingprocessisalittledifferentfromtheprevioustype.WestartthedescriptionoftheprocessofgeneratingthistypeofXHYswiththeanalysisofexample:(4)老和尚住山洞——没寺（事）Anoldmonklivesinacave——therebeingnotempletolivein(itdoesnotmatter)Theformerpart老和尚住山洞givesadescriptionoftheactualindependenteventthatanoldmonklivesinacave.Weknowsomeinformationabout和尚,suchasamonk,amale,abaldmanwhobelievesinBuddha,apersonwholivesinatemple,amanwhoisavegetarianandsoonandsoforth.Theformerpart老和尚住山洞tellsusthattheoldmonkhasnotempletolivein.Basedonametonymy,CauseforEffect,themeaningwillbeeasilyconstructed.So没寺issupposedtobetheexpressionwhichexpressesthespeaker’sintentionalcontent.However,undertheconstraintsoftheintentionality,andthroughtheGestalttransformationofphoneticsimilarity,没事isderivedby没寺toachievehumorouseffect.没事iswhatwecallusage-event.Itreflectsthespeaker’srealintention.Whereastheinterimcomponent没寺givesaderivationtousage-event.Thatistosay,没事isderivedfrom没寺throughthephoneticsimulatedsimilarity.Wecalltheinterimcomponent没寺asquasi-usage-event.Sothetransformationfromevent老和尚住山洞tousage-event没事50 ChapterFiveGenerativeProcessofXHYs(itdoesnotmatter)isachievedintwosteps:proximityandthenphoneticsimilarity.TheRuleofIntentionalityoperatesinthefollowingsteps:(a)Thesubject/speakerperceivesandbelievestheexistenceofevent老和尚住山洞;(b)Thesubjectpossessescertainintentionalattitudestowardsthecontentofevent老和尚住山洞.Mannerofmentalstate:thesubjectpossessesthismentalstateofbelievingtheexistenceofevent老和尚住山洞;Evaluationofmentalstate:thesubjectmakesevaluationof老和尚住山洞andhighlightsreasonswhytheoldmonklivesinacave;Orientationofmentalstate:thesubjectanalyzes老和尚住山洞withhumorousorpositiveorientationsofmentalstate;(c)Accordingtointentionalattitudes,thesubjectfindsreasonstoexplain老和尚住山洞as没事,notas没寺;Thesubjectexpresseshis/herintentionsbyusingexpressions没事.So没事isthespeakers’intentionalexplanationof老和尚住山洞anditreflectsthespeaker’sintentionalcontent.Heretwoquestionswillbeinvolved.Why老和尚住山洞canbeexplainedas没事?Whydopeoplechoosepunnywordtoexpresstheirintentions?Intentionalattitudecangiveanswerstothetwoquestions.Inthisexample,theproximitytransformationfromevent老和尚住山洞toquasi-usage-event没寺isdependentonspeaker’sevaluationofmentalstate:he/shestressesthereasonwhytheoldmonklivesinacave.Theeffectofanoldmonklivinginacaveiscausedbyafactthatthereisnotempleforhimtolivein.Then,thephoneticsimilaritytransformationfromquasi-usage-event没寺tousage-eventiscarriedoutaccordingtothespeaker’sorientationofmentalstate.Thatistosay,forexpressinghis/herhumorousintentionalattitude,thespeakerschoosepunnywordstoconveyhis/herintentionstowardsevent老和尚住山洞.Sofromtheaboveanalysis,wecansaythatthemaindifferencebetweentwotypesof51 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionalityXHYsisthatthespeakertakesdifferentorientationofmentalstate.Forthemetonymicaltypes,thespeakerexpresseshis/herintentionswithcondemnatory/complimentary,positive/negativeorbeautified/ugliedorientationofmentalstate,whileformetaphoricalones,thespeakermakesfullyuseofhomophonicwordstoachievehumorouseffect.He/shechoosesmetaphoricalXHYstoexpresshis/herintentionswithhumorousorientationofmentalstate.ThatiswhythespeakerchoosesmetaphoricalXHYstoexpressthemselvesratherthanmetonymicalones.Actually,amongtheabovethreesub-categoriesofintentionalattitude,itisthethirdsub-categorythathasclosestrelationshipwiththeapplicationsofXHYs.IntheviewoftheuseofanXHY,thespeakershouldatfirstpossessthementalstatebywhichthingsoreventsintheworldaredirectedatortalkedabout,andthenhewillchooseapieceofXHYtoexpresswhathe/shewantstoconveywiththepurposeofcreatingcertainexpressiveeffects.ThediscussionaboutpragmaticfunctionsofXHYsdoesagoodjobofexplainingthereasonswhypeoplechooseXHYstoexpresstheirintentions.Forexample,ifaspeakerwantstoexpressthemeaningof管了不该管的事儿,butinsteadofexpressingitdirectly,he/shewillpickoutacertaintypeoflinguisticexpressionstoexpresswhathe/shewantstoconvey.ThespeakermaychooseXHY狗拿耗子——多管闲事toexpressthemeaningof管了不该管的事儿forexpressinghis/herhumorousattitudetowardsevents.Inthisexample狗拿耗子——多管闲事,theintentionalcontenthe/sheexpressesis多管闲事,andtheintentionalattitudehe/shetakesishumorousorironic.SofromtheanalysisofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionality,theauthorcomestotheconclusionthat,XHY,asacommunicativedevice,istheproductoftheintentionalcontentthespeakerwantstoconveyandtheintentionalattitudethespeakertakes.TheuseofXHYsmainlydeliversthespeaker’sorientationofmentalstateandhis/herattitudetowardsevents.52 ChapterFiveGenerativeProcessofXHYsAndthedifferenttypesandcharacteristicsofXHYsaretheconcretereflectionsofdifferentintentionalattitudesthespeakertakes.5.4SummaryBasedonthetheoreticalframeworkwehavebuiltupinChapterThreeandtheanalysiswehavemadeinChapterFour,ChapterFivemakesanattempttoapplythisnewlyframeworktoexplorethegenerativemechanismofXHYswithintheanalysisofseveralexamples.ThroughtheanalysisofthegenerativemechanismofXHYsintwotypesunderthistheoreticalframeworktheauthorbuildsup;itisintendedtoreachtotwoobjectives:firstofall,thegenerativemechanismofXHYs;secondly,thepurposeoftestingthefeasibilityoftheframework.Andatthesametime,withtheanalysisanddiscussioninthischapter,theresearchquestionsthatareputforwardinthebeginningofthisthesishavebeenreplied.53 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionality54 ChapterSixConclusionChapterSixConclusion6.1MajorFindingsInthispresentstudy,apossibleaccountforthegenerativemechanismofXHYshasbeenprovided.TheauthorattemptstoadoptaqualitativeapproachtoprovidethetheoreticalframeworktoexplorethegenerativemechanismofXHYs.ThroughtheanalysisofdifferenttypesofXHYsasacasestudy,thisthesisconcludesthat,thegenerativemechanismofXHYsreliesontheGestalttransformationfromtheformerparttothelatterpart,whichisconstrainedbytheintentionalityoflanguageusersaswellasbythepresentcontext.Itiswellknownthatintentionalityplaysacentralroleinthegenerationprocess.Beforethespeakersayssomethingtothehearer,he/shemusthaveintentioncontentsinhis/hermind.ThelatterpartofXHYsistheintentionalcontentwewanttoconvey.Butonlyknowingthisisnotenough.Actually,intentionalityoperatesthewholegenerationprocessofXHYs.Itsframeworkincludesintentionalcontentandintentionalattitude.Intentionalattitudecanbedividedintothreesub-categories:mannerofmentalstate,evaluationofmentalstateandorientationofmentalstate.Accordingtointentionalattitudes,thesubjectcanexplaineventasusage-event.Thatistosay,thetransformationfromtheformerparttothelatterpartofXHYsisachievedonthebasisofthreesub-categoriesofintentionalattitudes.InspiredbyXuShenghuan’sanalysisofintentionalityframe,weareabletoanswerthequestionsputforwardinChapterOne:(1)WhatistheunderlyingrelationshipbetweenthetwopartsofXHYs?