高中英语语法教学中情境设置研究 86页

^A外®丧六嚳硕士学位论文島十其铬傳技教營+精境银置研究邹文姣指导教师：王鲁男教授专业名称》英语语言文学研究方向：英语教学理论与实践论文提交时间：2015年4月论文答辩时间：2015年5月论文编号:2015112 学位论文独创性声明本人声明所呈交的学位论文是本人在导师指导下进行的研宄工作及取得的研究成果。据我所知，除了文中特别加以标注和致谢的地方外，论文中不包含其他人已经发表或撰写过的研宂成果，也不何含为获得四川外国语大学或其他教育机构的学位或证书而使用过的材料。与我一同工作的同志对本研宂所做的任何贡献均己在论文中作/明确的说明并表示谢意。学位论文版权使用授权书本学位论文作者完全丫解四川外国语大学有关保留、使用学位论文的规定，有权保留并向国家有关部门或机构送交论文的复印件和电子版，允许论文被査阅和借阅。本人授权四川外国语大学町以将学位论文的全部或部分内容编入有关数据库进行检索，可以采用影印、缩印或扫描等复制手段保存、汇编学位论文。学位论文作者毕业后去向:1二作单位通讯地址:邮编: SichuanInternationalStudiesUniversityAStudyonContextSettinginEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolbyZouWenjiaoAthesissubmittedtotheGraduateSchoolinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthedegreeofMasterofArtsinEnglishLanguageandLiteratureunderthesupervisionofProfessorWangLunanChongqing,P.R.ChinaMay2015 摘要从开始外语教学起，语法教学即是一个极具争议的话题。在语言研究和教学的发展过程中，人们愈发意识到语言的意义、形式和功能是相互统一的，而语言的这三个方面具有同样的重要意义和实践意义。现在，在外语教学上的争论已经从语法教育的必要性演变为如何进行语法教学。再者，同时具有扎实语言基本能力和语言运用能力的高素质复合型外语人才，也是全球经济一体化、科学技术大发展和频繁国际交流的应有之义。因此，在外语教学中，语言的形式、使用和意义是同等重要的。众所周知，中国外语教育的基础是在高中阶段，而其中语法教学更是重中之重。但是，在现在的语法教学实践中，语言的实际运用却常常被忽略。英语教师常单从语法本身出发，孤立地教授语法。正因为如此，使得学生在实际的交流中，即使能够使用正确的语法句式，却不能准确表达自身所想。随着对于提高学生在实际交流中语言的准确性、流畅性和适当性的需求越来越高，英语语法教学需要从传统的、孤立的教学方式中挣脱开来，去寻找一种新的情境教学方式。本论文从理论和实践出发，分析目前高中英语语法教学的现状及问题，在情境的理论基础上，借鉴前人运用情境进行英语语法教学的研究成果，探索通过情境设置进行英语语法教学的原则、方法及其教学效果。本研究要探讨的是以下两个问题：一、通过情境设置进行高中英语语法教学，学生的语法准确性和适度性有否提高？二、通过情境设置进行高中英语语法教学，学生的语法实际应用能力是否提高？针对以上两个研究问题，作者进行了为时一个学期（16周）的教学实验，本实验的对象是作者所教的十八中高一年级两个常规教学班129人，分别为控制班（63人）和实验班（66人）。在实验班，每个单元的语法课运用情境设置进行教学，而另一个班的语法课仍采用机械操练方法。用含有填空、选择、合并句子的试题检查语法知识的准确性，用高考英语中的基础写作题型来检查语法知识的应用，两个班同时进行前后测，收集并整理数据，使用SPSS16.0工具，独立样本t检验的统计方法进行数据对比分析。总的来说，本研究不但探索了英语语法教学中如何处理情境与语法关系的问题，同时对如何提高学生的语法准确性和运用的恰当性也进行了初步的研究，对英语教师的情境化语法教学有一定的参考和借鉴作用。ii 关键词：情境；情境设置；语法教学；高中学生 AbstractGrammarteachingisacontroversialissuesincethetimewhenforeignlanguageteachingcameintobeing.Aslinguisticstudiesandlanguageteachingdeveloped,thethreecomponentsofalanguage:form,meaningandfunctionaretreatedasawhole.Thus,whenalanguageislearned,itsappropriateness,fluencyandaccuracyshouldbepaidequalattentionto,whichisofgreatimportanceandpractice.Atpresent,themostheatedbutcontroversialissuesinforeignlanguageteachingishowtoteachgrammar,notwhethertoteachitornot.What’smore,withtheglobalizationofeconomyandfrequentinternationalexchangesinvariousfields,peoplewithsolidEnglishabilityincommunicationareurgentlyneededinChina.Therefore,whenteachingaforeignlanguage,itisessentialforustolaymuchemphasisontheuse,formandmeaningofalanguage.ItisknownthatinChinathefoundationofforeignlanguageeducationislaidinseniormiddleschools,wheregrammarteachingplaysabasicroleinforeignlanguageteaching.Butinthepresentpracticeofgrammarteaching,theactualandappropriateuseisoftenignored.Englishteachersusuallyteachgrammardesolatelyandforitsownsake.Becauseofthis,studentscannotappropriatelyusegrammaticalstructuresiftheyareplacedinrealsituations,althoughtheyareabletomakecorrectgrammaticalutterances.Withtheincreasinglyexpectationsandnecessitiesofimprovinglearners’abilitiestocommunicateaccurately,fluentlyandappropriatelyinreal-worldcircumstances,Englishgrammarteachingshouldbeshiftedfromtraditionalwaysoftreatinggrammarasanisolated,context-freelanguagesystemtoteachandstudyincontexts.Accordingtoananalysisofcurrentsituationandproblemsofgrammarteachinginhighschool,thetheoryoflinguisticcontext,therelativestudiesonapplyingcontextandcontextsettingingrammarteaching,thisthesisattemptstoexploretheprinciplesandapproachesofcontextsettingintheteachingofgrammariii inseniorhighschoolaswellasprobeintoitsteachingeffect.Thisstudyattemptstoexplorethefollowingtwoquestions:(1)Canthemethodofcontextsettingintheteachingofgrammarinseniorhighschoolimprovetheaccuracyandappropriatenessofstudents’grammar?(2)Canthemethodofcontextsettingintheteachingofgrammarinseniorhighschoolbetterpromotelearners’abilityofgrammaruseinrealcommunication?Toanswerthesetwoquestions,thewritercarriedoutanexperimentforaboutaterm(sixteenweeks).Thesubjectsinvolvedinthisexperimentconsistedof129studentsfromtwoclassesinSeniorOneinNo.18MiddleSchool:Onewasdesignedasthecontrolledclass(n=63)andtheotherastheexperimentalone(n=66).Inthepartofgrammarofeveryunit,theexperimentalclasswastaughtwiththemethodofcontextsetting,whereasthecontrolledclasswastaughtwithmechanicalpractice.Pre-testsandposttestswereconductedinthetwoclassesatthesametimetoexaminetheappropriatenessofstudents’grammarandtheirabilityintheactualuseofgrammar.Thepapersweremadebytheexperiencedteacherswhowereintheresearchteamstudyingthegrammarteachingmethodsinruralarea.ThestatisticresultsoftheirscoreswerecalculatedbythesoftwareSPSS16.0andtheIndependentSamplesT-testwasadoptedtoprocessthedataanalysis.Inconclusion,thesefindingsnotonlysolvedthepracticalgrammarteachingproblemsofhowtodealwiththerelationshipbetweencontextandgrammarbutalsosuggestedthesolutionofhowtoimprovetheappropriatenessofstudents’grammarandtheiruseofgrammarinrealcommunications.Basedonthefindings,Englishteachersmayapplysetcontextintheirteachingofgrammarinthefuture.Keywords:context;contextsetting;grammarteaching;seniorhighschoolstudents AcknowledgementsFirstandforemost,Iwouldliketoexpressmyheartfeltgratitudetomysupervisor,ProfessorWangLunan,bothforhisintellectualguidanceandforhiswarmandconstantencouragementduringtheprocessofwritingthisthesis.Withpatienceandprudence,helaboredthroughdraftsofthisthesisandpointedoutdefectsinmytheorizing.Therefore,Ioweallthemeritsinthisthesis,ifany,tohim,thoughIamfullyawarethatthethesismightstillcontainsomemistakes,forwhichIbearthewholeresponsibility.MycordialandsincerethanksgotoalltheteachersintheGraduateSchoolwhoonceofferedmevaluablecoursesandadviceduringmystudy.TheprofitthatIgainedfromtheirprofoundknowledge,remarkableexpertiseandintellectualingenuitywillbeofeverlastingsignificancetomyfutureresearch.Lastbutnottheleast,bigthanksgotomyfamily,friendsandclassmateswhohavesharedwithmemyworries,frustrations,andhopefullymyultimatehappinessineventuallyfinishingthisthesis.iv TABLEOFCONTENTSChapterOneIntroduction..........................................................................................11.1.Background............................................................................................................11.1.1.TheImportanceofGrammarTeaching…….......................................…..…11.1.2.TheCurrentSituationofGrammarTeachinginHighSchool......................41.2.TheSignificanceandPurposeoftheStudy…….......................................……....61.3.LayoutoftheThesis...............................................................................................7ChapterTwoLiteratureReview.................................................................................82.1.DefinitionsofContext............................................................................................82.2.ClassificationsofContext......................................................................................92.2.1.LinguisticContext.......................................................................................102.2.2.Non-LinguisticContext..............................................................................102.3.TheoriesonContext……........................................................................……...122.3.1.Constructivism….......….................................................................………122.3.2.Krashen’sInputHypothesis………....................................………............152.3.3.CommunicativeApproach…………..........................................................182.3.4.PrinciplesofContextSetting…………………......................................…212.4.GrammarTeaching………..........................................................……………….232.4.1.AHistoricalOverviewofGrammarTeaching………...........................….232.5.TeachingGrammarinContext………….......................................................…..272.5.1.TheCurrentSituationofGrammarTeachinginHighSchool…......……..272.5.2.TheRelationshipbetweenGrammarandLinguisticContext….................292.5.3.ContextSettingintheTeachingofGrammar………….............…............33ChapterThreeMethodology....................................................................................373.1.Questions..............................................................................................................373.2.Participants...........................................................................................................373.3.Variables...............................................................................................................383.4.Material................................................................................................................38v 3.5.Instruments...........................................................................................................393.6.Tests.....................................................................................................................393.6.1.Pre-tests.......................................................................................................403.6.2.Posttests.......................................................................................................423.7.Treatment...........................................................................................................423.7.1.ModelTeachingDesignfortheExperimentalClass................................433.7.2.TeachingPracticefortheControlledClass...............................................463.8.DataCollection..................................................................................................473.9.DataAnalysis.....................................................................................................47ChapterFourResultsandDiscussion......................................................................484.1.ResultsAnalysis...................................................................................................484.1.1.PosttestontheAccuracyandAppropriatenessofStudents’Grammar.......484.1.2.PosttestonLearners’AbilityofGrammarUseinRealCommunication…494.2.Discussion............................................................................................................504.2.1.EffectsontheAccuracyandAppropriatenessofStudents’Grammar........514.2.2.InfluenceonLearners’AbilityofGrammarUseinRealCommunication.53ChapterFiveConclusion..........................................................................................565.1.Majorfindings.....................................................................................................565.2.PedagogicalImplications…………………......................……………...............575.3.Limitations…………………………...................................................................575.4.Suggestions...........................................................................................................58References...................................................................................................................59Appendix…………………………..................................................……….……..62 ChapterOneIntroductionInthisChapter,theauthorgivesabriefintroductionoftheimportanceofgrammarteaching,thecurrentsituationofgrammarteachinginhighschool,thesignificanceandpurposeofthisstudyandintroducestheoutlineofthepaper.1.1.Background1.1.1.TheImportanceofGrammarTeachingThethreedimensionsofalanguageareform,meaninganduseandthepurposeoflanguageteachingistocultivatestudents’comprehensivelanguagecompetence.Toputitindetails,teachingalanguageistotrainlearners’fourskillsofalanguage(listening,speaking,readingandwriting)andtodeveloptheirabilityofapplyingthetargetlanguageaccurately,fluentlyandappropriatelyandatthesametime,tolearnabouttheculturebehindthelanguage.Grammar,formofalanguageorevensomelinguistsregarditasbasicrulesfordevelopinglistening,speaking,readingandwriting,isoneofthebasicelementsofalanguage,soitplayssuchanimportantrolethatithasbeenaheatedsubjectinlanguageacquisitionresearchandinEnglishasaforeignlanguage(EFL)teachingstudy.Therearefourreasonsfortheimportanceofgrammarteachingpresentedinthefollowingpart.Firstly,grammarisnotonlyaboutrulesofwordformationandsentenceconstruction,butalsoistheconstructionoftext.Grammarrulesaretheframeworktoalanguagejustlikebonestohuman.Nothingaboutthesystemsofalanguagecanbeunderstoodwithoutgrammar,lexiconsandphoneticdescriptions.Grammaticalresourcesaremarshaledtocontributetothediscoursecoherenceandtheinterconnectionoftext.Grammarrulesorstructuresarenotonlythebasicelementof1 alanguagebutalsotheframeworkofalanguage.Secondly,thepurposeoflanguagelearningandteachingindicatestheimportanceofgrammarteaching.Communicationisthefinalandultimatepurposeoflanguagelearningandteaching.So,foreignlanguagelearnersmustmasterakindofcompetenceinordertoachievethispurpose,andwiththiscompetencetheymightbeabletouseitfluently,appropriatelyandaccurately.CanaleandSwain(1980,pp.263-267)statethatcommunicativecompetenceisonecompetencewherethereexistsasynthesisofbasicgrammaticalprinciples:GrammaticalCompetence,knowledgeofhowlanguageisemployedinsocialcontextstoperformcommunicativefunctions:SocioculturalCompetence,andknowledgeofhowusagesandcommunicativepurposescanbecombinedinharmonywiththeprinciplesofdiscourse:DiscourseCompetence.Grammaticalcompetence,asamajorcomponentofcommunicativecompetence,referringtothelearner’sabilityofapplyingrulesofpronunciationandspelling,knowledgeofvocabulary,wordformationandsentencestructure,occupiesaprominentposition(Canale&Swain,1980,p.265).Thus,otherthreecomponentsofcommunicativecompetencewillbegreatlyimprovedwhenasolidofgrammaticalknowledgeisgrasped.Withoutsufficientgrammaticalknowledge,onemayfeeldifficulttogettheaccuratemeaningofalanguageacrossanditwouldbeimpossibleforhimtocommunicatesmoothly.Thirdly,therearealotofdifferencesbetweenEnglishandChinesesincetheybelongtodifferentlanguagesystems.Forexample,inEnglish,peopletendtousetheorder:fromsmalltobigandfromspecifictogeneraltodescribeavenueoraplace;nevertheless,Chinesearelikelytousetheoppositeordertomakethedescriptionofplace.“LiHuacomesfromGuangDong,China.”“李华来自中国广东。”