初中英语语法教学中教师的学科教学知识——基于2名职前英语教师的研究 134页

单位代码10635学号112013310000840硕士学位论文初中英语语法教学中教师的学科教学知识:基于2名职前英语教师的研究论文作者：王明霞指导教师：蒋宇红教授学科专业：外国语言学及应用语言学研究方向：语言学理论及应用提交论文日期：2016年4月10日论文答辩日期：2016年6月4日学位授予单位：西南大学中国重庆2016年4.月 独创性声明学位论文题目：本人提交的学位论文是在导师指导下进行的研究工作及取得的研究成果。论文中引用他人已经发表或出版过的研究成果，文中已加了特别标注。对本研究及学位论文撰写曾做出贡献的老师、朋友、同仁在文中作了明确说明并表示衷心感谢。学位论文作者：签字日期：2016年4月15日学位论文版权使用授权书本学位论文作者完全了解西南大学有关保留、使用学位论文的规定，有权保留并向国家有关部门或机构送交论文的复印件和磁盘，允许论文被查阅和借阅。本人授权西南大学研究生院可以将学位论文的全部或部分内容编入有关数据库进行检索，可以采用影印、缩印或扫描等复制手段保存、汇编学位论文。（保密的学位论文在解密后适用本授权书，本论文：√不保密，□保密期限至年月止）。学位论文作者签名：导师签名：签字日期：2016年4月15签字日期：2016年4月15日 EFLTeachers’PedagogicalContentKnowledgeinJuniorMiddleSchoolGrammarInstruction:AStudyonTwoPre-serviceEFLTeachersWangMingxiaSupervisor:ProfessorJIANGYuhongAThesisSubmittedinPartialFulfillmentoftheRequirementsfortheDegreeofM.A.inEnglishSCHOOLOFINTERNATIONALSTUDIESSOUTHWESTUNIVERSITYApril,2016 AcknowledgementsTheongoingandaccomplishmentofthepresentresearchcontributeto,bynomeans,theeffortoftheauthorherself,butrather,itisaproductsupportedandimprovedbymanyothers,towhomI’mextremelygrateful.Mysinceregratitude,firstofall,goestomysupervisor,ProfessorJIANYYuhong,withoutwhosepatientguidance,carefulcorrection,usefulsuggestionsandclassicliteratureadvisedtome,thepresentthesiscouldnothavebeenfinished.Shewaskindenoughtorevisemyinterviewprotocolsandclassroomobservationformsthatwerewritteninawkwardhandwriting.What’smore,shehelpedmecheckthecontentandreferences,andpointedoutafairamountofunclarityandsillinessinthedrafts.Mythanksarealsoforallmyteachersintheschool,fromwhomIhadlearnedalotaboutresearchmethodsaswellaslearningandteachingtheories.Forexample,thepresentstudybenefitedalotfromthecoursenamedEducationResearchMethodsgivenbyProfessorChenJing.Thankstoherandthestudentdiscussioninthisclass,Igottoknowtheglamour,proceduresandreportwritingofcasestudy.I’mmostappreciativeofalltheparticipantsinthisstudy,includingMissAandMissB(anonymityforprivacy),theirstudents,StudentAandStudentB,andtheirmentors,MissCandMissD.Thanksthemforallowingmetoobservetheirclasses,answeringmyquestionsascarefullyastheycould,offeringmetheirteachingplansaswellasPPTs,reviewingmyreportsandgivingmefeedbackandadviceduringtheirbusyschedule.Itwastheirassistanceandcooperationthatmadethisresearchcomeintobeing.I’malsogratefultomyclassmatesandmyroommates.Theyhavehelpedmetoreview,correctandgivesuggestionstorefinethethesis.Theyhavealsogivenmealotofencouragement,careandcompanyduringthedays.Asalways,noneofthechaptersinthisthesiswouldhavebeenpossiblewithoutthesupportofmyfamilywhocontinuedtoguidemyownreflections.Butfortheirunderstandingandencouragement,Iwouldhaveneverbeenabletobedevotedinwritingthethesiswithoutanythingtoworryabout.Myspecialthanksalsoextendedtotheresearchersandwriters,whoseworksprovidedmewitharichliteratureandinsightfulideastolearnfrom,toreferto,andtoreflectupon. ContentsListofTablesandFigures................................................................................................ivListofAbbreviations........................................................................................................vListofAppendices..........................................................................................................viAbstract.............................................................................................................................I内容摘要.................................................................................................................IIIChapterOneIntroduction.................................................................................................11.1ResearchBackground..........................................................................................11.2ResearchObjectives............................................................................................21.3ResearchSignificance.........................................................................................31.3.1Theoreticalsignificance..............................................................................31.3.2Practicalsignificance..................................................................................41.4LayoutoftheStudy.............................................................................................4ChapterTwoLiteratureReview........................................................................................62.1CoreConceptsinthisStudy................................................................................62.1.1Teacherknowledge.....................................................................................62.1.2Teachers’PCKandEFLteachers’PCK.......................................................72.1.3EFLteachers’PCKforgrammarinstruction...............................................82.2StudiesonEFLESLTeachers’PCKinGrammarInstructionatAbroad..............82.3StudiesonEFLTeachers’PCKinGrammarInstructionatHome.......................112.4CritiquesonPreviousStudiesonEFLESLTeachers’PCKinGrammarInstruction.........................................................................................................13ChapterThreeTheoreticalFramework...........................................................................153.1Grossman’sCategorizationofPCK:AnInheritfromShulman.........................153.2Andrews’sCategorizationofPCK:AModifiedModelofPCKforL2Teaching163.3CategorizationofPCKinthePresentStudy:AnIntegrationofGrossman’sandAndrews’sModels...........................................................................................18ChapterFourResearchDesign.......................................................................................214.1ResearchQuestions...........................................................................................21i 西南大学硕士学位论文4.2ContextandParticipants....................................................................................224.3ResearchMethods.............................................................................................224.3.1Non-participantclassroomobservations....................................................234.3.2Pre-andpost-observationinterviews.........................................................234.3.3Stimulatedrecall.......................................................................................244.3.4Documentation.........................................................................................254.3.5Summaryofresearchmethods..................................................................254.4DataCollection..................................................................................................264.5DataAnalysis....................................................................................................274.6ResearchReliabilityandValidity.......................................................................284.7EthicalIssues.....................................................................................................30ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussion..............................................................................315.1EmbodimentofPre-serviceEFLTeachers’PCKinJuniorMiddleSchoolGrammarInstruction.........................................................................................315.1.1CasestudyofMissA................................................................................315.1.1.1Knowledgeaboutpurposeofgrammarinstruction........................315.1.1.2Knowledgeaboutorganizationofgrammarinstruction.................355.1.1.3Knowledgeaboutcurriculumofgrammarinstruction....................395.1.1.4Knowledgeaboutstrategiesofgrammarinstruction......................415.1.1.5Knowledgeaboutstudents’understandingofgrammar.................445.1.1.6Knowledgeaboutgrammar...........................................................465.1.1.7Summary......................................................................................495.1.2CasestudyofMissB................................................................................495.1.2.1Knowledgeaboutpurposeofgrammarinstruction........................495.1.2.2Knowledgeaboutorganizationofgrammarinstruction.................535.1.2.3Knowledgeaboutcurriculumofgrammarinstruction....................565.1.2.4Knowledgeaboutstrategiesofgrammarinstruction......................575.1.2.5Knowledgeaboutstudents’understandingofgrammar.................605.1.2.6Knowledgeaboutgrammar...........................................................655.1.2.7Summary......................................................................................685.1.3ComparisonbetweenMissAandMissB..................................................68ii Contents5.2FactorsthatImpactonPre-serviceEFLTeachers’PCK.....................................735.2.1Personalfactors........................................................................................735.2.1.1PersonalEnglishlearningexperiences..........................................735.2.1.2PersonalexperiencesinEnglishteachingeducation......................745.2.1.3Personalexperiencesinteachingpractices....................................755.2.2Externalfactors........................................................................................755.2.2.1MacroeducationalcontextinChina.............................................755.2.2.2Trainingfromtheteachingandresearchinggrouptheybelongedto..................................................................................................765.2.2.3Learningfromthecommunityofpracticemadeupbyallthestudentteachers............................................................................76ChapterSixFindingsandConclusion.............................................................................786.1MajorFindingsofthisStudy.............................................................................786.2ImplicationsofthisStudy..................................................................................796.2.1Reinforcementinstudentteachers’learningonsubjectmatterknowledgeandpedagogicalknowledge.....................................................................796.2.2Emphasisonteachingpracticesandteachingreflection............................806.2.3Constructionofcommunityofpractice.....................................................816.3LimitationsofthisStudy...................................................................................816.4SuggestionsforFutureResearch.......................................................................82References.....................................................................................................................83Appendices....................................................................................................................87iii ListofTablesandFiguresTablesTable3.1Categoriesofforeignlanguageteachers’PCKforgrammarinstruction............20Table4.1Summaryofdatasources.................................................................................25Table5.1ComparisionbetweenMissAandMissB........................................................68FiguresFigure3.1Grossman’sanalyticframeworkforthecomponentsofPCK..........................16Figure3.2Teacherlanguageawareness(TLA),languageproficiency,andpedagogicalcontentknowledge(Andrews,2003)..............................................................18Figure3.3HexagonalanalyticframeworkofPCKforgrammarinstruction....................19iv ListofAbbreviationsAERAAmericanEducationResearchAssociationCOPCommunityofPracticeEFLEnglishasaForeignLanguageEPCKEnglishPedagogicalContentKnowledgeESLEnglishasaSecondLanguageKAGKnowledgeaboutGrammarKCGIKnowledgeaboutCurriculumofGrammarInstructionKOGIKnowledgeaboutOrganizationofGrammarInstructionKPGIKnowledgeaboutPurposeofGrammarInstructionKSGIKnowledgeaboutStrategiesofGrammarInstructionKSUGKnowledgeaboutStudents’UnderstandingofGrammarInstructionPCKPedagogicalContentKnowledgePPTPowerPointL2SecondLanguageTLATeacherLanguageAwarenessSsStudents3PPresentation,Practice,Productionv ListofAppendicesAppendixALetterofConsent......................................................................................87AppendixBObservationFormofPre-serviceEFLEnglishTeachers’PCKforGrammarInstruction...............................................................................................89AppendixCPre-observationInterviewProtocolfortheseTwoPre-serviceEFLTeachers.................................................................................................................94AppendixDPrO-observationInterviewProtocolfortheTwoPre-serviceEFLTeachers.................................................................................................................92AppendixEPost-observationInterviewProtocolfortheMentorsoftheseTwoPre-serviceEFLTeachers.......................................................................................98AppendixFPost-observationInterviewProtocolfortheStudentsoftheseTwoPre-serviceEFLTeachers..........................................................................................................99AppendixGASampleoftheTranscriptionoftheClassroomObservationtothePre-serviceEFLTeachers.........................................................................................................101AppendixHASampleofthePre-serviceEFLTeachers’ReplytothePre-observationInterview..............................................................................................................103AppendixIASampleofthePre-serviceEFLTeachers’ReplytothePost-observationInterview..............................................................................................................106AppendixJASampleofthePre-serviceEFLTeachers’Mentor’sReplytothePost-observationInterview...................................................................................107AppendixKASampleofthePre-serviceEFLTeachers’Student’sReplytothePost-observationInterview......................................................................................108AppendixLASampleoftheTranscriptionofthePre-serviceEFLTeachers’StimulatedRecall...................................................................................................................110AppendixMASampleoftheResearcher’sFieldNotesoftheClassroomObservation.112AppendixNASampleofthePre-serviceEFLTeachers’TeachingPlan........................115AppendixOASampleoftheScreenshotsofInformalInterviewforthePre-serviceEFLTeachers...............................................................................................................118AppendixPASampleofthePPTSlidesUsedbythePre-serviceEFLTeachers............119vi EFLTeachers’PedagogicalContentKnowledgeinJuniorMiddleSchoolGrammarInstruction:AStudyonTwoPre-serviceEFLTeachersAbstractThecountry’severlastingfutureliesineducation,whileeducationdependsonteachers.In2010,NationalMedium-andLong-TermPlanforEducationReformandDevelopmentclaimedthenecessityofconstructinghigh-qualityteachingstaff.Andin2014,OpinionsofMinistryofEducationonImplementingPlansforTrainingOutstandingTeachersproposedtherequirementofpromotingreformandinnovationineducationandoptimizingteachingstaff.Thesepoliciesshowtheimportanceofimprovingteachers’professionalisminthecontextofcurriculumreform.Teacherknowledgeisoneofthemostimportantelementsthatimpactsonteacherprofessionaldevelopment.Researchshowedteachershadtobeequippedwithnotonlyagoodcommandofsubjectmatterknowledgeandgeneralpedagogicalknowledge,butalsoakindofknowledgethatcouldhelpteachersintegratetheabovetwointeachingpracticetoorganizeteachinginawaythatisaccessibletostudents.ThiskindofknowledgewaswhatL.S.Shulmancalled“pedagogicalcontentknowledge”(PCK).PCKisthecoreofteacherknowledgeandcanbestdistinguishexpertteachersfromnoviceteachers.GrammarteachingplaysanimportantroleinjuniormiddleschoolEnglishteaching.However,studiesonPCKathomemostlyfocusedonreadinginstructionwhilefewongrammarinstruction.Besides,previousstudiestendedtorefertoShulman’sframeworkthatwasforgeneraleducation,neglectingthespecialtyofEFLteachers’PCK.Thepresentresearchmainlyfocusedontheexploringofpre-servicejuniormiddleschoolEFLteachers’PCKforgrammarinstruction.BasedontheanalyticframeworksofGrossman’sinteachingEnglishasmothertongueandthatofAndrews’sinESLteaching,andbringingintheconceptof“teacherlanguageawareness(TLA)”,thisstudyattemptedtocomeupwithsixcomponentsofEFLteachers’PCKspecificallyforgrammarinstruction.Thestudymainlyfollowedaqualitativeapproach,andamultiplecasestudywasadopted.Dataweremainlycollectedthroughclassroomobservation,supportedbyformalorinformalinterviews,stimulatedrecallanddocumentationtoexplorePCKforgrammarinstructionoftwopre-servicejuniormiddleschoolteachersI 西南大学硕士学位论文EFLattendingtheirteachingpracticum.Tworesearchquestionswereanswered:1)Howwasthesetwopre-serviceEFLteachers’PCKembodiedandrealizedinjuniormiddleschoolgrammarinstruction?2)WhatarethefactorsthatimpactontheconstructionanddevelopmentoftheirPCKforgrammarinstruction?Theresultsrevealedbothofthesetwopre-serviceteachersshowedtosomeextentthesixcategoriesofPCKforgrammarinstructionproposedinthehexagonalframework,andtheirPCKhadbothsimilaritiesanddiversities.TheybothhadacorrectunderstandingofthepurposeinteachingEnglishgrammar,whichfollowedthespiritofNationalCurricularStandards,buttherewerestilltensionsbetweentheirteachingbehaviorsandteachingbeliefs;theirclassesbothfollowedtheprocessof“presentation,practiceandproduction”,buttheactivitiesandtimeallocationineachstageweredifferent;asforknowledgeaboutcurriculumofgrammarinstruction,theycouldreorganizethetextbook,relatethepreviouslearningcontentwiththepresentone,andaddsometeachingmaterialsaccordingtotheteachingneeds,butduetothedifferenceintheirteachingexperiences,theyweredifferentintheirfamiliaritywiththetextbook;inordertomaketheirgrammaticalexplanationeasierforstudentstounderstand,theybothusedsomepedagogicaltechniques,suchasexemplification,elicitation,visualsupport,conceptualgrouping,referringtostudents’L1,etc.,buttheirchoicesonthetypesoftechniquesandthereasonswhytheydidsoweredifferentfromeachother;theybothhadsomeunderstandingabouttheirstudents,liketheirinterestsandpossibledifficulties,buttheirpredictionsonstudents’difficultieswerenotcomprehensiveandfocusedmainlyonthewrittenmistakes,payinglittleattentiontoothertypesofmistakeslikepronunciation;asforknowledgeaboutgrammar,theybothhadasoundknowledgeofgrammaticalrulesandterminologiesofgrammar,couldanalyzegrammarfromlearners’perspectivesandbreakdownthegrammaticalpointsappropriately.ResultsalsoshowedtheirPCKforgrammarinstructionwasinfluencedbybothpersonalandexternalfactors.PersonalfactorsincludetheirexperiencesinEnglishlearning,Englishteachingeducation,andteachingpractices.Regardingexternalfactors,EnglisheducationalcontextinChina,theteachingandresearchinggrouptheybelongedto,andthecommunityofpracticemadeupbyallofthestudentteachersattendingthepracticumhadaprofoundimpactontheirPCKforgrammarinstruction.Keywords:pedagogicalcontentknowledge;juniormiddleschoolgrammarinstruction;components;influentialfactors;pre-serviceEFLteachers;II 初中英语语法教学中教师的学科教学知识：基于2名职前英语教师的研究内容摘要百年大计，教育为本；教育大计，教师为本。2010年，《国家中长期教育改革与发展纲要》明确了建设高素质教师队伍的必要性。此外，2014年，《教育部关于实施卓越教师培养计划的意见》也提出了“推动教育教学改革创新，整合优化教师师资队伍”的要求。可见，提高教师专业素质，促进教师专业发展，在课程改革的背景下占有重要的地位。教师知识是影响教师专业发展和教学实践的一个重要因素。研究结果表明，教师不仅需要具备完善的学科知识和教育学知识，更重要的是需要教师将两者融合起来，并在教学实践中理解如何以一种学生能够接受的方式去组织和开展教学。舒尔曼（L.S.Shulman）将此种知识命名为“学科教学知识”（PCK）。PCK是教师知识的核心，是最能区分专家教师和新手教师的一种知识形式。语法教学在我国英语教学中举足轻重，但国内PCK的实证研究多以阅读教学为例，对英语教师语法教学PCK的关注较少。再者，以往英语教师PCK研究多以Shulman等普通大教育领域的分析框架为基础，忽视了英语教师PCK的特殊性。本研究主要对职前初中英语教师的语法教学PCK进行研究。研究以格罗斯曼（P.L.Grossman）英语作为母语教学和安德鲁斯（S.Andrews）的英语作为第二语言教学教师的PCK研究框架为基础，引入“教师语言意识（teacherlanguageawareness）”这一概念，提出了职前英语教师在初中语法教学中PCK的六个构成要素。本研究采取了质的研究取向，以多案例个案研究为主要研究方法，主要通过课堂观察，辅以正式和非正式访谈、刺激回忆等数据收集方式，探索了两名初中英语实习教师的语法教学PCK。研究试图回答以下两个问题：1）两位职前初中英语教师的PCK在初中英语语法教学是如何表现的？2）两位职前初中英语教师的语法教学PCK的形成和发展受哪些因素的影响？研究结果显示，该两名职前英语教师在语法教学中对本研究提出的六边形分析框架中的PCK构成要素都有所表现，且两位职前初中教师的PCK既有相似，也有III 西南大学硕士学位论文不同的地方。两位职前初中英语教师对中学语法教学目的具有正确的理解，能够体现新课程英语改革的精神，但她们的教学行为与其设定的教学目标并非完全一致；她们的课堂组织方式都遵循了“呈现、练习和产出”的“3P”语法教学模式，但在各阶段所设置的活动和时间安排上却有所不同；语法教学课程资源理解与应用方面，两位教师都能灵活地根据教学需要重组教材内容，将以前所学课程内容与当前课程内容相联系，合理地补充课外教学资源，但由于实习前教学实践经验的差异，导致了她们对教材的分析、了解和运用有所不同；为了使其对语法项目的解释更容易为学生所理解，两位实习教师均使用了一些语法教学策略，如举例、引出（elicitation）、视觉辅助（visualsupport）、概念分组（conceptualgrouping）、借助学习者的第一语言等，但两位教师策略选择的类型及理由却不尽相同；两位教师对学生学情都有所了解，能够根据学生兴趣选取教学材料，对学生学习该语法项目可能出现的问题和错误能做一定程度的预测，但是她们的理解还不够全面，且主要强调书面错误而对语音等方面的错误关注不够；语法知识方面，两位教师对于该语法项目相关的术语以及该语法项目所涉及的语法规则都有很好的掌握，且能够一定程度上从学习者的视角分析和解释该语法，分解语法项目。研究还发现，该两位职前初中英语教师的PCK是个体和外在因素共同影响的结果。个体因素包括她们的英语学习、英语教育学习、以及教学实践经验。外在因素主要来自宏观上中国英语教育环境、所实习学校教研会的帮助以及所属实践共同体的影响。