(2)WhatrolesdoesintentionalityplayinthegenerationprocessofXHYs?ThestudyonXHYsenablesustoprovideanswerstothesequestionsasfollows:55 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionality(1)TherelationshipbetweenthetwopartsofXHYsismetonymicinnature,themetonymy-producingrelationshipbetweenthemcanbecarriedoutthroughlawofproximitywhichsourcesfromtheGestalttheory.Indetails,theauthorconcludesthat,theformerpart,thedescriptivepartwhichdescribessomeevents,isareflectionofeventfilteredbypeople’sprimaryconsciousness,whilethelatterpart,theexplanatorypartwhichexplainstraits,propertiesandfunctionsofdescribedevents,isthemanifestationofusage-eventanditreflectsthespeakers’communicationintentions.Thetransformationfromtheformerparttothelatterpartisbasedonproximity.Thatistosay,ononehand,theemergenceofthelatterpartsomewhatdependsontheformerpart,ontheotherhand,itissomewhatoutoftheproducer’sfreewill,thusbringingaboutpeople’sdifferentchoiceofexpressionstodescribethesameformerpart.However,intheprocessoftransformation,intentionalityplaysadecisiverole.UndertheRuleofIntentionality,thelatterpartcanbegeneratedvialawsofGestalttransformationbeingrelevanttotheformerpart.Thusthespeaker’sintentionalcontentcanbeconveyed;andhis/herintentionalattitudecanbeexpressed.(2)IntentionalityoperatesthewholegenerativeprocessofXHYs.Theframeofintentionalityincludesintentionalcontentandintentionalattitude.Intentionalattitudecanbefurtherdividedasmannerofmentalstate,evaluationofmentalstateandorientationofmentalstate.Specifically,itistheintentionalattitudethatdetermineswhichlanguageexpressionsthespeakerwillchoosetoexpresshis/herintentionalcontent.ByapplyingtheRuleofIntentionality,weexplainthegenerativeprocessoftwotypesofXHYs.ForthemetonymicaltypesofXHYs,thetransformationfromtheformerparttothelatterpartisbasedonproximity,whichisconstrainedbysubject’sintentionality.Thatistosay,accordingtodifferentintentionalattitudes,thespeakergeneratesdifferenttypesofXHYs.IntheprocessofanalyzingmetonymicalXHYs,theauthorexplainswhytheformerpartcanmatchwithdifferentlatterparts.ForthemetaphoricaltypesofXHYs,likethetypeofmetonymicalones,56 ChapterSixConclusionthesameformerpartcangenerateoneormorethanonelatterpartsaccordingly,butthedifferenceliesnotonlyinthedifferenttransformationsbutalsointhedifferentorientationsofmentalstatethespeakertakes.WhileanalyzingmetaphoricalXHYs,theauthorexplainswhythespeakerchoosesmetaphoricalXHYstoexpressthemselvesratherthanmetonymicalones.Consequently,thisthesisverifiesthereasonabilityandfeasibilityoftheRuleofIntentionalityfromeventtousage-eventtoexplainthegenerativemechanismofXHYstosomedegree.6.2LimitationsandSuggestionsAlthoughinthisthesistheauthorhasbeenbuilduptheframeworkoftheRuleofIntentionalityfromeventtousage-eventtotentativelyexplainthegenerativemechanismofXHYs,therearestilllimitationsandunansweredquestionsforfurtherstudy.WeneedfurtherresearchestocomplementamorepersuasiveandreasonableframeworktoexplainthegenerationmechanismofXHYsandmoredifferentexamplesofXHYstotestifythisframework.Firstly,thisthesisisthefirstattempttostudythegenerationmechanismofXHYsfromtheperspectiveoftheRuleofIntentionality.Limitationsareunavoidable.Thefeasibilityistobetestifiedbymoreempiricalevidence.Secondly,thelimitationliesintheexamplesofXHYscollectedbytheauthor.Sinceweadoptthequalitativeapproachtothisstudy,weonlyexplainseveralexamplesoftwotypesofXHYs.ThemoreexamplesandtypesofXHYscanbeexplained,themoreeffectivetheanalysisisthoughttobe.Lastbutnottheleast,wehopethattheproposedframeworkinthispaperwouldbemoreconvincinginthefutureanditcanbehelpfultobeappliedtoexplainmorelinguisticphenomenanootherthanXHYs,proverbs,oldsayingsbutphrases,sentencesandsoon.57 FromEventtoUsage-event:AStudyoftheGenerationofXHYsundertheRuleofIntentionality58 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