ItisobviousthataChinesesentencefocusesonsyntheticaleffectofstructure,whileanEnglishsentencepaysattentiontothelinearlogicofstructure.InEnglish,2 severalmeaningscanbeexpressedclearlywithcomplicatedstructureinjustonesentence.WhileinChinese,asentenceisusuallyshortwithlittlemodifier,otherwiseitwillcauseconfusioninmeaning.Furthermore,anEnglishsentencewithalotofclausesisalwaysseparatedinshortsentencesinChinese.Inotherwords,insteadoftheformintegrity,thesyntacticrelationsofChinesesentencerelyonwordordersandwordclassmembership.However,inEnglish,thegrammaticalelementsarethefoundationwhichasentencemainlydependsonsinceEnglishsentenceslaystressesonthecompletenessoftheform.Asaresult,therearemoreconjunctionsbeingusedinanEnglishsentencethaninaChineseoneandanEnglishsentenceisorganizedbywayofvariationofwordforms.Soitisnecessarytoteachthelearnersthesystemicknowledgeontheformationofwords,theconstructionofsentencesandtexts.Lastly,EnglishasaforeignlanguageforChineselearners,itisquitedifficultforthemtomasteritwithoutlearningitsgrammar,consideringthefactthattheylackthenaturalenvironmenttoacquireEnglish.StudentsmightproduceawkwardorinappropriateEnglishiftheydon’treceiveanygrammarinstruction.Pacher(2009,pp.23-76)claimsthatgrammaticalteachingcanbeseentoprovideforeignlanguagelearnersinclassroom-basedsettingswithashortcutasthelimitedcurriculumtimeavailableandtheacquisition-poornatureofclassroom-basedlearningisnotprobablytoallowfornaturalacquisition.ItisunlikelyforChineselearnerstoacquireaforeignlanguagenaturallyfortheirlackstargetlanguageenvironment.Therefore,theyneedtobetaughtortobeequippedwithlanguageknowledge,especiallyknowledgeofhowtoformlanguagetocommunicate.Toconcludefromtheabovereasons,grammarisnotonlytheformofalanguage,butawaytogettoitsmeaninganduse.Learningalanguagemeansknowinghowtousealanguagecorrectlyandproperly,butforChinesestudents,it’shardforthemtolearnEnglishbecauseEnglishisquitedifferentfromtheirnativelanguage.SogrammarteachingisnecessaryandimportantintheEFLteachinginChina.3 1.1.2.TheCurrentSituationofGrammarTeachinginHighSchoolAsurveyonthesituationofgrammarteachingwascarriedoutbyschool’sEnglishgroupamongEnglishteachersin2011intheresearcher’sschoolandanotheronewascarriedoutamongstudentsatthesametime.Thetwoquestionnairesweremadebythedirectoroftheresearchonthegrammarteachingmethodsinruralareaafterreferringtothesuggestionsfromsomeexperiencedteacherswhoalsotookpartintheresearch.Theresultsofthesurveyamongtheteachersshowsthat95%oftheteachersthinkgrammarteachingisimportant.40%ofthembelievethatitisnecessaryforstudentstotakealotoftimetodogrammarpractice.Thereare90%oftheteachersconsideringthatthedifficultyofgrammarteachingistoteachstudentshowtousegrammar.Thereare85%oftheteachersregardingthebestmethodistoteachgrammarincontextbutadmittingatthesametimethatit’snoteasytoapplytothismethodsincetheproperteachingmaterialishardaccessto.Thefollowingistheresultsofthestudents’survey:only40%ofthestudentslikegrammarlessonsandthereare76%ofthemhavingdifficultiesinlearninggrammar.Thereare57%ofthemadmittingthatthemostdifficultproblemingrammarlearningishowtousegrammarcorrectlyandproperly.Toconclude,thereisnodoubtthatgrammarteachingisveryimportant,buttheproblemishowtoteachlearnerstousetheformstocommunicateandtheteachers’favorablemethodistoteachgrammarincontext.ZhangJuan(2012,9-11)carriedoutasurveyin2012.TheauthorconductedasurveyoftheactualsituationofgrammarteachinginsomehighschoolsofShandongProvince.Thesurveyfindsthat30.55%oftheteachersreportthattheimportanceofgrammarteachingisemphasizedinschoolsandpointoutthatgrammarteachingisnecessarytobecarriedoutduringthewholeperiodofEnglishteachinginhighschool.77.78%ofthembelievethatstudentsarenotinterestedingrammarteachinganddon’tcareabouthowgrammaristaught.Thereare54.54%oftheteachersconsideringthatstudentshavedifficultyin4 howtousegrammarcorrectlyandproperly.Thesurveyalsoshowsthatthemajorityoftheteachersadoptboththeinductiveanddeductivemethodstotheteachingofgrammar.Zhang’ssurveyalsoshowsthefactthatgrammarteachinghastheimportantpositioninEFLteachingbutteachersstillhavenoeffectivewaysofteachingsothatlearners’interesthaven’tbeenarousedeffectively.Inthestudyof“AnalysisandReflectionofCurrentSituationofGrammarTeachinginHighSchool”,LiBin(2009,17-18)carriedoutarandomsamplesurveybetweentheyoungforeignlanguageteacherswhoareabout30yearsoldparticipatingthecourseofpostgraduatestudywithhim.Morethan70%oftheteachersadmitthattheystillapplyGrammar-TranslationMethodtotheteachingofgrammarinsteadofthecommunicativeapproach.Theteacherslistoutthefollowingseveralreasons,suchasstudents’relativelylowlanguagelevel,toomuchtestpressure,limitedcurriculumtime,andthelargenumberofstudentsinaclass.TheteachersconsiderGrammar-TranslationMethodisnotonlypracticalbutalsosuitableforthecurrentsituation.Therespondentsalsomentionedthatmostofthestudentsareinlackofinterestandmotivationinlearningforeignlanguage.Fromthesurveysabove,asummarycanbemadethatgrammarteachingisimportantinEFLteachingbutstudentshavedifficultyinusinggrammarrulesinactualsituationandtheirinterestinlearninggrammarneedtobearoused.Inaddition,lookingintothefactattainedbytheresearcherofthisstudyfromtheinspectingandlearningexchangeactivities,atpresentinteachingpractice,manyyoungteachersapplyCommunicativeLanguageTeachingtotheirclasswherethelearnersareactiveandinterestedintheclassbutthelanguagethelearnersusedisnotsoaccurateorappropriate.Atthesametime,Grammar-TranslationMethodisstillpopularinEFLclassofwhichthelearnersthinkisfarawayfromtheactualuseoflanguage.Intheclass,thestudentshavelittleopportunitytocommunicateandtheyarenotinterestedinclass.ThesetwopopularmethodsapplyingintheEFLteachingatpresenthavetheirowndrawbacks:GrammarisneglectedinCommunicativeLanguageTeaching5 andinGrammar-TranslationMethod,grammaristaughtinisolationinsteadofintegratingwellintocontext.Aconclusioncanbedrawnfromthedrawbacksofthemethodsappliedatpresentthatabettermethodwhichcanwellintegrategrammarteachingintocontextsoastodeveloplearners’fourskillsandtheabilityofapplyingtargetlanguageaccurately,fluentlyandappropriatelyisurgentlydemandedinthefieldofEFLgrammarteaching.Inaword,thecurrentsituationisnotsosatisfyingandapropergrammarteachingmethodisurgentlyrequiredforgrammarteachingpractice.1.2.TheSignificanceandPurposeoftheStudyAsisdiscussedabove,itcanbeperceivedapparentlythatgrammarteachingisnecessaryandimportantintheEFLteachinginChinabuttherestilllacksofaneffectivemethodinEFLgrammarteachinginhighschool.Sothepresentauthormakesaneffort:1)Tofindawayofcontext-settingingrammarteachingthroughtheexperimentalstudy;2)Totestitsteachingeffectivenessintheteachingofgrammarinhighschool;3)Tofindouttheprinciplesandsuitableapproachesofcontextsettingintheteachingofgrammarinhighschool.ThepresentresearcherhopesthatthemethodinthisstudywillmeettheRequirementsinNewEnglishCurriculum(2012).Thestudypossessesbothpracticalandtheoreticalvalue.Practically,thestudycontributestosolvingthecurrentproblemsEnglishteachershavemetwhenteachinggrammarinChina’shighschoolsandprovidingEnglishteachersaneffectivemethodofgrammarteachingwhichimprovestheaccuracyofstudents’grammarandbetterdeveloplearners’abilityintheactualuseofgrammar.Theoretically,itissignificanttotheconstructionsofEFLgrammarteachingtheory.ItnotonlyhelpsuseeducationaltheoriestoimproveandenhanceEFLgrammarteachinginhighschoolsbutalsoenrichthetheoriesof6 grammarteachingandlearning.1.3.LayoutoftheThesisThestudyunderlyingthisthesisisfocusedonfindinganeffectivewayofteachingEnglishgrammarinhighschool.Thethesismainlycontainsfivechapters:ChapterOneintroducestheimportantroleofgrammarteaching,thecurrentsituationofgrammarteachinginhighschool,thesignificanceandpurposeofthisstudy.Attheendofthischapter,itintroducesthelayoutofthepaper.ChapterTwoisaliteraturereviewonthedefinitionofcontext,classificationofcontext,contextsetting,grammarteachingandteachinggrammarincontext.ChapterThreecentersonthemethodology.Thischapterstartswiththeresearchquestionsandcontainstheresearchplan,theresearchprocedure,datacollection,dataanalysisandthestudy’svalidityandtrustworthinessaswell.ChapterFourstatestheresearchresultsanddiscussionsarousedbytheresearch.ChapterFiveconcludesthethesisbyillustratingtheresearchout-comings,theimplicationsonpedagogy,thepresentlimitationsaswellassuggestionsforfurtherstudy.7 ChapterTwoLiteratureReview2.1.DefinitionsofContextContexthasbeenfrequentlyusedintherelevantresearchandteachingoflanguageskills.Theterm"context"originatesfromthe“contextus”,aLatinword,whichmeans“joiningtogether”.Ithasbeengivenvariouslinguisticdefinitionsbydifferentschoolsofscholars.Contextisdefinedasapieceofwriting,aspeech,etc.whichsurroundsawordorpassageandwhichinfluencesorhelpstoexplainitsmeaning(Longman,1998,p.392).Attheprimarystage,contextreferstothecircumstancesorenvironmentwherelanguageisused.However,mostmodernlinguistsseecontextinamuchbroaderview.Therangeofcontexthasbeenbroadenedtosettings,surroundings,societies,backgroundsorculturesinwhichwordsorphrasesarecloselyrelatedwith.Thisisknownasthe“non-linguistic”context.Itisconsideredthatcontextisaverycomplicatedtopicandthebroadideaofcontextisabsolutelyhelpfulinlanguagestudy,especiallywhenthemeaningofawordislearned.Routledge(1996,p.291)givesthefollowingdefinitionofcontext:“Context”,asacomprehensiveideainthetheoryofcommunication,includesallcomponentsofacommunicativecircumstance:non-verbalandverbalcontexts,thecontentofagivenspeechcircumstanceandthesocialrelationshipbetweenspeakersandhearers,andtheirknowledgeandtheirattitudesaswell.WangJianping(1992,p.164)definescontextasbelow:8 Contextsarethoselinguisticforms,beforeorafteralinguisticexpression.Contextsarethoseobjectiveorsubjectiveenvironmentalfactors.Andthelinguisticexpressionwithacertainmeaningshoulddependonthemduringcommunications.Allthedefinitionsaboveshowsustheimplicationsofcontexts.Atthefundamentalstage,contextsareregardedasthecircumstancesoranenvironmentwherealanguageisused.2.2.ClassificationsofcontextDifferentlinguistshavedifferentviewstothenotionofcontext,soitisnotstrangetoseethattheyhavedifferentclassificationsofcontext.Forexample,Malinowski(1923,p.89)claimsthreekindsofcontexts:contextofutterance,situationandculture.Byanalyzingmeaningoflanguage,Firth(1975,p.64)thinksthatapartfromcontextofsituation,theremustexistcontextofculture.Sohetriestosortcontextsintothatofsituationandculture,agreeingthatthelattercontainstheformerone.AccordingtoHalliday(1973,pp.64-92),contextshouldincludetwoparts:oneislinguisticcontext,whichcanbeclassifiedintothoseofintratextualandintertextual;andnon-linguisticcontext,whichissub-categorizedintothoseofsituationandculture.Incontrastwiththeclassificationofcontextheldbyforeignscholars,Chineselinguistsproposetheirownclassifications.HeZhaoxiong(1987,pp.8-12)triestomakeadistinctionbetweenlinguisticbackgroundknowledgeandextra-linguisticbackgroundknowledge,andconsidersextra-linguisticbackgroundknowledgeshouldincludetheknowledgeaboutspecificcommunicativeenvironmentandtheknowledgeaboutsocial-culturalnorms,socialcustomsandparticipant’sworld.ZhangYunpei(1985,pp.58-59)saysthattherearethreekindsofcontext:realistic9 context,socialcontextandpersonalcontext.ZhuYongsheng(2005,p.24)dividescontextintothreecategories:linguisticcontextorco-text,contextsofcultureandsituation.Butlaterhepointsoutthatcontextofculturecontainsthatofsituation,whilelinguisticcontextorco-textiscontainedincontextofsituation.Asitcanbeseenabove,theclassificationsproposedbylinguistsarevarious,butgenerallyspeaking,therearemainlytwokindsofcontexts--linguisticandnon-linguistic.Theformeronereferstoco-textwhichistheinternalstructureofthetext,suchasthecharacters,thesentencesormaybethewholetext.The“situationalcontext”and“culturalcontext”consistofthenon-linguisticcontext.Thespecificdescriptionsofthemwillbeshownbelow.2.2.1.LinguisticContextKnownasco-text,thelinguisticcontextisrelatedwiththepossibilityofaword’scollocationswithanotherword.Thisprobabilityformspartsofthe“meaning”oftheword,andalsoaparticularutteranceisfollowedandprecededwiththepartofthetext(DaiWeidong2002:70).Inthisessay,thelinguisticcontextcanbedefinedasthewords,sentences,orthewholepassagearoundthegrammaticalpoints.Sothechoiceofthematerialsmaybepredominantatthispoint.Theteachersshouldusesomeskillstomaketheclassmeaningfulandinteresting.2.2.2Non-LinguisticContext(1)SituationalContextMetaphorically,languageisviewedasamirrorofthesociety,throughwhichwewillhaveabetterunderstandingofsocialactivitiesofasociety.Functionally,asocietycanprovidealanguagewithappropriatecontextsofuse,inwhichwecanhaveavividandtruthfuluseexperiencewithaspectsoflanguage(HuZhuanglin,LiuRunqing&LiYanfu,1988,pp.219-227).Thelinguistsclaimthatmeaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,contextwhichhavesomethingtodowiththelanguagebehavior.ArepresentativeofthisapproachwasJ.R.Firth.Heheldtheviewthat“weshouldknowawordbythecompanyitkeeps,”andthat“Wesetalimitsoninquiriesintotheobjectiveingroup10 byregardingwordsasacts,eventsandhabits.”(DaiWeidong&ChenLiping,2005,pp.6-9).Soeachusageoccursinaspecificcircumstance.Itisconsistedofmanycomponents,suchastheplaceandtime,thespeakerandthehearer,theactions,theexistenceofdifferentobjectsandeventsatthetimeandinthesituation.Theutterancemeaningofthesentencesvarieswhenithappenedindifferentsituations.Forexample,“mybagisheavy”(DaiWeidong&ChenLiping,2005,pp.6-9).Firstly,itcanbeunderstoodasthespeaker’sstraightforwardstatement,whichtellsthehearerthatthebagisheavy.Secondly,itcanbeintendedbythespeakerasanindirect,politerequest,whichimpliesthatthespeakeraskthehearertohelphimtocarrythebag.Thirdly,itcanbealsoseenasthatthespeakerisdecliningsomeone’srequestforhelp.Sotheunderstandingofthesentencemeaningdependsonthecontextsinwhichitisutteredandthepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersit.Sowhattextbookstellthestudentstolearnarerulesanditemsofgrammarorvocabulariesthatarerightorwrong.Butwhatlearnersreallyhavetolearnishowtoputthisknowledgetouseinvaryingsituationalcontextsforvaryingproposes(Kramsch,1993,p.200).