关键词：学科教学知识；初中语法教学；构成因素；影响因素；职前英语教师；IV ChapterOneIntroduction1.1ResearchBackgroundThecountry’severlastingfutureliesineducation,whileeducationdependsonteachers.Educationisthecornerstoneofthenation’sdevelopment,andteachersarefoundersofeducation.In2010,NationalMedium-andLong-TermPlanforEducationReformandDevelopmentwasenactedandimplemented,claimingthenecessityofconstructinghigh-qualityteachingstaff.Qualifiedteachersaretheprerequisiteofqualifiededucation.Therefore,moreexpectationsaregiventoourteachersinthepresentbackgroundofcurriculumreform.Teachersarethevitalfactorsthatimpactonsuccessorfailureofthereform.Theimprovementofteachers’professionalismisbecomingthefocusinthisreform,forthecomponentsandstructureofteachers’professionalismdirectlyinfluencesteachers’understandingtowardsthereform.Teacherknowledge,asoneofthemostimportantpartsofteacherprofessionalism,hasbecomethefocusofteacherresearchalongwiththereleaseofHandbookofResearchonTeaching(Wittrock,1986),forteacherknowledgeandteacherbeliefdetermineteachers’decisionsonhowtobehaveinrealclassroompractices.Inthepastyears,muchattentionhasbeendrawnonsubjectmatterknowledgeandgeneralpedagogicalknowledge.However,teachersnotonlyneedtopossesstheabovetwokindsofknowledge,butmoreimportantly,needagoodcommendofsubject-specificpedagogicalknowledgewhichishighlyconnectedtopracticalexperience.ThisiswhattheAmericaneducationalistL.S.Shumancalled“pedagogicalcontentknowledge”(hereaftershortenedasPCK).Shulman(1986)pointedoutthatthedevelopmentofPCKwasthekeytohelpnoviceteachersgrowintoexpertteachers.Noviceteachers,throughaprocessof“pedagogicalreasoning”(Shulman,1987),whichincludecomprehension,transformation,instruction,evaluation,reflectionandnewcomprehension,couldtransformtheircontentknowledgeintopedagogicalcontentknowledge.TheconceptofPCKhasmadeupthephenomenonof“twopiecesofskin”betweendisciplinarycontentknowledgeandgeneralpedagogicalknowledge.1 西南大学硕士学位论文EFLpre-serviceEnglishteachers,becauseofthelackofrealclassroomteachingexperiences,havedifficultiesintransforminghisorherownknowledgeonEnglishlanguageintoaformofknowledgerepresentationwhichiseasierforstudentstounderstand.Therefore,itisnoteasyforthemtostarttheirteachingcareerwithin“zerodistance”(LvJun&DongXiaoqiu,2010).Therefore,itisworthyofourresearchonpre-serviceEnglishteachers’PCK.Furthermore,grammarinstructionhaslongbeenadifficultbutimportantpartinEnglishlanguageteaching.However,asforresearchonPCK,especiallythoseathome,mostofthemhavefocusedonreadinginstructionwithmuchfewerpayingattentiontogrammarinstruction.Thus,webelieveitisnecessarytoexpendourresearchonPCKtothefieldofgrammarinstruction.Whatarethecomponentsofper-servicejuniormiddleschoolEFLteachers’PCKforgrammarinstruction?AndwhataretheinfluentialfactorsthatmakejuniormiddleschoolEFLteachers’PCKcomeintobeing?TheanswerstothesequestionscangivesomeimplicationsforbothforeignlanguageteachereducationprogramsandtherealclassroomforeignlanguageteachinginChina.1.2ResearchObjectivesEversincetheimplementofreforminbasiceducation,thedevelopmentofelementaryandsecondaryEnglishteachers’PCKhasdrawnalargeamountofattentionintheareaofforeignlanguageteaching(HanGang,2011).Inthepastthreedecades,manyresearchonforeignsecondlanguageteacher’sPCKhavebeencarriedoutbothathomeandabroadbyadoptingtheframeworksfrompreviousresearchersingeneraleducation,likeShulman(1986a),Grossman(1990),Cochran,DeRuiter,&King(1993)，Hashweh(2005)andsoon.However,fewoftheresearchhavetalkedaboutthecomponentsoflanguageteachers’PCKforspecificteachingaspect,likelistening,speaking,readingandwriting.Therefore,thepresentthesisintendstoexplorethecomponentsofpre-servicejuniorhighschoolEnglishteachers’PCKforgrammarinstructionandhowtheirPCKcomeintobeing.Firstandforemost,thepresentpaperaimstoexploreandanalyzethecomponentsofpre-serviceEFLteachers’PCKforgrammarinstruction,andtocomeupwithanewly2 ChapterOneIntroductiondesignedanalyticframeworkforthecategorizationofpre-serviceEFLteachers’PCKforgrammarinstructionbasedonGrossman’sanalyticframeworkandAndrews’sworkforL2teachingwithaspecialemphasison“teacherlanguageawareness(TLA)”.Besides,thispaperwillexplorehowpre-serviceEFLteachers’PCKisrealizedinjuniormiddleschoolgrammarinstruction.Furthermore,thispaperalsoattemptstoinvestigatethefactorsthatimpactontheconstructionanddevelopmentofpre-serviceEFLteachers’PCKforgrammarinstruction.1.3ResearchSignificance1.3.1TheoreticalsignificanceInwestcountries,studiesonforeignlanguageteachers’PCKhavegraduallycometobematureandhavejustbeguntoexplorethemeasuretoolsforexploringteachers’PCK.Howeverstudiesathomehavejusttakenoff.Andmostoftheexistingstudieshavejustdiscussedtheissueonthetheoreticallevel,withfewempiricalstudies.Thepresentstudyadoptedaqualitativecasestudytoexploreteachers’PCK,expectingtomakesomecontributiontothecomponentsofpre-serviceteachers’PCKforgrammarinstruction.What’smore,whilesomeofthepreviousstudieshavediscussedthecomponentsofforeignlanguageteacher’sPCKforEnglishlanguageteachingwithgrammarteachingasanexample,few,ifany,havetriedtoexaminethecomponentsofforeignlanguageteachers’PCKforgrammarinstructioninspecific.Toputitinasimplerway,almostallofthemhaveusedtheanalyticframeworkproposedbyShulman,Grossman,Park(2005)andsooningeneraleducationwhilefewofthemhavetakenintoconsiderationforeignlanguageteachers’specificknowledgeaboutgrammarinstruction,distinctfromotheraspectsofEnglishlanguageteaching,likereading,listening,writingandspeakingteaching.Therefore,thepresentresearch,basedonGrossman’sandAndrews’sframeworksforteachers’PCK,attemptstocomeupwithsixcomponentsofEFLteachers’PCKforgrammarinstruction.Mostimportantly,thisframeworktakesintoconsiderationAndrews’conceptofteacherlanguageawareness(hereaftershortenedasTLA)intoconsiderationandregardsforeignlanguageteachers’knowledgeaboutgrammar(hereaftershortenedasKAG)asoneofthecomponentsoftheirPCKforgrammarinstruction.3 西南大学硕士学位论文1.3.2PracticalsignificanceThestudyofpre-serviceteachers’PCKforgrammarinstructioncanfirstlyhelppromoteforeignlanguageteachersprofessionaldevelopmentandalsogivesomeimplicationsfortheteachereducationprogramsinChina.Forpre-serviceteachersthemselves,itcanenablethemtobetterunderstandtheirstructureofPCKforgrammarinstruction,andhelpraisetheirawarenessintransformingtheircontentandpedagogicalknowledgeintoPCKthroughtheirunderstandingoftheteachingcontent,teachingcontextandstudents.Bysodoing,pre-serviceteacherscanstepintotheirrealteachingcareerwithfewerdifficulties.Forteachereducators,thestudyonpre-serviceEnglishteachersPCKtellusthecultivationofagoodlanguageteacherisbynomeansthatofagoodlanguageuser.TraditionalnormaleducationinChinaemphasizesthetrainingofstudentteachers’knowledgeoflanguageandteachingtheories.Asaresult,fouryears’normaleducationandtrainingendsupwithan“Englishprofessional”ratherthana“qualifiedEnglishteacher”(ZouWeicheng,2009).TheconceptofPCKinformsteachereducatorstheimportanceoftheblendingofcontentknowledgeandpedagogicalknowledge,guidingstudentteacherstoconstructtheirPCKinteachingpractice.What’smore,itcanalsogivesomesightstotheEnglishteachingpracticeinChina’sforeignlanguageclassrooms,helpingteacherstomakegooduseoftheirPCKinrealteaching.1.4LayoutoftheStudyGenerally,therearesixchaptersintotal.ChapterOneistheIntroductionpart,inwhichtheresearchbackground,objectives,andtheoreticalsignificancehavebeenaddressed.TheimportantandnecessarypositionofgrammarinstructioninEnglishlanguageteachingandtherelativelittleattentiondrawnonL2teachers’grammar-relatedPCKhasbeenthemainforceforthepresentresearch.InChapterTwo,weaimsforaclearanddetaileddefinitionofthekeyconceptsrelatedtothisstudyandoutlinedarelativelyoverallandupdatedliteraturereviewonstudiesofforeignlanguageteachers’PCKingrammarinstruction,hopingthereadercanhaveabasicunderstandingaboutthestatusquoofthisresearcharea.InChapterThree,wedescribeindetailtheanalyticframeworkofthecategorizationofPCKdesignedbyGrossmaningeneraleducationandthatbyAndrews4 ChapterOneIntroductionforL2teaching.Basedontheabovetwoframeworks,thisstudywillcomeupwithitsownsixcomponentsofPCKforgrammarinstructionandexplorehowthesecomponentsarerealizedintheirteachingpractice.InChapterFour,weillustratetheresearchquestions,contextsandparticipants,researchmethods,proceduresfordatacollection,andthewaysofdataanalysis.Besides,ethicalissuesandresearchreliabilityandvaliditywillalsobeaddressed.InChapterFive,multiplesourcesofdatawillbeadoptedtoanswerthetworesearchquestionsproposedinchapterFour.Inspecific,thesixcomponentsofpre-servicejuniormiddleschoolEFLteachers’PCKforgrammarinstructionandthepersonalandexternalfactorsthatimpactontheirconstructionanddevelopmentoftheirPCKforgrammarinstructionwillbeexamined.InChapterSix,themajorfindingsofthisresearchandimplicationsforpre-serviceEFLteachers,teachereducators,andteachereducationprogramswillbeaddressed.Besides,thelimitationsontheresearchlength,researchmethodandtheresearcher’sanalyticabilitywillbedescribed.Atlast,somesuggestionsforfutureresearchwillbegiven.5 ChapterTwoLiteratureReview2.1CoreConceptsinthisStudy2.1.1TeacherknowledgeBeforelaterhalfof1960s,educationalresearchmainlyfocusedontheexplorationofteacherbehavior.However,withthedevelopmentincognitivepsychologyin1970s,researchersbegantoturntoteachercognition,andtheyfoundteacherdecisionwasthebridgethatassociatedteachers’mindandbehaviors.Teacherknowledge,asoneoftheinfluentialfactorsthatimpactonteacherdecision,hascometothespotlightofteacherresearch,andhasbecomeoneofthemostimportantresearchissuesofteacherprofessionalism.Inthe1980s’movementofteacherprofessionalizationinwestcountries,theissuethatwhatknowledgebaseteachersshouldhavewasproposed.TheleaderofAmericanEducationalResearchAssociation,(shortenedasAERA),L.S.Shulman(1986a),putforwardsevenkindsofknowledge,namely,contentknowledge,generalpedagogicalknowledge,pedagogicalcontentknowledge,knowledgeoflearners,knowledgeofeducationalcontextandknowledgeofeducationalaims,purposes,values,andtheirphilosophicalandhistoricalgrounds.UnlikeShulman,someresearcherslikeConnellyandClandinin(1986),emphasizedthepracticalnatureofteacherknowledge,proposing“teachers’personalpracticalknowledge”.Therefore,teacherknowledge,ontheonehand,hasitstheoreticalfeature,whileontheotherhand,isalsoexperiential.Thatistosay,teachers,likedoctors,lawyersandotherprofessionals,shouldhaveagoodcommandofpracticalknowledgeaswellasknowledgebase.PCK,astheintegrationofcontentknowledgeandpedagogicalknowledge,canonlybetransformedandconstructedinrealteachingpractice.Tosomeextent,PCK,whichisoneofthecomponentsofteacherknowledgebase,canalsoberegardedasonekindof“specializedteachers’personalpracticalknowledge”.6 ChapterTwoLiteratureReview2.1.2Teachers’PCKandEFLteachers’PCKAswementionedinthelastsection,Shumandividedteacherknowledgeintosevencategories,withPCKamongthem.Shulman’scontributiontothestudyofteacherknowledgenotonlylayinhisclassification,butalsoinhisideaofPCK.AccordingtoShulman(1986b),itreferstopedagogicallyreformulationofsubjectcontentknowledgeinthewaystudentshaveeasyaccesstoit.Inspecific,itincludesteachers’useofexamples,analogies,comparisons,demonstrationsandsoon,tomaketeachingcontenteasiertotheirstudents.AsresearchonPCKwentforward,Shulman(1987)redefinedPCKas“theblendingofcontentandpedagogyintoanunderstandingofhowparticulartopics,problems,orissuesareorganized,represented,andadaptedtothediverseinterestsandabilitiesoflearners,andpresentedforinstruction”.ThenotionofPCKemphasizedthatteachersshouldnotonlyhaveadeepunderstandingofthesubject,butalsoneedtoknowhowtorepresentandformulatethesubjectknowledgeinawaythatiscomprehensibleforstudents.Thatistosay,whenteachersareinthewayofprocessing,transforming,representingandteachingsubjectcontentknowledge,theyneedtohaveacriticalreflectiononandexplanationoftheteachingcontent(PengYuanling,2007).Besides,teachersshouldalsohavesomeknowledgeofthepossibledifficultiesandmisunderstandingsstudentsmaymeetintheprocessoflearning.Therefore,PCKisratherimportantandisthecoreofteacherknowledge,becauseitdistinguishesthedifferentknowledgeclustersforteachingfromothersubjects,embodiestheintegrationofsubjectcontentandeducationalscience,andistheknowledgeareathatcanbestdistinguishsubjectexpertsfromordinaryteachers(WangYanling,2007).Ontheotherhand,throughaprocessoftransforming,theconnectionandbuttjointbetweensubjectcontentknowledgeandexperientialknowledgeaboutstudents’individualitycanberealized(ZhengZhihui,2014).Thus,teachingandlearningcoincidewitheachother.Inforeignlanguageteaching,thenatureoflanguageasbothteaching“tool”andteaching“content”determinesthatthePCKnecessaryforEFLteachersaredifferentfromthatforteachersofothersubjects.PCKforforeignlanguageteachersisaresultofthegathering,connecting,transforming,integratinganddevelopingincoordinationamongforeignlanguagecontentknowledge,pedagogicalknowledge,knowledgeabout7 西南大学硕士学位论文curriculumintheteachingpractice.AccordingtoWuYi’an(2007),foreignlanguagePCKwasakindofintegratedknowledgeblendedbyforeignlanguagesubjectmattercontentandforeignlanguagepedagogicalknowledge.Inthisstudy,wewouldliketodefinePCKforforeignlanguageteachingasforeignlanguageteachers’understandingandchoicesofsubjectcontentofforeignlanguageaccordingtotheirbeliefsaboutforeignlanguageteaching(e.g.foreignlanguageteachers’personalviewonknowledge,languageviewandlearningbelief).2.1.3EFLteachers’PCKforgrammarinstructionGrammarinstructionhasalwaysbeenanimportantpartofforeignlanguageteaching.Theteachingofgrammaralsoneedsablendingofsubjectcontentandgeneralpedagogicalknowledge.EFLteachersshouldknowhowtotransformtheirknowledgeofgrammarandpedagogyintoakindofknowledgerepresentationthatiseasyforstudentstounderstand.Forexample,EFLteachers’knowledgeaboutthefunctionofgrammarinformsteachers’choicesontheactivitiesingrammarclasses.Inthispaper,foreignlanguageteachers’PCKforgrammarinstructionreferstoacombinationofknowledgeaboutstudents’previouslinguisticandculturalbackgroundaswellasforeignlanguageteachers’knowledgeaboutgrammarandknowledgeaboutgrammarinstruction.Itmainlyincludeshowteachers’thinkofgrammarinstruction,howtheyplanandimplementtheactivitiesingrammarinstruction,likepreparingteachingmaterials,organizing,exemplifying,presenting,andaskingquestionsinforeignlanguagegrammarclassroomsandtheirknowledgeaboutthegrammar.2.2StudiesonEFLESLTeachers’PCKinGrammarInstructionatAbroadS.Borg(1998),fromaperspectiveofpersonalpedagogicalsystems,thatisacombinationofteacherknowledge,beliefsandsoon,exploredanexperiencedEFLteacher’sgrammarteachingpractice.Hefoundthattheparticipant’spedagogicalsystemexertedagreatinfluenceonhisteachingdecisionsinclass.Forexample,theteacherchosestudents’grammaticalerrorsorexplanationofgrammaticalrulesaccordingtotheirunderstandingoftheneedsoftherealteachingcontext(e.g.thestudents’linguistic8 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewandemotionalneeds).Besides,theresearcheralsofoundsometechniquesthattheteacherusedintheclassroomtomakehisgrammaticalinstructionaccessibletohisstudents,suchassuggestingthemtomakecomparisonwiththeirmothertongue,organizingclassroomdiscussionstohelpstudentsgeneralizethegrammaticalrulesbythemselves,replacingthecomplicatedgrammarrulesinthetextbookswithhisownoneswhichweresimplifiedandeasytounderstand,andsoonsoforth.B.JohnsonandK.Goettsch(2000),inamannerofqualitativecasestudy,investigatedfourexperiencedESLteachers’knowledgebaseingivinggrammaticalillustrations.Threekindsofteacherknowledgewereanalyzed,namelycontentknowledge,pedagogicalcontentknowledgeandlearnerknowledge.Theresearchshowedthatthe3kindsofteacherknowledgearemeldedtogetherincomplexandinextricablewaysaccountsof,andactionsinlanguageteaching.“ThisechoesGolombeck(1998),discussedearlier,whoalsocommendedontheholisticmannaerinwhichlanguageteachersdrawontheirknowledge”(Borg,2003).Intheirterms,PCK(i.e.knowledgeofsubject-specificinstructionaltechniques)referredto“thewayexperiencedteachersgiveexplanationsofgrammarpointsinclass”.Theresultsshowedthat,intheirgrammarexplanations,noneofthoseteachersthrewprimaryemphasisongrammarrules,butinstead,onprovidingstudentswithcomprehensibleexamples.What’smore,theteacherspreferredtoinvitestudentstoaskquestionsanddiscusswiththeirpartnersandclassmates.Withregardtothepartthatmetalanguageplayedinthegrammarillustration,twoteachersoflowerlevelheldpositiveviewofit,believingitwasquiteimportant,whiletheothertwoteachersofhigherleveldidn’tgiveitmuchsupport.S.Andrews(2001,2003,2007)drewonspecialattentiononhowlanguageteachers’languageawareness(TLA)influencesteachers’classroomteaching.HebelievedthatTLAwasonekindofPCKthatwasuniquetolanguageteachers,fortheteachingcontentandmediumwasthesame,thatwas,thelanguageitself.InAndrews’analyticmodel,TLAwasconsideredoneofthecomponentsofPCK(see3.2foradetailedanalysis).Inthesestudies,Andrewsmainlydiscussedteachers’TLAaboutgrammar,andthenotionofKAG(knowledgeaboutgrammar)wasputforward.Furthermore,headvocatedthatthewayslanguageteacherschosetomakegrammar9 西南大学硕士学位论文comprehensibletolearnerswereaffectedbyfactorsrelatedtotheimmediatecontext,likestudents’presentlevel,interestsandmotivation,L2curriculum,classtimeavailable,andsoonsoforth.S.PhippsandS.Borg(2009),byadoptingclassroomobservationstouncoverthreeteachers’grammarteachingbehaviorsandthroughinterviewstoinvestigatetheirbeliefsunderlyingthesebehaviors,foundteachers’beliefswerenotcompletelyinagreementwiththeirteachingpractices.Theresultsalsoshowedthattheimmediatecontextualfactorslikestudents’expectationguidedteacherstomakedecisionsthatweredistinctfromtheirexistedbeliefs.I.PahissaandE.Tragant(2009),takingthreenon-nativeteachersofEnglishinCatalonia,exploredtheirbehaviorsingrammarinstructionandhowtheirbeliefsrelatedtogrammarledtotheirteachingpractice.Theyfoundtheparticipantsinthestudytookvariouskindsofinstructionalstrategies,suchascomparisonsandtranslationbetweenthemothertongueandtargetlanguage,theuseofanalogiesandmetaphors,andsoonsoforth.Besides,thestudyalsoexploredthreekindsoffactors(i.e.experiential,cognitiveandcontextualfactors)thatshapedthesebeliefs.Forexample,thesethreeteachers’choiceofwhatteachingtechniquestotakewasdecidedbyacontextofhigh-stakescollegeentranceexamination.H.S.SanchezandS.Borg(2014),followingaresearchtraditionoflanguageteachercognition,studiedthedecisionssecondlanguageteachersmadeingrammarteachingclassroomsandthecontextualandsocialfactorsthatinfluencedthesebeliefs.ThesubjectsinthisstudyweretwoexpertmiddleschoolteachersinArgentina.Dataincludedclassroomobservation,stimulatedrecallandsemi-structuredinterviews.Thestudyfoundtechniqueslikeexemplification,repetitionofkeywords,theuseofanalogies,metaphors,andimages,theuseofvisualsupportanduseofthelearners’L1wereadoptedtohelplearners’comprehensionofgrammarrules.Thetechniquesthoseteachersemployedshedsomelightonteachers’grammar-relatedPCK.Furthermore,cognitiveandcontextualfactorsthatdeterminedteachers’teachingpracticeswerealsouncovered.Thefindingsofthepreviousresearchatabroadhaveundoubtedlygivenusmuchtheoreticalsupportforthedesignandwritingofthepresentresearch.Andrews’sstudies10 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewaddressedtheimportantnotionofTLA,andKAGinparticular,leadingustodrawattentiononthespecialfeatureoflanguageteacher.TheworksofBorg,etalingrammarinstructionhaveshedussomelightontheteachingstrategiesofgrammarinstruction,whichhavehelpeduswiththedesigningoftheobservationform.However,thefindingsofthepreviousstudystillhavesomelimitations.Previousresearchmainlyfocusedonhowteachersexplaingrammarinawayaccessibletostudents,fewofthem,ifany,havecomeupwithamacroframeworkofPCKforgrammarinstructiontakingintoconsiderationalltheelementsrelatedtotheconstructionoftheirPCKforgrammarinstruction.2.3StudiesonEFLTeachers’PCKinGrammarInstructionatHomeSince2000whentheconceptofPCKwasintroducedintoChina,moreandmoreresearchershavebeguntoexploredeepintothisfield.ButresearchonEFLteachers’PCKhavejustbeguninrecentfewyears,andmostofthemhavecenteredonforeignlanguageteachers’PCKinreadinginstruction,whilefewontheirgrammar-relatedPCK,withtheexceptionofTsui(2003),FangHonglan(2011),YuBin(2014)andZhaoXiaoguang(2015).Inthefollowing,wewillhaveareviewofthesefourliteratureonebyone.Tsui(2003),takinggrammarinstructionasherfocus,exploredfourexpertESLteachers’expertiseinteachinginHongkong.BasedonShulman’sframework,shereconstructedthestructureofESLteacherknowledge.Shebelievedthatteacherknowledgeasembeddedintheactofteaching,i.e.PCK,couldbeperceivedas“…twointertwineddimensions,themanagementofteachingandlearningandtheenactmentofthecurriculumintheclassroom.”Inherview,PCKcouldbecategorizedintofourcategories,includingknowledgeaboutteachinglistening,speaking,readingandwriting;knowledgeaboutlanguagelearningstrategies;knowledgeaboutlanguageteachingstrategies;knowledgeaboutmanagementonlearningresourcesandherabilityindealingwithlearning.TryingtoapplylessonstudyinthegrammarteachingofinfinitivesinSeniortwoEnglishclasses,FangHonglan(2011),exploredontheonehand,theinfluencesoflessonstudyonstudents’cognitiveandemotionalchanges,andontheotherhand,on11 西南大学硕士学位论文thechangesofnoviceteachers’PCKduringtheirteachingpracticum.Herresearch,mainlymixinganactionresearchwithasurvey,investigateddeepintotheteachingprocess(i.e.collaborativeteachingplanning,interactiveclassroomobservationandevaluationandreflectiononthelessonstudy)ofthelessonstudygroupformedbythreenoviceteachersofEnglish,withherselfincluded.Thestudyshowedthatallofthefourkindsofknowledge,namelyknowledgeofstudents,knowledgeofcurriculum,knowledgeofpedagogyandknowledgeofthemselveswereenrichedanddeveloped.Student-centerednessandstudents’individualcharacteristicsweretakenintoconsiderationbynoviceteachersofEnglish,extraresourcesbesidestextbookswerebroughtinintheirrealteaching,inductivemethodtoteachgrammarandcommunicativeapproachwereadopted,andteachersthemselvescametoknowthattheyweremuchmorethanaknowledgepasser,butmoreimportantly,aguiderorfacilitatorofstudents’learning.Insummary,lessonstudywasoneoftheeffectivewaystodevelopnoviceteachers’PCK.YuBin(2014),anexperiencedteacherofEnglishinasecondaryschool,inhisyears’ofEnglishteaching,foundthatthetraditionalEnglishclasswassingleandsimpleingrammarteachingmethodandclassroomatmospherewasratherboring.Therefore,hetriedtodiscusstheapplicationofEnglishPCK(EPCK)inan“efficientclassroom”.HebelievedcommonteachersofEnglishownedsomePCK,butexpertteachersofEnglishknewhowtotransformitintosomethingcouldbeunderstoodandacquiredbytheirstudents.Heheldtheviewthatteachersshouldtrytomotivatestudents’totakepartinthelanguageclassandhelpcreateateacher-students,student-studentinteractiveclassroomatmosphere.BasedontheanalyticframeworkproposedbyGrossman,ZhaoXiaoguang(2015),invited8middleschoolEnglishteacherstotakepartinhisstudy,andexploredtheseteachers’PCKindifferentclasstypes.Althoughtheauthorclaimedtoanalyzelistening&speakingclassandreadingclass,theclassesheattendedwerealsoaboutgrammarinstruction.Thegrammaritemsunderdiscussion,includedthegrammaticalstructuresof“begoing”,“beborn”andsoon.Hisresearchmainlyfocusedonthreequestions,includingteachers’representationforteachingcertaincontent,teachers’understandingofstudents’possibledifficultiesandmisconceptionsandtheirunderstandingofthe12 