(2)CulturalContextProfessorDaioncedefinedthecultureas“theoverallpatternsofhuman’slife,suchasreligions,customs,habits,goods,skillsandlanguagewhicharecharacteristicsofthewholecommunity.”Everyaspectofhumanlifehasbeenvirtuallypermeatedandpeople’sbehaviorpredominantlyinfluencedbyculture,includinglinguisticbehavior(DaiWeidong&ChenLiping,2005,p.9).Itisadmittedthatinaculture,languageplaysacriticalandimportantroleandthatcultureimposesanintrinsicandindispensableimpactuponagivenlanguage(HuZhuanglin,2002,pp.9-13).Thus,languageisanindispensablecarrierofculture.Culturefindsabetterrepresentationthroughlanguageuse(HuZhuanglin,2002,pp.9-13).11 “Whenitisfirstused,languageplaysalinkingroleinpeople’sconcreteactivities….Insteadofaninstrumentofreflection,languageisaformofactions,”oncearguedMalinowski(Kramsch,1993,p.229).ItisundoubtedthattheworkofMalinowskilaidafoundationforacultureandacontextuallanguagestudyinBritain(HuZhuanglin,2002,pp.9-13).Itcanbeseenthatintheearlytime,peoplehaverealizedtheimportanceofcultureandlanguageandcultureareboundtogether.Thereforestudentsnotonlyneedlearnthelanguagebutalsotheculture.Maybetheteacherwhoteachesalanguageisteachingitsculture(HeZhaoxiong,1989,pp.73-78).2.3.TheoriesonContextTheninthissectioncontextsettingwillbediscussedfromperspectivesofconstructivismandcommunicativeapproach.2.3.1.ConstructivismPiaget(1983,pp.57-102),whoisoneofthemostinfluentialpsychologistsinthefieldofcognitive,proposedconstructivism.Hisbasicopinionisthatlearners,duringtheprocessoflearning,aremuchinfluencedbytheirenvironmentandsurroundings.Bywayofdevelopingtheirownstructureofcognition,learnersthusconstructtheircognitionoftheouterworld.Constructionmainlyconsistsoftwobasicprocesses.Oneisassimilation.Itmeansthatwhenlearnersfirstreceivenewinformation,itisaddedtotheoldandexistedschemaandthusthenewknowledgebecomesadaptedtothepreviousone.Nextcomesaccommodation.Itmeanstheywillchangetheformeroneandrebuildtheirschemaiflearnerscannotmakenewknowledgeadaptedtotheirexistedschema.Thatistosay,assimilationisastepforenlargementoftheformerschemaregardingquantity,whenaccommodationisinrespectofquality.Learnerscankeepthebalancebetweentheknownandunknownbyassimilationand12 accommodation.Therefore,learners’cognitionswillbeconstructedthroughthesebalanceandunbalanceandimprovethemselves.Skehan(1998,pp.84-88)makesfurtherresearchbasedonPiaget’stheoryandtheimportanceofactivitiesintheprogressofconstructionwaspaidattentiontobyStern(1983,pp.210-224).Althoughthecontentofconstructivismisresourceful,itcanstillbesummedupasfollows:Activelyconstructinsteadofreceivingknowledgepassively.Itmakesmoresensetomakelearnerslearnbythemselvesratherthanmaketeachersteachalltheyknow.Somemainpointsinthefieldofconstructivismcanbesummarizedasbelow:Firstofall,learningisaprocessduringwhichlearnersmakefulladvantagesoftheirpreviousknowledgeandexperience,inotherwords,originalcognitiveinformation.Howatt(1984,pp.59-62)illustrates:Sincelearnersownandshowrichanddifferentbackgrounds,thoughtsandfeelings,soiftheirpersonalviewsandcriticalevaluationcanbeexchangedinaneuralclassroom,thenunderstandingofeachstudentwillbebuiltbasedonempiricalevidence.SeniorhighschoolfreshmenhavestudiedEnglishforatleastthreeyears.TheybearinmindoneschemaaboutwhattosayinEnglishandhowtospeakthoughtheymaynotbegoodatexpressingthemselvesinfluency.Secondly,theimportanceoffunctionsofcontextismuchemphasizedinconstructivism,anditholdsabeliefthatlearningmustbecarriedoutundercertainsituationwhichisveryimportantsinceitcanprovidetheopportunitytobuilduplearners’schemafromtherealcommunications.Theyareabletomakefulluseofexistedknowledgetoeasilyconstructtheirnewknowledge.Iflearnersdonotlearninarealcircumstance,theymaynothaveathoroughunderstandingofnewknowledge,nottomentionmasteranduseitsuccessfully.Perhapstheywillhavea13 shorttermofmemoryaboutonlyafewaspects.Iftheknowledgedoesnotexistinthepreviousschema,thelearnerswillhavetheabilitytoreconstructthecognition.TheprocessisveryhelpfulforlearnerstostudyEnglishgrammarinamuchmorepracticalway.Throughthisapproach,learnerswillbeabletoapplywhattheyhavelearnedaboutgrammarrulestopractice.Thirdly,infieldofconstructivism,studentsarelaidmuchemphaseson,insteadoftheteacher.Notanyteacherdoesnotwanttoteachhisorherstudentswell,butthestudentstaketheinitialroleinabsorbingknowledgeandsearchingforsolutionstodealwithproblems.Thatistosay,studentsmustbeinitiativeenoughduringtheprocessoflearning.Ontheotherhand,Teachershadbetternottelltheirstudentswhattodoandhowtodoitinadirectway,buttodeveloptheirabilitiesinthelearningprocess.Thatistheessence.Therefore,studentswillbehighlymotivatedandtheywillbecomemoreinterestedinlearning.ButinGradeOneofseniorhighschools,students’suchabilitiesaremerelyactivatedbyEnglishteachers.Soastomakestudentsgethighmarksinthecollegeentranceexamination,grammarrulesarealwaysbeencrammeddirectlybyteachersinclassandwhatstudentsshoulddoistomemorizetheserulesandgethighscoresinexams.Basedonconstructivism,someaspectsmustbepaidattentiontobyteachers:Firstly,anideashouldbekeptinmindthatstudentsareresponsiblefortheirstudies,whoshouldinitiativelylearnandpossessknowledge.Teacherscanonlyactasadvisersandhelpstudentsconstructtheirmeanings.Aproperlearningcontextshouldalsobeprovidedforthelearners.What’smore,teachersshouldarousetheirmotivationsandlearninginterestssothatthestudentswillenthusiasticallybehaveinclass,andasaresult,theywilllearnwellinsuchproperatmosphere.Asproposedbyconstructivism,learningshouldbeputinaspecialsituationorcontext.Learningwillbecomemeaninglessifitiscarriedoutwithoutcontexts.IfseniorhighschoolstudentsgettostudysomenewEnglishknowledgeinacertaincontext,theywillmasterboththegrammarrulesandthewaytospeakcorrectlyand14 appropriatelyasthelanguageusedindailylife.Forexample,wemayencounterasimilarsituationthatdiscoveringaforeignerwhoneedshelpinaskingdirections.Wemightgoclosetotheforeignerandtrytogiveahand,butheorsheusuallydoesnotknowhowtostarttheconversationandcontinue.Theknowledge,infact,hasnotgonefromhisorhermindbuthe/shejusthasnoideaabouthowtostarttheconversationbecauseheorshehasnevermetsuchanoccasioninclassbefore.Ingeneral,withregardtoconstructivism,itisstronglyrecommendedthatsettingacontextshouldbetakenintoconsiderationswhilelearningorteachingaforeignlanguage.Becausebymerelymemorizinggrammarrulesandwithoutpropercontexts,studentswillnotbeabletousethosegrammarrulestomakeproperandmeaningfulsentencesunderauthenticconditions.2.3.2.Krashen’sInputHypothesisDuringthelate1970s,SecondLanguageAcquisition,knownastheMonitorModel,wascomeupwithbyKrashen(1981,pp.92-148),afterwhosemainargumentonthemonitoringwhenlearningasecondlanguage.Intheearly1980s,abroader-basedonewithfiverelatedhypotheses(acquisitionlearning,monitor,naturalorder,input,andaffectivefilter)waspointedout,whichwasdescribedbyKrashen(1981,p.104).TheInputHypothesisisanattempttoexplaintheprocessofthelearners’acquisitionofasecondlanguage.SotheInputHypothesishassomethingtodowith“acquisition”,insteadof“learning”.Accordingtothishypothesis,whenthelearnergetsan“input”-secondlanguage,heorshewillmakeprogressalongthe“naturalorder”.Buttheinputreceivedmustbealittlebeyondhisorherpresentleveloflanguagecompetence.Inotherwords,ifalearnerisatthelevelof“i”,thenacquisitionisachievedwhenhe/shecomesto“comprehensibleinput”withalevel“i+1”.Thisisbecausethateverylearnerisatdifferentlevelsoflinguisticcompetence.Krashen(1981,pp.117-120)believesthatthekeytodesigningasyllabusisa15 meaningfulcommunicativeinput.Inthisway,eachlearnercanreceivean“i+1”input,suitableforhis/hercurrentstageoflanguagecompetenceandeasytoachieve.Inotherwords,languageacquisitiondependsonthetrialtounderstandwhatothers’words.Itoccurswhenthelearnermakesanefforttogetthemeaningsofwhatheorshehears(Cook,1993,p.82).Thetheory(Krashen,1981,pp.92-148)containsthefollowingpoints,justasEllis(1994,pp.78-109)summarizesasbelow:1.Byunderstandingandcomprehendinginputwhichincludesstructuresabitbeyondtheircurrentstageoflinguisticcompetence,thelearnerwillmakeprogressalongthenaturalorder.2.ThoughcomprehensibleandunderstandableinputisanessenceforSecondLanguageAcquisitiontooccur,itisnotsufficient,sincethelearneralsomustbeactively‘letin’theinputhe/sheunderstandsandgets.3.Onlywhenthereareassistantslikesimplificationandcontextualandextra-linguisticclueswillinputbecomeunderstandable.4.Speakingdoesnotresultinacquisition,buttheproductofacquisition,whichdoesnotdirectlycontributetoSecondLanguageAcquisition.Itisobviousthattheinputmusttobeneithertoodifficulttocomprehendnortooeasytobeusefulandapplicabletothelearners.Krashen(1981,pp.92-148)conceptualizethetermofthelearners’currentlevelas“i”andthenextlevelatwhichthelearnerarrivesas”i+1”.Inordertomakeprogressratherthanstayattheformerstageofcompetence,theinputmustbeabitoverthestageatwhichheorshehasacompleteandthoroughmaster:thegapbetweenthelearners’“i”andthe“i+1”whichiscomposedofknowledgefromthecircumstanceandpreviousexperience.“Ourcontext,knowledgeoftheouterworldandextra-linguisticcompetenceareallhelpfulforustounderstand.”Krashen(1981,pp.92-148)emphasizesthatitisunnecessarytofinelyintuneinputoutofthereasonthatinputshouldbeadaptedtocontain“i+1”.Onlyautomaticandroughtuningisdemandedwhenasuccessfulcommunicationis16 expected.Nevertheless,toexplainthereasonwhyacquisitionisnotequallysuccessfulforallsecondlanguagelearnersisstillnecessaryeventhoughtheygetclearlycomprehensibleinput;“Comprehensionisanecessarystepforlanguageacquisitionthoughitisinsufficient”(Krashen,1981,pp.92-148):somethingmoreisneeded.Beforeacquisition,theproperpartsoftheinputmustbeabsorbedbythelearner.Onlywheninputbecomesintakesecondlanguageacquisitioncanbeachieved.Butoftenwewillmeetsuchaproblemasthatwehaveverylimitedknowledgeonhowtoselecttheappropriateinputdata(Krashen,1981,pp.92-148).Isitconnectedwiththewaytheinputdataarepresented?Isitconnectedwithmotivation,oneofthesocial-affectivevariables?Krashen(1981,pp.92-148)claimsthatthereexistsamentalblockwhichstopslearnersfrommakingfulladvantagesoftheunderstandableinformationtheygetforacquisition”.Itwascalled“theaffectivefilter”,whichoccursbecause“theacquirerisunmotivated,lackofself-confidence,orwithlotsofanxieties”.Learnersdifferentiatebetweeneachotherduetotheirdifferentpsychologicalstates,whichtheAffectiveFilterHypothesisinsists.Itcannotpasswhenthefilteris“up”;butifthefilteris“down”,theywillmakefulluseofit.“Secondlanguageacquisitionresultsfromcomprehensibleinputandthestrengthofthefilter”(Krashen,1981,pp.92-148).StillbasedonKrashen’stheory,inthelanguageprogram,listeningcomprehensionisprimarilysignificant,andthefluencyofspeakingasecondlanguagecanbegreatlyimprovedalongwithtime.Sotheabilitytohaveafluentspeakingisnot“taught”directlybyteachers,butwillformafterthecompetencebeingconstructedthroughcomprehensibleinput.ThemainassumptionsofInputHypothesisaresummedupbyLong(1998,pp.33-51)asfollows:1)ineitherfirstorsecondlanguageacquisition,havinganaccesstounderstandableinputrepresentsthecharacteristicofallsuccessfulcasesoflanguageacquisition;2)thelargernumbersofcomprehensibleinputwillresultinbetterorfastersecond17 languageacquisition;and3)littleornoacquisitionresultsfromlackingornoaccesstocomprehensibleinput.Krashen(1981,pp.92-148)concludesthefivehypotheseswithasimpleandsinglepoint:“Onlywhenlearnersgraspunderstandableinputcantheyacquiresecondlanguageswiththeotherprerequisitethattheaffectivefiltersarenotsohightostoptheinputfrom“gettingin”.Inotherwords,theessentialingredientforsecondlanguageacquisitiontooccuriscomprehensibleinput.Allotherfactorsintendedtomotivateorboostsecondlanguageacquisitionworkmustcontributetounderstandableorcomprehensibleinputwithalowaffectivefilter.”2.3.3.CommunicativeApproachAsforcommunicativeapproach,languageisregardedasasystemtoexpressmeaningandinteractionandcommunicationareitsforemostfunction.Thefunctionalandcommunicativeusesofthelanguagearereflectedbyitsstructure,anditsprimaryunitsaredemonstratedinthefeaturesofgrammarandstructureandtypesoffunctionalandcommunicativemeaningillustratedinspeech.2.3.3.1.TheCharacteristicsofCommunicativeApproachTheCommunicativeApproachhasalottotakeintoaccountandthereforehasaverybroadandrichscopeofcharacteristics,thebasicsofwhicharelaidoutasfollows:(1)Bothspokenandwrittenlanguageareimportant.Reading,writing,speakingandlisteningareallnecessarypartsofcommunicativecompetence,whetherit’sreadingamenu,orderingthefood,orfillinginanapplicationformtoworkattherestaurant.(2)Languageisviewedandlearnedwithinitssocialandculturalcontext,whichlearnersneedtodevelopknowledgeofinordertodevelopappropriatelanguageuse,e.g.talkingtofriends,facilitatingameeting,orwritingaletter.Thereisanemphasisontheauthenticuseoflanguage.18 (3)Focusisonmeaning,ratherthanlanguagestructure,whichisseenasameansofaidingtheunderstandingandproductionofmeaning.(4)Bothfluencyandaccuracyareimportant.Torealizetheoccurrenceofcommunication,grammarisnecessary,butnotsufficientbyitself.(Socio-linguistshavedevelopedanewwayoflookingatgrammarthatshowshowwechangeandadaptitaccordingtosocialfunctionandcircumstances,thusimprovingourknowledgeofhowlanguageisusedappropriately).Studentsneedgrammaticalexplanations,drillsandexercises,whenandonlywhentheyareappropriate.(5)Coursecontentisbasedonstudents’needs.Whatdotheyneedtolearn/useEnglishfor?(6)Teachingismorelearner-centered.Studentsarefarmoreinvolved,ratherthanlisteningtotheteacherfor45minutes.Studentsshouldbeencouragedtocontributeasmuchaspossible.(7)Theteacherbecomesaplannerandfacilitatoroflanguagelearningactivities,helpingthestudentsthroughout,ratherthanadidacticteacher.(8)Mistakesareonlycorrectedwhennecessary,forexample,afteranactivityiscompleted,notduring.Tocorrectastudentwhileheiscommunicatingwouldhinderthemaingoalofsuccessfulandeffectivecommunication.Studentswillfinditusefultoknowtheirmistakesaftertheycompletethecommunicativeactivitiesespeciallywhenthesemistakesarecommontothewholeclass.(9)Activitiesarebasedonreal-lifecommunicationbecausethatiswhatwelearnlanguagesfor,e.g.“Thisismyfriend,Keiko.She’sfromJapan”,ratherthan“Thisisapen.Thatisapencil”.(10)Activitiesaretask-basedinwhichlanguageisusedforapurpose,theyareoftenbasedonaninformation-gapand/orthesharingofinformationtoachievesuchacommunicativepurpose,e.g.sellingfruit,makinganappointment,aclasssurveyordebatingtheprosandconsofschooluniform.(11)Coursecontentismorerelevanttostudents’livessotheycanactuallyuseit.19 (12)Useofpair-workandgroup-workactivitiesiscommonaswellasindividualandteacher-ledactivities.Variedtypesofinteractionareencouragedandnurtured.Learnershearmoretypesoflanguagefromdifferentsources,interactwithmorepeople,uselanguageincontext,hearitrepeated,rephrasedandclarified,askandanswerquestions,buildconfidenceanddon’thavetospeakinfrontoftheentireclass.2.3.3.2.ThePrinciplesofCommunicationNowlet’slookattheoverarchingprinciplesoftheCommunication.(1)Makerealcommunicationthefocusoflanguagelearning.Communicativelanguageteachingsuggeststhatinsteadofmakingstudentshavemechanicalexerciseofdrilling,endlessimitatingandmeaninglessmemorizing,itshouldalsoengagestudentswithcommunicatingactivitiesinthetargetlanguageinareal-lifesituation.Therearethreemajorfeaturesrelatedtotheactivitiesthatarecommunicativeinnature:informationgap,optionsandfeedback.