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewnatureoftheEnglishlanguage.Hefoundthattheseteachers’classroomlanguagewasrepresentedmostcommonlybycode-switchingbetweenthetargetlanguageandstudents’L1werethemost.Healsofoundteachershadasoundandoverallunderstandingofstudents’knowledgebase,buttheirunderstandingsweremainlyaboutthewholestudentgroupandabouttheirgeneralsituation.Theirpredictionsonstudents’possiblemistakeswerealsocomprehensiveandaccurate,buttheyweremainlyaboutthelanguageknowledgeratherthanstudents’ability.Healsofoundthetensionbetweenteachers’beliefontheinstrumentalnatureofEnglishlanguageandtheirfocusonthelanguagestructuresinrealclassroomteachingpractices.Theresearcheralsotriedtofindoutthefactorsthatinfluencedtheseteachers’PCK,suchastheirlearningexperiences,theirworkingenvironmentandsocialfactorslikeexaminations.Studiesinthisareawereratherlimitedascanbeseenintheaboveliteraturereviewconsideringthedepthandwidthofresearch.Andevensomeoftheresearchwasjustreflectionorsummaryoftheirteachingexperiences.Therefore,researchinthisareawasurgenttobeexpended.2.4CritiquesonPreviousStudiesonEFLESLTeachers’PCKinGrammarInstructionAscanbeenseenfromtheaboveliteraturereview,researchonlanguageteachers’PCKhavemadesomeachievementandthepreviousstudiesonsecondforeignlanguageteachers’PCKhavelaidasolidtheoreticalfoundationforthepresentthesis.However,therearestillsomelimitationsoftheexistingliterature.Firstofall,literatureonpre-serviceEFLteachers’PCKisratherlimited.Mostofthepreviousstudiestendedtotakeexperiencedlanguageteachersastheirresearchobjects,whilefewhavefocusedonpre-serviceEnglishteachers,fortheybelievedthatpre-serviceteacherswerelackofPCK,whichshouldbegeneratedinrealteachingpractice.However,pre-serviceteacherscanalsodeveloptheirPCKthroughtheirteachingtraininginthecollege(e.g.microteaching),observingandreflectingontheirteachersandtakingpartinteachingpractices.Therefore,pre-serviceteachers’PCKisalsoworthyofresearching.Secondly,researchonsecondforeignlanguageteachers’PCKforgrammarinstructionneedstobeexpanded.Althoughsomeresearchhaveexaminedteachers’PCKingrammarteaching,13 西南大学硕士学位论文almostallofthemsimplyappliedtheanalyticframeworkofShulmandesignedforgeneraleducation,neglectingtheuniquefeatureofforeignlanguageteaching,letalonethatofgrammarinstruction.Asaresult,fewofthemhavetakentheelementofKAGintoconsideration,exceptforAndrews’sstudy.What’smore,wecaneasilyconcludefromtheliteraturereviewinthelastsectionthat,researchonESLEFLteachers’PCKingrammarteachingatabroadmainlyfocusedonthestrategiesandtechniquesteachersadoptedintheirteachingpractice,whilefew,ifanyhadeverdiscussedorcameupwithananalyticframeworkofPCKforgrammarinstruction.Asforresearchathome,theliteratureonPCKforgrammarinstructionwasmorelimited,formostofthemhadtakenreadingclassasexamples.Thus,thepresentthesistendstocombinetheframeworkofShulmanforgeneraleducationandAndrews’snotionofKAGtoexplorethecomponentsofpre-serviceEFLteachers’PCKforgrammarinstruction.14 ChapterThreeTheoreticalFramework3.1Grossman’sCategorizationofPCK:AnInheritfromShulmanThetermPCKwasfirstproposedbyL.S.ShulmanontheAmericanEducationResearchAssociation(AERA),in1985.HecomparedthetestcontentofteacherevaluationinCaliforniain1875andin1985,andfoundthat95%oftheformertestfocusedonsubjectcontentknowledgewhilethelatteronpedagogicalknowledge.Hecriticizedthelimitationofthedivisionofcontentknowledgeandpedagogicalknowledge,claimingthatfewhadeverthoughtofhowthesubjectcontentwastransformedfromteacherknowledgetoteachingcontent,andfewhavequestionedwhatwastherelationshipbetweenteachers’systematicstatementofsubjectcontentandwhatstudentslearnedandmisunderstood(XieShu,2013),thusresultinginthedebatebetween“academicnature”and“educationalnature”(LiuYanlan,2014).Shulmanand(1986a)calledthevariouskindsofteachingresearchparadigmsthathadn’tgivenenoughattentiontosubjectteaching“missingparadigm”.Later,Shulmanpointedoutthat,teachersneedtoknownotonlywhatwassomething,butalsowhyitwasso.Therefore,theideaoftheintegrationofsubjectcontentknowledgeandpedagogicalknowledge,thatis,PCKwasputforward.AccordingtoShulman,PCKmainlyincludesknowledgeonthetaughttopics,thewaysofrepresentingandformulatingtomakethesubjectcomprehensibletostudents,theunderstandingofstudents’learningdifficultiesandtheteachingstrategiestoeasethesedifficulties.Shulman’sworksonPCKhasmadeagreatcontributiontoresearchonteacherknowledge.In1990,Grossman,onreceivingthepermissionfromShulman,simplifiedandsummarizedacategorizationofPCK,ascanbeshowninthefollowingFigure3.1(seethenextpage).TheanalyticframeworkgivenbyGrossmanwasanintuitiveandvisualde-monstrationofthecomponentsandstructureofPCK(PanXiaoming,2015),fromwhichwecanseeclearlythecomponentsofPCK,innerrelationshipamongthem,andtherelationshipbetweenPCKandothertypesofteacherknowledge.15 西南大学硕士学位论文Figure3.1Grossman’sanalyticframeworkforthecomponentsofPCKAccordingtoGrossman,PCKcouldbeclassifiedintofourcategories.Thefirstcategorieswasabouttheguidingbeliefsonthepurposeofacertainsubject,includingteachers’understandingofthenatureofthesubjectandtheirknowledgeonwhattheimportantcontentstudentsneededtolearnwas,andsoon.Itcouldbeeasilyfoundthatthiskindofknowledgewasattherulingpositionoftheframework,showingtheguidingroleofteachers’understandingofthepurposeofthesubjectindecidingtheirchoicesontheuseofcertainteachingmaterials,activitiesandpedagogicalstrategies.Thesecondtypewasaboutteachers’knowledgeonstudents’understandingandmisunderstandingofaparticulartopic.Thethirdtypewasteachers’knowledgeonthecurriculumandtextbooks.Itwasmainlyrelatedtoteachers’managementoftextbooks,andtheuseofteachingmediaandextramaterials.Thelastonewastheuseofcertainpedagogicaltechniquesforaparticularteachingtopic.GrossmanbelievedthatPCKwasinthecentralpositionofthemodel,interactingwiththeotherthreekindsofknowledge,namely,subjectmatterknowledge,generalpedagogicalknowledgeandknowledgeofcontext.ShealsobelievedthattheseknowledgeformscouldalsobethesourcesforPCK.Furthermore,GrossmanalsogottorealizethatthelimitationofShulman’sbeliefonthestaticnatureofPCK,andbegantoexplorePCKina“dynamic”and“synthesized”perspective.ThishadmadeagreatcontributiontolaterstudiesledbyCochran,DeRuiterandetal(1993).3.2Andrews’sCategorizationofPCK:AModifiedModelofPCKforL2TeachingAndrews(2001,2003，2007),basedonShulman’smodelofPCKforgeneral16 ChapterThreeTheoreticalFrameworkeducation,whichmainlyconcernedaboutscienceteaching,refinedShulmanandhisfollowers’modelsintoonethatcouldbeappliedinL2teaching.AccordingtoAndrews,therewasakindofknowledgethatwasuniquetoL2teachers,andwasonesubsetofL2teachers’PCK,whichcouldbetermedas“teacherlanguageawareness(TLA)”.Thornbury(1997)definedTLAas“theknowledgethatteachershaveoftheunderlyingsystemsofthelanguagethatenablesthemtoteacheffectively”.Andrews’smodelshowedthecloserelationbetweentheknowledgeaboutlanguageandknowledgeoflanguage.Here,theformerreferredtothesubject-matterknowledgewhilethelatermeanslanguageproficiency.Whileinteachingpractice,teachersshouldreflectonboththesubject-matterknowledgeandthepedagogicalknowledge.Consideringthespecialtyoflanguageteaching,thatis,theroleofL2asboththemediumandthecontentofteaching,subjectmatterknowledgewasmediatedbyteachers’languageproficiency.Besides,fromAndrews’sperspective,TLAwasmetacognitiveinnature.Itincludedboththereflectionsontheknowledgeonthesubject–matterandlanguageproficiency.Andbysodoing,itcouldofferlanguageteacherssomeimplicationsinplanningandimplementingtheteachingpractice.What’smore,teachers’TLAalsoevolvedteachers’understandingofthelanguagefromlearners’perspective,andthisiswhyTLAtookknowledgeoflearnersasoneofitscomponents.Therefore,wecanseethatTLAwasconsistedofthreesub-setsofknowledge,includinglanguageproficiency,subject-matterknowledgeandknowledgeoflearners.However,TLAitselfwascloselyrelatedwithothertypesofteacherknowledge,likeknowledgeofcurriculum,knowledgeofthecontextandknowledgeofpedagogy.AsTsui(2003)noted,thesetypesofknowledgeshouldbefullyintegrated.Tosomeextent,theboundaryamongthesedifferenttypesofknowledgewasnotsodistinctiveinlanguageteaching,forthecontentandteachingmediumareboththelanguageundertaughtInsuchaview,AndrewscameupwithaframeworktoshowtherelationshipbetweenPCK,TLAandlanguageproficiency(seefigure3.2inthenextpage).17 西南大学硕士学位论文Figure3.2Teacherlanguageawareness(TLA),languageproficiency,andpedagogicalcontentknowledge(Andrews,2003)Fromfigure3.2,wecouldeasilyfindthattheTLAwasasub-setofPCKwithlanguageproficiencyasoneofthelaterone’ssub-sets.3.3CategorizationofPCKinthePresentStudy:AnIntegrationofGrossman’sandAndrews’sModelsGrossman’sframeworkforPCKwasinheritedfromShulman’sideaof“transformation”,thatis,teachers’subjectcontentknowledgeandpedagogicalcontentknowledgewastransformedintoanewkindofknowledgecalledPCK,withsubjectcontentknowledgeandpedagogicalknowledgeindependentfromteachers’PCK.However,consideringtheEnglishlanguageasboththetoolandcontentinforeignandsecondlanguageclassrooms,subjectcontentknowledgecannotbecompletelyseparatedfromPCK.Thus,Andrews’ideaof“TLA”madeupthegapbetweensubjectcontentknowledgeandPCK.AscanbeseenfromAndrews’sframework,subjectmatterknowledgewasonesub-setofPCK,ratherthananindependentelementdistinctfromPCKasGrossmansuggested.However,Andrews’sframeworkwasforL2teachingingeneral,ratherthanforaspecificteachingaspectlikelistening,speaking,writing,readingandgrammarteaching.Besides,Andrewstookallkindsofknowledgethat18 ChapterThreeTheoreticalFrameworkrelatedtoL2teachingintoconsideration,likeknowledgeofcontext,whichwasprovedtobeoneofthesourcesofPCK.Therefore,thecategorizationofAndrewsmightbetoowidetosomeextent.Therefore,thepresentthesis,basedonShulman’sdefinitionofPCK(insection2.1.2),Grossman’ssimplifiedanalyticframeworkofthecomponentsofPCKingeneraleducation,andAndrews’modifiedanalyticframeworksonPCKsuitableforL2teachingandhisnotionofTLA,tendstocomeupwithitsowncategorizationofpre-serviceforeignlanguageteachers’PCKforgrammarinstruction(seeFigure3.3).Figure3.3washexagonal,forthereweresixelementsinit.Besides,wealsobelievedthattheremightbeacertainkindofrelationshipwithintheelementsthemselves,likethepentagonalframeworkforPCKproposedbyPark(2005).Althoughtherelationshipoftheseelementswasnotthefocusofthisstudy,wehopedtogoonexploreitinfuturestudies.Figure3.3HexagonalanalyticframeworkofPCKforgrammarinstructionInthefollowing,wewouldliketoillustratetheconnotationofeachelementconsistingofPCKforgrammarinstructioninthisframework(seetable3.3inthenextpage).19 西南大学硕士学位论文Table3.1Categoriesofforeignlanguageteachers’PCKforgrammarinstructionTypeofPCKExplanationsandexamplesKnowledgeaboutThisisaboutteachers’orientationtogrammarinstruction,includingtheirpurposeofgrammarobjectivesandbeliefsaboutforeignlanguageteaching,thatis,whatinstruction(KPGI)knowledge,abilitiesorskillsteacherswanttheirSstolearn.Differentteachershavedifferentgoalsinteachinggrammar.KnowledgeaboutThisistheknowledgeabouthowteachersdesignandstructuretheteachingorganizationofproceduresofforeignlanguagegrammarinstruction.Forexample,somegrammarinstructionteacherswouldliketoorganizetheirgrammarclassfollowa“3P”model,(KOGI)namely,presentation,practiceandproduct,whileotherswouldliketofollowotherprocedures.KnowledgeaboutThisknowledgeconcernsaboutteachers’understandingofcoursematerialscurriculumofusedforcertainteachingcontent,ofthechoosing,organizingandgrammarinstructionassociatingofteachingcontentsinacertaingrade(i.e.horizontal(KCGI)curriculum),andoftheinteractingandorganizingofdifferentteachingcontentsindifferentgrades(i.e.longitudinalcurriculum).KnowledgeaboutSs’Thiskindofknowledgemainlyincludesteachers’understandingofSs’understandingoflearninginterests,presentandpotentialcompetenceandability,learninggrammarstyles,possibledifficultiesandlearningmotivationsingrammarlearning.(KSUG)KnowledgeaboutThisreferstoteachers’knowledgeabouthowtorepresentanddelivertheirstrategiesofgrammarknowledgetotheirSsinwaysthatareeasyfortheirstudentstounderstand,instructionmainlyincludingtheuseofanalogies,illustrations,exemplification,(KSGI)demonstrationsandsoonsoforth.KnowledgeaboutThisknowledgereferstoteachers’declarativeknowledgeaboutEnglishgrammargrammarandhowtheknowledgeismediatedbyteachersinawaythatis(KAG)easyforstudentstounderstand.Thisthesiswilltrytoanalyzethecomponentsofpre-serviceEFLteachers’PCKforgrammarinstructionunderthesixcomponentsproposedabove.20 ChapterFourResearchDesignThispresentthesismainlyadoptedaresearchmethodologyofinstrumental(Stake2005),multiple-casedesign(Yin,2003).Theword“instrumental”meansthat,whataresearcherisinterestedinisnotthecaseitself,butrather,heusesthecaseasaformofresearchtooltoexploreandinterpretacertainkindofphenomenon.Besides,itwasamultiple-casestudyforthereasonthatthereweretwocasesinthestudy,andwithineachcase,thecomponentsandtheelements(i.e.theembeddedunitsofanalysis)thataffectthoseteachers’PCKforgrammarinstructionhadbeenanalyzed.Comparedwithsinglecasestudy,multiplecasescanbemorepersuasiveandwecangainthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthetwocases.Casestudy,asCreswell(1998)described,exploresthecase“throughdetailed,in-depthcollectioninvolvingmultiplesourcesofinformationrichincontext”.Thisiswhatresearcherscalled“thickdescription”.Thus,wecouldgodeepintohowpre-servicemiddleschoolEFLteachersteachgrammarintheparticularcontextofthepresentresearch.4.1ResearchQuestionsWiththepurposetouncoverthenatureofpre-servicemiddleschoolEFLteachers’PCKforgrammarinstruction,thepresentthesiswillmainlyattempttoanswerthefollowingtworesearchquestions:1)Whatarethecomponentsofthesetwopre-servicejuniormiddleschoolEFLteachers’PCKforgrammarinstruction?2)Whatarethefactorsthatimpactontheconstructionanddevelopmentofthesetwopre-servicejuniormiddleschoolEFLteachers’PCKforgrammarinstruction?Wehopethatthefindingsofthisthesiscanhelpushaveabetterunderstandingofthestructureofpre-servicemiddleschoolEFLteachers’PCK,andtheanalysisofthefactorsinfluencingtheformingofpre-serviceteachers’PCKcan,tosomeextent,givesomelighttotheteachereducationprograms,helpingthemtakeintomoreconsiderationstudentteacherscognitive,social,culturalandeducationalbackgroundandcontextualfactors,ratherthanjusttheteachingofsubjectknowledge.21 西南大学硕士学位论文4.2ContextandParticipantsThisstudywasundertakeninapublickeysecondaryschoolinChongqing,SchoolC.ItisaschoolaffiliatedtoacomprehensiveUniversityD,whichwascombinedbyanormaluniversityandagriculturaluniversity.UniversityDhasapartnershipwithSchoolC,thatistosay,everyyear,freenormaleducationundergraduatesandpostgraduatesmajoringinEnglishteachingwillattendtheirone-and-a-half-monthteachingpracticuminSchoolC.EverystudentteacherswillbementoredbyanexperiencedteacherfromschoolC.Studentteacherswillattendsomeoftheclassesgivenbyhermentor,observingandreflectingontheclasses.Attheendofthepracticum,allthestudentteacherswilldiscusstogetherandcomeupwithateachingplanforaunitandwereaskedtogivetwoclassestothestudents.Atlast,theirmentorswillobserveandevaluatetheirclasses.Atthebeginningoflastterm,e-mailsofletterofconsent(seeAppendix1)thatwaswrittentoinvitepre-servicemiddleschoolteachers,weresenttofivestudentswhowouldtakepartintheirpracticum.Threeofthemrepliedwithagreementwhiletheothertworefused.Throughdeepunderstandingoftheirtimeandplacesforteachingpracticumaswellastheirpreviousexperiences,twosubjects,MissAandMissBwereinvitedasoursubjects.TheparticipantsforthisresearchweretwostudentteachersfromUniversityDandbothofthemweretwo-year-programpostgraduatesmajoringinEnglishteaching.BothofthemweresenttoSchoolCtohavetheirone-and-a-half-monthteachingpractice.MissAgraduatedfromanormaluniversityandhadattendedteachingpracticumonceinherundergraduatestudy,whileMissBmajoredinbusinessEnglishforherundergraduatestudy,andhadnevertakenpartinanykindofteachingpracticebefore.4.3ResearchMethodsThemethodsofdatacollectionmainlyincludethetypicalstrategiesofqualitativestudy,likeclassroomobservation,interviews,stimulatedrecall,documentationandfieldnotes.22 ChapterFourResearchDesign4.3.1Non-participantclassroomobservationsDatafromclassroomobservationconsistedofthemajorsourceofthisresearch.Inthisstudy,theauthormainlytookanon-participantapproachtoobservingwhatwasgoingonintheclass.AccordingtoCreswell(2013),non-participantmeansthat,“theresearcherisanoutsiderofthegroupunderstudy,watchingandtakingfieldnotesfromadistance.Heorshecanrecorddatawithoutdirectinvolvementwithactivityorpeople”.Theroleoftheresearcherinthiskindofobservationisobserverasparticipant.Thatistosay,theresearcher’sroleisknowntotheresearchparticipants,ratherthanresearchinginthedarkness,withoutknownbytheparticipants(Creswell,2009).However,theremaybesomeproblemsduringthiskindofobservation,fortheparticipantsmaybehaveinthewaytheresearcherwantsthemtobehave(Cohen,Mansion,L.&Morrison,K.,2007).Therefore,inordertoreducetheeffectcausedbytheresearcher,wetoldthetargetstudentteachersandtheirstudentsthattheresultswereusedonlyforstudypurposeratherthanmakingajudgmentofteachingperformance,andtheywereencouragedtobehaveinthewaytheyusuallydid.Byclassroomobservation,wehopetodiscoverandsummarizethecomponentsofthetargetpre-servicemiddlesschoolEFLteachers’PCKforgrammarinstruction.Foreachpre-serviceteacher,thereweretwoobservations.Eachobservationwasrecordedbytheresearcher’sfillingtheobservationformdesignedinadvance(seeAppendix2),andwasvideo-oraudio-recordedatthesametime.Besides,wehadsteppedintotheresearchfieldbeforetherealobservationwiththetwosubjects,observingtheclassesgivenbytheirmentors.Thereasonforsucharrangementwasthatwewantedstudentstogetusedtotheobservationoftheresearcherandtoreducetheirtension,soastomakethelattertwovideo-oraudio-recordedlessonsmorenatural.Besides,theauthorknewthatit’sbettertovideotheclass,butconsideringjuniormiddleschoolstudentswereeasytobedistractedbycameras,MissBsuggestedusavoidingvideo-recordingtheclass,sowedecidedtoaudio-tapetheclassgivenbyMissBinstead.4.3.2Pre-andpost-observationinterviewsInterviewsplayanimportantroleindatacollectionforcasestudies.Inthisstudy,therewereinterviewsfor3groupsofpeople,namely,interviewsforpre-service23 西南大学硕士学位论文teachers,interviewfortheirmentorsandinterviewsfortheirstudents.Forpre-serviceteachers,weprimarilyconductedtwoformalinterviews,includingapre-observationinterview(seeAppendix3)andapost-observationinterview(seeAppendix4).Thepre-observationinterviewwasdesignedtogatherthesetwopre-serviceteachers’educationalbackground,teachingandlearningexperiences,theirunderstandingonEnglishgrammarinstruction.What’smore,thepost-observationinterviewfocusedontheirevaluationofandreflectionontheirownteaching.Fortheirmentors,onewrittenstructuredinterview(seeAppendix5)wasconducted,whichaimedtofindtheiropinionsonthetwopre-serviceteachers’teaching.Furthermore,apost-observationinterview(seeAppendix6)wasalsogiventooneoftheirstudents.Alloftheformalinterviews,eithertothesubjectsthemselvesortheirmentorsandstudents,weregatheredthroughe-mails.Wethoughttheinterviewthroughe-mailcouldfirstlybreakthelimitationoftimeandlocation.Thetwostudentteachersunderstudywerebothintheirlastyearofpostgraduatestudy,andwereverybusyinfindingajob,soitmightbedifficulttohaveaface-to-faceinterview.Andweinvitedthetwostudentteacherstoinvitetheirmentorsandstudentstotakepartintheresearch,andinterviewsforthemweresentbythesetwosubjectsthroughe-mails.Secondly,interviewthroughe-mailscouldalsoeaseteachers’tensioninansweringthesequestions.Withouttimerequirement,theappearanceofdigitalrecorders,andtheresearcher,theparticipantscouldexpresstheirthoughtsmorefreelyandnaturally,whichcouldhelpusgainamoreauthenticunderstandingoftheirideas.4.3.3StimulatedrecallAccordingtoJ.Calderhead(1981),stimulatedrecall“generallyinvolvesthereplayofatapeofateacher"slessoninordertostimulateacommentaryupontheteacher"sthoughtprocessesatthetime”.Itwasconsideredagoodwayofunderstandingparticipants’thinkingprocess.We,afteraudio-orvideo-tapingeachperiodoftheclassesgivenbythesetwostudentteachers,invitedthemtolistentoorwatchtherecordingalongwithus,andaskedthemtopauseitwhenevertheyhadsomethingtosay.Andwewouldalsopausetherecordingwheneverwehaddoubtsandquestions,andaskedforexplanationfromthesetwoparticipants.24 ChapterFourResearchDesign4.3.4DocumentationAnotherformofdatacollectionforthisresearchwasdocumentation.Inordertohaveadeeperunderstandingofthesetwopre-serviceteachers’PCKforgrammarinstruction,andforthepurposeoftriangulation,wealsogatheredtheirteachingplans,PPTusedintheclass,dairyofinstructionandreflectionaswellasourownfieldnotes.4.3.5SummaryofresearchmethodsAscanbeshownintheabovesections,multiplesourcesofdatacollection,suchasclassroomobservation,pre-andpost-observationinterviewsfordifferentgroupsofsubjects,documentationwhichincludedthetwostudentteachers’teachingplan,PPT,reflectivedairies,andtheresearcher’sfieldnotes,havebeencollectedforthepurposeoftriangulation.Forsimplicity,wehavedrawnasummaryofthedatasourcesinthefollowingtable.Table4.1SummaryofdatasourcesDatacollectionperiodMethodsPurpose(Sept.2015~Nov.2015)Togatherinformationabouttheparticipants’age,culturalPre-observationBeforethetwostudentteachersbeganbackground,priorteachinginterviewtheirteachingpracticeexperiences,andtheirbeliefsandunderstandingaboutgrammarinstruction;Tofield-noteandvideo-tapearichdescriptionofwhattheWhentheresearchedstudent-teachersteacherwasdoingthroughoutwereaskedbytheirmentorstogiveClassroomobservationsthelesson,suchaselicitingthefirsttwoclassesofUnit4students’responses,explainingindependentlyaphenomenon,andgivinginstructions;InformalinterviewwithToknowtheirthoughts,doubtsthetwostudentAnytimeintheprocessofresearchandproblemsthroughouttheteachers(byWeChat)process;25 