(2)Provideopportunitiesforlearnerstoexperimentandtryoutwhattheyknow.CommunicativeApproachplacesgreatemphasisonlearnersandlearning.Themajorroleofteachersistofunctionasbothorganizersandfacilitatorsforactivitiesinsideclassroom.Theteacherssetupcommunicationenvironmentforstudentstoexpresstheirownideascreativelyandfreely.(3)Betolerantoflearners’errorsastheyindicatethatthelearnersarebuildinguptheircommunicativecompetence.Encouraginglearnersprovesmoreimportantthanfindingtheirfaults.Butitdoesn’tmeantheteacherwilltotallyignorethelearners’mistakes.He/shewillmakecorrectionselectivelyandreacttodifferentmistakesindifferentways.(4)Provideopportunitiesforlearnerstodevelopbothaccuracyandfluency.Whenfluencyactivitiesarebeingperformed,thelearners’attentionisfocusedondevelopingtheabilityofspeakingfluently,sotheteachershouldnotinterrupttocorrectmistakes.20 (5)Linkthedifferentskillssuchasspeaking,reading,andlisteningtogether,sincetheyusuallyoccursointherealworld.Theteachersshouldavoiddevelopingskillsinisolation.Incommunicativeapproachclassroom,theteachershouldhelplearnerspracticemultipleskillsasmuchaspossible(Richards&Rodgers,2008,pp.309-327).2.3.4.PrinciplesofContextSettingTherearedifferentapproachesforgrammarteaching,andeachhastheirownprincipleswhenputintopractice.SowhenweteachEnglishtensewithcontext-basedteachingapproach,ithassomeprinciples.Principle1isauthenticity.Accordingtocognitivepsychology,iftheinformationisinputintothebrainwithauthenticity,itcangenerateexcitingemotionsandoutputactivethoughtsandbehaviors.Sotheauthenticcontextistoreturngrammarintopractice.What’smore,languageknowledgeisdynamic,onlyrememberinggrammaticalstructuresandrulesisnotsufficientforlanguagelearning,itshouldrelatethesegrammaticalstructuresandruleswithlearners’experience.Weaver(1996,pp.102-105)findthatcomparedwithgivingstudentsagrammaticalexplanationfollowedbyoutputpractice,students’experiencewithprocessinginputismoreeffective.Soingrammarteaching,weshouldprovideauthentictexts,suchasstudents’ownwritingassourceofgrammarexamplesandexercises,ortrytoconnectisolatedgrammarexercisestoauthenticsituationsandtopicsthatoccurinstudents’reallife.Alloftheseauthenticcontextsusuallymeaningfullyspeeduplearners’familiaritywiththestructuresandrulesofgrammar.Principle2iscommunication.Foralongtime,oneofthereasonswhylearnersareboredatgrammaristhelackofcommunication.Oneoftheimportantaimsofgrammarteachingistohelptodeveloplearners’communicativecompetencesothattheycanusegrammaticalitemstocommunicateinrealcontext.Inordertoachievecertaincommunicationfunctions,ontheonehand,theteachernotonlyneedtoexplain,clarify,recap,andsummarizegrammarrulestolearnersifnecessary,but21 shouldemphasizehowtouserulesincommunicativeactivitiestodeveloplearnersEnglishability.Ontheotherhand,learnersshouldbeencouragedandallowedtointeractwiththeirteacherandclassmatesinsmallgroupsorpairs,negotiatingmeaninginacertaincontext.Atthesametime,theyshouldtrytogaininformationfromothersandexpressthemselves.Besides,theyshouldlistentoothers’opinionsaswell,creatingaworkingspiritandbeassertivetocontributetothetaskofcontext.Inaword,notonlytheteacherbutalsolearnersshouldplayanactiveroleinthevariousteachingandlearningactivitiesintheclassroom,suchasgroupwork,pairwork,role-playing,report,andsoon.Asalanguage,Englishisawaytocommunicate,sothecontextsprovidedbyteachersshouldbecommunicative.Principle3isinteresting.Asthesayinggoes,interestisthebestteacher.InterestistheinnerdrivetoEnglishlearning,andlearners’interestsoflearningwillnodoubtdirectlyaffecttheiracquisitionoflanguage.Learners’intereststoalanguageisnotinnateentirely,theenvironmentandeducationarealsoimportantfactors.Inordertoarouselearners’interestsandpassions,theteachershouldconsiderstudents’interestswhiletheydesigncontextsingrammarteaching.Forexample,theycanoffersomecontextsthatarerelatedtolearners’age,life,cognitivelevelandlanguageproficiency,theycanmakethegrammaractivitiesmoreopenandchallenging,theycancreatecontextstoprovidevisualsatisfactionorguidelearnersdiscoverthegrammaritemsbythemselves.Principle4islearner-centered.IntraditionalEnglishteaching,theteacherusuallyplaysaroleasanauthority.Theyinstruct,control,organize,andevaluatethewholeteachingprocess,theyimpartandcramEnglishknowledgetotheirstudents,butneglecttherealneedoftheirstudents.Whilelearnersplayaroleaspassiverecipients,theymerelylistentotheirteacher,makeresponsetostimuliprovidedbytheteacher,andhaveverylittlecontrolovertheirlearning.Thereforetheynearlydon’thaveopportunitiestousethelanguagetointeractwithothersandexpressthemselvesinclass.Nevertheless,thecontext-basedteachingrecommendsa22 learner-centeredopinionwhichthefocusoflanguageteachingshouldbethelearners.Sointheselectionofteachingcontents,learners’needs,beliefs,attitudesandlearningexperiencesneedtobetakenintoconsideration(Nunan,1991,pp.279-295).Incontext-basedteaching,theteachershouldproviderichauthenticlanguagematerials,andlearnersareencouragedtosortoutgrammaticalrulesthroughdiscoveringbythemselves,negotiatingwithclassmatesandusingresources.Inthisway,itisnotonlybuildsupanefficient,openandharmoniousenvironmentforlearning,butmakeslearnersbecomemoreandmoreautonomousandconfidentintheirEnglishlearning.Principle5isintegration.Untilnow,somepeoplewronglyholdthatgrammarisonlyaboutform.Butactuallytherearethreedimensionsofgrammar--form,useandmeaning.EnglishlearnershavetolearnhowtoformtheverbinEnglishtense,butveryfewofthemcanusetheverbtensesmeaningfully,accuratelyandappropriatelyincommunication.Agrammaticalelementincludesgrammaticalform,conceptsandsomefunctions,learnersneedtomanipulateandunderstandthemall.Somestudieshavefoundthatcomparedwithmereformalpresentationofgrammaticalrules,anintegrationofformalinstructionandmeaning-focusedtreatmentismoreeffectiveforlearners(Ellis,2003,pp.298-311).Sogrammardimensionsrequireteacherstointegrateform,meaning,anduseintocontextingrammarteaching.2.4.GrammarTeaching2.4.1.AHistoricalOverviewofGrammarTeachingThefollowingisabriefreviewofdifferentmethodsofgrammarteachingduringthe20thcentury.Ithasexperiencedthefollowingfourphaseswhichwillbedescribedonebyone.2.4.1.1.GrammarTranslationMethod23 Asitshowedinhistory,inthewesternworld,“foreign”languagelearningwasthelearningofLatinandGreekandtheteachingofLatinwaswhathasbeencalledtheClassicalMethod.Inthe19thcenturytheClassicalMethodwasreplacedbyGrammarTranslationMethod(Brown,2002,pp.89-95).Itwasoncethemostpopularmethodofteachingforeignlanguage,eventodaysometeachersstillusethismethodinmanypartsoftheworld.Asitsnamesuggests,itfocusesongrammaticalrules,memorizationofvocabulary,translationoftexts,doingwrittenexercises.Whenteachersusethismethod,theyusenativelanguagetoexplainthegrammarrules.Solearningaforeignlanguagebythismethodrequiresmuchmemorizationofgrammaticalrulesandtranslation.SomemainfeaturesofGrammarTranslationMethodwereshowedbyBrownandGeorge(1983,pp.53-55).Inhisopinion,theyconsideredwhenusingthismethod,classesaretaughtinthemothertongue,theteachersrarelyusethetargetlanguage.Whenteachingthenewvocabularies,theyputthewordsinisolatedsituations.Whenteachingthecomplexgrammarrules,theyonlygivelongexplanationsofthem.Inthismethod,theypaylittleattentiontothestudents’pronunciation,sotheiroralEnglishispoor.Astothepractice,theybelievedthattranslatingtheirrelevantsentencesorpassagesoftheforeignlanguageintothoseofthemothertongueistheonlywayofexercises.Thesearethemaincharacterssummarizedbythem.WecanseeGrammarTranslationMethodisveryusefulforstudentspassingexams,butitisnothelpfulwhentheyuseEnglishineverydaylife.2.4.1.2.TheDirectMethodThedirectmethodenjoyedconsiderablepopularitythroughtheendofthenineteenthcenturyandwellintothisone(Brown,2002,pp.89-95).Thedirectmethod,namely,thelearningofsecondlanguage,justasthatoffirstlanguage--shouldcontainmanyconversationsbetweenspeakers,impromptuspeaking,nodrillsoftranslatingfromthefirstlanguageintothesecondoneandfew24 explanationstogrammaticalinstructions.RichardandRodgers(2008,pp.309-327)citedtherulesofthismethod.Intheiropinions,thedirectmethodmustobeythefollowingaspects.Firstly,theteachersshouldusetheforeignlanguageforteachingintheclass.Secondly,theyshouldgiveprioritytotheoralEnglishwhichisthemainmeansoflearning.Thirdly,whenteachingthegrammarrules,theteachersshowthegrammarrulesbasedonthesentencesleveldirectly,thengivethestudentschancestopractice.Sowecanseethelearningisinlinewithimitationandexercises.Lastly,theteacherscanusegestures,actions,objectsandpicturestoteachvocabularies.Theyusuallyteachabstractvocabulariesthroughtheassociationofideasoropinionswhileteachconcretevocabulariesbyshowingofobjectsorpictures.Thestudents’speechEnglishmaybeimprovedinthismethod.Buttheyonlypayattentiontothefluencyofthelanguagewhiletheaccuracyofthelanguagemaybeignored.2.4.1.3.TheAudio-LingualMethodTheAudio-LingualMethoddidnottakeholdintheUnitedStatesthewayitdidinEurope.U.S.educationalinstitutionhadbecomefirmlyconvincedthatareadingapproachtoforeignlanguageswasmoreusefulthananoralapproach,sotheAudio-LingualMethodappeared.TheAudio-LingualMethodwastightlyinviewofthelinguisticandpsychologicaltheory(Bachman,2002,pp.132-163).ThecharacteristicsoftheAudio-LingualMethodmightbesummarizedasfollows(Brumfit&Johnson,2000,pp.201-231):(1)Theteachersusethetargetlanguagewhenteaching.(2)Theyaccordprioritytothespeechandlistening,sotheyputforwardhighdemandingonthepronunciation.Tapesandlanguagelabsarehelpfulatthistime.(3)Thestudentslearntheknowledgepointsbyreplication,soteacherstendtomakethestudentsmodelthesentencepatternsandmemorizethem.25 (4)Thelanguagepointsaretaughtthroughcontrastiveanalysisandonepointwastaughtonce.(5)Theteacherssometimesorrarelyteachthegrammarrules.(6)Theycorrectthestudents’mistakesimmediatelyinorderthattheycancultivatetheirgoodhabits.What’smore,theycanimprovetheircommunicativeskillsgradually.Bachman(2002,pp.132-163)pointedthatforanumberofreasonstheALMenjoyedmanyyearsofpopularity,andeventothisday.Materialswerecarefullyprepared,testedout,anddisseminatedtoeducationalinstitutions.Butthepopularitywasnottolastforever.2.4.1.4.CommunicativeLanguageTeachingInthe1980s,CommunicativeLanguageTeachingwasintroducedtoChina,inwhichmeaningandlanguage,insteadoflanguageform,arebothpaidattentionto.CLTappearedwiththeeconomicandculturaldevelopmentsoftheworld,withtheFunctional-notionalApproachasitsembryonicform(Scollon,1995,pp.249-252).Incommunication,weshouldtakeintoaccountnotonlythegrammaticalstructures,butalsothesocial,cultureandpragmaticcharactersofthelanguage.Thismethodadvocatescreatingreallifeactivitiesforthestudentssoastoenhancetheircommunicativecompetence.“Doingthingsthroughlanguage”arejustthelatestpropositionaboutCLT(Scollon,1995,pp.249-252).AccordingtoNunan(1991,pp.279-295),theCommunicativeLanguageTeachinghasthefollowingcharacters:(1)Mutualcommunicationsinthesecondlanguageshouldbeemphasized.(2)Realandgenuinetextsshouldbeintroducedintolearning.(3)Eitherlanguageitselforthelearningprocessshouldbefocusedbylearnersduringlearning.26 (4)One’spersonalexperiencesshouldplayanactiveroleinclassroomlearning.(5)Theconnectionsandrelationshipbetweenclassroomandafter-classlearningshouldbelinkedtogether.Communicativelanguageteachinghasthegoalofbringinglanguagelearnersintoclosercontactwiththetargetlanguageandofpromotingfluencyoveraccuracy(Stern,1983,pp.210-224).Becauseoftheteachers’misunderstandingofthismethod,itleadsthatthestudentsdonotknowexactlyaboutthegrammarrulesandtheymakemanymistakeswhentheyspeak.2.5.TeachingGrammarinContext2.5.1.TheCurrentSituationofGrammarTeachinginHighSchoolAsurveyongrammarteachingwascarriedoutbytheschoolEnglishteachersgroupin2011inwhichthepresentresearcherworkedasaninternandanotheronewascarriedoutamongstudentsinthesameschoolandatthesametime.Thetwoquestionnairesweredesignedaccordingtothesuggestionsfromsomeexperiencedteacherswhoalsotookpartintheresearch.Theresultofthesurveyontheteachersshowsthat95%oftheteachersthinkgrammarteachingisimportant.40%ofthembelievethatitisnecessaryforstudentstotakemuchtimetodogrammarpractice.Thereare90%oftheteachersconsideringthatthedifficultyofgrammarteachingistoteachstudentshowtousegrammar.Thereare85%oftheteachersregardingthebestmethodistoteachgrammarincontextbutadmittingatthesametimethatit’snoteasytoapplytothismethodsincetheproperteachingmaterialishardtoaccessto.Thefollowingistheresultsofthestudents’survey:only40%ofthestudentslikegrammarlessonsandthereare76%ofthemhavingdifficultiesinlearninggrammar.Thereare57%ofthemadmittingthatthemostdifficultproblemingrammarlearning27 ishowtousegrammarcorrectlyandproperly.Toconclude,thereisnodoubtthatgrammarteachingisveryimportant,buttheproblemishowtoencouragelearnerstousetherulesintocommunicationandtheteachers’favourablemethodistoteachgrammarincontext.ZhangJuan(2012,pp.9-11)conductedasurveyontheactualsituationofgrammarteachinginsomehighschoolsofShandongProvince.Thesurveydisplaysthat30.55%oftheteachersreportthattheimportanceofgrammarteachingisemphasizedinschoolsandpointsoutthatgrammarteachingisnecessarytobecarriedoutduringthewholeperiodofEnglishteachinginhighschool.77.78%ofthembelievethatstudentsarenotinterestedingrammarlearningandstudentsdon’tcareabouthowgrammaristaught.Thereare54.54%oftheteachersconsideringthatstudentshavedifficultyinhowtousegrammarcorrectlyandproperly.Thesurveyalsoshowsthatthemajorityoftheteachersadoptboththeinductiveanddeductivemethodstotheteachingofgrammar.Zhang’ssurveyalsoshowsthefactthatgrammarteachinghastheimportantpositioninEFLteachingbutteachersstillhavenoeffectivewaysofteachingsothatlearners’interesthaven’tbeenarousedeffectively.Inthestudy,LiBin(2009,pp.17-18)carriedoutarandomsamplesurveyontheyoungforeignlanguageteacherswhoareabout30yearsoldparticipatingthecourseofpostgraduatestudywithhim.Morethan70%oftheteachersadmitthattheystillapplyGrammar-TranslationMethodtotheteachingofgrammarinsteadofthecommunicativeapproach.Theteacherslistoutthefollowingseveralreasons,suchasstudents’relativelylowlanguagelevel,toomuchtestpressure,limitedcoursetime,andthelargenumberofstudentsinaclass.TheteachersconsiderGrammar-TranslationMethodisnotonlypracticalbutalsosuitableforthecurrentsituation.Therespondentsalsomentionedthatmostofthestudentsarelackofinterestandmotivationinlearningforeignlanguages.Fromthesurveysabove,tomakeasummary,grammarteachingisimportantin28 EFLteachingbutstudentshavedifficultyinusinggrammarrulesinactualsituationandtheirinterestinlearninggrammarneedtobearoused.Inaddition,lookingintothefactattainedbytheresearcherofthisstudythatatpresent,teachingpracticemanyyoungteachersapplyCommunicativeLanguageTeachingtotheirclasswherethelearnersareactiveandinterestedintheclassbutthelanguagethelearnersusedisnotveryaccurateorappropriate.Atthesametime,Grammar-TranslationMethodisstillpopularinEFLclassofwhichthelearnersthinkisdullandlifeless.Intheclass,thestudentshavelittleopportunitytocommunicateandtheyarenotinterestedinclass.ThesetwopopularmethodsapplyingintheEFLteachingatpresenthavetheirowndrawbacks:GrammarisneglectedinCommunicativeLanguageTeachingandinGrammar-TranslationMethod,grammaristaughtinisolationinsteadofintegratingwellintocontext.Aconclusioncanbedrawnfromthedrawbacksofthemethodsappliedatpresentthatabettermethodwhichcanwellintegrategrammarteachingintocontextsoastodeveloplearners’fourskillsandtheabilityofapplyingtargetlanguageaccurately,fluentlyandappropriatelyisurgentlydemandedinthefieldofEFLgrammarteaching.Inaword,thecurrentsituationisnotsosatisfyingandapropergrammarteachingmethodisurgentlyrequiredforgrammarteachingpractice.2.5.2.TheRelationshipbetweenGrammarandLinguisticContextScollonR.