西南大学硕士学位论文TohaveadeeperunderstandingofhowtheyAftereachroundofclassroomStimulatedrecallwerethinkingwhentheymakeobservationacertaindecisioningrammarinstruction;Tocollectteachers’teachingplans,PPTusedintheclass,DocumentationWheneachclasswasoverdairyofinstructionandreflection;Post-observationToelicitteachers’rationalesWhentheclassroomobservationsinterviewforthetwoforandevaluationsoftheirwereoverstudentteachersactualteaching;Toknowhowstudentsthinkabouttheirtemporaryteachers’performanceongrammarPost-observationAttheendofthetwostudentinstruction,soastoexploretheinterviewforstudentsteachers’teachingpracticefeaturesandlimitationsofpre-serviceteachers’PCKforgrammarinstruction;TogatherinformationonhowPost-observationtheirmentorsevaluatetheirAttheendofthetwostudentinterviewforthetwogrammarteachingandaskforteachers’teachingpracticestudentteachers’mentorstheirsuggestionsforthetwostudentteachers.4.4DataCollectionAswhatisshowninthelastsection,variouskindsofqualitativedatasourceshavebeenadopted.Thequalityofdatathatwerecollecteddetermines,toalargeextent,thequalityofresearch.Inordertohavea“thickdescription”ofpre-serviceEFLmiddleschoolteachers’PCK,wecollectedthedatafollowingtheproceduresbelow.First,afterselectingthecasesforstudyandwinningtheirandtheirmentors’consent,wewentalongwiththemtoobservetheclassesgivenbytheirmentorssoastogetstudentsfamiliarwithusandwouldnotbedistractedbyuswhenwebeganourformalclassroomobservation.Thenwesenteachofthemthepre-observationinterviewthroughe-mail,askingthemhowandwhytheydesignedsoforthesetwoperiodsof26 ChapterFourResearchDesigngrammarclasses.Next,weenteredtheclassandstartedourfirstclassroomobservationtocollectdatafortheseteacher’sobservableteachingbehaviorsinrealclassroomcontext.Afterwards,weenteredthefieldagain,andfieldnotedandaudio-recordedthelesson.Andaftereachofthesetwoclassroomobservations,bothofthesetwoteachersreceivedaninformalinterviewfromtheresearcherbyWeChatorQQ.Afterwards,astimulatedrecalledwasconductedtoaskforclarificationofourdoubtsabouttheircertainteachingbehaviorsordecisions.Attheendoftheweek,thesetwoteacherswereinvitedtofinishapost-observationinterview,alsothroughe-mail,toaskfortheirself-evaluationofandreflectionontheirowngrammarclass.Besides,interviewproposalswerealsosenttotheirmentorsandstudents.4.5DataAnalysisThetypeofdataanalysisdependsonthetypeoftheresearch.Therefore,anappropriatewayofdataanalysisisarespecttothedatagainedandthekeytogetscientificandreasonableresults(XieShu,2013).Thepresentpapermainlyadoptedaqualitativeapproachtodataanalysis.Theaudio-orvideo-tapedlessonshavebeentranscribedandcategorized.Pre-servicejuniormiddleschoolEFLteachers’PCKforgrammarinstructionwasfirstlycategorizedintoKPGI,KOGI,KCGI,KSUG,etc.Then,sub-categorieswerefurthercoded.Forexample,KSUGwasfurthercategorizedintostudents’interest,teachers’understandingofstudents’priorknowledgeandtheirpredictionsonstudents’difficultiesandmisconceptions.Forexample,thesentence“Lastweek,studentshavelearnedsomethingaboutcomparativesfrommymentor,MissC,sotheyhaveknowntherulesonhowtochangeadjectivesintotheircomparatives”wascodedas“understandingofstudents’priorknowledge”.AsforfactorsthatimpactontheirPCKforgrammarinstruction,personalfactorsandexternalfactorswererecognizedandcoded.Then,wewentoncodingthemintoEnglishlearnigexperiences,Englishteachingeducationexperiences,learningformexpertteacher,etc.Ifthereweresomedatacouldn’tbematchedwiththeabovecodestheresearcherwouldaddnewcodesandmakeextraexplanations.What’smore,within-caseandcross-casesanalysishavebeenundertaken.Thatis27 西南大学硕士学位论文tosay,we,firstofall,haveadeepdescriptionofeachpre-serviceEnglishteacher’sPCKforgrammarinstruction,andthen,comparedthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthesetwostudentteachers.4.6ResearchReliabilityandValidityAsforthecriteriaforcasestudy,therearetwocontrastedapproaches,namely,thepositivistapproachandinterpretiveapproach.Thecriterialikereliabilityandvalidityinpositivistapproachismuchthesameasthatinquantitativeresearch.Themainclaimofthisapproachisthatthereisasinglerealityortruththatcanbeknownobjectively(ascitedinDuff,2008).However,Gall,GallandBorg(2003)arguedthatthepositivistcriteriaforcasestudyshouldbedoubtedinthepointsbelow.Howdoesaresearcherarriveatvalid,reliableknowledgeifeachindividualbeingstudiedconstructshisorherownreality(theconstructivistassumption),iftheresearcherbecomesacentralfocusoftheinquiryprocess(the“reflexive”turninthesocialsciences),andifnoinquiryprocessortypeofknowledgehasanyauthorityoveranyother(thepost-modernassumption)?Therefore,accordingtothem,casestudyshouldtakeaninterpretiveapproachtoitscriteria,whichisquitedifferentfromthatofquantitativeresearch.Fromaquantitativeperspective,reliabilityreferstotheextenttowhichsimilarresultswillbearrivedatwhenastudyisconductedbydifferentresearchersoratdifferenttimes.Butaninterpretativereliabilityarguedatthereplicabilityoffindings,forthecasesunderstudy,especiallythoserelatedtoeducation,isbelievedto“beinflux,multifaceted,andhighlycontextual”(Merriam,1998).Then,accordingtoLincolnandGuba(1985),itmightbemoresuitabletotakedependabilityandconsistencyasthecriteriaforthereliabilityofcasestudies.Toimprovethereliabilityofthepresentstudy,wehadadoptedawayoftriangulation,whichmeansthecollectingofdatafromdifferentsources,differentpeople,anddifferenttime.Andwealsotendedtodescribeandexplainthephenomenonasmuchthesameashowthesubjectsbeingstudiedbehaved.Inordertoreducetheinfluenceofresearcheronthesubjectsandencouragethemandtheirstudentstobehaveasnaturallyaspossible,wesoughttobuildagoodrelationshipwiththem,andattending28 ChapterFourResearchDesigntwoclasseswiththesubjectsbeforeobservingthem.Besides,wetriedourbesttokeepaneutralpositionduringtheresearchingprocess,avoidinggivingevaluationsontheirteaching.What’smore,wealsotendedtoensuretheconsistencyamongthedatafromdifferentsources,likeobservation,interview,stimulatedrecall,etc.,andfromdifferentgroupsofpeople,likethetwostudentteachers,theirmentors,andtheirstudents.Finally,wealsoaskedthesubjectsunderstudytoreviewtheanalysistoensurewhatwewrotewasexactwhattheywantedtoexpressafterthereportwasfinished.Asforinterpretivevalidity,itrefersto“judgmentsaboutthecredibilityofaninterpretiveresearcher’sknowledgeclaims”(Galletal,2003).Accordingtothem,therewerethreecriteria,thatis,thosereflectingsensitivitytoreaders’needs,useofsoundresearchmethods,andthethoroughnessofdatacollectionandanalysis.Inordertoimprovevalidityofthepresentstudy,themostimportantwaywastoreduceresearcher’sbiasasmuchaspossible.Wetendedtoencouragethesubjectstoexpressthemselveswithaslittleastheinterferencefromtheresearcher,andtheresearcheralsokeptonreflectingonherselfandtriedtoavoidbias.Besides,theresearcheralsotriedtoimprovetheaccuracyofthedata,didn’tusesomeforgedinformation,andattemptedtomakethesubjectsunderstandthequestionscorrectlybyusinglanguagethatwasfamiliarforthemtounderstandratherthanlanguagethatwasabstractorrigorous.Generally,therearetwokindsofvalidity,namelyinternalvalidityandexternalvalidity.Aninterpretativeapproachbelievedthatinternalvalidity,whichgenerallyreferredtothecredibilityofresultsandinterpretations,forexample,thecausalrelationsamongvariables,wasofnomeaningatall,forthepurposeofcasestudywasnottofindthecausalrelationshipswithinoracrossthecases.Whenconsideringexternalvalidity,wemainlyreferredtogeneralizability.Althoughcasestudyhaslongbeencriticizedbyitslackoftheabilitytogeneralizetheresultstoawiderscope,manyqualitativeresearchersstillheldtheopinionthatanalyticgeneralizability(generalizingtotheoryormodelsasopposedtopopulation)waspossibleaswellasdesirable(ascitedfromDuff,2008).Inordertoimproveitsanalyticgeneralizability,wetendedtoavoidselectingtypicalorrepresentativesubjects,andwehadalsoadoptedamultiplecasestudyratherthanasingleone.29 西南大学硕士学位论文4.7EthicalIssuesResearchethicshouldbetheprinciplesthateveryresearchermustfollowandstickonto.Ineducationalresearch,it’sunavoidablethatresearchersneedtogointotheclassroomtoobserveandmeasureteachers’orstudents’teachingandlearningbehaviors.Forthepresentresearch,wehavetriedourbesttodealwiththisissuebylowerourimpactontheparticipantsasmuchaspossible.Firstly,wehavegainedtheconsentfromtheteachers,explainingtothemourresearchpurposes,procedures,methods,theresearcher’sroleintheresearch,andalsoinvitedthemtoaskforpermissionfromtheirmentors.Aletterofcontentwassignedbythetargetstudentteachers.Secondly,inordertoprotecttheprivacyofthesetwostudentteachers,theirstudentsandmentors,astrategyofanonymitywasadopted.Thirdly,anonparticipantclassroomobservationwaschosen,andwehadchangedthewayofvideo-recordingtoaudio-recordinginMissB’sclasses,soastolowerthedetractionthatmaybringtothestudents.Lastbutnottheleast,allofourresultsandthetranscribeddatawerereviewedandcheckedbythesetwoteachers,andthiswaswhatDuff(2008)termed“membercheck”.Bysodoing,accuracyandcompletenessofthestudycouldbeimproved,andontheotherhand,participants’privacycouldalsobeprotectedbecausesomeofthespeechordialoguesthatmightcausetroubletothemweredeleted.30 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionFollowingtheanalyticframeworkofpre-servicemiddleschoolEFLteachers’PCKforgrammarinstructionproposedinSection3.3,wearenowtryingtopresenttheresultsthroughmultipledatasources,includingclassroomobservation,pre-andpost-observationstructuredinterviews,stimulatedrecalls,anddocumentation.Inthischapter,wemainlyfocusonthetworesearchquestions,namely,howwasthesetwopre-serviceEFLteachers’PCKembodiedandrealizedinjuniormiddleschoolgrammarinstructionandwhatarethefactorsthataffectthesecomponentscomeintobeing.Wewillanswerthesetwoquestionsonebyone.5.1EmbodimentofPre-serviceEFLTeachers’PCKinJuniorMiddleSchoolGrammarInstruction5.1.1CasestudyofMissA5.1.1.1KnowledgeaboutpurposeofgrammarinstructionMissAbelievedthatthepurposeofgrammarinstructionscould,bynomeans,beseparatedfromtheglobalobjectivesofEnglishteaching.AccordingtoMissA,grammarteaching,ontheonehand,should“helpstudentsusethelanguagecorrectly”(MissA:Pre-observationInterview1,Oct.21,2015),thatis,studentsweresupposedtohavesomeknowledgeofgrammarrules.Butmoreimportantly,ontheotherhand,grammarteachingshould“helpdevelopstudents’abilityinusingtheEnglishlanguageappropriately”(MissA:Pre-observationInterview2,Oct.21,2015),thatis,studentsknew,basedonthegrammarrules,whereandhowtousethelanguageinactualcommunicationwithothers.Thiscouldbeareflectionandrealizationoftheinstrumentalnatureoflanguage.Thus,MissAheldtheopinionthat,teachersshouldtakeintoconsiderationlanguageknowledge,skills,students’emotionsandattitudewhensettingteachingobjectives,andshealsoemphasizedtheimportancetocreateanauthenticlanguageenvironmentfortheuseofacertaingrammaticalitem.Accordingtothepre-observationinterview,MissAmainlytookintoconsiderationthefollowing31 西南大学硕士学位论文aspectswhenshewasmakinguptheteachingobjectivesforthisgrammarclass.1)ThegeneralprinciplesofEnglishlanguageteachingproposedbyNationalEnglishCurriculumStandards(2011),thatis,theemphasisonthepracticalityoflanguagelearning,advocatingtoexposingstudentstoauthenticcontexts,helpingthemexperienceandunderstandauthenticlanguage,soastolearnandusethislanguageinreallife.Guidedbythisprinciple,teachersareencouragedtohelpstudentstofindthelinguisticrulesofEnglishlanguagebymeansofparticipation,explorationandcooperation.2)Students’aptitudeandaltitude.Students’priorknowledgebase,interests,motivationandlearningstyleswillalsoconfinetheteachers’decisionsontheobjectivesforagrammarclass.It’snotthecasethatthehigherthegoalsare,thebetterstudentswilllearn.ThebestiswhatKrashencalled“i+1”(ascitedinGass&Selinker,2008),thatis,theinputshouldbe,ontheonehand,beyondthepresentleveloflanguagelearners,andontheotherhand,comprehensibletothem.3)Specificityandoperability.Teachinggoalsforaspecificgrammarclassshouldbeconcreteandabletoberealized.Thatis,theformofteachingactivities,thetimeavailable,andthematerialsshouldallbetakenintoconsideration.(databasedonMissA’sPre-observationInterview,Oct.21,2015,andInformalInterviewbyWeChat,Oct.21,2015)Basedontheabovebeliefsandguidelinesofgoalsforgrammarinstruction,MissAproposedthefollowingkindsofteachingobjectives,includingobjectiveonknowledge,objectivesonskills,andobjectivesonemotionandaptitude.1)Objectivesonknowledge:studentsareabletounderstandthegrammaticalrulesofcomparativesandsuperlatives,andareabletoreadandunderstandtheimportantsentencepatternslike“Ithasthebiggestscreens”,etc.(MissA:ExtractfromMissB’TeachingPlan1,Oct.25,2015)MissAemphasizedtheteachingoflanguageknowledgealot,especiallytheteachingofimportantsentencepatternsandtherulesofEnglishcomparativesandsuperlatives.Inthisclass,shesummarizedthegrammaticalrulesontheformationofcomparativesandsuperlativesofadjectivesonebyone,askedstudentstoreadafterherthecomparatives,superlativesandimportantsentencepatterns,andgavestudentssome32 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionmultiple-choiceexercisestocheckwhetherstudentsmasteredtherules.ThefollowingteachingpracticeextractcouldshowMissA’srealizationofherteachingobjectivesonknowledge.19T:Fivehundredmeters.Sotherestaurantisthe…what…closesttomyhome.Yes,verygood.So,close—closer—closest.20Ss:Close—closer—closest.21T:Close—closer—closest.22T:Ok,it’sthesecondrule.以不发音的字母e结尾的词，直接在词尾加什么？23Ss:-st.24Ss:Cute-cuter-cutest.25T:Close,go.26Ss:Close-closer-closest;nice-nicer-nicest(Someofthestudentspronouncedas“nicerst”.).27T:Nicest.（MissAcorrectedit.）Extract1MissA——thefirstclassroomobservationWecouldseethatMissAcouldfocusontheimportantlanguagepointsofthisgrammarclass,andcouldpresentthegrammaticalrulestothestudentsclearly.However,accordingtoMissA’safter-classreflection,shenoted“becauseofthelimitedtimeintheclass,Ihadshowntherulestothestudentsdirectlywithoutstudents’ownthinking,andstudentshadreceivedtherulesratherpassively”(MissA:Post-observationInterview1,Oct.25,2015).Post-observationinterviewsforstudents’alsoshowedthatstudentssometimesreadthewordsmechanically,andthereweredifficultiesinkeepingtherulesinmindforalongtime.2)Objectivesonskills:studentsareabletocommunicatewithothersabouttheirpreferencesandhates,andgivetheirreasonsbyusingcomparativesandsuperlatives.(MissA:ExtractfromMissB’TeachingPlan2,Oct.21,2015)Aswenotedbefore,MissAemphasizedalotontheimportanceofauthenticenvironmentwherestudentscanuseofthegrammaticalitems.Therefore,MissAalwayskeptpresentingsentencepatternswithareal-lifecontextasfollowing(seeExtract2inthenextpage).33 西南大学硕士学位论文250T:So,wehavecomparedthethreemovietheaters.Sowhichmovietheateristhebestone?我们比较了这三家电影院，你们觉得最…thebestone是哪一家？251Ss:UME.252T:YoulikeUME,right?What’sthebestmovietheater?(PPTshowedtheclassturnedtodealwith1c“pairwork”)253Ss:UME(Somestudentssaidinsmallvoice).254T:What’sthebestmovietheater?(Theteacherwalkednexttoastudent,andasked)What’sthebestmovietheater?255T:Yes,Cross,UMEorPony?256S11:UME.257T:UME,right?Tellmethereason.(PPTshowedsomeofthewordsandphrasestheylearnedbefore,suchascomfortableseats,etc.)（Noresponsefromthestudent）因为什么，因为它有什么？258Ss:(Thestudentstoodup)Bestsound.259T:Bestsound.Ok,sitdown,please.What’sthebestmovietheater?(Theteacherwalkedbackontothestageandmovednexttoanotherstudent)What’sthebestmovietheater?260S12:UME.261T:UME,yeah,thereason.为什么？上面这些理由。What?262S12:IthasmorecomfortableseatsExtract2MissA——thefirstclassroomobservationMissAtookasanexamplethethreemovietheatersinBeibeiwheremostofthestudentslivetoshowtheuseofcomparativesandsuperlativesinreallife.Bysodoing,MissAshowedwhereandhowtousecomparativesandsuperlativesindaily-lifecommunication.3)Objectivesonemotionandattitude:studentsareabletodeveloppositiveemotionandattitudebyappreciatinggoodandbeautifulthingsaroundthem(MissA:ExtractfromMissB’TeachingPlan3,Oct.21,2015).Inthisclass,MissAaimedtoguidestudentstodiscovergoodthingsandpeoplearoundthem,likethebestrestaurant,movietheater,teachers,andsoon.Forexample,duringthesecondperiodofthisunit,MissAputupthefollowingtasktorealizeherteachingobjectivesonemotionand34 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionattitude.633T:Doyoulikewalkingaround?你们喜欢四处逛逛吗？Whichdoyouthinkisthebestplacenearyourhomeyouhaveeverbeento?Andtellthereasonwhyyoulikeitmost?Recommendittoyourclassmates.你们家附近最好的散步的地方是哪儿呢？推荐给同学们吧！(Aboutfiveminuteslater)634S:(Threestudentsstoodupandsharedtheirviewswiththeirclassmates)635T:(Afterlisteningtostudents’opinions,MissAconcluded)Aswecansee,beautifulthingsarearoundus,andwhatweneediseyestodiscoverthem.美丽无处不在，只是需要我们发现美的眼睛。Extract3MissA——thesecondclassroomobservationThroughdiscussionandtheteacher’sguidance,studentscametoknowthatweshouldcareaboutthelittlethingsaroundusandenjoyourlife.5.1.1.2KnowledgeaboutorganizationofgrammarinstructionAccordingtothedatafrompre-observationinterview,MissAmainlyadopteda“3P”model,thatis,presentation,practiceandproduction,inthistwo-periodgrammarinstruction.Thus,wewouldliketopresentMissA’sclassroompracticefollowingapresentation,practiceandproductionframework.Thereweredifferentkindsofactivitiesineachoftheabovethreephrases.Inthefollowing,basedonourdatafromclassroomobservation,wewouldanalyzethenumberandtypeofactivitiesMissAhadadoptedinthesethreestagesonebyone.Stage1PresentationPresentationpartfellonthefirstclassroomobservation,whichwasthefirstperiodofUnit4,What’sthebestmovietheater?Inthisstage,MissAmainlyadoptedtwodifferentactivities.1)MissAbegantheclassbyfirstleadinginthegrammaticalitem(i.e.superlatives)inawayofshowingonthePPTthreehousesindifferentlookandcomparingtheirnewness(seeExtract4inthenextpage).35 西南大学硕士学位论文1T:(Aftergreeting)Herecomestwohouses,HouseAandHouseB.（PPTshowedtwohousesandaword“new”）SowecanseeHouseBis…what?....newerthanHouseA.AndherecomesHouseC.wecansee…comparethesethreehouses,HouseCisthe…...(MissAkeptsilentforawhileandwaitedforthereplyfromthestudents,andatthattime,someofthestudentsansweredinsmallvoice)2.Ss:Newestofthethreehouses.Extract4MissA——thefirstclassroomobservation2)MissAthenexplicitlypresentedstudentstherulesonhowtochangedifferentkindsofadjectivesintotheircomparativesandsuperlatives.Forexample,add“more”infrontofadjectiveswithmorethanthreesyllablestoformtheircomparatives,and“the”plus“most”toformsuperlativesofadjectivesendwithmorethanthreesyllablesandremindedstudentsnottoforget“the”whentheyusesuperlatives.(StructuredNarrativesofMissA’sPresentationStage)Stage2PracticeAftergettingstudentscometoknowthegrammaticalitemofthisunitandthebasicrulesofformingcomparativesandsuperlatives,MissAtriedtogivestudentssomepracticestogetthemfamiliarwiththerulesofthisgrammaritem.Accordingtothenatureoftheactivitiesinthisstage,twokindsofpractices,namely,mechanicalpracticeandmeaningpractice,couldbeidentified,thoughMissAherselfdidn’tmentionedtheclassification.Besides,duringthisperiod,MissAalsobroughtinsomevocabulary-relatedactivitiestodealwithsomenewwordsrelatedtothetopicofthisunit.1)Mechanicalpractice:Aftertellingthestudentseachruleofformingcomparativesandsuperlatives,MissAshowedstudentssomeotheradjectivesofthiskindandaskedstudentstoreadafterhertheseadjectivesandtheircomparativesaswellassuperlatives.2)MissAthenledinthetopic(i.e.thebestmovietheater)andtaughtstudentsthewordsandphrasesthatwererelatedtothetopicandwhichwouldbeusedinthefollowingstageofmechanicalandmeaningfulpractices,forinstance,seat,screen,36 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionwaitingtime,thebestsoundandsoon.3)Mechanicalpractice:shethenguidedstudentstodiscussthetopthreemovietheatersinBeibei,andtalkedaboutwhichhadthebiggestscreen,themostcomfortableseats,thebestsound,etc..Shesetexamplesofusingsuperlativeswhendiscussingthebestmovietheater,askedstudentstoreadafterherandencouragedthemtomakeupsentencesbythemselves.Thefollowingextract(seeExtract5)showedhowMissAguidedstudentstogetfamiliarwiththeimportantsentencepatterninthisunitbyusingmechanicalpractice.MissA,whenbeingaskedthereasontoaskstudentstoreadthesentencesafterher,sheanswered,because…Ithink…thiswasthefirstclassofthisunit,and…studentswerenotquitefamiliarwiththesentencepatterns…so…theymightnotbeabletomakeupsentencesallbythemselves.And…I’dbetterteachthemtoreadthesentences.(MissA:StimulatedRecall1,Oct.24,2015)230T:ThisisthescreenofPony(PPTshowedthebigscreenofPony).Ponyhasbigscreens.AndCross(PPTshowedapictureaboutthescreenofCross).Crosshasabiggerscreen.Yes.HowaboutUME?231Ss:(Studentsrepliedinsmallvoice.)232T:What?Yes,thebiggest.(PPTshowedthescreenofUME)Verygood.UMEhasthebiggestscreensofthethreemovietheaters.Ok,readit.Ponyhasbigscreens.233Ss:Ponyhasbigscreens.(Asmallpartofstudentsfollowed.)234T:Crosshasbiggerscreens.235Ss:Crosshasabiggerscreen.236T:UMEhasthebiggestscreensofthethreemovietheaters.237Ss:UMEhasthebiggestscreensofthethreemovietheaters.Extract5MissA——thefirstclassroomobservation4)Meaningfulpractice:MissAthenmovedontothemeaningfulpracticestage,37 西南大学硕士学位论文elicitingstudentstotalkabouttheirfavoritetheaterinBeibeiandgivetheirreasonsbyusingsuperlatives.(StructuredNarrativesofMissA’sPracticeStage)TheexampleofthispartcouldbebestshowninExtract2ofMissA.Aftergettingstudentstofamiliarizewiththewordsandphrasesrelatedtotheevaluationofmovietheaters,likebigscreen,goodsound,shortwaitingtimeandcheapticketbymechanicalpractice,MissAelicitedstudentstomakeuptheirownsentencestoexpresstheirownpreferencesonmovietheaters.Inthispart,MissAachievedherobjectiveonimprovingstudents’skillsinusingthesuperlativestotalkabouttheirfavoritemovietheaters,andhelpedstudentsknowwhenandwheretousethetargetgrammaritems.Stage3ProductionMissAstronglybelievedthatlanguagewasforuseandtheteachingofEnglishgrammarwasbynomeansthememorizationofgrammaticalrules,butrather,wastheuseofEnglishlanguagebasedontheserulesinrealcommunication.Thus,theproductionpartconcernedaboutguidingstudentstoknowwhereandhowusecomparativesandsuperlativesindailylife.MissAmainlydesignedtwotasksforthisstage.1)MissA,attheendofthefirstperiod,gavestudentsthreeexercises,twoofwhichweremultiple-choicequestionsandtheotherofwhichwasaChinese-to-Englishtranslationtask.AccordingtothedatafromstimulatedrecallofMissAafterthefirstclassroomobservation,MissAclaimedthatthethreeexercisesweredesignedtocheckwhetherstudentshadmasteredthegrammaticalrulesofsuperlatives.