&Scollon,S.(1995,pp.249-252)claimthatpeoplecanexplainthemeaningoflanguagebecausetheyknowtheconstructingrulesofcontext.Thepremiseofthisstatementistoadmitthatthemeaningoflanguageisdependentoncertaincontext,andScollonR.&S.Scollon(1995,pp.249-252)holdtheviewthatpeoplecanbuildthecontextualgrammaraccordingtothevariouscharacteristics.2.5.2.1.LinguisticContextItisobviousthatthemeaningisboundupwithcontext.Ontheonehand,grammaticalknowledgenotonlycontributestotheconstructionofsentencebutalsocontributestothecoherenceandinterconnectionofdiscourse.Ontheotherhand,onlyinthelinguisticcontextcangrammarrulesbeinterpretedclearlyandmeaningfully.Asaresult,bothformsandstructuresofalanguageshouldbe29 connected.Thisisoutofthefollowingreasons(Scollon,R.&Scollon,S.1995,pp.249-252):(1)Ifgrammaticalformsareputintoameaningfullinguisticcontextandauthenticcommunications,therewillbenodoubtsinthemeaning.(2)Demonstrationsofformsinameaningfullinguisticcontextmayarousethelearners’motivation.(3)Showinggrammarinmeaningfullinguisticcontextmaylinkgrammaticalknowledgewithlanguageuseinauthenticsituationswhichwillmotivatelearners’activeinvolvementandexplorationinvariousactivities;thus,itwillenhancelearners’motivationsincommunicationinauthenticcircumstances.Toconclude,Grammariscloselyrelatedwithlinguisticcontext.Inthefollowingparttherelationshipbetweengrammaranddiscoursewillbepresentedsinceitistheessentialpartforthetopicoflinguisticcontextandgrammar.2.5.2.2.DiscourseAnalysisAfewgrammarruleslikeinflections,determiner-nounagreementcanbecontext-freeandsentence-based.However,mostofthegrammaticalitemsarecontext-sensitivewhichshouldbestudiedincontextofdiscourseandusuallythroughtexts.Atextisasemanticunitwhichisrelatedtoaclauseorasentencenotbysizebutbyrealization.Textmaybeofanylength.Itcanconsistofaverbal,nominal,adverbialorprepositionalgrouponly.Itcanalsobeaplay,alecture,orevenanovel.Inthisthesis,textreferstotheonethatincludesmultiplesentencesforitisconvenienttoexamineitsuse.Bypresentingpointasaregardtodiscourse,anotherfiveroleswhichgrammarplaysshouldbeunderstood.Larsen-Freemanputitindetailsthatgrammarstructuresworktoorganizeatextandmakeitcohesive(cohesion),connectideassoastoimprovethecoherenceofatext(coherence),contributetothetextureofadiscourse30 makingitwhole(texture),worktogethertocreatediscoursepatterns(co-occurringstructuresindiscourse),andfulfilldiscoursefunctions(discoursefunction).(Freeman,2005,pp.68-149).CohesionSeveraltypesofcohesivedevices(suchasreference,substitution,conjunction,lexicaltiesandellipsis)areproposedbyHadley(2003,pp.183-197),explainingthewaystobuildsentencesintoacoherentandcohesivediscourse.Thesegrammaticalformscontributetoorganizeatext.CoherenceCoherenceisanotherconceptforapplyingtotheorganizationofatextandconnectingideas.Thisconceptisadifferencebetweenrhemeandtheme,knownassystemic-functionallinguistics,whichismadebyHalliday(1973,p.71).Usually,thetopicofdepartureandaframeworkareprovidedbythetheme.Andwhatfollowsintherhemearemademeaningfulfromthisframework.Coherencecanindicatelogicalrelations,sequence,consistenceanduniformity.Coherencecanbeachievedthroughrepetitionofkeynouns,applicationtoconsistentpronouns,transitionsignalsandlogicalorder.TextureTextureiscohesioninsideofatextwhichmeanstoconnectsentencesorparagraphsintoatextorthepropertyof“beingatext”.Ifapassageisregardedasatext,therewillbelinguisticfeatureswhichaccountforitstotalunityandgiveittexture.Theapplicationtopronounisoneofthewaystocreatetexture,acoherentwhole.Hereisanexampleoftheuseof“it”.“Theearthisthemotherlandofallhumanbeings.Itismustforustostophurtingit,andtosparenoeffortstoprotectitandmakeitapleasantplanet,sincewedonothaveanyotherplacestoliveinexceptit.”Co-occurringStructuresinDiscourseSometimes,grammaticalconfusioncanbeclearedupinadiscourse-level31 context.Takethedifferencebetween“haveto”and“must”asanexample.Ifitisobservedatthesentencelevel,itwouldbedifficulttotellthedifferencebetweenthemsincetheyarebothmodalformsandsharesimilarmeaningof“responsibility”.However,itiseasiertotellthedifferentuseattheleveloftext.Grammaticalrulesworktogethertocreatediscoursepatterns.Hereisanexampleofapplyingco-occurringstructuresindiscourse:themodalformsof“usedto”and“would”,takenfromTeachinglanguage:Fromgrammartogrammaring(Freeman,2005,pp.68-149).“Thebadthingisheusedtomakefunofus.”“Theywouldbehappybecausewe’dbuypancakesforsupper.”“NotonlywouldMr.Christianplaywithus,buthiswifewouldcookdinnerforus.”DiscourseTakingtensesasanexample,onecanillustratethediscoursefunctionclearly.Tensesindiscoursecanbeappliedtotellthemainstorylinefromlessimportantinformationorplot.Inadiscoursenarrative,backgroundinformationisprovidedbycertainsentenceswhileothersentencesarefixedtocarrythemainplot.Thesesentencesareoftendifferentfromeachotherbyverbtenses.Forinstance:“YesterdayIwenttothesupermarketnearmyhome.TherearealotoffruitwhichIlovemost.Iboughtafewdifferentsortsofpears.Ialsodiscoveredthatcherrieswereinseason,soIboughtthreeboxes.”(Freeman,2005,pp.68-149)Observingtherolesgrammarplaysinthecontextofdiscourse,itsfunctioninshapingtextsandimprovingtheirorganizationisobvioustosee.Furthermore,italsosuggeststhatgrammariseasiertoteachatthelevelofdiscourseorintextualcontext.Itindicatesthatgrammarandtextualcontextareboundtoeachother.Itimpliesthat32 grammarisnecessarytobetaughtinlinguisticcontextanditwouldbeeasierforlearnerstogetmeaningacross.2.5.3.ContextSettingintheTeachingofGrammarAsmentionedabove,linguisticcontextisimportantinformingtheliteralmeaningofalanguageitem.However,therearemorescholarsfocusingtheirattentiononapplyingcontextespeciallyextra-linguisticcontexttoEFLteachingandonlyafewstudiesfocusonapplyinglinguisticcontextsettingtoEFLteaching(Hadley,2003,pp.183-197).Althoughafewstudiesfocusingonapplyingcontextsintotheteachingofgrammar,onlyafewstudiesonapplyinglinguisticcontextsettingtotheteachingofgrammarinthelanguageteachingresearchareaatpresent.Applyinglinguisticcontextsettingtotheteachingofgrammaristreatedjustasapartofthestudyonapplyingcontextsettingtogrammarteaching.Asgrammarismorecloselyconnectedwithlinguisticcontext,afewstudiesonapplyinglinguisticcontextsettingtotheteachingofgrammarwillbementionedinthispartandtheapproachesaswellasthetechniquesinthefewstudieswillbedescribedindetails.2.5.3.1.TheApproachesSunShiming(2003,pp.11-15)suggeststhreeapproachesforapplyinglinguisticcontexttotheteachingofgrammar:awarenessoflanguage,learner-focusedandinductive.Theinductiveapproachistoencouragelearnerstodiscovergrammarrulesbythemselvesbyobservinglinguisticresourcesinauthenticcontextandusinglanguageinrealcircumstances.Sunconcludesthatlearners’sensitivityandanalyticabilitiestoobserveanddiscoverthegrammaticalruleswillbegreatlyimprovedandmeanwhile,grammaticalrulescanbebetterunderstoodandusedbecausetheysortoutandusetheminauthenticlinguisticcontextbythemselves.Languageawarenessapproach,withwhichlearnerscaneffectivelyacquireandinternalizegrammaticalrules,istoconnectdefinitegrammarruleswithauthenticsituations.Thefunctionsofawarenessoflanguageingrammarteachingareconcludedasbelow:therelationshipsbetweenfunctionandformareemphasized,thefactorsandstructuresof33 grammarinabroadercontextaresituated,bywhichtheinputinsecondlanguageacquisitionhasbeengivenpriorityanditscrucialrolehasbeenemphasized.SunShimingclaimsthatononehand,theawarenessoflanguageingrammarteachingpaysattentiontotherelationshipsbetweenformandfunction;ontheotherhand,locateselementsinquestioninabroadercontextandthegrammaticalstructures.Thesethreeapproacheshavealsobeenadoptedbyotherscholars,suchasLiJilin(2002,pp.8-13).Heclaimsthattheimportanceofawarenessoflinguisticforms,learner-centeredandself-discoveriesarepaidmuchattentiontointhethreeapproaches.Thus,learnersaremotivatedtonoticethegrammaticalitemswhenreceivinginputsandwilltrytofindouttheusageofgrammaticalinstructionsincertaincontextsthroughpairdiscussions.Toconclude,oneofthethreeapproachesappliedintheirstudies:learner-centeredapproachisnotcloselyrelatedtotheapplicationoflinguisticcontext.However,inductiveapproachandlanguageawarenessapproachcanberegardedimportantapproachesintheteachingofgrammarwiththeapplicationoflinguisticcontext.Butinductiveapproachshouldbecombinedwithdeductiveapproachintheteachingpracticetomakeitmoreeffectiveandlanguageawarenessapproachwasnotintroducedindetailsinthosestudies.2.5.3.2.TheTechniquesJiaGuanjie(2010,pp.139-187)claimsthatteachinggrammarwithinlinguisticcontextcanbemainlymanifestedbystructure-discoursematches.Jiasuggestssomemajortechniquesincludegeneration,manipulation,andexplanation.Jiaproposesadoptingsongs,poetry,problem-solvingactivitiesaswellastext-basedexercisesandactivitiesforapplyinglinguisticcontextsettingtotheteachingofgrammar.Songscanregainlearners’loveandrespectforEnglishandthebeautyofthelanguage.Poetryisaneffectiveresourceforpracticingandreviewingacertaingrammaticalstructuresincewhenwritingpoems,poetsusuallytaketheelementsofspeaking,repeatednessandwrittenintoaccount.Thegrammaticalstructurebecomes34 moregreatlyinteriorizedwitheveryrepetitionandconsideration.However,songsandpoemsforuseintheEFLgrammarteachingclassroomshouldbeselectedwithcare.Jiaemphasizesthatgrammarshouldbetaughtatthetextleveltofacilitatestudentstotransfergrammarknowledgeintoreadingandwritingskills.Jiaproposesdifferenttypesofexercisesandactivities,likereplicationofatext,completions,manipulationandimitation,elicitationandediting.Theyarebasedontextaftervariousstagesofgrammarrules.Firstly,textreplicationmainlyreferstodictationofatextordicto-comp(toletthestudentslistentoonceorseveraltimesthecontent,andthenaskthemtowritedownthemaincontentfrommemory)duringwhichstudentsusuallyareadvisedtorecallastructure,visuallyoraurallyandameaningfultextmustbeintegratedofthisstructure.Then,incompletions,studentsareaskedtofinishclozepassageandthegappedtext.Inaclozepassage,wordshavebeendeletedandreplacedbytheblankspaces,studentsneededtofilleachblankwithoneormorewords.Insteadofinitialpresentation,angappedexerciseslightlybeyondthepresentleveloflanguagecompetenceusuallyfunctionsasapracticeorreinforcementjustlikeaclozeexercise.Thirdly,manipulationandimitationexerciseswhichwerepopularinAudio-lingualMethodallowstudentstomakeparticularstructure-discoursematches.Anotherexerciseistocombineasequenceofsentenceshavingbeenscrambledanddisorderedwithacommonorsimilarstructureorstructuresintoacoherentandcohesivetext.Fourthly,whenapplyingtextelicitation,theteachercangiveatopicortitleforashortessaysinceitismorenaturalforstudentstocomeupwithstructurestheyneededifcertaintopicsortasksaregiven.Forexample,theteacherprovidesthetopic,“WhatwouldyouhavedoneifyouwereborninChinaafewdecadesago?”Studentsareabletousethehypotheticalconditionalwhengivenaparticulartopicortheme(i.e.thesubjunctivemood)toexpresstheirideas.Lastly,fortexteditingtechniques,LiuShaozhong(1997,pp.24-31)quotedtheproposalfromWitbeckofpeercorrectionstrategies.These35 strategiesareofspecialusewhenstudentsarerequiredtocorrectspecificgrammaticalerrorswhileediting.Toavoidembarrassmentbyfocusingoncommonproblems,Liu(1997)alsoproposedtoprepareacompositeessaywithsimilarerrorsfromseveraldifferentstudentswhencarryoutagroupcorrection.LvWenjing(2010)examinedtherolesthatgrammarplaysindiscourse,includingreference,ellipsis,substitution,lexicalties,co-occurringstructuresandformsrepetition.Topresentgrammaritems,Lv(2010)usedauthenticmaterials,includingstories,songsorpoemswithwhichstudentscanrecognizeandfindoutthegrammarrules.Lv(2010)concludesthatgrammariseasiertoteachattheleveloftext.Tomakeaconclusionfromthetechniquesmentionedabove,theresearchersputmuchemphasisonteachinggrammarindiscoursethroughtextorpassage.Therefore,textualcontextshouldbetheessentialelementinthemethodofapplyinglinguisticcontexttotheteachingofgrammar.Butthetechniquesmentionedaboveseemalittlecomplicatedandnotpractical.Sointhisstudysomepracticalandeasilyoperatedapproacheswillbeproposedforsettingcontextintheteachingofgrammar.36 ChapterThreeMethodologyBasedontheliteraturereviewandtheoreticalframeworkinthepreviouschapters,thischapteristopresenttheresearchmethodologyofthepresentstudy,includingresearchquestions,researchdesign,researchprocedure,datacollectionaswellasdataanalysisoftheresearch.3.1.Questions(1)Canthemethodofcontextsettingintheteachingofgrammarinhighschoolimprovetheaccuracyandappropriatenessofstudents’grammar?(2)Howcanthemethodofcontextsettingintheteachingofgrammarinhighschoolbetterpromotelearners’abilityofgrammaruseinrealcommunication?3.2.ParticipantsTheparticipantsinvolvedinthepresentstudyconsistedoftwoclassesinhighschool,totally129students.TheywereSeniorOneinNo.18MiddleSchoolinChongqing.Theageoftheparticipantsinbothoftheclassesrangedfrom15-17,approximately48%ofthesubjectswerefemaleand52%weremale.Inthisschool,studentsreceived80minutesEnglishinstructionperday.Beforetheyparticipatedintheexperiment,theyhadjustfinishedtheirstudyinjuniormiddleschoolsotheyhadlearntthebasicgrammaritems.Inordertoexaminewhetherthetwoclassesofstudentsareonanequivalentleveloftheaccuracyandappropriatenessofstudents’grammarandlearners’abilityofgrammaruseinrealcommunication,theytookthepretestsongrammar37 knowledgeandwritingbeforetheexperimentbecauseitisnotonlytheimportantthresholdandfoundationoftheexperiment,butalsoprovidesthestatisticalevidenceandsupportforcarryingoutthefollowingexperimentalteachingandtests.ThestatisticresultofthepretestshouldbeanalyzedandIndependent-SamplesT-testinSPSS16.0wasusedtoanalyzethecollecteddata.3.3.VariablesThetwodifferentgrammarteachingapproaches:teachinggrammarinE-CwiththemethodofcontextsettingandteachinggrammarinC-Cwithmechanicalpracticeweretheindependentvariablesinthisexperimentalstudy.Theaccuracyofstudents’grammar,whichcouldbeshownbytheirperformanceinthepost-testongrammarknowledge,andlearners’abilityintheactualuseofgrammar,whichcouldbeshownbytheirperformanceinthepost-testonwritingweredependentvariablesinthisstudy.3.4.MaterialToguaranteethevalidoftheexperiment,theteachingmaterialwasthesameexceptinthegrammarteachingpartintheexperimentalclassandthecontrolledclass.ThisschoolchoseNewSeniorEnglishforChinaStudent’sBook1andBook2publishedbyPeople’sEducationPressasthefirsttermtextbooksforSeniorOnestudents.Thetwotextbookscontaintenunitsandeveryunitincludestopics,functionalitems,structures,reading,writingandworkbook.Sincetheexperimentalstudywascarriedoutwithintheirordinarycourse,thetextbookswerestilladoptedintheexperimentalresearchteaching.However,withthesamegrammaritemsinthe“structure”partineveryunit,additionalteachingmateriallikereadingpassageor38 storieswhichcontainmoresentenceswithtargetgrammaritemswerechosenfortheexperimentalclass.Thegrammarstructuresinthistermcontainsthefollowingsixgrammaritemsintenunits:directspeechandindirectspeechinUnit1&2,Book1;thepresentcontinuoustenseforexpressingfuturityinUnit3,Book1;theattributiveclauseinUnit4&5,Book1,Unit1&5,Book2;thefuturepassivevoiceinUnit2,Book2;thepresentperfectpassivevoiceinUnit3,Book2andthepresentprogressivepassivevoiceinUnit4,Book2.3.5.InstrumentsTheinstrumentsconsistofapre-testandapost-testongrammarknowledgetotestlearners’accuracyandappropriatenessofgrammarandapre-testandapost-testonwritingtotesttheirabilityofgrammaruseinrealcommunication.Thepre-testswerefirstlygiventothesubjectsatthebeginningofthetermtoseewhethertheywereatthesamelevelandsuitablefortheexperiment.Post-testswereconductedattheendofthetermtoseewhetherthereweredifferencesbetweenthemandtestifytheresultoftheexperiment.Thetestsongrammarknowledgecontainthreequestiontypes(fillingtheblanks,multiplechoicesandcombiningwordsintosentences)andtheyhavetheobjectiveanswers.AllthesentencesinthepaperarereferredtothemodelsentencesinthegrammarbookaPracticalEnglishGrammareditedbyZhangDaozhen(2002,pp.388-467).Thepapers,appliedintheresearch,weremadebytheexperiencedteacherswhowereintheresearchteamstudyingthegrammarteachingmethodsinruralarea.Allthetestswereconductedinthenormalclassroomenvironmentintheeveningperiodforself-study.39 3.6.TestsTheexperimentwascarriedoutduringthefirstterminSeniorOneandlastedforaboutsixteenweeks.Theresearchprocedurewillbepresentedindetailsinthefollowingpart.3.6.1.Pre-testsThepre-testswereconductedintheexperimentalclassandthecontrolledclassinaneveningself-studyperiod(halfanhour)atthebeginningoftheterm.Oneofthepre-testwasdesignedtotesttheaccuracyandappropriatenessofstudents’grammarsoitwasbasedonthegrammaritemswhichwerelearnedinjuniormiddleschool.Itshouldbefinishedin30minutesandthefullmarkis100.Theotherpre-test,takenjustafterit,wasdesignedtotestlearners’abilityofgrammaruseinrealcommunication.Itwasmadeaccordingtothehighschoolentranceexaminationquestiontype.Itshouldbefinishedin15minutesandthefullmarkis15.Theresultsofthetwopre-testsshowedthatthetwogroupsareinthesamestartingpointandtheycanbetaughtbytwodifferentmethodssimultaneouslyanditcanguaranteethattheresultoftheexperimentisconvincingandaccurateandthentheexperimentwascarriedout.Thesubjects’detailedperformanceinthepre-testontheaccuracyandappropriatenessofstudents’grammarwouldbeshowninthefollowingtable:Table3.1.IndependentSamplesT-test(testpaperinAppendixII)ClassNo.MeanStd.DeviationStd.ErrortSig.(2-tailed)MeanE-C6667.6215.671.929Pretest-.329.743C-C6368.5215.471.949Note:thetotalscoreis100inthispre-testpaper.E-Cistheexperimentalclass.C-Cisthecontrolledclass.AsshowninTable3.1,theexperimentalclasswith66studentsobtainedameanscoreof67.62,andthecontrolledclasswith63studentsobtainedameanscoreof40 68.52.Thetableshowedthatthemeanscoredifferenceis0.90,C-ChavingalittlehighermeanscorethanE-C,soitcanbeinferredthatthetwoclassesarebasicallyatthesamelevelofgrammaticalknowledge.AfurtheranalysisoftheresultofIndependentSamplesT-testispresentedhere,too.TheSig.(2-tailed)is0.743,higherthan0.05,whichimpliedthattherewasnosignificantdifferenceontheaccuracyofstudents’grammarlevelbetweenthetwoclasses,sotheyaresuitableforthestudy.Thesubjects’detailedperformanceinthepre-testonlearners’abilityofgrammaruseinrealcommunicationcanbeshowninthefollowingtable:Table3.2.IndependentSamplesT-test(testpaperinAppendixIII)ClassNo.MeanStd.Std.tSig.(2-tailed)DeviationErrorMeanE-C667.651.208.148Pretest-.586.559C-C637.771.237.155Note:thetotalscoreis15inthispre-testpaper.E-Cistheexperimentalclass.C-Cisthecontrolledclass.AsshowninTable3.2,theexperimentalclasswith66studentsobtainedameanscoreof7.65,andthecontrolledclasswith63studentsobtainedameanscoreof7.77.Thetableshowedthatthemeanscoredifferenceis0.12,soitcanbeconcludedthatthetwoclassesarebasicallyatthesamelevelofabilityintheactualuseofgrammar.ThefurtheranalysisoftheresultofIndependentSamplesT-testwasalsopresentedinthistable.TheSig.(2-tailed)is0.559,whichishigherthan0.05,indicatingthatthereisnosignificantdifferenceontheabilityofgrammaruseinrealcommunicationamongthelearnersinthetwoclasses.Theresultsofthetwopre-testsshowedthatthetwogroupsareinthesamestartingpointandtheycanbetaughtbytwodifferentmethodssimultaneouslyanditcanguaranteethattheresultoftheexperimentisconvincingandaccurate.Therefore,thesetwoclassesstudentsinSeniorOneinNo.18MiddleSchool41 weredesignedastheexperimentalclass(n=66)andthecontrolledclass(n=63).Duringtheonetermexperiment,bothgroupshadthesameteachingcontentandfiveEnglishclassesperweek.Theonlydifferencewasthattheexperimentalclasswastaughtwiththemethodofcontextsettingintheteachingofgrammar,whereasthecontrolledclasswastaughtwithmechanicalpracticeinthepartofgrammarineveryunit.3.6.2.PosttestsAftertenperiods’ofgrammarteaching,allthegrammaritemsinthistermhadbeencompletedandthenthesubjectstooktheposttestsinaneveningself-studyclass.Theposttests,designedtoexaminetheaccuracyandappropriatenessofstudents’grammarandlearners’abilityintheactualuseofgrammar,weretakenintheexperimentalclassandthecontrolledclasssimultaneously.Theposttestpaperofgrammarknowledgetoexaminetheaccuracyandappropriatenessofstudents’grammarcontainedallsixgrammaritemstaughtinthisterm:directspeechandindirectspeech,thepresentcontinuoustenseforexpressingfuturity,theattributiveclause,thefuturepassivevoice,thepresentperfectpassivevoiceandthepresentprogressivepassivevoice.Thisposttestshouldbefinishedin30minutesandthefullmarkis100.Theposttestpaperonwritingtotesttheirabilityofactualuseofgrammarwastakenjustafterit,whichwasdesignedaccordingtothecollegeentranceexaminationstandard.Itshouldbefinishedin15minutesandthefullmarkis15.AllthesentencesinthepaperarereferredtothemodelsentencesinthegrammarbookaPracticalEnglishGrammareditedbyZhangDaozhen.Thepapers,appliedintheresearch,weremadebytheexperiencedteacherswhowereintheresearchteamstudyingthegrammarteachingmethodsinruralarea.42 3.7.TreatmentTherearetenunitsinBook1&Book2,andagrammaritemineveryunit,sobothclasseshadtenlessonsofgrammarteachinginthisterm.Theyhadgrammarlessonineverysevendayssinceittookaboutsevenperiodstocompleteteachingaunit.Twodifferentgrammarteachingmethodswereadoptedrespectivelyinthetwoclassesinthetengrammarlessons.Inexperimentalclass,themethodofcontextsettingintheteachingofgrammarwasapplied,andinthecontrolledclass,themethodwithmechanicalpracticewasused.3.7.1ModelTeachingDesignfortheExperimentalClass(seeadetailedteachingplanforthefuturepassivevoiceafterthistable)Table3.3.ModelTeachingDesignfortheExperimentalClassStepsAimActivitiesTeachingmeansStep1ReviewwhathasbeenQuestionandanswerThroughlinguisticRevision(5min)learnedbeforeabouttheinformationcontext,stimulateAndarousestudents’ofthereadingpassagelearners’awarenessofinterestinthislessonwhichlearnedinthetheparticulartextbook(questionsdiscourseinwhichthearedesignedintheformsinquestionmayformoftargetoccur.grammaritems)orrevisegrammaritemswhichisrelatedtothetargetgrammarrulesinthisperiod.Step2PresentthetargetScanthereadingThroughwrittenLeadin(5min)grammaritemstopassageinthediscourse,raisearousestudents’textbook,readstoriesstudents’attention.orlistentosongsasconsciousnessofthewellastargetgrammaritems43 completethewordsofandthelinguisticthesongandthenfindenvironmentwhereoutallthesentencestheyareused.containingthetargetgrammaritemsinthediscourse.Step3LeadstudentstoObservethestructureThroughwrittenObserveandlearn(7observetheformsofofthediscourse,focusmin)thelanguageandfindsentencesandfindoutstudents’attentiontooutthegrammarrules.thegrammarrulesintheformofthegroups.grammaranditsfunctioninaparticulardiscoursesoastoselfdiscoverandconcludethefeaturesofthegrammarpointsaccurately.Step4GetfamiliarwiththeCompleteapassageThroughtextExercise(7min)useofthegrammarwithproperwordscompletionexerciseinrulesthroughexercise.applyingtothetargetsimilargrammarknowledge.linguisticcontextforstudentstointernalizegrammarknowledgeandpracticetheiraccuracyofthegrammar.44 Step5ConsolidategrammarDiscussatopicorThroughverbalPractise(10min)knowledgethroughsolveaprobleminlinguisticcontexttopractice.groupsandthenpracticestudents’makeareportoftheabilityinactualuseofdiscussionapplyingthetargetgrammarthetargetgrammarknowledgeinknowledgeintheparticularcontext.report.Step6MakeasummaryofSumupthestructuresSumup(4min)thegrammarthroughblanketfillingrulesandseewhetherandstudentshaveanyraisequestionsonthedifficultyinmasteringgrammarrules.thegrammarrules.Step7Developstudents’CombinesentencesThroughwrittenHomework(2min)comprehensiveintoapassageorwritediscoursetoexaminelanguagecompetence.ashortpassageonthestudents’subjectwhichhasabilityinactualuseofbeendiscussedinthetargetgrammarclass.knowledgeincontext.ExampleofTeachingDesign:TeachingPlanoftheFuturePassiveVoiceforE-C(ModelteachingdesignfortheexperimentalclassandexampleofteachingplanwillbepresentedinappendixII)I.Teachingaim:LearnandusethefuturepassivevoiceII.Teachingactivity:TalkaboutthefutureOlympics.45 III.Teachingpoints:Thedifficultpointistouseitappropriatelyincontext.IV.Teachingprocedure:Step1Revision:AskandanswerquestionsingroupsTranslatetwoquestionsandanswerallofthem1.2008奥运会将在中国举办吗？2.新奥运村将建在北京的东部吗？3.Whatpreparationwillbedoneforthe2012Olympics?4.Whatwillbebuiltforthe2012Olympics?5.Wherewillthe2012Olympicsbeheld?6.Whatwillbedesignedforthe2012Olympics?Step2Presentation:Scanthereadingpassageinthetextbookandfindoutallthesentencescontainingthetargetgrammaritems.Step3Observeandlearn:Readandobservethestructureofthesentencesfromthepassageandthequestionsinthefirststepandfindoutthegrammarrules.Step4Exercise:CompletethepassagewithcorrectformoftheverbsStep5Higher-levelPractice:Discussingroups,listoutthingsthatwillbedoneorwillnotbedonesoastomaketheenvironmentbetterfortheOlympicGames.Afterthediscussion,theleaderofthegroupreporttotheclass.Step6Sumupandsolvethestudents’problemsStep7Homework:Collectalltheideasthatproposedinthediscussionandmakeitintoafive-sentenceswritingwiththetopicof“makingtheenvironmentbetterfortheOlympicGames”.Usethefuturepassivevoiceappropriatelyinwrittendiscourse.3.7.2.TeachingPracticefortheControlledClassInthecontrolledclass,themethodwithmechanicalpracticewasused.Mechanicalpracticeinvolvesactivitiesthatareaimedatformonlyandlittleattentionispaidtothemeaningandtheuseofgrammar.Grammarispracticedinisolation,mostlyinsentencelevel.Bydoingmechanicalpractice,thestudentspayrepeatedattentiontoakeyelementinastructurebutneglecttheothertwodimensionsof46 grammarknowledge:itsmeaninganduse.ModelteachingdesignforthecontrolledclassandexampleofteachingplanwillbepresentedinappendixI.3.8.DataCollectionThetestpapersandanswersheetswerecollectedassoonasthelearnersfinishedthem.Thescoreineachposttestpaperwhichwasdesignedtoexaminetheaccuracyandappropriatenessofstudents’grammarwasobjectivelygivenaccordingtothestrictevaluatingrulesandthestandardanswerswhichhadbeendiscussedwithotherexperiencedteacherwhowereintheresearchteamstudyingthegrammarteachingmethodsinruralarea.Theposttestpaperonwritingdesignedtotestlearners’abilityofactualuseofgrammarwerescoredaccordingtothehighschoolentranceexamination’sevaluationstandardbyotherexperiencedteacherswhohadeverbeenjudgesforthecollegeentranceexaminationinGuangdongandtheydidnotteachtheparticipantssoastoavoidthesubjectivity.3.9.DataAnalysisDatawereanalyzedaftertheywerecollected.ThescoresofeachparticipantinthetestswereputintoExceltoworkoutthesumandaverageofthewholeclass.AfterthatthedatawereanalyzedwiththehelpofthesoftwareSPSS16.0andIndependentSamplesT-testwasadoptedtoprocessthedatainordertofindoutwhetherthereweredifferencesintheaccuracyandappropriatenessofstudents’grammarandlearners’abilityofgrammaruseinrealcommunicationbetweentheexperimentalclassandthecontrolledclass.47 ChapterFourResultsandDiscussionThepreviouschapterpresentsthemethodologyofthisstudy.ResearchdatahavebeencollectedafterthetestsandwereanalyzedbymeansofstatisticsoftwareSPSS16.0.Inthischapter,thestatisticanalysisresultsofIndependentSamplesT-testwillbeillustratedandtheresultsofthisstudywillbediscussed.4.1.ResultsAnalysis4.1.1.PosttestontheAccuracyandAppropriatenessofStudents’Grammar(testpaperinAppendixIV)Inordertoanswerthefirstresearchquestionofthisstudy:whethertheaccuracyandappropriatenessofstudents’grammarcanbeimprovedwiththemethodofcontextsettingintheteachingofgrammarinhighschool,thestatisticresultsoftheposttestontheaccuracyandappropriatenessofstudents’grammarwhichwascalculatedbySPSS16.0needtobefiguredoutaftertheexperiment.ThestatisticanalysisresultofIndependentSamplesT-testisillustratedinthefollowingtable:Table4.1.IndependentSamplesT-testClassNo.MeanStd.DeviationStd.ErrortSig.(2-tailed)MeanE-C6676.2511.541.421Posttest2.681.008C-C6369.8515.371.937Note:thetotalscoreis100inthisposttestpaper.E-Cistheexperimentalclass.C-Cisthecontrolledclass.Firstly,lookingintoTable4.1,intheposttesttheexperimentalclassobtainedameanscoreof76.25,whilethecontrolledclassobtainedameanscoreof69.85.Itisobviousthatthetwoclassesareatdifferentlevels.ThetableshowedthatE-C48 obtainedahighermeanscoreof6.40thanC-C.Next,takingafurtherlookattheresultsofIndependentSamplesT-testpresentedinthistable,theSig.