(MissA:StimulatedRecall2,Oct.24,2015)2)Shethen,atthebeginningofthesecondperiod,movedontoaskingstudentstothinkofthreerestaurantsforlunchneartheirhome,fillinthechartbelow(seeExtract6inthenextpage),anddiscusswiththeirgroupmembersthefeaturesoftherestaurantsneartheirhome,choosethebestone,givetheirreasonsbyusingcomparativesandsuperlativesandchooseonestudentineachgrouptoreporttheirresults.3)Shemovedontoguidingstudentstotalkaboutthebestplacetotakewalksandgivetheirreasonsbyusingcomparatives(seeExtract3inP34).(StructuredNarrativesofMissA’sProductionStage)38 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionExtract6MissA——thesecondclassroomobservationAscanbeenseenfromtheaboveanalysis,MissAhadownedsomeknowledgeofhowtoorganizeagrammarclass.Threestagesofthe“3P”approachwereincludedandtheteachingprocesswascompleteandwellorganized.MissAtaughtthisgrammarclassmainlybythemanneroffocus-on-formsuggestedbyEllis(2001),whichmeansthatteachersmainlyfocusontheformsoflanguageandcaredlessonthemeaningoftheformsandtheuseofthetheseformsinrealcommunication.AlthoughMissAwereawareoftheimportanceoftheuseofgrammarinrealcommunication,someofhertaskswerejustpatterndrills,suchasreadingsentencepatternsafterheranddoingsomemultiple-choiceandtranslationexercises.AsMissAmentionedbyherselfinthestimulatedrecall,thetensionbetweenherbeliefandtheteachingpracticemightduetothehigh-stakecontextofEnglishteachinginChina,thelimitedtimeavailableintheclassandherlackofexperienceindealwiththetension.(MissA:StimulatedRecall3,Oct.24,2015)5.1.1.3KnowledgeaboutcurriculumofgrammarinstructionThetextbookusedinthisclasswasGoforitpublishedbyPeople’sEducationPress,andthisseriesofEnglishteachingtextbookswereusedbymostschoolsinChongqing,andMissAconfessedthat“owingtomyafter-schoolpart-timejobsastutors,teachingpracticuminundergraduatestudyandcoursesontextbookanalysis,Ihadknownsomethingaboutthistextbookincludingitsorganizationandcharacteristics(MissA:StimulatedRecall4,Oct.24,2015).Shereferredinthepre-observationinterviewthat,grammarinstructionwasmainlyinSectionAofeachunitanditusuallylastsfortwoperiods.Inthissection,thereweretaskstogetstudentsfamiliarwiththevocabularyrelatedtothe39 西南大学硕士学位论文topic,listeningtaskstoinformstudentshowtousethegrammaticalitemsindailycommunication,apartcalledGrammarFocustopresentstudentstheimportantsentencepatternsinthissection,androle-playstogivestudentstopracticethetargetitembythemselvesorwiththeirpartners.(MissA:Pre-observationInterview3,Oct.21,2015)MissAbelievedthatthematerialsusedinthissectionwerecloselyrelatedtothetopicofthisunitandstudents’dailylife.Thus,someactivitiescouldbeusedinsomestagesinthisclass.However,sincetherewasn’tanindependentpartforgrammarinstruction,sheshouldaddmoreteachingmaterialstoconductthisgrammarclass.Therefore,MissAdidn’tcompletelyfollowtheorganizationandactivitiesinthetextbook;rather,shehadjustcarriedouttheclasswiththetextbookasoneofherteachingmaterials.Forexample,theextractwementionedinthelastsectionwhichdiscussedthetopthreemovietheatersinBeibeiwasprovidedbyMissAherselfratherthanbythetextbook.Apartfromtherearrangement,additionanddeletionofteachingmaterialsinthetextbook,MissA’sknowledgeaboutcurriculumofgrammarinstructioncouldalsobemanifestedinherassociationoftheteachingcontentinacertaingrade(i.e.horizontalcurriculum).ThemostobviousexamplewasMissA’sassociationofcomparativestaughtinthelastunit(Unit3)andsuperlativesinthisunit(Unit4).ThetopicofUnit3wasI’mmoreoutgoingthanmysister.MissA,duringherteachingofsuperlatives,alwaysreviewedcomparativesatthesametime.91T:Yes,verygood.Sitdownplease.Minionsisthemostpopularofthe3movies.很好，它的变化规则和比较级是一样的。Popular-morepopular-mostpopular.92Ss:Popular-morepopular-mostpopular.93T:Ok,it’sthelastrule.多音节词和部分双音节词，在词前加什么？94Ss:Most.95T:加most。那后面的词还变不变？96Ss:不变。97T:记住哈，这个跟比较级是一样的，比较级在前面加什么？98Ss:More.99T:最高级加什么？100Ss:Most。Extract7MissA——thefirstclassroomobservation40 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionMissAbelievedthatsincestudentshadjustlearnedcomparativeslastweek,andthatcomparativesandsuperlativeshadalotincommonintheirwayofformation,theassociationofcomparativesandsuperlatives“ontheonehandcouldhelpstudentsreviewwhattheylearnedaboutcomparativesandontheotherhand,couldgivesomesighttothelearningofsuperlatives”.(MissA:StimulatedRecall5,Oct.24,2015)5.1.1.4KnowledgeaboutstrategiesofgrammarinstructionIt’snotthematterthatwhatateacherknowscanbedeliveredtotheirstudentswithoutsomeinstructionalstrategiesortechniqueswhichcanmaketeachers’explanationcomprehensibleandmeaningfultotheirstudents.MissAusedanumberofteachingstrategiestomakeherinstructionofsuperlativesaccessibletoherstudents.ThemostfrequenttechniqueMissAadoptedwasheruseofvisualsupport.Whetheritwastopresentexamplesofthecomparativesandsuperlativesofeachgroupofadjectives,orthecreationofacontextforstudentstopracticethetargetgrammar,MissAwouldliketoshowsomepicturesonthePPTtoleadinherownexamplesentencesortoelicitstudents’reactions.Extract8andExtract9weregoodexamplesofMissA’suseofvisualsupport.500m1000m800mThehospitalisclosertomyhomethanthehotel.Therestaurantistheclosesttomyhome.close—closer—closestExtract8MissA——PPTusedbyMissA41 西南大学硕士学位论文9T:Ok,now,thisismyhome,andthisisahospital,andthatoneisahotel.So,tellme,whocantellme,howfarisitfrommyhometothehospital?从家里面到医院有多远？10Ss:Eighthundredmeters.11T:It’sverygood.It’seighthundreds.Andhowfarisitfrommyhometothehotel?12S3:Tenhundred(Oneofthestudentsmadeamistakedeliberately.Asaresult,therestoftheclassburstintoloudlaughandMissAalsosmiled.)13T:Onethousandmeters.14Ss:Onethousandmeters(SomeofthestudentsfollowedMissAandrepeated).15T:OK,so,哪一个更近一点儿？到医院还是到酒店儿？16Ss:到医院。17T:Thehospitalis…what?...closertomyhomethanthehotel.Butrecently,thereisarestaurant.最近新开了一家店儿，这家店儿离我家更近。It’sonly…多少米？18Ss:500(SomewereinEnglish,andotherswereinChinese.)。19T:Fivehundredmeters.Sotherestaurantisthe…what…closesttomyhome.Yes,verygood.So,close—closer—closest.Extract9MissA——thefirstperiodMissAusedapicturetoshowthedistancesfrom“myhome”to“thehotel”,“thehospital”and“therestaurant”,soastopresentstudentswiththeuseofcomparativeandsuperlativeof“close”.Whenbeingquestionedinthestimulatedrecallonwhysheusedvisualsupport(heremainlyreferringtothepicturesMissAused)ingrammarinstruction,MissAexplained,visualsupports,likepictures,cangivestudentsamoredirectdemonstrationonthedifferentdistancesbetween“myhome”tothehospitalandtothehotel.Besides,somestudentsaremoreinterestedinpicturesthanwords.Withthedevelopmentofmultimedia,ithasbecomeratherconvenientforusteacherstoshowstudentspicturesorevenflash.(MissA:StimulatedRecall6,Oct.24,2015)ThesecondtechniqueMissAusedwaselicitation.MissAsometimestriednottouncoverthegrammaticalrulesdirectlytothestudents,instead,shewouldliketoencouragestudentstoelicitfromthestudentsthemselvestherulesshehopedher42 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionstudentstoknow.MissA’sexplanationofhowtoformthesuperlativesofadjectiveswithmorethanthreesyllableswasagoodexample.83T:来，我们来看一下，popular是几个音节？84Ss:三个。85T:三音节的词在变比较级的时候，应该怎么变？86Ss:加more。87T:加more.SoDoraemonismorepopularthanGongfuPanda.HowaboutMinions?小黄人呢？88Ss:Themost…89T:Yes,verygood.Extract10MissA——thefirstclassroomobservationWhenaskedthereasonofusingelicitation,MissAanswered,Juniorhighschoolstudentsarelackoftheabilityoffocusingonwhattheteacherssaidforalongtime,andtheyareeasilytobedistracted.Byaskingthemquestionsinsteadofgivingthemtheanswerdirectlybymyself,Ithink,studentscanbemorefocused.(MissA:StimulatedRecall7,Oct.24,2015).MissAtookthetechniqueofelicitationasawaytodrawandmaintainstudents’attentionintheclass.Thestudentswererequiredtoreplytoheraskingandprompting.AnothertechniqueMissAreferredtowasheruseofthestudents’L1,thatwas,Chinese.DuringthewholeprocessofMissA’sinstruction,shemadeuseofChinesebyherselforaskedherstudentstotranslateherwordsorsentencesintoChineseratherfrequently.Theexamplesofthiskindcouldbeseeninalmosteveryextractcitedintheabovesections.MissAnoted,IoftenturnedintoChinesewhenIthinkmystudentsmayhavedifficultyunderstandingmyexplanationinEnglish.AndI’dliketouseChinesetoexplainthegrammaticalrulestomystudent,becauseontheonehand,ImyselfmaynotbeabletouseEnglishfluentlyandclearlyandontheotherhand,thestudentsarenotquitefamiliarwiththegrammaticalterminologies,forexample,superlativesinthisunit.Bytheway,theuseofChineseinEnglishclassroomsis43 西南大学硕士学位论文rathercommoninChina.(MissA:StimulatedRecall8,Oct.24,2015)Apartfromthethreetechniquesmentionedabove,MissAalsoresortedtotechniqueslikeexemplification,repletionofkeywordstomakeherinstructioneasierforthestudentstounderstand.Forexample,everytimewhenMissAconcludedaruleontheformationofcomparativesandsuperlativesforeachgroupofadjectives,shewouldgivestudentssomeotheradjectivesalongwiththeircomparativesandsuperlativesasexamplestohelpstudentsgetfamiliarwiththegrammaticalrules.TheuseofrepletionofkeywordsusuallycamealongwithMissA’sgestures.ThemostprominentexamplewasMissA’srepetitionof“the”infrontofsuperlativesofadjectives.Atthesametime,MissAalsostretchedoutherarmsandpointedatthecomputerscreenwheretheword“the”located.Bysodoing,MissAdrewstudents’attentiontotheword“the”.5.1.1.5Knowledgeaboutstudents’understandingofgrammarWhenteachingintheclass,teachersgothroughaprocessofcomprehendingthesubjectcontent,evaluatingtheirunderstandingofthesubject,andthengeneratingrepresentation.Duringthisprocess,theyshouldtakeintoconsiderationnotonlytheirunderstandingofthesubject,butalsowhatstudentshavestoredintheirmind(Wilson,Shuman&Richer,1987)andhowtheyhavelearned.Knowledgeaboutstudents’understandingisoneofthecoreelementsofteachers’PCK,andthiskindofknowledgeformsthebasisofteachers’choiceofwhichrepresentationtotakewhenteaching(ZhaoXiaoguang,2015).Ateachercanonlydecideontherepresentationstotransformandpresentherteachingcontentbasedonherunderstandingofthestudents,forthereasonthat“students’learningisrootedin,developedorlimitedbytherepresentationsandactivitiestheycanbeexposedto”(Igra,2009).Inthissection,wewoulddiscussMissA’sknowledgeaboutstudents’understandingofcomparativesandsuperlativefromtwoaspects:a)MissA’sunderstandingofstudents’priorknowledgeandexperience;b)MissA’sunderstandingofstudents’conceptionsandherpreconceptionsonstudents’difficultiesormisconceptions.1)MissA’sunderstandingofstudents’priorknowledgeandexperienceBasedonthedatafromMissA’sresponsetothequestion,doyouthinkwhat44 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionstudentshaveknownaboutthetargetgrammaritem(i.e.superlatives),MissAwrote,Lastweek,studentshavelearnedsomethingaboutcomparativesfrommymentor,MissC,sotheyhaveknowntherulesonhowtochangeadjectivesintotheircomparatives,forexample,change“y”into“i”andadd“er”whentheadjectiveendupwithaconsonantand“y”,andMissChasalsotoldthemhowtojudgewhetherawordhasthreeormorethanthreesyllables.Therulestoformsuperlativeshavealotincommonwiththoseofcomparatives,soImaymakeuseofit.(MissA:Pre-observationInterview4,Oct.21,2015)Therefore,MissAresortedtostudents’priorknowledgeofcomparativestohelpherguidestudentstolearnsuperlatives.However,asMissAnoted,But,studentsmayforgetwhattheyhavelearnedbefore,andevenwhattheyhavelearnedlastweekmaybeforgotten,becausesomeofthemdon’thavethehabitofreviewing.Therefore,inthisunit,I’dliketoreviewsomethingaboutcomparativeswhenteachingthenewgrammarpoints,superlatives.(MissA:Pre-observationInterview5,Oct.21,2015)2)MissA’sconceptionsandpreconceptionsonstudents’difficultiesormisconceptionsonthetargetgrammarInherteachingplan,MissApointedoutthedifficultpointsinlearningsuperlativeswerethewaystochangedifferentkindsofadjectiveintotheirsuperlativesandthechoiceofcomparativesorsuperlativesindifferentsituationsbasedonthedifferencesbetweenthesetwostructures.Inthepre-observationinterview,MissAlistedherpredictionsonthepossibledifficultpointsindetail.Shewrote,Therewerethreetypesofmistakesstudentsmaymake.Theyare:a)thecomparativesandsuperlativesofirregularadjectives;b)add“-est”toadjectiveswiththreeormorethanthreesyllables;c)forgettoadd“the”beforesuperlatives(MissA:Pre-observationInterview6,Oct.21,2015)Throughoutthetwoperiodsofclasses,alltheabovethreekindsofmistakesappeared.Forexample,attheendofthefirstperiod,MissAshowedstudentssomemultiple-choiceexercisestocheckwhetherstudentshadunderstoodornot.Whendoingthesecondexercise,studentsforgottoadd“the”infrontofthesuperlative(seeExtract11inthenextpage).Studentsalsoused“comfortablest”insteadof“themostcomfortable”whendescribingtheseatsinUME,changedbadintobaddest.45 西南大学硕士学位论文326T:Andthesecond.Thisisthebestmovietheater,becauseithasticketthere.327Ss:B(cheapest).328T:Whichone?刚刚说了，最高级前面要加什么？329Ss:The.330T:选什么？331Ss:D.332T:Yes,选Dog(D).Thecheapestticketthere.Extract11MissA——thefirstclassroomobservationApartfromtheabovethreekindsofmistakes,otherkindsofmistakesalsoappearedinstudents’oralcommunicationandwrittenexercises.Forexample,somestudentswouldliketochange“y”into“i”andadd“-est”wheneveradjectivesendedupwitha“y”nomattertheletterbefore“y”isconsonantornot(e.g.blay,coy)andforgottodoublethelastletterwhentheadjectiveendedupwithastressedclosedsyllable(e.g.thinner).Anotherkindofmistakethatworthmentioningwasconcernedaboutthepronunciationofthecomparativesandsuperlatives,whichhadn’tbeenpredictedbyMissA.Forexample,whenMissAaskedstudentstoreadafterher“nice-nicer-nicest”,somestudentsmisread“nicest”as“nicerst”.WhenaskedMissAwhethershehadeverknownthatstudentswouldmakesuchkindofmistakeinthestimulatedrecall,sherespondedthat“Ihavenevereverthoughtofpronunciationwouldbeaproblemforthestudents,andmaybethiswasbecauseweemphasizedtoomuchonwritingandignoredspeaking”(MissA:StimulatedRecall9,Oct.24,2015).5.1.1.6KnowledgeaboutgrammarBorg(2003b),basedonaliteraturereview,concludedthat“anexplicitunderstandingoflanguageplaysamajorroleintheeffectivenessoftheworkoflanguageteachers”,althoughteachers’TLAisonlyonecomponentoftheknowledgebasethatanEFLESLteachershouldhaveingivinggrammaticalclasses.Languageteachers’KAGisarealizationofTLAforgrammarinstruction.MissA’sKAGwas46 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionmainlyreflectedonthefollowingthreeaspects.1)MissA’sexplicitknowledgeofgrammaticalterminologyaswellasthegrammaticalrulesMissAheldtheopinionthatgrammarwasanimportantandinseparablepartinforeignlanguageteaching,forgrammarfoundedabasisforacorrectuseofthelanguageinrealcommunication.MissA,onknowingtheimportanceofgrammarinforeignlanguagelearning,hadstudiedgrammarquitehardduringheryearsoflearningEnglishandshewasconfidentthatshehadhadasolidknowledgefoundationofEnglishgrammar.Whenaskedtolisttherulesthatsheweregoingtopresentthestudentswithoutreferringtotheinternetorgrammarbook,MissAwrotelogicallyandclearlythefiverulesonebyone.Besides,inthesetwoperiodsofclasses,MissAexplainedthegrammaticalrulesaboutcomparativesandsuperlativesclearlyandlogicallytothestudents.DatafrominterviewsforstudentscouldalsoshowMissA’ssoundknowledgeofgrammaticalrules.WhenaskedwhetherMissAcouldexplaintherulesclearlyandcorrectly,thestudentwrote,Yes.MissAwasquiteclearabouttherulesshewasgoingtoteach.Forexample,onceatime,Irememberthatduringtheeveningclassthatday,Iaskedaquestion,what’sthedifferencebetween“further”and“farther”,sheansweredmequicklyandherexplanationwaseasytounderstand.(StudentA:Post-observationInterviewforMissA’sStudent,Oct.24,2015)2)MissA’sabilityinbreakingdowngrammarpointsforteachingpurposeForacertaingrammaticalitem,therearealwaysmorethanonepointsthatneedteacherstopresentandexplaintotheirstudent.It’sofnoexceptiontotheteachingofsuperlatives.Duringherteaching,MissAbrokedownthegrammarpointsofsuperlativesintotwogroups,thatis,regularadjectiveswhosesuperlativescouldbeformedunderacertaingrammaticalrule,andirregularadjectives,thesuperlativesofwhichhadnomeasurablerules.Inthefirstperiod,MissAfocusedmainlyontheteachingofthesuperlativesofregularadjectivesandtheinthesecondperiod,shemovedontopresentingthesuperlativesofsomeirregularadjectivesandguidedstudentstorememberthem.Whenaskedaboutthereasonsforherdistributionofgrammarpointsindifferentperiodsofclasses,MissAnoted,47 西南大学硕士学位论文students’abilityindigestingwhattheteachergivesisquitelimitedin40minutes.Puttingthegrammarpointsintotwoclassescandecreasestudents’burdeninmemorizingtherules.What’smore,thedivisionofthegrammaticalrulesisnotbychance.Superlativesofirregularadjectivesaredifferentfromandindependentofthoseofregularadjectives.(MissA:StimulatedRecall10,Oct.24,2015)WecouldfindthatMissA’sdecisiononthebreaking-downofgrammarpointsdependedonherunderstandingofstudents’learningabilityandthefeatureofthegrammarpoints.Bysodoing,teacherscouldeasestudents’cognitiveburden,avoidstudents’negativeemotionstowardtheclass,thusimprovingtheeffectivenessoftheclass3)MissA’sabilityinanalyzinggrammarfromlearners’perspectiveStudents,especiallyjuniorhighschoolstudents,becauseoftheirlimitedlinguisticabilityandcognitivelevel,mayfeeldifficulttounderstandsomeobscureterminologies,complexsentencestructuresaswellaslongandcomplicatedexamplesentences.Thus,teachersneedtoanalyzethelanguageinawaythatiscomprehensibletotheirstudents.MissA,inordertolowerthecomplexityoftheterminologyinherteachingofsuperlative,analyzedthegrammaticalterminology“stressedclosesyllable”inthefollowingway.43T:Ok,it’sthethirdrule,重读闭音节词词尾只有一个辅音字母时，双写辅音字母，再加什么？44Ss:-est.45T:那大家是怎样判断是不是重读闭音节呢？46Ss:(Almostallthestudentskeepsilent)47T:重读闭音节通常都是以元音加辅音结尾，但是“y”除外。比如，Big-bigger-biggest.Extract12MissA——thefirstclassroomobservationInthepost-observationstimulatedrecall,whenwatchingthevideo,MissApausedthevideo,andtoldus,“Here,Ifoundfewofthestudentsunderstandwhatstressedclose48 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionsyllableswere,soIdecidedtoillustratetheterminanotherwaythatwaseasyforthemtocomprehend”(MissA:StimulatedRecall11,Oct.24,2015).Fromtheexample,wecouldseethatMissA’sdecisiononchangingherwayofanalyzingdependedonherunderstandingofthestudents’instantresponsetoheroriginalanalysisandwasabletoanalyzethegrammarfromstudents’perspective.5.1.1.7SummaryOnanalyzingMissA’steachingpracticethroughclassroomobservationandherbeliefsandunderstandingsongrammarinstructionthroughpre-andpost-observationinterviewsandstimulatedrecall,wecouldfindthatMissAhadbeenequippedwiththesixkindsofPCKforgrammarinstructionweproposedinouranalyticframework.AsforKPGI,MissAkeptinlinewiththeprinciplestressedbytheNationalEnglishCurriculumStandards,believingthelearningofEnglishgrammarwasfortheuseofEnglishlanguageinreallifecommunication;forKOGI,MissA’steachingpracticefollowedtheproceduresofpresentation,practiceandproduction,thatwas,acompleteroundof“3P”model.Sheconducteddifferentactivitiesineachstagetocreateacontextforcommunication,butduetothehigh-stakeenvironmentinChina,someexamination-orientedexercises,suchasmultiplechoicesandtranslation,werealsoconducted;forKCGI,MissAaddedextrateachingmaterialsrelatedtostudents’dailylifetoenrichherteachingandshealsoassociatedthedifferentbutrelatedteachingcontentsinacertaingrade;forKSGI,MissAadoptedmanykindsofstrategiestomakeherillustrationonsuperlativesaccessibletostudents,suchasvisualsupports,elicitation,theuseofstudents’L1,exemplificationandrepetitionofkeywords;forKSUG,MissAmainlytookintoconsiderationstudents’priorknowledgeaswellasexperienceandpossibledifficultiesandmisconceptions,thoughshemissedsomeofthemistakesstudentsmightmake;forKAG,MissAshowedasoundknowledgeofthegrammaticalterminologyandrules,theabilitytobreakdownthegrammaticalpointsandtheabilitytoanalyzethegrammarfromstudents’perspective.5.1.2CasestudyofMissB5.1.2.1KnowledgeaboutpurposeofgrammarinstructionLikeMissA,MissBalsobelievedthatthepurposeofteachinggrammarwasnot49 西南大学硕士学位论文thelearningofgrammaritself,butrather,was“tofoundabasisforEnglishreading,listeningandspeaking”(MissB:Pre-observationInterview1,Oct.25,2015).InChina,withEnglishasaforeignlanguage,therewasnotenoughlanguageexposureforstudentstodevelopaso-called“languagesense”.Withoutsomeexplicitknowledgeofgrammar,studentsmightfinditdifficulttoexpressthemselvescorrectlyandproperlybothinspeakingandwriting.AnotherpurposeofgrammarinstructionputforwardbyMissBwasthat“grammarinstructionshouldbeawaytoimprovestudents’comprehensiveabilityinusingEnglishinrealcommunication”(MissB:Pre-observationInterview2,Oct.25,2015).Thatistosay,grammarinstructionshouldintegrategrammarruleswithitscommunicativefunction,andmakestudentsexploreandunderstandtherulesinreallanguageuse.Basedontheaboveprinciplesofthepurposeofgrammarinstruction,MissBsetthefollowingteachingobjectivesforthesetwoclassesofgrammarinstructioninherteachingplan.1)Knowledgeaims:a)Studentscanrecognize,read,understandandwritecorrectlythesuperlativesofsomeadjectivesthey’velearned,suchasnew,close,big,heavy,good,expensive,andsoon;b)Studentsalsoneedtounderstandandmasterthesentencepatternslike,“whichisthebestmovietheater?”“Marryistheheaviestofthethreegirls.”(MissB:ExtractfromMissB’TeachingPlan1,Oct.23,2015).Wecouldfind,forthiskindofknowledge,MissBhadalmostthesamelinguisticfocusasMissA.Bothofthemhadaclearunderstandingoftheimportantlanguagepointsofthisunit.Inordertohelpstudentsrememberthesewordsandsentences,MissB,likeMissA,alsoadoptedthewayofaskingstudentstoreadafterherorbythemselves.Andwhat’smore,MissBalsoorganizedagamecalled“Solitaire”,onthebelief“tomakegrammarteachinginteresting”(MissB:Pre-observationInterview3,Oct.25,2015)andtohelpstudents“learninggrammarinthejoy”(MissB:Pre-observationInterview4,Oct.25,2015).Thefollowingextract(seeExtract1inthenextpage)couldshowhowthegamewasgoingonandhowMissB’sobjectiveonknowledgewasrealized.Bydoingthisgame,MissBhelpedstudentsreviewedthecomparativesofsomeadjectivesandcheckedwhethertheyhadkeptinmindtherulesofhowtoformdifferentkindsofcomparatives.Whenbeinginvitedtolistoneteachingclipthatwasthemost50 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionimpressiveinMissB’stwoperiodsofgrammarinstruction,thestudentwhoreceivedthepost-observationinterviewrepliedandwroteasfollowing,I’mespeciallyimpressedbythegame“Solitaire”MissBplayedwithus.Itwasquiteinteresting.Wehaveneverplayedthiskindofgamebefore.AndIwasquitenervouswhenitcametomyturn.Beforeitcametomyturn,Iaskedtheclassmatenexttomeforsurewhethermyanswerwouldberight.Andwhenotherstudentsanswered,Iwouldalsocomeupwithmyownanswerandcheckwhetheritwasthesamewiththeirs.