(2-tailed)inthet-testis0.008,whichislowerthan0.05,indicatingthatthetwoclasseshavesignificantdifference.Compareditwiththeoneinthepretestthatshowednosignificantdifferencebetweenthetwoclasses,thisstatisticanalysisresultofIndependentSamplesT-testgivestheanswertothefirstresearchquestionthatthemethodofcontextsettingintheteachingofgrammarcanimprovetheaccuracyandappropriatenessofstudents’grammar.4.1.2.PosttestonLearners’AbilityofGrammarUseinRealCommunication(testpaperinAppendixV)Astothesecondresearchquestionofthisstudy:whetherthemethodofcontextsettingintheteachingofgrammarinhighschoolcanbetterpromotelearners’abilityofgrammaruseinrealcommunication,thestatisticresultsoftheposttestcalculatedbySPSS16.0needtobeworkedoutinthestudy.ThestatisticanalysisresultofIndependentSamplesT-testisillustratedinthefollowingtable:Table4.2IndependentSamplesT-testClassNo.MeanStd.DeviationStd.ErrortSig.(2-tailed)MeanE-C669.751.44.178Posttest5.502.000C-C638.281.59.200Note:thetotalscoreis15inthisposttestpaper.E-Cistheexperimentalclass.C-Cisthecontrolledclass.Firstly,lookingintoTable4.2,intheposttesttheexperimentalclassobtainedameanscoreof9.75inthewriting,whilethecontrolledclassobtainameanscoreof8.28.Itisclearthatthetwoclassesareatdifferentlevels.ThistableshowsthatE-Cobtainedahighermeanscoreof1.47thanC-C.FurtherlookingintotheresultsofIndependentSamplesT-test,theSig.(2-tailed)inthet-testis0.000,whichislowerthan0.05,indicatingthatthetwoclasseshavesignificantdifference.Comparedit49 withtheoneinthepretestthatshowsnosignificantdifferencebetweenthetwoclasses,thisstatisticanalysisresultofindependentsampletestgivestheanswertothesecondresearchquestionthatthemethodofapplyinglinguisticcontexttotheteachingofgrammarcanbetterpromotelearners’abilityofgrammaruseinrealcommunication.Carefullylookingintothepapersinthetwoclasses,asawhole,therewerefewergrammarmistakesontheposttestpaperofgrammarknowledgetoexaminetheaccuracyandappropriatenessofstudents’grammarinE-CandthestudentsinE-Cwrotethearticlewithfewergrammarmistakesontheposttestpaperonwritingwhichwasdesignedtotestlearners’abilityofactualuseofgrammar.Uptillnow,theresearchquestionsaretestifiedbyscientificallystatisticalresultswhencomparingthetwoclasses.ComparedwithlearnersinC-C,learnersinE-Cgothighermeanscoreintheposttests.ThereexistssignificantdifferencebetweenthesetwoclassesintheIndependentSamplesT-testanalysis,fromwhichaffirmativeanswerscanbegiventotheresearchquestionsproposedatthebeginningofthischapterthatthemethodofapplyinglinguisticcontexttotheteachingofgrammarinhighschoolcanimprovetheaccuracyandappropriatenessofstudents’grammarandbetterpromotelearners’abilityofgrammaruseinrealcommunication.4.2.DiscussionBasedontheresultsandanalysisofpretestsandtheposttestsofthestudy,discussionswillbecarriedoutinthefollowingsection,wherethedataoftheresearchquestionswillbeinterpretedrespectively.4.2.1.EffectsontheAccuracyandAppropriatenessofStudents’GrammarApplyinglinguisticcontexttotheteachingofgrammarinhighschoolhas50 yieldedapromisingresultontheaccuracyandappropriatenessofstudents’grammar.Thedataaboveindicatethatthereissignificantdifferencebetweenthetwoclassesintheposttestontheaccuracyandappropriatenessofstudents’grammar.Firstly,takingalookatthemethodusedintheE-C,theEnglishgrammarteachingiscarriedoutinthelinguisticcontext,mainlytextualcontext.Grammaticalknowledgeispresentedintextsandwasinternalizedbyself-discoverythroughwrittendiscourse.Inthiswaystudentscanattainaccurategrammarknowledgebymatchingtheformwithitsproperfunctioninparticularcontext.Toimprovetheaccuracyofstudents’grammar,thetargetgrammarknowledgeisnotonlyintroducedindiscoursebutalsopracticedthroughtextcompletionexerciseliketheclozepassageorthegappedtext.Throughthecompletionoftext,studentscanfullyunderstandtherelationshipbetweenformanditsfunctionsoastogetall-sidedconstructionofthetargetgrammarknowledge.Therefore,studentsintheE-Cclasscanattainmoreaccurateandappropriategrammarknowledgeandperformbetterintheposttest.Lookingintothestudents’performanceinthetestpapers,thesameconclusioncanbedrawn.Inthepre-testontheaccuracy,studentsinbothclassesmademoremistakesintheblanks-fillingQuestion16-25(textcompletion),especiallytheydidwronginQuestion21,mostofthemfilleditwith“and”.Therightanswershouldbe“that”(so...that),aconjunctionword,akindofcohesivedeviceforbuildingupacoherentdiscourse.Theaveragenumberofthemistakestheymadeinthispartwasthree.Inaddition,almostfifteenpercentofthestudentsinbothclassesgaveupansweringQuestion39incombiningwordsintosentencessinceitisalittledifficult.Therightanswershouldbe“WethinkitveryimportanttolearnEnglishwell”.Fromthesefacts,itcanbeconcludedthatthestudentsdonotmastergrammaraccuratelyorfullyunderstandthemeaningofgrammarknowledge.Inaddition,theiraccuracyofgrammarwasatthesamelevel.Lookingcarefullyattheposttestpapersontheaccuracyofgrammarinthetwo51 classes,itshowsthatthereweresomedifferencesontheirperformance.StudentsfromE-CperformedbetterthanthosefromC-C,especiallyintheblanks-fillingQuestion16-25(textcompletion)andcombiningwordsintosentences.TheaveragenumberofthemistakesmadebystudentsfromE-CwastwoinQuestion16-25,mostofthemmademistakesinQuestion17and19,whiletheaveragenumberofthemistakesmadeinthispartwasfourinC-CandmostofthemdidwronginQuestion16,17,22.ItshowedthatstudentsfromE-CmasteredtherelativepronounsandrelativeadverbsmoreaccuratelythanthoseinC-C.Besides,theaveragescoreinPartThree(combiningsentences)inC-CisfourpointslowerthanthatofE-C,whichalsoshowedthatstudentstaughtwiththemethodofapplicationoflinguisticcontextcanhaveaclearmindofsentenceformationandtheconstructionofacoherentdiscourse.Toconclude,theirperformanceintheposttestshowsthatthelearnersfromE-Cmasterthegrammarknowledgebetter.Theymasterthetargetgrammarpointsaccuratelyandfully.Onereasonisthatthemethodofapplyinglinguisticcontexttotheteachingofgrammarcreatedsufficientinter-linguisticenvironmentforlearnerstofullyunderstandthetargetgrammaticalknowledgeaswellastherelationsbetweenformanditsfunction.Theotherreasonisthatthetargetgrammarwaspresentedandpracticedinmeaningfuldiscourse.Aslanguagepropertyitselfshowsthatthegrammarstructuresarerelatedcloselytoitslinguisticcontext.Whenlearninggrammaritemsindiscourse,learnerscanhaveacorrectinterpretationofthem;whenpracticingintextualcontext,theyneednotonlyconsiderthecorrectformsbutalsothefieldwherethelanguageisused,eventhewholelinguisticcontext.Sowiththisteachingmethod,theywillattaintheknowledgeaboutwhen,whereandhowtousethegrammarrules.Itguideslearnerstousegrammarrulescorrectly,appropriatelyandmeaningfully.Onthecontrary,theteachingwithmechanicalpracticeleadsstudentstogrammarinsentence-patternandoutofdiscoursecontext.Whenlearningand52 practicinginsentence-pattern,learnersmaygettheincorrectorinsufficientunderstandingofthetargetgrammaticalpoints,becauselanguagecannotbecorrectlyinterpretedoutofthediscoursewhereitappears.Therefore,thelearnersgotlowerpointsintheposttestsandtheirperformanceintheclasswiththistypeofteachingpracticeisalsonotasgoodasthestudents’inE-C.Therearemoregrammarmistakesintheirexerciseandhomework.Teachinggrammarwithmechanicalpracticeislesseffectiveonpromotinglearners’appropriacyandappropriatenessofgrammar.Asaresult,studentsfromC-Cdidn’tperformaswellasthosefromE-Cintheposttestontheaccuracyandappropriateness.4.2.2.InfluenceonLearners’AbilityofGrammarUseinRealCommunicationTheresultofIndependentSamplesT-testonlearners’abilityofgrammaruseinrealcommunicationshowsthatthereissignificantdifferencebetweenthetwoclasses,whichindicatesthatapplyinglinguisticcontexttotheteachingofgrammarexertedmoreinfluenceonlearners’abilityintheactualuseofgrammar.IntheE-Cclass,theEnglishgrammarteachingwascarriedoutwiththeapplicationoflinguisticcontext,mainlytextualcontext.Thetargetgrammarknowledgewasnotonlyintroducedindiscoursebutalsopracticedandappliedtospokenandwrittendiscourseintheactualsituation.Todevelopstudents’abilityintheactualuseofgrammar,studentswererequiredtousethetargetgrammarknowledgetodiscussasubjectorsometimestosolveaproblemsoastoprovidethemopportunitiesofexpressingtheirideasorallyandliterallywiththegrammarrules.Therefore,studentscannotonlyfullyunderstandtherelationshipbetweenformanditsfunction,butalsocanapplythetargetgrammarknowledgetotheactualusewhenasimilarcontextappears.Examiningthepre-testpaperonwritingtotesttheirabilityofactualuseofgrammarinthetwoclasses,itshowedthatstudentsinbothclasseshadthesamewritinglevel,sincetheymadealmostthesamemistakesintheuseofpropertense,thecorrectpronounsandtheybothcouldnotproperlyusethecohesivewordsinthe53 writtendiscourse.Themistakeslike“thewaterpollutedseriously”,“lifecannotleavewater”,and“againusewaterresource”appearedinthewritinginbothclasses.Differently,theE-CperformedbetterthantheC-Cintheposttestpaperonwritingtotesttheirabilityofactualuseofgrammar.ComparedwiththewritinginC-C,therewerefewergrammarmistakesinthewritingsinE-Candtheirwritingsaremorecohesive.Morethan70%ofthemcanusethepropertense,like“theyaregoodfriends”,“theygotmarriedlastyear”and“theyhavebeenlookingforward”.Theycanalsousethecorrectcohesivewordslike“aswellas,notonly,butalsoandhowever”.Andtheyusedtheattributiveclausecorrectlylike“Theyinvitedalotoftheirrelativesandgoodfriendsmostofwhomarefamousstars.”“Asisreported,theygotmarriedlastyearastheirfansexpected”.Onthecontrary,therewereonlyabout35%ofthestudentsinC-Cperforminglikethose70%ofthelearnersinE-C.MorethanhalfofthestudentsinC-Cusedsimplesentencespatternsorsimplyused“and,or,but”tocombinethem.ThestudentsinE-Cwrotethearticlewithfewermistakesbecausetheycanconnectformwithitsfunctionindiscourseproperly.Themethodofcontextsettingintheteachingofgrammarisoftenusedwithathemefortheclassactivities,whichcanimprovelearners’awarenessofwholediscourse.Soitisobviousthatthestudentscanhavesensitivityofparticularcontextwherethegrammarstructurecanbeusedanditisnaturalforthemtousethesuitablegrammarknowledgewhenfacingasimilartopicoraspecifiedcontext.However,theteachingwithmechanicalpracticetaughtstudentsgrammaronsentence-patternandoutofcontext,whichleadstotheincorrectorinsufficientunderstandingofthetargetgrammaticalknowledge.Thelearnerscannotfigureoutitsfunctioncorrectlyanduseitproperlyinadefinitesituation.Therefore,thelearnerscanonlywritesomeisolatedsentencesinsteadofmakingthemintoacoherentdiscourse.Asaresult,theygotlowerpointsintheposttestinwriting,provingthatteachinggrammarwithmechanicalpracticeislesseffectiveon54 improvinglearners’abilityintheactualuseofgrammar.Tomakeasummary,themethodofcontextsettingintheteachingofgrammarcanexertmoreinfluenceonthelearners’grammaticalabilityintheactualuseofgrammarthanteachingwithmechanicalpractice.55 ChapterFiveConclusionChapterFiveconcludesthestudybyillustratingtheresearchout-comings,theimplicationsonpedagogy,limitationsoftheresearchaswellassuggestionsforfuturestudyarealsoproposedinthischapter.Highlightedbythemethodsofcontextsettingintheteachingofgrammarsuggestedbypreviousscholars,theresearcherinthisstudymadearesearchintotheteachingeffectivenessofcontextsettingintheteachingofgrammarinhighschool.Throughaten-periodlongexperiment,theconclusionismadethatthemethodofcontextsettingintheteachingofgrammarinhighschoolismoreeffectivethanteachingwithmechanicalpractice.5.1.MajorfindingsInthelasttwochapters,itpresentsthedatacollectedfromthestudyfromtheanalysisofthedata.Thedataofthepretestsshowsthatthetwogroupsareinthesamestartingpointontheaccuracyandappropriatenessofstudents’grammarandlearners’abilityofgrammaruseinrealcommunication.However,aftersixteenweeks’teachingtreatment,thedataoftheposttestindicatesthattheexperimentalclassattainedahigherlevelthanthecontrolledone.AccordingtotheanalysestowardsthestatisticresultsoftheE-CandtheC-Cstudents’scoresinpretestsandposttests,theresearcherfindstheanswerstotheresearchquestionsinthisstudy.(1)Regardingtothefirstquestion,theanswershouldbe“yes”---themethodofcontextsettingintheteachingofgrammarinhighschoolcanimprovetheaccuracyandappropriatenessofstudents’grammar.(2)AstoQuestion2,thestatisticresultsinpretestsandposttestsalso56 demonstratedthatthemethodofcontextsettingintheteachingofgrammarinhighschoolcanbetterimprovelearners’abilityofgrammaruseinrealcommunication.Thestudyalsofindstheprinciplesandtheeffectivemethodsofcontextsettingintheteachingofgrammarinhighschool.5.2.PedagogicalImplicationsBasedonthedataanalysisanddiscussionsoftheexperimentinthelastchapter,thepresentstudyshowscertainaspectsinEnglishteaching:Firstofall,whensettingcontextintheteachingofgrammar,studentscanhaveachancetoaccuratelymasterthegrammarrulesandcanusethemproperly,whileteachinggrammarinisolationorinsentencelevel,studentshavedifficultiesinattainingtheproperuseofthegrammarrules.Secondly,whenteachingmaterialisawell-organizeddiscourse,itwillbeeasierforstudentstogetthecorrectmeaningofitandgethigherappropriatenessofgrammar.Thus,teachersshouldprovideproperdiscourseinwhichgrammarelementsaregenerallyusedanddesignaproperthemefortheclassactivitieswhenteachingstudentsEnglishgrammar.Inthisway,studentscanaccuratelymasterthegrammarrulesandcaneasilyapplyittorelevantsituations.Inconclusion,thesefindingshaveshownthatteachingstudentsgrammarwiththemethodofapplyinglinguisticcontextcanachievebetterresultsthantheteachingmethodwithmechanicalpractice.TheresearchnotonlyproposedapracticalmethodforgrammarteachingbutalsosolvedtheproblemofhowtoconnectformandfunctionoflanguageintheEnglishgrammarteaching.57 5.3.LimitationsDuetothelimitedexperience,therearesomelimitationsinthisstudy.Ingeneral,thedesignoftheexperimentdoesn’tseemtobeaspreciseandsubtleasishopedandmuchworkstillhastobedone.Firstly,theinstrumentsusedinthisexperimentmightnotbevalidorcredibleenoughandthepapersmightnotbestandardenoughbecausetherewerenostandardonessuitabletothesituation,sothetestsweremadebytheexperiencedteacherswhowereintheresearchteamstudyingthegrammarteachingmethodsinruralarea.Secondly,thesubjectsinthestudywerenotrandomlychosenandtheywereonlyarelativelysmallnumberofparticipantswhostudiedinaruralhighschool,whetheritissuitableforthosewhostudyinurbanhighschoolsorjuniormiddleschoolsisalsounknown.Thus,theresultsmaybelessrepresentative.Thirdly,therewasatimeandlaborconstraintfortheteacheraswellasthestudentsbecausetheresearchonlyspannedintenperiodsinaterm.Itisimpossibletocoveralltargetgrammarstructureswiththisresearch.Thusthemethodusedheremightnotbesuitableforallthegrammaritems.Otheraspectsinthisstudystillneedtobeimproved.5.4.SuggestionsItistheresearcher’swishthatthisstudywillcastlightonthisfieldofeducationsothatmorecomprehensiveresearchandanalysiswillbecarriedout.Futureresearchpreferablyshouldbedonewithalargernumberofsubjects,frommultipleregionsandwithalongerduration.TheexperimentmaybeconductedonothergrammaritemsanditalsoneedstobesurewhetherthemethodcangainthesameeffectatdifferentproficiencylevelsofEnglishasaForeignLanguage.Additionally,obstaclesinEnglishgrammarlearningmightbeanalyzedinfuturestudies.58 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AppendixIModelTeachingDesignandexampleofteachingplanfortheControlledClassModelTeachingDesignfortheControlledClassStepsAimActivitiesStep1Revision(5min)ReviewwhathasbeenFillinblanksofafewlearnedbeforeandarousesentences.thestudents’attention.Step2Leadin(5min)PresentthetargetgrammarReadexamplesentenceitemsandguidestudents’patternsofthetargetattentiontothetargetgrammaticalform.grammaritems.Step3(7min)LeadstudentstofocusLearnersobservethetheirattentiontotheformsexamplesentencepatternsofthelanguageandfindandthensumuptherulesoutthetargetgrammarwiththeteacher’srules.guidance.Sometimestheteachermayexplaintherulestothelearnersdirectly.Step4Drills(7min)GetfamiliarwiththeuseDosomesentencepatternoftargetgrammaritems.drillsusingthetargetgrammarknowledge.Step5Practice(10min)MorepracticetoreinforceUsethetargetgrammarthetargetgrammarknowledgeintheknowledge.translation62 Step6Sumup(4min)MakeasummaryoftheSumupthestructuresandgrammarrulesandseeraisequestionsonthewhetherstudentshaveanygrammarruledifficultyinmasteringthegrammarrules.Step7Homework(2min)ToconsolidatethetargetSentenceparaphrasing,grammarknowledgecombiningsentencesortranslationTeachingPlanoftheFuturePassiveVoiceforC-C(inBook2Unit2)Teachingaim:Learnthebasicrulesofthefuturepassivevoiceanduseitappropriately.Teachingpoints:Theimportantpointistolearnthestructuresofthefuturepassivevoiceandthedifficultpointishowtouseitappropriately.Teachingprocedure:Step1Revision:Reviewthefuturetensestructuresinsentencepatterns.Step2Presentation:Theteacherprovidessomeexamplesentencepatternsofthefuturepassivevoice.