(StudentB:Post-observationInterviewforMissB’sStudents1,Nov.1,2015)Basedonthestudent’sreply,wecouldsayMissB’sdesignforthisgamecouldhelphertoachievehergoalonlanguageknowledgeforthesetwoclasses.56T:Sotherearemanywords,right?Yes,theyareoriginalwords.这儿有一些原来的形容词或副词，对不对？现在我们要做一个接龙的游戏。我们组内，组内，onebyone,一个接一个，来告诉老师，这些单词的的比较级，让我们来一起回顾一下。So,thefirsttime,thisgroup.Youarethefirstone.Tall,taller,understand?大家明白什么意思了没有？57Ss:明白。58T:Ok,youarethefirstone.Tall.59S1:Taller.60T:Good.Secondone.61S2:Shorter.62T:Shorter,good.And…63S3:(Voiceisverysmall.)64T:Louder.65S3:Newer.66T:Newer,right?Good.Thankyou.Extract1MissB——thefirstclassroomobservation2)Ability&skillaims:a)Studentscansharetheirpreferencewiththeirclassmatesusingcomparativesandsuperlatives;b)andstudentscandeveloptheirabilityin51 西南大学硕士学位论文exploringandgeneralizingthegrammaticalrulesbythemselves(MissB:ExtractfromMissB’TeachingPlan2,Oct.23,2015).LikeMissA,MissBalsohopedthatstudentscouldapplywhattheylearnedaboutcomparativesandsuperlativesintorealcommunication,andbelievedthat“althoughthiswasagrammarclass,Ishouldalsohelpthemdeveloptheir(students’)abilityinspeakingandlistening”(MissB:Pre-observationInterview5,Oct.25,2015).UnlikeMissA,whopresentedthegrammaticalrulesexplicitlybyherself,MissB,influencedbyheraimtodevelopstudents’abilityingeneralization,triedtoencouragethestudentstodiscoverandsummarizebythemselvestherulesontheformulationofcomparativesandsuperlativesofadjectivesindifferentcategories.ThefollowingextractcouldproveMissB’sthisbelief.128T:But,thistime,Iwillshowyouanothertree,treeA.sowecansee,treeAistallerthantreeB,andtreeAistallerthantreeC.So,wecansay,treeAisthetallestofthethreetrees.今天我们就要学习的是比较级…oh,sorry,最高级，superlatives,right?所以，tallest就是tall的什么级？129Ss&T:最高级。130T:大家找一找，在最高级里面和比较级有什么区别？131Ss:加-estthe…(Answersvaried).132T:加-est,Ok,非常好。最高级…首先是几者之间进行比较？是两者吗？133Ss:三者。134T:比较级是不是两者？对不对？所以，最高级是至少是三者或者三者以上，对不对？非常好，同学们能自己发现这个规律。同时大家注意红色字，我们比较级前面有没有加the?135Ss:没有。136Ss:加了。137T:Ok,verygood.Extract2MissB——thefirstclassroomobservation52 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionIntheaboveexact,MissBdidn’tlistthedifferencesbetweencomparativesandsuperlativesdirectlyandexplicitlybyherself,butinstead,sheguidedstudentstofindthedifferencesbystudentsthemselves.Butwhatneededtobenotedwasthat,MissBdidn’trequirestudentstofindtherulescompletelybythemselves,butshehadgiventhemsomeprompts,suchashighlightingthekeyplacesinred.AimsonemotionandattitudethatappearedinMissA’steachingplan,werenotseeninMissB’splan.Intheinformalcasualcommunicationwithusaftertheobservation,whenbeingaskedheropinionsonaimsonemotionandattitude,MissBmentionedthatsheknew,objectivesonemotionandattitudeisoneofthefive-dimensionobjectivesproposedbytheNationalCurriculumStandardsforEnglishteaching,butIthinkthefocusofthesetwo-periodgrammarclassesshouldbestudents’familiarityofthenewgrammaritem,thatis,thesuperlatives,andthecultivationofstudents’emotionandattitudecouldberealizedinthereadingclass.(MissB:InformalPost-observationInterview,Oct.25,2015)5.1.2.2KnowledgeaboutorganizationofgrammarinstructionLikeMissA,MissB’sinstructionalsofolloweda“3P”(i.e.presentation,practiceandproduction)process.However,MissBmentioned,inthepre-observationinterview,“beforethisteachingpractice,Ihaveneverheardof‘3P’.Igottoknowthisteachingmethodwhenwe(referringtoallofthestudent-teacherstakingpartinthispracticum)discussedtogethertheteachingplanofthisclass”(MissB:Pre-observationInterview6,Oct.25,2015).MissB’slackofknowledgeon“3P”modelcouldbetracedtoherundergraduatestudyasabusinessEnglishlearnerratherthananormaluniversitystudentofEnglish.Shehadneverbeenexposedtoanyclassesorafter-classbooksrelatedtoEnglishteachingmethodsinherundergraduatestudy.Therefore,herknowledgeontheorganizationofgrammarinstructioncameintobeingandwasgrownthroughthediscussionwithherpartners.Stage1PresentationMissAstartedherclassbypresentingthetargetgrammaritem,thatis,superlatives,togetherwiththepreviouslylearneditem,comparativesandbyexposingstudentstosomenewwords.Incontrast,MissBpresentedsuperlativesandcomparativesseparately.53 西南大学硕士学位论文1)MissBfirstlyhelpedstudentsreviewtherulesonhowtochangeregularandirregularadjectivesintotheircomparativesonebyone,andcheckedwhetherstudentshadrememberedtheserulesbyinvitingthemtospeakoutthecomparativesofsomelearnedadjectivesineachgroup.Whatneededtomentionwasthat,thissteptooknearly10minutes.2)Shethenpresentedthenewgrammaritem,superlativesbyshowingstudentsthreetreesandmakinganexamplesentence“TreeAisthetallestofthethreetrees.”3)Basedontheexamplesentence,shethenaskedstudentstofindoutthedifferencesbetweencomparativesandsuperlatives.4)Shethenwentontoguidestudentstofindouttherulesongeneratingthesuperlativesofregularadjectivesineachgroupbyshowingsomepicturesandaskingstudentstomakesentences.(StructuredNarrativeofMissB’sPresentationStage)Asfortheteachingproceduresofthisclass,MissD,MissB’mentorintheteachingpracticum,commentedinthepost-observationinterviewforher,Thewholeteachingprocesswascompletedandnatural,butthefirststep,thatis,thepresentationpartincludingthereviewingandleadinginmightbetoolong,andthismaybealittlebittime-consuming.Ithinkshewouldbebetterattimemanagementasherteachingexperiencegrows(MissD:Post-observationInterviewforMissB’Mentor1,Oct.31,2015)Stage2PracticeLikeMissA,MissBalsoadoptedtwokindsofpractice,mechanicalpracticeandmeaningfulpractice.1)Mechanicalpractice:thisstepwasmostlyintegratedwiththepresentationpart,becauseMissBinvitedstudentstoreadafterherthecomparativesandsuperlativesofsomeadjectivesandthenencouragedstudentstoexploretherulesofformingsuperlativesbythemselves(seeExtract3inthenextpage).2)Meaningfulpractice:Shethenshowedstudentssomepictures,oneachofwhich,therewerethingswiththreedifferentsizes,threekindsorprices(e.g.threeclocksofdifferentsizes),andinvitedstudentstomakesentencesusingsuperlativesaccordingtothepictures.54 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussion(ShowingthecomparativesandsuperlativesofadjectivesinthisgrouponthePPT)237T:So,let’s,let’sreadittogether238SS&T:Lazylazierlaziest239T:Andhowaboutfunny?240SS&T:Funny-funnier-funniest241T:Yes,So,canyoufindthefourthrule?Canyoufind?第四个规则？242SS&T:变y为i再加"est"243T:Yesverygood.Thisisthefourthrule.So,takenotes!Yes,这是变最高级的第四个规则，非常好，同学们，同学们可以发现这些规则不是老师讲给你们的，是不是你们自己发现的？对不对？Extract3MissB——thefirstclassroomobservation3)Meaningfulpractice:Inthesecondperiodofthisgrammarclass,shethenmovedontoguidingstudentstotalkaboutthethreemovietheatersinBeibei,askedthemtocomparetheseats,screen,ticketpricesofthesethreemovietheatersandchoseoneofthebestmovietheatersinBeibei.(StructuredNarrativeofMissB’sPracticeStage)Stage3ProductionForthispart,MissAmainlyinvitedstudentstofinishsometranslationaswellasmultiple-choiceexercises,andadoptedanoralproductionactivity,whichrequiredstudentstothinkoutthreerestaurantsneartheirhomeandchoosethebestonewiththeirgroupmember.MissB’sproductionstage,however,hadonlyoneactivityandwasrelatedmorecloselytoawrittenone.MissB’sproductionactivitywasnotdonewithinthetwoperiodsofclasses,butratherwasleftasthehomework,whichaskedstudentstowriteanarticleaboutthebestmovietheaterrestaurantclothesstoreparkneartheirhome.Whenbeingaskedwhyshegavestudentsthehomeworkintheafter-observationstimulatedrecall,sheanswered,55 西南大学硕士学位论文ontheonehand,writinganarticlelikethiscouldhelpstudentstoreviewwhattheyhavelearnedintheclass,thatis,thecomparativesandsuperlatives,andontheotherhand,theclasstimewasratherlimited.Ihadspenttoomuchtimeonshowingstudentstherulesandhelpingthempracticethem,sotherewasn’tenoughtimeleftformetohaveanoraldiscussionintheclassroom,andIhadtoleaveitastheirhomework.(MissB:StimulatedRecall1,Oct.29,2015)AlthoughMissBhadneverlearnedanythingaboutthe“3P”modelforgrammarinstructionbeforethepracticum,withthehelpofherclassmateswhoalsoattendedtheteachingpractice,sheorganizedtheclassescompletelyandlogically.However,asMissBherselfmentionedinthepost-observationinterview,whenbeingaskedhowsheevaluatedherclasses,sheconfessedthatalthoughshegottoknowtheteachingmethodof“3P”,shewasnotsogoodatconductingit,especiallyconcerningaboutthetimegivenineachstage,whatshouldbeimprovedmostwasmyabilityintimemanagement.IwasconfusedabouthowmuchtimeIshouldgiveineachactivitywhenIwaswritingmyteachingplan,andIhadn’trealizedhowmuchtimeIhadspentineachstep.Ijustcouldnotcontrolmyself,andIdidn’tknowhowtostopmystudentswhentheywereoutofmycontrol,orrefusedtoanswermyquestion.Thatwastedmequitealotoftime(MissB:Post-observationInterview1,Oct.31,2015).Pre-serviceteachers,becauseoftheirlimitedexposuretorealteachingclassroom,mightbelackofexperienceintimemanagement.Sometimes,especiallywhentheclassdidn’twentonashowtheyplannedinadvance,pre-serviceteachersmightfindtheclassoutoftheircontrolanddidn’tknowhowtodealwithit.5.1.2.3KnowledgeaboutcurriculumofgrammarinstructionUnlikeMissA,whohadbeenfrequentlyexposedtothetextbook(i.e.Goforit)inherpreviousteachingexperiences,MissBconfessedthatshehadknownlittleaboutthisseriesoftextbooks.Thereasonsmaybe:a)MissBdidn’tcomefromChongqingandwasnotfamiliarwiththeEnglishtextbooksusedhere;b)MissBhadlittleteachingexperiencesbecauseofhernon-normaluniversitystudyidentity.Beingawareofherownlackofknowledgeaboutthetextbookshewoulduseinthepracticum,MissB,beforethepracticum,spentalotoftimeingoingthroughthetextbook,especiallythe56 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionunitshewasbeingresponsiblefor.Afterobservinghowhermentororganizedthewholeunit,shegottoknowthefirsttwoclassesmainlydealtwiththenewgrammarinthisunit,andasMissAnoted,MissBalsofoundtherewasnotanspeciallydesignedpartforgrammarinstruction.Therefore,MissBhadtofindteachingmaterialsbyherself.UnlikeMissA,whohadmadeuseofsomeactivitiesinthetextbook,MissBdesignedandorganizedthisgrammarclassallbythehelpofextramaterialsfoundontheInternet,othertextbooks,exercisebooks,etc.,withnoneuseofthetextbook.However,whatMissBusedwasbynomeanscompletelyseparatedfromthetextbook,butrather,thematerialsshefoundwerealsorelatedtothetopicofthisunitandthenewwordsthatstudentsneededtolearninthisunit.Forexample,wordsandphrasesrelatedtomovietheaterswereoneofthebestexamples.Therefore,althoughMissBmightnotbequitefamiliarwiththetextbook’sorganizationandcharacteristics,shecouldfindandmakeuseofsomeextramaterialscloselyrelatedtotheteachingtarget.Furthermore,asforMissB’sknowledgeaboutcurriculumofgrammarinstruction,shealsohadsomeknowledgeonrelatingthepreviouslylearnedcontentwiththepresentlylearnedone.Herknowledgeaboutthiscouldbebestshowninherreviewofthecomparativesatthebeginningofthefirstclass.Shebelieved,thegrammaritemsineachunitwerecloselyrelatedanddevelopedfromtheeasiesttothemostdifficult,fromthemostbasictothedeepest.Teachersshouldhaveamacroscopicunderstandingofthewholeunitandeventhewholetextbook,andassociatewhatstudentslearnedbeforeandwhattheywilllearnwiththepresentteachingcontent”.(MissB:StimulatedRecall2,Oct.28,2015)5.1.2.4KnowledgeaboutstrategiesofgrammarinstructionInordertomakeherexplanationofthegrammarclearandeasytounderstand,MissBalsoadoptedalargearrayofteachingstrategies,themostwidelyusedonesofwhichincludedelicitation,conceptualcategories,summarizing,visualsupport,translationanduseoflearners’L1.Guidedbyherobjectivetodevelopstudents’abilityinexploringandsummarizing,thepedagogicaltechniqueMissBusedmostfrequentlytomakeherteachingaccessibletoherstudentswaselicitation.MissBattemptedtoavoidpresentingthegrammarrulesbyherexposition;instead,shetriedtoencouragestudentstofindtherulesby57 西南大学硕士学位论文themselves.Extract2andExtract3wepresentedabovecouldshowhowMissBelicitthedifferencesbetweencomparativesandsuperlatives,andtherulesonhowtoformingthesuperlativesofadjectivesendupwithaconsonantand“y”.UnlikeMissA,whousedthetechniqueofelicitationasawayofkeepingstudents’attention,MissBadoptedthestrategybecauseshehopedto“guidestudentstolearnbythemselves”(MissB:StimulatedRecall3,Oct.28,2015)and“developstudents’abilityindiscoverylearning”(MissB:Stimulatedrecall4,Oct.28,2015).Whenaskedwhynotlisttherulesdirectlybyherself,shereplied,Ihaveattendedaclasscalledforeignlanguagelearningstrategies.Iwasdeeplyimpressedbythesaying“teachingonehowtofishisbetterthangivinghimafish”.Ibelieve,whattheteacherneedstodomostisnottotellherstudentsallsheknows,buttomakeherselfunnecessary,thatis,tohelpstudentsknowhowtostudybythemselves,ratherthanwaitingtheteachertofeedthemwithknowledge,todevelopstudents’abilityinautonomousstudy(MissB:StimulatedRecall5,Oct.28,2015).AnotherpedagogicaltechniqueadoptedbyMissBtoassiststudentstomemorizetheruleswascategorizingtheadjectivesintodifferentcategories(i.e.fortheadjectiveshere,sheclassifiedthemintotwobroadcategories,thatis,irregularadjectivesandregularadjectives,withthelatteronebeingclassifiedintofivesubcategories,ascanbeshowninthePPTinExtract4).Wecouldrefertothiswayofexplanationasconceptualgrouping.Extract5inthenextpagecouldshowhowMissBusedthepedagogicaltechniqueofconceptualgrouping.Extract4MissB——PPTusedbyMissB58 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussion98T:So,lastunit,wehavelearnedfiverules.我们学了五个变比较级的规则，大家还记得吗？第一类是？第一类。99Ss:直接加－er.100T:直接加..?101Ss:-er.102T:-er.非常好。第二类，下边cute这一类，直接加？103Ss:-r.104T:Heavy的这边?变…105Ss&T:变y为i,再加-er.106T:Thin的这边？107Ss:双写末尾字母…108Ss&T:双写末尾字母，加-er.109T:然后这个多音节和部分双音节，是直接加？110Ss&T:More.111T:Ok,verygood.Ok,howaboutgood,well?therearesomespecialrules.还有一些特殊的规则，同学们还记得吗？112S12:Better.113T:Better.非常好。有同学说了better,andbad,badly.Extract5MissB——thefirstclassroomobservationAlongsidetheuseofconceptualgrouping,MissBalsoreliedonthepedagogicaltechnique,whichcouldbecalledsummarizing.Attheendofherreviewoftherulesonhowtochangeadjectivesintotheircomparativesonebyone,MissBsummarizedtherulesbypresentingtherulesonthePPT,onwhichtherewasatableshowingtherulesincategories(seeExtract4).MissB’spresentingofthetableonPPTcouldbereferredtoasanexampleofanotherpedagogicaltechnique,thatis,visualsupport,astrategyalsousedbyMissA.Whenaskedthereasonwhysheusedatabletosummarizetherules,MissBsaid,59 西南大学硕士学位论文IthinkitwouldbebetterforstudentstoseetherulesonthePPT,inawayoftable,chartorsomethinglikethis,becauseIthink,asoneofmyteacherssaid,picturesordiagramscandrawstudentsattentionandmakeiteasierformystudentstoremembertherules.(MissB:StimulatedRecall6,Oct.28,2015)Theuseofvisualsupportcould“enhancethesalienceoftheinformation”(ascitedinGass&Selinker,2008).Visualsupportcouldalsobetheuseofpicturestocreateacontextortheuseofhighlighting(e.g.inredorunderlined)tooffer“inputenhancement”(i.b.)tosomeimportantinformation.Forexample,MissBhadhighlightedthedefinitearticle“the”infrontofthesuperlativesinredcolortoremindstudentsnottoforgetit.Someotherpedagogicaltechniques,liketranslation,theuseofthestudents’L1couldalsobefoundintheclassroomobservationsofMissB.ThereasonwhyMissBusedstudents’L1inclasswassimilartoMissA’s.TheuseofChineseinclasswasmainlyduetoMissB’sconsiderationonthestudents’presentpoorcompetenceinEnglish.5.1.2.5Knowledgeaboutstudents’understandingofgrammarBeingaskedwhatlearnerfactorsshewouldtakeintoconsiderationwhenmakingtheteachingplanforthisgrammarinstruction,MissBlistedtheelementssuchasstudents’interests,priorknowledge,possibledifficulties,learningstyles,thepresentEnglishcompetence,andsoonsoforth.1)MissB’sunderstandingofstudents’interestsFormoststudents,grammarisoneofthemostboringparts.Therefore,itisquiteimportantforteachersofEnglishtoarousestudents’interestsduringtheprocessofgivinggrammarinstruction.MissB,whenaskedhowshetendedtoarousestudents’interests,shereplied,“formypart,thekeytoarousestudents’interestwasthechoiceofteachingmaterialswhichwascloselyrelatedtostudents’dailylifeandwasmeaningfultostudents”(MissB:StimulatedRecall7,Oct.29,2015).Guidedbythisbelief,MissBwasquiteconsiderateonthechoiceofpictures,createdcontextsandactivities.60 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionEverytimewhenMissBwantedtoelicitstudentstousecomparativesorsuperlativestomakesentences,shewouldshowthemsomepictures,whichwerefamiliarandvividforstudents,forexample,thepicturesofLiYongandaserious-lookreporterwereusedtoelicitthecomparativeoffunny(i.e.funnier).30T:Yes,good.Andlookatthetwopictures.Thisisareporter,andthismancalledLiYong.Yes,verygood.Sowecanmakethesentence,LiYongisfunnierthanthereporter.So,howtospell“funnier”?Howtospell?怎么拼写？31Ss&T:F-u-n-n-i-e-r.Extract6MissB——thefirstclassroomobservationFurthermore,anotherexampleofMissB’sknowledgeonthechoiceofteachingmaterialstoarousestudents’interestcouldbeseenfromthepartwhenMissBguidedstudentstotalkaboutthethreepopularmoviesthatwerebeingonthescreen,thatis,GongfuPanda,DorarmonandMinions.61 西南大学硕士学位论文461T:Ok,now,thisyear,threemoviesareverypopular.Theyareallverypopular.今年呢，有三部电影非常流行。GongfuPanda,Doraemon,andMinions.什么？功夫熊猫，多啦a梦，还有什么？462Ss:小黄人463T:对，小黄人。这三个电影都是verypopular.来，我们来根据这个饼图，根据数据分析。Ok，verygood,youareveryclever(SomeofthestudentssaidMinions).Youareverygoodatmath.GongfuPandaispopular.AndDoraemonis…464Ss:Morepopular(Someofthestudentsrepliedinsmallvoice).Extract7MissB——thesecondclassroomobservationAfterthesecondclassroomobservation,whenreceivingthepost-observationstimulatedrecall,MissBsaid,theclassatmospherewasquitegoodwhenweweretalkingaboutthesethreemovies.Ithinkmaybethisisbecausethesethreemovieswerequitepopularamongthestudents,andsomeofthestudentshavegonetothemovietheaterandhaveseenthemovies,therefore,theywerequiteexcitedwhenthethreemoviescameintotheireyes.Tomaketheclassmorerelaxing,IhaveplayedaclipofMinions”.(MissB:StimulatedRecall8,Oct.29,2015)62 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionThestudentwhoreceivedourinterviewalsonotedthat,“anotherimpressivepartinMissB’sclasswasthediscussionofthosepopularmovies.AndIlikethemovieMinionsverymuch,andIwasquitesurprisedthatMissBwouldaskustowatchitintheclass(StudentB:Post-observationInterviewforMissB’Student2,Nov.1,2015)”.2)MissB’sunderstandingofstudents’priorknowledgeandexperienceLikeMissA,MissBalsonotedthatstudentshadalreadylearnedcomparativeslastweek,andshecouldmakeuseofstudents’thispriorknowledgetohelpherinstructiononsuperlatives.Shewrote,studentshavelearnedthebasicrulesoncomparativeslastweek,andtheyhavedonesomeexercisestopracticethem.WhenhelpingmymentorMissDcorrectthestudents’homework,Ihavefoundthatmoststudentshaveunderstoodtherulesandcouldalmostwritethecomparativescorrectly.Buttherewerestillsomemistakes.Forexample,theymayforgettodoublethelastlatterofpressedclosedsyllables.(MissB:Pre-observationInterview7,Oct.25,2015)ItwasMissB’sknowledgeonstudents’priorknowledgeoncomparativesthatmadehertospendnearlytenminutestoreviewtherulesonformingcomparatives.Teachers’understandingofstudents’priorknowledgecouldenablethemtoassociatewhatstudentslearnedbeforewiththenewknowledge,andfacilitatethepresentteaching,makingitmoreeffectiveandefficient.3)MissA’sconceptionsandpreconceptionsonstudents’difficultiesormisconceptionsInthepre-observationinterview,MissB,whenaskedtopredictwhatdifficultiesormistakesaboutsuperlativesstudentsmightmake,alsolistedthreekindsofmistakes:a)can’ttellwhentoadd“more”and“most”;b)forgettoadd“the”beforethesuperlatives;c)studentsfinditdifficulttorememberthesuperlativesofirregularadjectives(MissB:Pre-observationInterview8,Oct.25,2015).Tooursurprise,oftheabovethreetypesofmistakesMissBmentioned,onlythefirsttype,thatis,forgettingtouse“more”infrontofcomparativesofadjectiveswithmorethanthreesyllablesappearedintheclass,whiletheothertwomistakeswerenotfoundinthetwo-periodobservations.Thefollowingexampleshowedhowstudentsmadethefirsttypeerror.63 西南大学硕士学位论文89T:And,thethreewords,comfortable,howaboutthenextboy?90S11:(Keepssilent)91T:Comfortable…92S11:Morecomfortable(withthepromptofotherstudents)93T:So,more…comfortable,right?Good.Thankyou.Andthelastgirl.94S12:(Answeredinsmallervoice)95T:Louderplease.Youcandoit.96T&Ss:Moreoutgoing.Good.Thankyou.Extract8MissB——thefirstclassroomobservationAlthoughtheydidn’tspeakouttheanswerwrongly,thesilenceofS11andthesmallvoiceofS12couldbeasymbolofthosetwostudents’lackofcertaintyandconfidenceofthecomparativesofadjectiveswiththreeormorethanthreesyllables.Therefore,wecouldregardthemasthefirsttypeerror.Whenbeingaskedwhytheothertwokindsofmistakedidn’tappearintheclass,MissBanswered,intheclass,Icouldn’tcheckwhetherthestudentsmasteredthegrammaronebyonebecauseofthelimitedtime.Somestudentswhodidn’tknowtheanswersorwereafraidofmakingmistakeswouldjustkeepsilentandrefusedtoanswermyquestion.Onlythosewhoweresureoftheiranswersansweredmyquestionsloudly,therefore,itwasdifficulttofindtheirproblems(MissB:StimulatedRecall9,Oct.29,2015).Butsheaddedlatterthat,buttheothertwo...kindsofmistakesappearedintheirhomework…eh…forexample,somestudentswrotethesuperlativeof‘bad’as‘badest’ratherthan‘worst’,andintheirwriting,somestudentsforgottoadd‘the’,andusesuperlativesdirectly(MissB:StimulatedRecall10,Oct.29,2015)Inthepost-observationinterview,whenaskedtoevaluateherclass,sheanswered,Ihavemissedsomekindsofmistakesstudentsmaymake,forexample,they’dliketoadd‘most’infrontoftheadjectivesand…eh…atthesametime…add‘-est’attheendoftheword,64 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionand…Ididn’tknowthattheycouldevenpronouncesomewordscorrectly,forexample,somestudentsdidn’tknowhowtopronounce...‘closest’.Thatwasreallyoutofprediction(MissB:Post-observationInterview2,Oct.31,2015).InterviewforMissB’smentoralsoshowedthat,MissBhadexplainedclearlymostoftheimportantpointsandthepossiblemistakesstudentswouldmakeinherclassroom,andonlysomesmallpointshadbeenmissed,butitwasquitegoodthatshecouldcorrectstudentsmistakesimmediatelyevenshehadn’tthoughtofthem(MissD:Post-observationInterviewforMissB’sMentor2,Oct,31,2015).ThefollowingextractcouldbethebestexampleonhowMissBdiscoverandcorrectstudents’mistakethathadn’tbeenpredictedbyher.223T:Yes,verygood.So,thereisananotherQQ,QQc.So,whichoneisthecutest？哪一个是最可爱的？224Ss:(Studentsarediscussing.)225T:You,please,Canyoumakeasentence？Yes.226S14：QQcisthecutestforthe...227T：Of.Ok,verygood,thankyou,butpayattentiontofororof.Of.228S14:Of229T:OfthethreeQQs,right?Extract9MissB——thefirstclassroomobservation5.1.2.6KnowledgeaboutgrammarForeignlanguageteachersshould,firstandforemost,havegoodlanguageawareness,andtransformhisorherawarenessintosomethingthatcanbeeasilyunderstoodbylearners.LikeMissA,MissBalsoshowedherKAGinthefollowingthreeaspects.1)MissB’sexplicitknowledgeofgrammaticalterminologyaswellasthegrammaticalrulesAfteryearsofEnglishprofessionallearning,MissBhadalsoagoodcommandofEnglishlanguage.LikeMissA,shewasalsosureoftheimportanceofgrammarinmiddleschoolEnglishteachingclassrooms,believinggrammarwasthebasicofthefour65 西南大学硕士学位论文Englishskills,thatis,listening,speaking,readingandwriting.Therefore,sheherself,whenstudyingEnglish,alsopaidmucheffortintogrammarlearning,andhadlaidasolidfoundationofEnglishgrammar.Inherclass,sheusedthegrammaticalterminologiesfrequentlyandconfidently,andtriedtohelpstudentstogetfamiliaraboutthemaswell.7T:Ok,good.Inunit3,wehavelearnedcomparative.第三单元我们学了比较级，对不对？……128T:今天我们就要学习的是比较级…oh,sorry,最高级，superlatives,right?…...200T:Verygood,andtellmethecomparativeandsuperlativeofcheap.cheap的比较级和最高级。Extract10MissB——thefirstclassroomobservationMissB’sexplicitknowledgeofthetargetgrammarcouldalsobefoundinhersummarizingoftherulesoncomparativesandsuperlativesinatabledesignedbyherself(seeExtract4inp57).Besides,MissBshowedandexplainedtothestudentsfivedifferenttypesofrulesofformingsuperlativesclearlyandlogicallythroughoutthewholeclass.2)MissB’abilitytodealconfidentlywithstudents’spontaneousgrammarquestionsItwasnotunusualthatstudentswouldputupsomequestionsthattheteacherhadneverthoughtofbefore.HowdidateacherdealwiththosequestionsandhowwellsheansweredthemcouldalsobeasignforherKAG.ThefollowingextractshowedhowMissBrespondedtoastudents’spontaneousquestiononcomparativesandsuperlatives(seeExtract11).66 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussion326T:以上是我们之前学的比较级，大家还有什么问题吗？（abouthalfaminutelater）327S15:老师，我想问一下，刚你说有部分双音节词也是加more,那都有哪些呢？328T:好，goodquestion.说明这位同学有认真思考哦。一般来说，三音节词前面都是加more,但是有少数双音节词前我们也需要加more，比如，famous,careful,boring,clever等等。大家需要特别注意一下，clever这个词，既可以加”-er”,也可以加‘more’。懂了吗？我们还有其它的双音节词也需要加more,大家自己下来可以去查一下。Ok?329Ss:Ok.Extract11MissB——thefirstclassroomobservationMissBmentionedinthepost-observationstimulatedrecallthat,Itwasoutofmyconsiderationthatstudentswouldaskmesuchaquestion.Iwasalittlesurprised(laughed),butsoonIcalmeddownandsearchedinmymind…examplesofsuchkindofdouble-syllableadjectives.Luckily,Ithoughtoutsome.But,eh…later,Iwasnotabletothinkoutmoreatthattime…so,Ihadtoaskedstudentstofindthewordsbythemselvesafterclass.(MissB:StimulatedRecall11,Oct.28,2015)AlthoughMissBcouldnotlistalloftheadjectivesatthattime,sheperformedquiteconfidentlyinexplainingwhatsheknewandhadthecleverideatoaskstudentstofindtherestbythemselves.ThiscouldshowMissB’sabilitytodealwithspontaneousgrammarquestionsintheclass.3)MissB’abilitytoexplaingrammartostudentswithoutcomplexmetalanguageWhatteachersthinkiseasyforunderstandingmayberatherdifficultforstudents.Therefore,itisquiteimportantforteacherstoexplainthecomplexgrammarinwaysthatareeasyforstudentstounderstand.Oneofthewaysistoavoidtheuseofthecomplexmetalanguage.MissBshowedthisabilityinherteaching.thefollowingextractcouldbeanappropriateexample(seeExtract12inthenextpage).67 西南大学硕士学位论文106T:Thin的这边？107Ss:双写末尾字母…108T:一些以元音加不为‘y’的辅音结尾的词，双写末尾字母，再加-er。在作业中，有些同学老是忘记双写，以后大家看到比较短的单词，比如只有3，4个字母，就要注意了，看它是不是元音加辅音结尾，是的话，记着要怎样？109Ss:双写末尾的字母。110T:Verygood.Extract12MissB——thefirstclassroomobservationIntheaboveextract,MissBavoidthecomplexterminology“stressedclosesyllable”,andexplaineditinasimpleway“endwithanvowelandconsonant,except‘y’”.Shedidsobecauseshethought“theterm‘stressedclosesyllable’wasquitedifficultforstudentstounderstand”(MissB:StimulatedRecall12,Oct.28,2015).ThisabilitycouldalsoshowMissB’sabilityinanalyzethegrammarfromthelearnersperspective.5.1.2.7SummaryMissB,thesameasMissA,alsohadsomeknowledgeaboutthesixkindsofPCKforgrammarinstruction,althoughthesetwoteachersmightbedifferentinthequantityandrepresentationsoftheknowledge.AsforKPGI,MissAbelievedthepurposeofgrammarinstructionwastobuildthebaseforthefourkindsofEnglishskills,andshewasdevotedintodevelopingstudents’abilityinexploratorylearning;asforKOGI,MissB’sclasswasalsoguidedbythe“3P”modellearnedfromherclassmateswhoalsotookpartinthepracticum;asforKCGI,AlthoughMissBmightbelackofsomefamiliarityonthetextbooksheusedinthepracticumduetohernon-chongqingneseidentityandpoorteachingexperiences,shecouldfindrelatedextramaterialsandmadegooduseofthem;asforKSGI,pedagogicaltechniquesincludingelicitation,conceptualcategories,summarizing,visualsupport,translationanduseoflearners’L1,wereused68 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussiontomakeherinstructioncomprehensibleandaccessibletoherstudents;asforKSUG,MissBdesignedandgaveherclassbasedonherunderstandingofthestudents’interests,priorknowledgeandpossiblemistakes;asforKAG,MissBhadasoundexplicitknowledgeonthetargetgrammar,theabilitytodealconfidentlywithspontaneousgrammarquestionsandtheabilitytoexplaingrammartostudentswithoutcomplexmetalanguagesoastomakethegrammareasierforstudentstounderstand.5.1.3ComparisonbetweenMissAandMissBFromouranalysisintheabovetwosections,wecanfindthatthesetwopre-serviceEnglishteachers’PCKforgrammarinstructionhasbothsimilaritiesanddifferences.Toputthesesimilaritiesanddiversitiesinasimplerway,wewouldliketopresenttheminthefollowingtable,inordertocomparehowthesetwoparticipantsrealizetheirPCKinteachingpractice.Table5.1ComparisonbetweenMissAandMissBTeachersPCKMissAMissBAnalysisa)TofoundabasisBothMissAforEnglishreading,andMissB’hadaTohelpdeveloplisteningandcorrectstudents’abilityinspeaking;b)tounderstandingoftheusingtheEnglishimprovestudents’purposeforKPGIlanguageproperly:comprehensivegrammarobjectivesonabilityinusinginstruction,goingknowledge,skillsandEnglishinrealbeyondthepracticeemotion&attitude;communication;c)ofgrammaticaltolearnEnglishinforms;however,joy:knowledgeaimsMissBcaredlittle69 西南大学硕士学位论文andability&skillaboutstudents’aims;emotionandattitudeingrammarteaching,forherbeliefoncultivatestudents’attitudeinreadinginstructionandheremphasisonlearningEnglishinjoywasaresultofbeingtiringofherownEnglishteachers’preferenceformultiplechoice;Althoughbothofthemconductedtheclassina“3P”process,MissBwas“3P”:presentation,“3P”:presentation,relativelyunfamiliarKOGIpracticeandpracticeandwiththeprocess,asproduction;production;aresultofhernon-teachereducationstudentidentity;BothofthemReorganizetheNon-useoftherealizedthetextbook;addextratextbook;limitationoftheKCGIteachingmaterials;completelyreferringtextbook,whichwasassociatethepresenttomaterialsfrominlackofanteachingcontentwithInternet,otherindependentpartforthepreviouslearnttextbooks;associategrammar70 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussioncontent;thepresentteachinginstruction;whilecontentwiththeMissAusedsomeofpreviouslearnttheactivitiesinthecontent;textbook,MissBdroppedthepresenttextbookandusedmaterialsfromothersourcescompletely,whichmightbearesultofMissB’snon-exposuretothetextbookbefore;besides,bothofthemcanassociatethepreviouslearntcontent,buttheyweredifferentintheirmanagementoftheassociation.WhileMissAtaughtsuperlativesalongwithcomparatives,MissBspentabout10minutestoreviewcomparativesinadvance,separatedfromtheleadinofsuperlatives;71 西南大学硕士学位论文Thesetwopre-serviceteacherssharedsomestrategiestogether,likevisualsupport,useofstudents’L1andelicitation.ButtheirreasonsforthechoicesofsomestrategieswereVisualsupport,Elicitation;visualdifferent.Forelicitation;useofsupport;conceptualexample,MissAstudents’L1;grouping;KSGIusedelicitationtoexemplification;summarizing;drawstudents’repetitionofkeytranslation;useofattentionwhileMisswords;students’L1;usedittotrainstudents’abilityinsummarizing.Besides,theirchoicesondifferentstrategiesresultedfromtheirjudgmentonstudents’instantperformance,thatis,theinstantcontext;UnderstandingofUnderstandingofBothofthemstudents’priorstudents’interest,hadsomeknowledge;priorknowledgeandknowledgeaboutKSUGpredictionsonpredictionsontheirstudents’priorstudents’difficultiesdifficultiesandknowledgeandandmisconceptions;misconceptions;couldpredict72 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionstudents’difficultiestosomeextent;ExplicitknowledgeBothofthemhadaaboutthesoundknowledgeExplicitknowledgeterminologiesandabouttheunderlyingaboutthegrammaticalrules;systemofthetargetterminologiesanddealingconfidentlygrammar,andtheygrammaticalrules;withstudents’couldapplythisKAGbreakingdownspontaneousknowledgeinthegrammarpoints;questions;teachingpracticeanalyzinggrammarexplaininggrammareffectivelytomakefromlearners’tostudentswithoutthegrammarperspective.complexaccessibletometalanguage.students.5.2FactorsthatImpactonPre-serviceEFLTeachers’PCKThroughourdiscussionontheaboveanalysisofthesetwopre-serviceEnglishteachers’PCKforgrammarinstruction,andtheirbeliefsongrammarinstructionbystimulatedrecallandinterview,wecouldfindthatthefactorsthathaveinfluencedtheseteachers’PCKforgrammarinstructionmainlycomefromtwobroadcategories,thatis,personalfactorsandexternalfactors.5.2.1Personalfactors5.2.1.1PersonalEnglishlearningexperiencesWhenaskedabouttheirexperiencesinlearningEnglishandhowtheseexperiencesimpactedontheirowngrammarinstruction,bothMissAandMissBmentioned,theyhadbeeninfluencedbytheirmiddleschoolEnglishteachers’waysofteachinggrammarmoreorless.MissAnoted,Iwasquitefamiliarwiththetextbook(i.e.Goforit)weusednow,becauseIalsouseditin73 西南大学硕士学位论文juniorhighschool.Althoughitsversionhaschangedalot,theknowledgepointshavebeenthesame.So,duringmyteaching,sometimesIwouldthinkbackhowmyEnglishteachertaughtcomparativesandsuperlatives.IwouldevenusewhatIcoulduseintheclass.SomeexamplesIusedintheclasswerecitedfrommynotebookwhenIwaslearningcomparativesinthemiddleschool(MissA:Pre-observationInterview7,Oct.21,2015).MissBalsoexplainedhowherEnglishlearningexperiencesimpressedonherpresentteachingasfollowing,WhenIwasinjuniorhighschool,myEnglishteacheremphasizedalotingrammarexplanation.Shewouldaskustodoalotofmultiple-choiceexercisesinandaftertheclass.Iwasquitetiredofthesekindsofexercises.AlthoughIknewgrammarwasquiteimportant,Istillthinkitwasratherboring.Therefore,whenIwasaskedtogiveagrammarclassinthepracticum,Ididn’tliketouseanymultiplechoice,andIjustwantmygrammarclasstobeinteresting(MissB:Pre-observationInterview9,Oct.25,2015).FromwhatMissAandMissBsaid,wecouldseethattheyeitherlearnedfromorreflectedontheirpreviousEnglishlearningexperiencesandmadeadjustmentduringtheirrealclassroomteaching.5.2.1.2PersonalexperiencesinEnglishteachingeducationThesetwopre-serviceteachers’PCKforreadinginstructioncouldn’tbeseparatedfromtheirpreviouslearningonEnglishteachingtheories.Bothofthesetwopre-serviceteachersarepostgraduatesmajoringinEnglishteaching.Duringtheirpostgraduatelearning,theyhavehadclassesrelatedtoEnglishteaching,likeforeignlanguagelearningstrategies,SLA,pedagogicalpsychology,andsoon.Thesepedagogicalcourseshaveexertedsomeinfluenceontheirteachingpractice.Forexample,MissB’sbeliefinhelpingstudentsdevelopexploringlearningwaspartiallyinfluencedbyherbeliefin“Givingthestudentfishisnotbetterthanteachinghimfishing”gotinoneofhercoursescalledforeignlanguagelearningstrategies.However,MissAwasanormalstudentinherundergraduatestudywhileMissBwasnot.ThisdifferenceresultedintheirdifferentknowledgeaboutEnglishteachingmethods.MissAhadaclearideaofthe“3P”modelforgrammarinstruction,whileMissBlearnedthetermwhenallthestudent-teachersdiscussedtheirteachingplantogether.Experiencesinlearningteachingtheoriesandmethodsmadeteachersmoreclear74 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionaboutwhattheyweredoingintheclassandweremoreconfidentoftheirteaching.5.2.1.3PersonalexperiencesinteachingpracticesBeforereceivinganywayofteachingpractice,pre-serviceEnglishteachers’knowledgeaboutteachingremainedatthetheoreticallevel.MissAhashada5-yearnormaleducationexperience,hasalreadyattendedteachingpracticumonceinherundergraduatestudy,andhashadmanytimes’experiencesasanEnglishtutor.Theteachingexperiences,shenoted,helpedher“getfamiliaraboutthetextbooks”,“havesomeunderstandingofstudents’difficulties”,“learnsomeknowledgeaboutteachingmethod”,“learntodealwithsomeemergenciesintheclass”(MissA:Pre-observationInterview8,Oct.21,2015),andsoon.ButMissAalsobelievedthat“therewasalongwaytogotobeagoodteacher”and“neededmorechancestoimproveherself”(MissA:Post-observationInterview1,Oct.25,2015).UnlikeMissA,MissBdidn’tgraduateasanormalstudentinundergraduatestudyandthoughtsheherselfwaslackofknowledgeonteachingmethods.Shefeltthat,althoughsometimesshecould“guess”whatstudentsneedtolearn，shecouldonly“explorehowtoteachthroughrealteachingpractice”(MissB:Post-observationInterview3,Oct.31,2015).5.2.2Externalfactors5.2.2.1MacroeducationalcontextinChinaRecentyears,thegovernmenthaspublishedsomefilesonthereformonEnglishteachinginourcountry.Pre-serviceteachers’understandingofthereformwillundoubtedlyinfluencehowtheythinkandteachintherealforeignlanguageteachingclassroom.Forexample,theleadingprinciplesthatguidedMissAtosetherobjectivesforgrammarinstructionwasinlinewiththespiritoftheEnglishCurriculumStandards(2011).MissA’sunderstandingofthereform,encouragedhertoreflectonthechoiceofteachingmaterials,waysofteaching,strategiestoexplainthegrammar,andsoonsoforth.Furthermore,consideringthehigh-stakeenvironmentinChina,thesetwoteacherscouldn’tgivetheirclasseswithoutthinkingoftheexaminations.ThisiswhyMissAwouldusetranslationandmultiple-choiceexercisesintheclass.75 西南大学硕士学位论文5.2.2.2TrainingfromtheteachingandresearchinggrouptheybelongedtoTheschoolwherethesetwostudentteachershadtheirteachingpracticehadarathergoodteachingandresearchgroup,inwhichtherewereexcellentandexperiencedteachers.Everyweek,theteachingandresearchgroupwouldholdameeting,discussingthecontentandtasksforthisweek.Allofthestudentteachersattendingtheteachingpracticumwouldtakepartinthemeeting,includingthetwopre-serviceteachersunderresearch.Afterreceivingthetasksgivenbytheteachingandresearchinggroup,alltheteacherswouldstarttocollectandprepareteachingmaterials,andcomeupwiththeirownteachingplans.Forthestudentteachers,preparingtheclassindependentlywasn’taneasytask.Itwasdifficultforthemtosetappropriateteachingobjectives,clearandlogicteachingprocedures,difficultandimportantpointsbasedonstudents’presentlanguagelevel,andtouseeffectiveteachingstrategies.Atthistime,bothMissAandMissBwouldliketoaskforhelpfromtheirmentorsbydiscussingtheirteachingplanswiththeirmentorsandaskingforsuggestionsfromthem.Afterwards,theteachingandreachinggroupwouldhaveameetingonceagain,discussingthedetailsfortheclass,makingtheteachingplantogether,andsharingtheirteachingmaterialstogether.BothMissAandMissBpointedout,theylearnedalotbylisteningto,discussingin,andreflectingontheteachingandresearchingmeetings.BasedontheirexistedPCK,thesetwoteachersconstantlyamendedandimprovedtheirPCKduringtheprocessofreflecting.5.2.2.3LearningfromthecommunityofpracticemadeupbyallthestudentteachersThesetwostudentteachersamendedandimprovedtheirPCKnotonlybylearningfromexperiencedteachersintheteachingandresearchinggroup,butalsofromthecommunityofpractice(hereaftershortenedasCOP)(Lave&Wenger,1991)formedbyallthestudentteachersattendingtheteachingpracticum.AccordingtoWenger(2002),COPcouldbesimplydefinedas“groupsofpeoplewhoshareaconcernorapassionforsomethingtheydoandlearnhowtodoitbetterastheyinteractedregularly”.OninvitingtogivethefirsttwoperiodsofUnit4,allthestudentteacherscametogetheranddiscussedtheteachingplantogether.Duringtheprocess,eachmemberinthecommunitysharedtheirknowledge,teachingmaterialsandideaswitheachotherand76 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionlearnedfromeachother.ThebestexamplecouldbeseenfromwhatwediscussedaboutMissB’sknowledgeaboutthe“3P”modelforgrammarinstruction.Throughthelearningcommunity,MissBgottoknowtheidea,meaning,stepsof“3P”model,andthus,herPCKforgrammarinstruction,inparticular,herknowledgeabouttheorganizationwasimproved.77 ChapterSixFindingsandConclusion6.1MajorFindingsofthisStudyTheresultsinChapter5revealedthatbothofthetwomiddleschoolpre-serviceteachershadstoredsomeknowledgeofthesixkindsofPCKforgrammarinstructiontosomeextent.Thepresentresearchrevealed,byarangeofdatacollectionmethods,therealizationofthesetwoteachers’PCKforgrammarinstructioninteachingpracticeandthepersonalandexternalfactorsthatinfluencedtheirPCK.ConsideringthesixtypesofPCKforgrammarinstruction,thesetwoteachersunderresearchhadbothsimilaritiesanddiversities.Thesimilarcharacteristicwasfirstshownintheircorrectunderstandingofthepurposeofgrammarinstructioninmiddleschool,thatis,goingbeyondthedeliveryofgrammaticalrules,andreachingthelevelofimprovingstudents’abilitytousethegrammarinreallife.However,therewassomethingdifferentintheexplicitnessinthepresentationofthegrammaticalrules.MissApresentedonebyonetherulesexplicitlyanddirectlytothestudentsbyherself,withthelearnersbeing“silentnote-takers”,whileMissBpreferredtoencouragestudentstofindtherulesbythemselvesowingtoherobjectiveindevelopingstudents’abilityinexploringlearning.Whatneedspecialmentionwasthat,althoughthesetwostudentteachersclaimtohelpdevelopstudents’communicativeskills,someoftheiractivitieswerestillexaminationoriented,duetothepressurefromhigh-stakeexaminationsandlimitedtimeintheclass.AndtheyalsofailedtoencouragestudentstotalkinEnglish,sincemanystudentswouldliketodiscusswiththeirgroupmembersinChinese.Thus,thetensionbetweentheirteachingbeliefsandtheirteachingperformanceinrealclassroomwasobvious.Thesecondsimilarityliedintheirorganizationofthesetwoperiodsofgrammarteaching:presentation,practice(includingbothmechanicalandmeaningfulpractice)andproduction.Butthetypesofactivitiesandthetimeallottedtoeachstagewerequitedifferent.Forexample,MissAspentabouttenminutesinthepresentationpart,whileMissBspentalmosthalfanhour.Moreover,bothofthetwoteachershadsomeunderstandingaboutthecurriculumofgrammarinstruction,beingabletoreorganizethe78 ChapterSixFindingsandConclusiontextbook,makeuseofrelatedextrateachingmaterials,andrelatedwhatthepreviouslearnedcontentwiththepresentone.However,MissBwasrelativelylimitedinthefamiliarityofthetextbooksheusedduetoherlackofteachingpracticesbeforethepracticum.Theirsimilaritieswerealsoevidentintheiruseofsomepedagogicalstrategiestomaketheirgrammaticalexplanationaccessibletotheirstudents,buttheywerediverseintheirchoiceofthetypesofthestrategies.However,thetypesofstrategieswerequitelimitedandlackofflexibility.Bothofthesetwostudentteachershadsomeunderstandingofandcouldmakeuseoftheirstudents’priorknowledgeandcouldpredictstudents’difficultiestosomeextent.However,duetotheirlimitedexperiencesinteachinginrealclass,theyhadmissedsomeofthepointswherestudentswouldliketomakemistakes.Thelastsimilaritycouldbeseenintheirsoundknowledgeofthetargetgrammartheywereengagedtoteach.Theresultsalsoshowedthattherealizationofthesetwopre-servicemiddleschoolEFLteachers’PCKforgrammarinstructionwaspredominantlyinfluencedbysomepersonalfactorsandexternalfactorsaswell.PersonalfactorsincludetheirexperiencesinEnglishlearning,Englishteachingeducation,andteachingpractices.Regardingexternalfactors,theEnglisheducationalcontextinChina,theteachingandresearchinggroupthesetwostudentteachersbelongedto,andtheCOPmadeupbyallofthestudentteachersattendingthepracticumhadprofoundimpactsontheirPCKforgrammarinstruction.6.2ImplicationsofthisStudyWehope,throughthediscussiononthecomponentsofEnglishpre-serviceteachers’PCKforgrammarinstruction,andhowthesecomponentswasembodiedandrealizedinteachingpracticeaswellasthefactorsthatimpactontheconstructionanddevelopmentoftheirPCKforgrammarinstruction,thepresentresearchcouldgivesomeinsightstoteachereducationprogramsinourcountry.6.2.1Reinforcementinstudentteachers’learningonsubjectmatterknowledgeandpedagogicalknowledgeSubjectmatterknowledgeisthefirstimportantsourcesofPCK,andpedagogicalknowledgeisoneoftheimportantelementsofPCK(WangYuping,2013).Foreign79 西南大学硕士学位论文languageteachersshouldfirsthaveasoundcommandoftheEnglishlanguageandlanguageskills.ThesystematicunderstandingoftheEnglishlanguageenablesthemtoillustratelanguagephenomenonmoreconfidentlyandaccuratelyintheirrealclassroomteaching,helpsthemresponsetothestudents’questionsandopinionsmoreappropriately,andguidesthemtochooseteachingmaterialsandstrategiesmoreflexibly.Apartfromsubjectmatterknowledge,studentteachersshouldalsobeequippedwithasolidfoundationofpedagogicalknowledge,whichassistedtheminthedesignandimplementofteachingplans,andintheadjustmentofpedagogicaltechniques.Researchers,likeWuYian(2005)exertedmuchimportanceonthesignificanceofpsychologyandpedagogyinforeignlanguageteaching,believingthesekindsofknowledgewereaninseparablepartofforeignlanguageteacherknowledgebase.However,thelearningofpedagogicalknowledgewasbynomeansa“waitandget”fromtheteachereducators,rather,studentteachersshouldbeencouragedtoconstructtheirknowledgewiththehelpofteachingtheoriesfromtheoutsideandownunderstandinginthepractice.6.2.2EmphasisonteachingpracticesandteachingreflectionPCKisinnatureatypeofpracticalknowledge.Teachers,basedontheinstantinstructionalcontext,transformedpedagogicalknowledgeandsubjectmatterknowledgestoredinmindtothekindofknowledgethatiscomprehensibletotheirstudents.Itisformedinadynamic,generativeandconstructiveprocess(Cochranetal,1993).Thatistosay,teachersshouldexploreandgeneratetheirPCKinpractice.Studentteachers,becauseoftheirlimitedexposuretorealforeignlanguageclassroom,shouldbeencouragedtotakepartindifferentkindsofteachingpractices.Universitiescouldalsokeepacooperativerelationshipwithsecondaryschools,helpingcreatemorechancesfortheirstudentteacherstoputwhatthemlearnedinclassintopractice.Studentteachers,throughreflectingontheirperformanceintheteachingpractices,couldaccumulatetheirexperiencesinrealteaching.Theexpertteachersarecalled“experts”becausetheycanhavedeepandeffectivereflectionontheirteaching,theyaregoodatfindingquestionsintheirteaching,usingthepedagogicaltheoriestoguidetheirteaching,andtheycanevengeneratetheirownteachingtheorythroughpractice.80 