(1)WhenandwherewillthenextOlympicsbeheld?(2)ThenextOlympicGameswillbeheldinmyhometown.(3)The2012OlympicGameswillbeheldinLondon.(4)Apresentwillbegiventome(bymymother).(5)WillthenewvillagefortheathletesbebuiltinBeijing?(6)Whatpreparationwillbedoneforit?(7)Whatwillbebuiltforit?Step3ObservationandConclusion:Lookattheexamplesentences,findoutthestructuresofthefuturepassivevoiceandiftheycan’t,theteachermayexplaintothemdirectly.63 Step4Drills:Fillintheblankswithcorrectforms.1.They_______(hire)thiswinter.2.AnMp4______(buy)tomebymymomsoon.3.Thework______(finish)bythemintendays.4.They______(send)thehospitalrightnow.5.Food______(nottake)toourclassroomfromnowon.6.Smoking______(notallow)intheofficefromnextmonth.Step5Practise:Completethesentences.1.这座桥将在下星期建成。Thebridge__________________nextweek.2.你们的孩子将由他们照看。Yourchildren__________________bythem.3.这项工作将马上完成。Thejob__________________soon.4.电脑将在明天修好。Thecomputer__________________tomorrow.5.那个小女孩那么漂亮，她长大后肯定会讨很多人羡慕。Thelittlegirlissoprettythatshe__________________byallpeoplewhenshegrowsup.6.我没有被邀请参加明天的婚礼。I__________________tomorrow’swedding.7.街道将被灯火照亮。Thestreets__________________byelectricity.8.城堡会被国王卖掉吗？___________thishouse__________________bytheKing?Step6SumupStep7Homework:Translatesomesentencesusingthetargetgrammaticalform.64 AppendixIIModelTeachingDesignandexampleofteachingplanfortheExperimentalClassExampleofTeachingDesign:TeachingPlanoftheFuturePassiveVoiceforE-CI.Teachingaim:LearnandusethefuturepassivevoiceII.Teachingactivity:TalkaboutthefutureOlympics.III.Teachingpoints:Thedifficultpointistouseitappropriatelyincontext.IV.Teachingprocedure:Step1Revision:Askandanswerquestionsingroupsaccordingtothereadingpassage“Aninterview”whichlearnedinthepreviousperiodinthisunitinthetextbook.Translatetwoquestionsandanswerallofthem1.2008奥运会将在中国举办吗？2.新奥运村将建在北京的东部吗？1.Whatpreparationwillbedoneforthe2012Olympics?2.Whatwillbebuiltforthe2012Olympics?3.Wherewillthe2012Olympicsbeheld?4.Whatwillbedesignedforthe2012Olympics?Step2Presentation:Scanthereadingpassageinthetextbookandfindoutallthesentencescontainingthetargetgrammaritems,payattentiontotheformationofthesentences.(1.Onlyathleteswhohavesuccessfullyachievedthestandardsetforthemwillbepermittedascompetitors.2.The2008OlympicswillbeheldinthecapitalcityofChina.3.Andafterthe2008OlympicsinBeijing,the2012OlympicswillbeheldinitscounterpartcityoftheUnitedKingdom.4.AllthestadiumsandafewnewvillagesfortheathleteswillbeconstructedintheeastareasofLondon.5.Absolutely,newmedalswillbemadeand...)Step3Observeandlearn:Readandobservethestructureofthesentencesfromthepassageandthequestionsinthefirststepandfindoutthegrammarrules.(Showallthesentencesonthescreen)65 1.Onlyathleteswhohavesuccessfullyachievedthestandardsetforthemwillbepermittedascompetitors.2.The2008OlympicswillbeheldinthecapitalcityofChina.3.Andafterthe2008OlympicsinBeijing,the2012OlympicswillbeheldinitscounterpartcityoftheUnitedKingdom.4.AllthestadiumsandafewnewvillagesfortheathleteswillbeconstructedintheeastareasofLondon.5.Absolutely,newmedalswillbemadeand..6.Willthe2008OlympicsbeheldinChina?7.WillthenewvillagefortheathletesbebuiltintheeastofBeijing?8.Whatpreparationwillbedoneforthe2012Olympics?9.Whatwillbebuiltforthe2012Olympics?10.Wherewillthe2012Olympicsbeheld?11.Whatwillbedesignedforthe2012Olympics?TheStructureoftheFuturePassiveVoiceDeclarativeSentenceGeneralQuestionSpecialQuestionSth.will/notbedoneWillsth.bedone?Whatwillbedone?Wherewillsth.bedone?...Step4Exercise:Completethepassagewithcorrectformoftheverbsasquicklyaspossible,applyingtothefuturepassivevoiceappropriatelyindiscourse.Rulesforthe2012LondonOlympicGamesThe2012LondonOlympicGames1(hold)fromJuly27thtoAugust12th.Nobody2(allow)toenterthestadiumwithoutaticket.Children3_________(allow)tospeaknoisilytodisturbtheathletes.Butunfortunately,ifthey66 behavelikethis,they4___________(forbid)tostepintothegym.Besides,animals5(forbid)totakeintothestadium.Smoking6(permit).Ifyou7(discover),you8(fine).Furthermore,Cheatingbyathletes9(notexcuse).They10(tell)toleaveand11(punish).Step5Higher-levelPractice:Discussingroups,listoutthingsthatwillbedoneorwillnotbedonesoastomaketheenvironmentbetterfortheOlympicGames.Afterthediscussion,theleaderofthegroupreporttotheclass.Theteachershouldinstructstudentstousethefuturepassivevoiceappropriatelyinactualdiscourse.(willbedone,begoingtobedoneandbeabouttobedone)Moretreeswillbeplanted.Thestadiumwillbecleaned.Privatecarswillnotbeparkedinthevillagefortheathletes....Step6Sumupandsolvethestudents’problemsStep7Homework:Collectalltheideasthatproposedinthediscussionandmakeitintoafive-sentenceswritingwiththetopicof“makingtheenvironmentbetterfortheOlympicGames”.Usethefuturepassivevoiceappropriatelyinwrittendiscourse.67 AppendixIII高一英语语法知识准确性测试(前测)（满分100分）一、根据语境，用正确的词填空或用所给词的正确形式填空。（共50分，25小题，每题2分）1.Johnruns___________thanTomandheruns________inhisclass.(fast).2.My_________brotheristhreeyears____________thanI(old).3.Mygoodfriends____________tostaywithmelastweekend(come).4.Anewsong____________ontheradionow(teach).5.Hesaidanewhotel_______________intwoweeks(build).6.Theground____________withleavesinautumn(cover).7.Thelady______________youngerthanmymother(look).8.I______________inBeijingsince1956(live).9.Couldyoulendyourpentome?I______________mypen(lose).10.Listen!Someone__________inthenextroom(cry).11.By2016,she______________around4700Japanesephrases(master).12.I________________________thenewfilmnextThursday(see).13.UsuallyJohn___________toschoolbybike(go).14.Ifounditnoteasy____________threehundredtreesonthehill(plant).15.Thequestions___________________attheirclassmeetingnow.Myfriends,Annais16._________beautifulgirl.Sheis17._________Class5andwegoto18.______sameschool.HerEnglishisveryniceandwealllike19._______.Shelikesactionmovies20._______shethinkstheyareveryinteresting.Shelikesfruitsomuch21._______sheeatsalotoffruiteveryday.Shehasmanyfriendsandshelikesherfriendsagreatdeal.Tomorrowisherbirthday.We22.______(sing)thesongHappyBirthdaytoher.The23.______shelikesisredandsheoftenwaresredcoat.Shegetsupat6:00in24.______morning,25.______68 sheeatsbreakfast.Shegoestoschoolat7:20andschoolstartsat8:00.Shethinksallthethingsaregoodandsheisaluckygirl.二、单项选择（共20分，10小题，每题2分）()26.____moonmovesaround____earth,andtheybotharesmallerthan____sun.A.The,an,aB.A,the,theC.×,×,×D.The,the,the()27.Therearesixty____inourschool.A.womanteacherB.womenteachersC.womanteachersD.womenteacher()28.Mr.Wangis____honestman.A.anB.aC.theD./()29.Shealwayswishestoown___ofCDsandshehasjustreceivedfive____fromherparents.A.thousand,thousandB.thousands,thousandC.thousands,thousandsD.thousand,thousands()30.____filmisextremelyinteresting.Iwatcheditin____nearbycinema.A.The,theB.A,theC.A,aD.An,an()31.____hashappenedand____didit?A.Who,whoB.What,whoC.What,whatD.Who,what()32.MissSmithisafriendof_____.A.Mary’smother’sB.Mary’smotherC.mother’sofMaryD.Marymother’s()33.Heis____universitystudent.A.aB.anC.theD./()34.TheUnitedStatesofAmericawasestablishedin____,1747.A.JulyB.SeptemberC.DecemberD.October()35.Shewasplaying____pianothen.A.aB./C.theD.an三、连词成句（共30分，10小题，每小题3分）69 36.Beijing,I,myfather,to,take,am,tomorrow,going,to________________________________________________________.37.usually,mymother,fiveo’clock,getsup,at________________________________________________________.38.tidy,must,kept,rooms,be,clean,and_______________________________________________________.39.important,we,English,very,think,it,well,to,learn,________________________________________________________.40.have,English,already,eight,learnt,years,they,for___________________________________________________________41.very,writes,she,Chinese,carefully____________________________________________42.stayed,the,fine,daysfor,weather,three,_____________________________________________43.a,they,beautiful,have,garden,got______________________________________________44.bought,yesterday,he,a,book__________________________________________________45.the,been,policeman,hours,has,there,for,standing,seven____________________________________________________70 AppendixIV高一英语语法知识应用能力测试(前测)（15分钟满分15分）书面表达下面是一句公益广告语：Thelastdropofwaterwillbeatear-dropofhumanbeing,ifwedon’tcherishwater.以“珍惜用水”为主题，写一篇100词的号召书。Hints：1.生活离不开水。2.可饮用水在减少。3.水污染严重。4.应保护水源，再利用水资源。写作要求：1.涵盖所有要点，意思连贯，符合逻辑；2.卷面整洁，书写规范工整。不得逐字翻译。71 AppendixV高一英语语法知识准确性测试(后测)（30分钟满分100分）一、根据语境，用正确的词填空或用所给词的正确形式填空。（共50分，25小题，每题2分）1.Somenewoilfields________(open)upinthelastfewyears．2.----Whyistheresomuchfoodinyourfridge?-----Becausemyparents_________(come)tospendthefestivalwithme.3.Thestudentslookveryexcitedbecausetheyarelisteningtothemusicthat_________(play)onthecomputer.4.Couldyoupleasetellmetheearliesttimetheflight_______(fly)toLondonthisafternoon?5.Youcanseethehouse________(notpaint)foryears.6.Alltheperformancesforthetask________(complete)andwe"rereadytostart.7.Dearpassengers,pleasefastenyourseatbelts.Thebus_______(leave).8.Thesportsmeet________(hold)onApril10,nextFriday.9.Cellphones________(use)bymoreandmoreteens.10.Theproblem________(discuss)atthecomingmeeting.11.Money_________(collect)forthewildlifeprotectionprojectnow.12.Thenewfilm________(show)nextThursday.13.Momtoldmenot________tellalie.14.Heaskedhermotherwhenshe_________(leave)forGuangzhou.15.Sheasked______Iknewwhereshelived.Canada,16._________officiallanguageisEnglishandFrench,coversanareaof9,976,00squarekilometerswithapopulationofthirtymillion.Actually,OttawaisthecapitalofCanada17._________peopleliketosettledown.Inaddition,72 itisuniversallybelieved18._______Canada’smostbeautifulcityisVancouver,19._______issurroundedbymountainsandthePacificOcean.Therefore,mostpeoplehavetheidea20._______theywillnotmissVancouver21._______theyvisitCanada.However,ourEnglishteacher,22.______paidavisittoCanadalastmonth,holdtheviewthat23.______impressedhermostwasthegreatNiagaraFalls.Sheenjoyedthewaterfallssomuch24._____shetookquitealotofphotographsofit.ShealsosaidthatshewouldvisitCanadaagain25._____shegotanotherchance.二、单项选择（共20分，10小题，每题2分）26.Shetoldmethatthey__certaintoreceiveawarmwelcomeinBeijing.A.willbeB.isC.aregoingtobeD.were27.I"vebecomegoodfriendswithseveralofthestudentsinmyschool_______ImetintheEnglishspeechcontestlastyear.A.whoB.whereC.whenD.Which28.—HaveyouplannedthetimetoflytoShanghai?—Notyet,we________thisevening.A.aregoingtodecideB.willflyC.aredrivingthereD.areleaving29.Theycouldn’tstoptalkingaboutthetime______theyspenttogetherwhentheywereinmiddleschool.A.whenB.whatC.allD.inwhich30.Idon"tknowwhenhe______,butwhenhe______,I"llletyouknow.A.willcome/comesB.comes/willcomeC.comes/comesD.willcome/willcome31.Thisisthefactory______Ivisitedlastweek.A.whatB.whichC.whereD.it32.Theoldmantoldusthathisdaughterhad__thedifferentexperiencefromthatoftheyounggirl.73 A.ownedB.experiencedC.wentthroughD.finished33.Wearenowstandingatthepoint_______mostofthingscanbefinishedonInternet.A.whereB.atwhichC.whatD.how34.Thetimetheirfirstchildwasborn,they_____forthreeyears．A.hadmarriedB.hadbeenmarriedC.gotmarriedD.hadgotmarried35.NobodybutJane____thesecret.A.knowB.knowsC.haveknownD.isknown三、连词成句（共30分，10小题，每小题3分）36.infrontof,they,atafarmhouse,asmallboy,which,arrived,sat________________________________________________________.37.tosee,what,cameup,hadhappened,themanager________________________________________________________.38.whether,wasmade,I,inShanghai,thewatch,don"tknow_______________________________________________________.39.I,which,thecapital,like,ofGuangDongProvince,livingin,is,GuangZhouCity________________________________________________________.40.wishes,Rose,thebook,whether,sendbyher,tofindout,loves,Tom_________________________________________________41.bebeated,will,theteam,we,in,thegame,wished,as_____________________________________________42.Japan,have,traveled,a,we,honeymoon,duringwhich,hadwe,wonderful,in,____________________________________________________43.prefergoing,wholeday,I,todosomesports,athome,tostaying,outdoors,__________________________________________________44.has,hispersonalcomputer,already,recovered,from,virus,a,theattack,of,anunknown74 __________________________________________________45.theperson,hoped,findout,I,job,to,can,undertake,the,who__________________________________________________75 ppendixVI英语语法知识应用能力测试(后测)（15分钟满分15分）书面表达请根据以下内容写一篇关于Adam和Rose的短文：1.Adam和Rose都是著名的电影明星，他们也是好朋友，他俩的影迷都很友好。他们一起下馆子，一起出席新闻发布会，是常有的事。2.正如报纸报道的那样，他们在去年结婚了，这也是他们的影迷所期待的。3.在婚礼上，他们邀请了很多亲朋好友，其中大部分都是有名的明星。4.在蜜月期间，他们去了很多名胜古迹，其中之一就是他们一直都很想去的Hawaii。5.然而，他们结婚一年后却离婚divorce了，这是大家都意想不到的。(新闻发布会：newspress蜜月：honeymoon离婚：getdivorced)写作要求：1.用5个句子表达全部内容；2.句子结构准确，信息内容完整，篇章连贯。76