ChapterSixFindingsandConclusionTeachingdairiescanbeagoodchoiceforteacherstodoteachingreflection.Studentteachersshouldhavethehabitofkeepingateachingdairybefore,duringandaftertheteachingpractices.6.2.3ConstructionofcommunityofpracticeAlthoughteachingskillscannotbetransferredfromoneteachertoanother,andteachingbeliefsareimplicitanddifficulttoobserve.Studentteachers,throughdiscussingwiththeirpeers,expertteachersliketheirmentorsinthemiddleschoolandsupervisorsintheuniversity,canmaketheirbeliefsandexperiencesexplicitly,thuspromotingtheirexperiencestobegrown.Withtheirmembersinthecommunity,theycanexchangetheirideas,findtheirproblems,askforhelp,andsharematerialsandlearnformeachother.Inthecommunity,allthememberscanhave“differentstructuresforthesameclass”.Throughobservingandreflectingonothers’classes,individualstudentteacherscanmakeprogressintheirunderstandingofteaching.Theinteractionbetweenandamongthecommunitymemberscanthushelpimprovestudentteachers’teachingskills,andformtheirownPCK.6.3LimitationsofthisStudyThepresentresearchwasatrytoexplorethecomponentsandinfluentialfactorsofmiddleschoolpre-serviceEnglishteachers’PCKforgrammarinstruction.Lookingbacktothewholeresearchprocess,thisstudyhadsomelimitationsandshortcomingsconsideringtheresearchmethod,thelimitedresearchlengthandresearchmethods.Firstofall,itisaboutthelimitationoncasestudy.Thepresentstudyadoptedacasestudyapproach,oneformofqualitativeresearch.Qualitativeresearchhaslongbeencriticizedforitslackofabilitytogeneralizeitsresultsandfindings.Thesameistruewiththiscasestudy.Wehadonlytwosubjects,comingfromthesameuniversityandthesamegrad,havingalotincommon.Therefore,wecannotconcludethatourfindingsaresuitableforallthepre-serviceEnglishteachers.However,theglamourofqualitativeresearchistopresentthereaderwiththedataasnaturallyaspossible,andleavesthereadertoillustrateandreflectonthedatabythemselves.Throughthereflection,heorshecaneitheragreeordisagreewiththefindingsproposedbytheauthor,andisinspired81 西南大学硕士学位论文tobegintheirownresearch.Secondly,thelimitationontheresearchlengthanddepthshouldbeadmitted.Sincethesetwosubjects’practicumwasquiteshort,abouthalfandonemonths,theresearchcouldnottracethetwosubjectsforalongertime.What’sworse,thesubjectswereaskedtogiveonlytwoperiodsofclassesofonlyoneunit,sothepresentstudycouldonlyhave2classroomobservationsforeachsubject,4intotal.Asaresult,wecouldnotseehowthesetwosubjectsbehaveforanotherunit.Thatwasquitedisappointing.Lastbutnottheleast,itisaboutthelimitationontheresearchers’abilityinanalyzingthedata.Thisresearchincludedalargevarietyofdatasources,likeclassroomobservation,pre-andpost-interviewsforpre-serviceteachers,theirstudents,andmentors,teachingplans,PPT,stimulatedrecall,etc..Thetranscriptionoftheclassroomobservationandstimulatedrecallweretime-consumingandpatience-enduring.Thelargeamountofthedataandthelimitedabilityinqualitativedataanalysisresultedintheincompleteanalysisandevensomemissinsomepoints.6.4SuggestionsforFutureResearchConsideringtheabovelimitationsandshortcomingsofthepresentresearch,theauthorwouldliketocontinuetoobservethesetwoteachersgrammarclassesandkeepintouchwiththemduringtheirfirstoneortwoyears’teachingcareer.Futureresearchcouldgoontotestifytheeffectivenessoftheframeworkonthecomponentsofpre-serviceEnglishteachers’PCKforgrammarinstructionthroughdeeperqualitativestudyorwiderquantitativestudies,likedesigningaquestionnairebasedonthesixdimensionsoftheframeworkproposedinthisresearch.Theauthor,ifpossible,alsohasthethoughtofexploringtherelationshipbetweenthesixcomponentsinfutureresearch.82 ReferencesAndrews,S.(1993).ThegrammaticalawarenessandknowledgeofHongKongteachers’ofEnglish.PaperpresentedattheAnnualInternationalLanguageinEducationConference,HongKong,China.Andrews,S.(2001).ThelanguageawarenessoftheL2teacher:Itsimpactuponpedagogicalpractice.LanguageAwareness,10(2),75-90.Andrews,S.(2003).TeacherlanguageawarenessandtheprofessionalknowledgebaseoftheL2teacher.LanguageAwareness,12(2),81-95.Andrews,S.(2007).Teacherlanguageawareness.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Borg,S.(1998).Teachers’pedagogicalsystemsandgrammarteaching:Aqualitativestudy.TESOLQuarterly,32(1),9-38.Borg,S.(2003a).Teachercognitioningrammarteaching:Aliteraturereview.LanguageAwareness,12(2),96-108.Borg,S.(2003b).Teachercognitioninlanguageteaching:Areviewofresearchonwhatlanguageteachersthink,know,believe,anddo.LanguageTeaching,36(2),81–109.Calderhead,J.(1981).Stimulatedrecall:Amethodforresearchonteaching.BritishJournalofEducationalPsychology,51(2),211-217.Cochran,K.F.,DeRuiter,J.A.&King,R.A.(1993).Pedagogicalcontentknowing:Anintegrativemodelforteacherpreparation.JournalofTeacherEducation,44(4):263-272.thCohen,L.,Manion,L.,&Morrison,K.(2007).Researchmethodsineducation(5ed.).London:RoutledgeFalmer.Connelly,F.M.,&Clandinin,D.J.(1986).Onnarrativemethod,personalphilosophyandnarrativeunitiesinthestoryofteaching.JournalofResearchinScienceTeaching,23(4),293-310.CreswellJ.W.(1998).Qualitativeinquiryresearchdesign:Choosingamongfivetraditions.ThousandOsks,CA:Sage.83 西南大学硕士学位论文Croswell,J.W.(2009).Researchdesign:Qualitative,quantitative,andmixedmethodsrdapproaches(3ed.).ThousandOsks,CA:Sage.Creswell,J.W.(2013).Qualitativeinquiryresearchdesign:Choosingamongfiverdapproaches(3ed.).ThousandOsks,CA:Sage.Duff,P.A.(2008).Casestudyresearchinappliedlinguistics.NewYork:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates.Ellis,R.(2001).Investigatingform-focusedinstruction.LanguageLearning,51(2),281-318.thGall,M.D.,Gall,J.P.,&Borg,W.T.(2003).Educationalresearch(7ed.).WhitePlains,NY:PearsonEducation.Gass,S.M.,&Selinker,L.(2008).Secondlanguageacquisition:Anintroductorycourse.London:Routledge.Grossman,P.L.(1990).Themakingofateacher:Teacherknowledgeandteachereducation.NewYork:TeacherCollegePress.Hashweh,Z.M.(2005).Teacherpedagogicalconstructions:Areconfigurationofpedagogicalcontentknowledge.TeachersandTeachingTheoryandPractice.11(3):273-292.Igra,D.(2009).Waysofreading,waysofteaching:Literarytheoryasareadingstrategy.Unpublisheddoctorialdissatation,StandfordUniversity,SanFrancisco.Johnston,B.,&Goettsch,K.(2000).Insearchoftheknowledgebaseoflanguageteaching:Explanationsbyexperiencedteachers.TheCanadianModernLanguageReview,56(3),437–468.Lave,J.&Wenger,E.(1991).Situatedlearning:Legitimateperipheralparticipation.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Lincolnn,Y.,&Guba,E.G.(1985).Naturalisticinquiry.BeverlyHills:Sage.ndMerriam,S.(1998).Qualitativeresearchandcasestudyapplicationsineducation(2ed.).SanFrancisco:JosseyBass.Pahissa,I.,&Tragant,E.(2009).Grammarandthenon-nativesecondaryschoolteacherinCatalonia.LanguageAwareness,18(1),47-60.Park,S.,&Oliver,S.(2008).Nationalboardcertification(NBC)asacatalystforteachers’learningaboutteaching:TheeffectsoftheNBCprocessoncandidate84 Referencesteachers’PCKdevelopment.JournalofResearchinSecienceTeaching.45(7),812-834.Perkins,M.(1999).Learningtoreadandlearningtoteachreading.EnglishinEducation,33(3),62-69.Phipps,S.,&Borg,S.(2009).Exploringtensionsbetweenteachers’grammarteachingbeliefsandpractices.System,37(3),380-390.Sanchez,H.S.,&Borg,S.(2014).InsightsintoL2teachers’pedagogicalcontentknowledge:Acognitiveperspectiveontheirgrammarexplanations.System,44(1),45-53.Shulman,L.S.(1986a).Theparadigmsandresearchprogramsinthestudyofteaching:Acontemporaryperspective.InM.Wittrock(Ed.),Handbookofresearchonrdteaching,(3ed.,pp.3-36).NewYork:Macmillan.Shulman,L.S.(1986b).Thosewhounderstand:knowledgegrowthinteaching.EducationalResearcher,15(2),4-14.Shulman,L.S.(1987).Knowledge-baseandteaching:foundationsofthenewreform.HarvardEducationalReview,57(1),1-22.Stake,R.(2005).Qualitativecasestudies.InN.K.Denzin&Y.S.Lincoln(Eds.),rdHandbookofqualitativeresearch(3ed.,pp.443-466).ThousandOaks,CA:Sage.Thornbury,S.(1997).Aboutlanguage.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Tusi,A.B.M.(2003).Understandingexpertiseinteaching.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Wenger,E.,McDermeott,R.,&Snyder,W.(2002).Cultivatingcommunityofpractice:Aguidetomanagingknowledge.Cambridge,MA:HarvardBusinessSchoolPress.rdWittrock,M.(1986).Handbookofresearchonteaching(3.ed.).NewYork:Macmillan.Wilson,S.M.,Shulman,L.S.,&Richert,E.R.(1987).‘150differentways’ofknowing:Representationofknowledgeinteaching.InJ.Calderhead(Ed.),Exploringteachers’thinking(pp.104-124).NewYork:TaylorandFrancis.ndYin,R.K.(2003).Casestudyresearch(2ed.).ThousandOaks,CA:Sage.方红兰，2011，课例研究在促进英语新手教师专业学习中的作用，硕士学位论文，南京师范大学。85 西南大学硕士学位论文国家中长期教育改革和发展纲要（2010-2020），2010，北京：中国法制出版社。韩刚，2011，《英语教师学科教学知识的建构》。上海：上海外语教育出版社。刘燕楠，2014，教师“新教学知识观”的建构：从形成学科教学知识到声称学科教学认知，《教育理论与实践》，34（29）：26-28。吕均、董晓秋，2010，职前外语教师学科教学知识研究，《外语教学理论与实践》，4(1)：64-70。潘小明，2015，学科教学知识（PCK）的理论及其发展，《教育探索》，1：20-28。彭元玲，2007，论FLT的学科教学知识，《外语界》，4：28-36。王艳玲，2007，近20年来教师知识研究的回顾与反思，《全球教育展望》，2：39-43。王玉萍，2013，论外语教师PCK发展路径，《外语界》，2：69-75。吴江林、林荣凑、俞小平，2013，《课堂观察LICC模式：课例集》。上海：华东师范大学出版社吴一安，2005，优秀外语教师专业素质探究，《外语教学与研究》，37（3）：199-205。吴一安，2007，《中国高校英语教师教育与发展研究》。北京：外语教学与研究出版社。解书，2013，小学数学教师学科教学知识的结构及特征分析，博士学位论文，东北师范大学。于斌，2014，基于英语学科教学知识（EPCK）的语法教学设计——以虚拟语气课堂教学为例，《中学生英语》，12：44-46。郑志辉，2014，职前教师学科教学知识发展：理论基础与建构模式，《教育理论与实践》，34（20）：35-37。赵晓光，2015，中学英语教师学科教学知识的特征及影响因素研究，博士学位论文，东北师范大学。中华人民共和国教育部，2012，《义务教育英语课程标准（2011年版）》。北京：北京师范大学出版社。中华人民共和国教育部，2014，《教育部关于实施卓越教师培养计划的意见》。http://www.moe.edu.cn/publicfiles/business/htmlfiles/moe/s7011/201408/174307.html.邹为成，2009，中国基础教育阶段外语教师的职前教育研究，《外语教学理论与实践》，1（1）：1-16。86 AppendicesAppendixALetterofConsent亲爱的老师：您好！首先非常感谢您在百忙之中抽空查看我的来信。我是西南大学外国语学院2013级研究生王明霞（已做匿名处理）。此次来信的目的是邀请您参加我的研究。我的研究是关于职前英语教师语法教学学科教学知识（PCK）的构成要素和影响因素。学科教学知识是与特定内容相关的教学知识，是学科内容知识和一般教学法知识的融合，是学科教师如何将学科内容知识在教学实践中“转化”为易于学生理解的知识。对职前教师学科教学知识的研究将有助于探索职前教师专业成长道路，促进教师专业素质的提高。此外，职前教师是一个值得我们关注的群体。职前教师通过在校期间教学理论及学科专业知识的学习，在参与各种教学实践，如教育实习、教育培训机构任教等，逐渐转化、形成属于自己的学科教学知识。但是，由于教学经验的缺乏，其学科教学知识可能还存在不完善的地方。因此，我希望通过对职前教师的研究，能够给教师教育项目和职前教师本身提供一定的启示。如果您认为该研究有价值，感兴趣，也愿意加入此次研究，我希望在您参加本学期的教育实习时，对您进行两次课堂观察，并将其录像。此外，我还将就您的英语学习、英语教育学习、教育实践经验等方面进行两、三次访谈。最后，我也希望您能与我一同观看我所拍摄的课堂录像，并就其中一些环节或课堂行为进行解释。为保护您的隐私，研究中我将进行匿名处理，绝不透漏您的身份，恪守学术道德规范。此外，如果您想知道研究的结果，也欢迎您阅读我的研究报告，提出您宝贵的建议。如果您愿意参加我的研究或者是有任何问题，您可以通过邮件或电话与我联系。我的邮箱是：**********，手机号码是***********。期待您的加入！万分感谢！希望得到您的答复！祝您：实习顺利，工作如意，心想事成！王明霞2015年9月DearMiss,Thankyouforreadingmyletterduringyourbusydays.I’mWangMingxia,apostgraduatefromCollegeofInternationalStudies,SouthwestUniversity.I’mwritingtoinviteyoutotakepartinmyresearch.87 西南大学硕士学位论文Thetopicofmyresearchisthecomponentsandinfluentialfactorspfpre-serviceEnglishteachers’pedagogicalcontentknowledge(PCK)forgrammarinstruction.PCKisakindofpedagogicalknowledgeassociatedwithacertainsubject.Itisanintegrationofsubjectmatterknowledgeandgeneralpedagogicalknowledge.PCKisabouthowteachersofaparticularsubject“transfer”hisorhersubjectmattercontenttoakindofknowledgethatiseasyforstudentstounderstand.Thestudyonpre-serviceteachers’PCKcanhelpusexplorehowpre-serviceteachersgrowandimprove,andcanhelppromoteteachers’professionalism.Besides,pre-serviceteachersarealsoacommunitythatdeservesourattention.Pre-serviceteachers,throughyearsofteachereducationduringtheiruniversitystudy,andtrainingfromdifferentkindsofteachingpracticesliketeachingpracticum,tutoring,etc.,graduallyformanddeveloptheirownPCK.However,becauseoftheirlimitedexposuretorealteachingexperiences,theirPCKmaynotbesoperfect.Therefore,Ihopethestudyonpre-serviceteachers,cangivesomeimplicationsforteachereducationprogramsandpre-serviceteacherthemselves.Ifyouareinterestedinmyresearch,andarewillingtotakepartinit,Iwouldliketohavetwoclassroomobservationswhenyouarehavingyourteachingpracticum,andI’dliketovideo-tapeyourclassesaswell.Besides,IhopeIcanhavetwoorthreeinterviewsonyourexperiencesofEnglishlearning,teachingeducationandteachingpractices.Atlast,I’dalsoliketoinviteyoutowatchthevideoItapedandanswersomequestionsabouttheclasses.Throughouttheresearch,Iwouldfollowtheacademicrulesandethic.Iwouldnotuseyourrealnamesoastoprotectyourprivacy.Furthermore,Ifyouwanttoknowtheresultsoftheresearch,welcometoreadmyreportandgiveyourprecioussuggestions.Ifyouarewillingtotakepartinmyresearchorifyouhaveanyquestions,youcancontactmebyemailortelephone.Lookforwardtoyourreplyandparticipation!Thankyou!Email:***********Telephone:*************Yourssincere,WangMingxia88 AppendixBObservationFormofPre-serviceEFLEnglishTeachers’PCKforGrammarInstruction职前英语教师语法教学中的学科教学知识观察量表学校班级学生人数课时教师主题课型观察者日期观察点1职前英语教师语法教学目的设置及达成情况教学环节及教师活效果教学目标学生行为表现分析和建议动ABCD89 西南大学硕士学位论文观察点2职前英语教师语法教学课堂组织及活动设计情况各步骤的教学教学过程耗时教师活动学生活动分析和建议目的观察点3职前英语教师语法教学课程资源使用情况项目活动内容活动时间分析和建议围绕教材内容进行的练习对教材内容进行增添、删除、调整等处理与之前或往后要学习的内容相联系90 AppendixBObservationFormofPre-serviceEFLTeachers’PCKforGrammarInstruction学习教材内容的总时间及其所占全课时时间比分钟（％）观察点4职前英语教师学生语法学习学情的了解情况及应对措施项目教师课前预测学生课堂表现教师应对措施分析和建议学生兴趣学生关于目标语法的先前知识和经验学生关于目标语法的学习困难或错误理解观察点5职前英语对教师语法知识的了解情况项目是否有所表现教师行为学生行为分析和建议对目标语法术语及语法规则的了解教学对话中对意义语言的意识从学生的角度反91 西南大学硕士学位论文思和分析语法根据教学目的合理分解语法知识点回避复杂的元语言解释语法知识点正确判断学生对目标语法的使用是否可接受自信、从容应对学生即兴、自发的提问其它观察点6职前英语教师语法教学策略的使用情况效果策略类型次数教学过程及示例分析及建议ABCDExemplificationTranslationRepetitionAnalogiesMetaphorsImagesUseofL1Elicitation92 AppendixBObservationFormofPre-serviceEFLTeachers’PCKforGrammarInstructionVisualreportSummarizingConceptualgrouping其它注：1)在“效果”一栏中，A表示效果显著；B表示效果一般；C表示效果较不理想；D表示效果非常不理想；2)本研究所设计的观察量表参考了吴江林等人（2013）所编著的《课堂观察LICC模式：课例集》中的英语学科课堂观察范例；3)观察点5“项目”一栏中所涉及的内容参考了Andrews（1993）ThegrammaticalawarenessandknowledgeofHongKongteachers’ofEnglish一文中所指出的EFL教师语法意识的构成要素；4)观察点6中所涉及的内容参考了H.S.Sanchez&S.Borg(2014)InsightintoL2teachers’pedagogicalcontentknowledge:Acognitiveperspectiveontheirgrammarexplanations一文中指出的二语教师语法解释策略类型。Notes:1)Inthecolumnof“effects”,Astandsforprettygood,Brelativelygood,Cforrelativelybad,andDforratherbad;2)TheaboveobservationformstookareferenceofTheLICCmodelofclassroomobservation:AcollectionofexampleclasseswrittenbyWuJianglinetal.;3)“Items”inobservationpoint5tookareferenceofthecomponentsofEFLteachergrammaticalawarenessandknowledgeinThegrammaticalawarenessandknowledgeofHongKongteachers’ofEnglishbyAndrews（1993）4)“Items”inobservationpoint6tookareferenceofsecondlanguageteachers’strategiesforgrammaticalexplanationinInsightintoL2teachers’pedagogicalcontentknowledge:AcognitiveperspectiveontheirgrammarexplanationsbyH.S.Sanchez&S.Borg(2014)93 AppendixCPre-observationInterviewProtocolfortheseTwoPre-serviceEFLTeachers1.请简单介绍一下您的英语学习经历、英语师范教育（如您选修的课程）及英语教学实践经历（如教育实习、培训机构任教及家庭教师）。这些经历对您从事英语教学有何影响？PleasehaveabriefintroductionofyourexperiencesofEnglishlearningEnglishteachingeducation(e.g.thecoursesyouhavetaken)andyourEnglishteachingpractice(e.g.yourteachingpracticum,teachingintrainingschoolortutoring).WhatinfluencedotheseexperienceshaveonyourEnglishteaching?2.您认为中学英语语法教学的目的是什么？在英语语法教学中，学生最应该掌握和发展的知识、能力或技能是什么？WhatdoyouthinkisthepurposeofteachingEnglishgrammar?Andduringthegrammarinstruction,whataretheknowledgeorskillsthatstudentsneedtomasterordevelop?3.您在设计本模块语法教学时，是如何设定语法教学目标的？您在制定本课的语法教学目标时，考虑了哪些因素？Whenyouweredesigningthisgrammarclass,howdidyousettheteachingobjectives?Whatfactorshadyoutakenintoconsiderationwhendecidingyourteachingobjectives?4.此次语法教学，您采用了哪种教学方法？为什么选择该教学模型？Forthisgrammarclass,whatteachingmethoddidyoutake?Whydidyouchoosethisteachingmethod?5.请您描述一下您是如何设计本课的教学过程的？并说明您作出该设计的原因和依据。Pleasedescribeindetailhowdidyoudesigntheteachingproceduresofthisgrammarclass?Andgiveyourreasonsforyourdesign.6.您认为英语语法规则在中学英语教学中是否重要？为什么？DoyouthinkwhethergrammaticalrulesareimportantornotimportantinmiddleschoolEnglishteaching?Why?7.您认为教师可以采取哪些语法教学策略（如：如何帮助学生理解某一语法项目）来进行语法教学？请列举出这些策略。Whatteachingstrategiescanteachersuseinteachinggrammar?Forexample,howcanyouhelpyourstudentsunderstandacertaingrammaritem?Ifyouknow,pleaselistthestrategiesyoucanuse.8.假设现在需要您教学生动词过去式，您将如何做？是先向学生系统地介绍语法规则，还是在实际教学中让学生自己去体验和总结该规则？为什么？Supposeyouhavetoteachstudentsthestructureofthepasttenseofverbs,howwouldyoudo?94 AppendixCPre-observationInterviewProtocolfortheseTwoPre-serviceEFLTeachersWouldyoufirstintroducestudentstherulessystematicallyorguidestudentstoexperienceandsummarizetherulesbythemselvesduringtheclass?Andwhy?9.您对中学生的英语语法水平是否有所了解（特别是您将任教的班级）？您认为学生在学习本单元语法时可能出现的错误有哪些？请一一列举出来。对于这些错误，教师应当如何预测及准备？Howwelldoyouknowaboutmiddleschoolstudents’(especiallythestudentsyouaregoingtogiveclassesto)Englishgrammarlevel?Whatdifficultiesormistakesdoyouthinktheywillmeetinthisgrammarclass?Pleaselistthemonebyone.Howdoyoupreparetodealwiththosedifficultiesormistakes?10.在本课的学习中，您认为学生之前已经具备了哪些知识？具备怎样的相关背景知识？这些知识对您本单元的语法教学有何影响？Forthisunit,whatpriorknowledgeorbackgroundknowledgedoyouthinkstudentshavehad?Andhowdoesthisknowledgeimpactonyourpresentteaching?11.您对英语语法的掌握情况如何？例如是否清楚英语中有哪些重要的语法项目，对各个语法项目的掌握情况以及他们之间的联系等。HowwelldoyouthinkyourEnglishgrammaris?Forexample,doyouhaveaclearknowledgeaboutwhattheimportantgrammaticalitemsthatmiddleschoolstudentsneedtoknow?Orhowwelldoyouknowabouteachgrammaritemandtherelationshipamongtheseitems?12.请列举出本单元将要学习的语法项目(即形容词最高级)所涉及的语法规则(注:请不要参考网络或其它资料)Pleaselisttherulerelatedtothegrammaticalitem(i.e.superlativesofadjectives)thatisgoingtobetaughtinthisunit.(Note:pleasedonotrefertotheinternetorotherresources)13.对于不同的语法项目，您在实际教学中是否会进行不同的处理（如采取不同的语法教学过程，利用不同的教学策略等）？请举例说明。Fordifferentgrammaritems,willyoutakedifferentwaysofteaching?Forexample,willyouusedifferentteachingprocedures,orusedifferentteachingstrategies?Ifyoudo,please,giveanexamplebriefly.14.您对中学语法教学课程标准是否有一定的了解？如果有，请谈谈您对中学英语语法教学课程标准的理解。Doyouhavesomeunderstandingofthecurriculumformiddleschoolgrammarteaching?Ifyoudo,pleasetalkabouthowdoyouunderstandit?15.您对此次实习中使用的教材是否有所了解？请谈谈您对该教材的看法（如它的结构，特点以及是否能够满足您的教学需求等）Doyouknowsomethingaboutthetextbookyouwilluseinthepracticumbefore?Pleasetalk95 西南大学硕士学位论文aboutyourideasonit(suchasits’organization,characteristicsorwhetheritcansatisfyyourteachingneeds,etc.)16.在此次语法教学中，您是否准备了补充材料？都有哪些？用意何在？Forthisgrammarclass,didyoupreparesomeextramaterials?Ifyouhave,whatarethey?Andwhydidyoupreparethem?17.在制定本课的教案时（如教学目标、过程、重难点、学情分析等），您遇到了怎样的困惑。请详细描述一下。Whenmakingtheteachingplanforthisclass(e.g.teachingobjectives,procedures,importantanddifficultpoints,students’knowledge,etc.),whatdifficultiesorpuzzlesdidyouhave?Pleasedescribethembriefly.96 AppendixDPost-observationInterviewProtocolfortheTwoPre-serviceEFLTeachers1.请对您此次授课做一个简短的评价。如您对此次语法授课是否满意？为什么？Pleasehaveabriefevaluationaboutyourteaching.Areyousatisfiedwithyourteaching?Whyorwhynot?2.请列举出您认为您在此次语法教学中做得好的地方。如果让您下次再上该课，您会在哪些方面进行改进？Pleaselistthepointwhereyouthinkyouhavedoneagoodjobandthosethatmaynotbesogood.Ifyouaregoingtogivethisclassagain,whereneedtobeimproved?3.实际教学是否按照您之前的教学设计顺利地进行？如各教学步骤的活动是否按预期完成、对学生先前知识的预测是否准确、重点难点是否恰当等。在实际授课中，您遇到了哪些突发情况（即在您备课时未曾考虑到或者与您之前的预测不一样）？Didtherealteachingfollowyourteachingplan?Forexample,whethertheactivitiesineachstephavebeenconductedaspredicted?Whetherthepredictionsonstudents’difficultiesormistakeswerecorrect?Andwhethertheimportantanddifficultpointswereappropriate?Whatunexpectedthingsdidyoumeetduringyourrealteaching(i.e.thosethingsthatwentondifferentlyfromyourprediction)?97 AppendixEPost-observationInterviewProtocolfortheMentorsoftheseTwoPre-serviceEFLTeachers尊敬的老师，您好！感谢您在百忙之中参加我的研究，帮我填写如下访谈问卷。访谈结果将只用作研究用途，不会作为评价实习教师教学水平的标准。我会严守学术道德，保护您的隐私，决不透露您的真实姓名。因此，请您客观、认真、放心地填写。DearMs,Thankyoufortakingpartinmyresearchduringyourbusydays.I’mwritingtoinviteyoutofillintheinterviewprotocolbelow.Theresultswillbeusedforresearchpurposeonly,andwillnotbetakenascriteriafortheteachinglevelofthestudentteachers.Iwillstrictlyfollowingtheacademicrules,protectyourprivacyandavoidmentioningyourrealnameintheresearchreport.Therefore,pleaseanswerthefollowingquestionsobjectivelyandcarefully.1.请从以下几个方面，对您所指导的实习教师做一个具体的评价。教学目标教学过程（如各教学过程是否完整、活动设计效果、指令是否清晰、时间安排是否合理等）教学重点、难点分析教材分析和课外材料准备学生学习情况分析Pleasemakeadetailedevaluationontheclassgivenbythestudentteacheryoumentoredfromthefollowingaspects.TeachingobjectivesTeachingprocedures(e.g.whethertheteachingprocedureswerecompleted,whetherherteachingwaseffective,whetherherinstructionswereclearandeasytounderstandorwhetherthetimeallocationwasproper?)AnalysisontheimportantanddifficultpointsTextbookanalysisandpreparationforextramaterialsStudentsanalysis2.您对您所指导的实习教师今后的英语教学有何意见及建议？Whatsuggestionsdoyouhaveforthestudentteacheryoumentored?98 AppendixFPost-observationInterviewProtocolfortheStudentsoftheseTwoPre-serviceEFLTeachers亲爱的同学：你好！感谢你参加我的研究，帮助我填写以下访谈问卷。请你放心，访谈结果就只用作研究用途，不会影响对你成绩的判定。我会严守学术道德，保护您的隐私，决不透露你的真实姓名。因此，请你客观、认真、放心地填写。Dearstudent,Thankyoufortakingpartinmyresearchandhelpmefillintheinterviewprotocolbelow.Theresultswillbeusedforresearchpurposeonly,andwillnotbeusedtojudgeyourlearningperformance.Iwillstrictlyfollowingtheacademicrules,protectyourprivacyandavoidmentioningyourrealnameintheresearchreport.Therefore,pleaseanswerthefollowingquestionsobjectivelyandcarefully.1.你在MissAB的这堂阅读课中学到了什么？最大的收获是什么？让你印象最深的是什么？WhatdidyoulearninMissA’sB’sclasses?Whatisyourbiggestgain?Whatimpressedyoumost?2.你认为Miss.AB这节课想让你学会什么？WhatdoyouthinkMissABwanttoyoutoget?3.你认为Miss.AB上课时课堂氛围怎么样？和同学们的交流和互动多吗？能否激发你学习的兴趣？是否开展了丰富多样的学习活动？你认为这样的活动怎么样？DoyouthinkhowtheclassatmosphereofMissA’sB’sclasseswas?WeretheremanyinteractionsbetweenMissABandstudents?Couldherclassariseyourinterest?Weretheredifferentkindsoflearningactivities?Whatdoyouthinkoftheseactivities?4.MissAB是怎样上这堂课的？在你看来，这样的教学安排是否合理？为什么？你是否完全理解Miss.AB的各个教学步骤？对于她的这堂课，你有没有感到迷惑、不理解的地方？HowdidMissABgivetheclasses?Inyouropinion,wastheteachingdesignfortheclassesreasonable?Whyorwhynot?DidyouunderstandMissA’sB’seachteachingstep?Whatwerethepointsthatyoudidn’tunderstandinthesetwoclasses?5.你认为MissAB的提问、对知识点的讲解，是否让你觉得很容易理解？为什么（可举例说明）？WasiteasyforyoutounderstandMissA’sB’squestionsorexplanations?Why?Youcanuseexamplestoexplainyouridea.6.你认为MissAB了解你的困难和疑惑所在吗？为什么（可举例说明）？99 西南大学硕士学位论文DoyouthinkMissABknowyourdifficultiesandpuzzles?Why?Youcanuseexamplestoexplainyourideas.7.上完该课后，MissAB是否解决了你的所有疑问？当你们提出疑问时，MissAB是怎样解答的？你对她的回答是否满意？Aftertheclass,didMissABsolvedallyourpuzzlesorquestions?Whenyouproposesomequestions,howdidMissABdealwiththem?Wereyoursatisfiedwithheranswer?8.MissAB在课堂中是否会用举例、图表或者其它方式帮助你理解语法项目吗？如果有，请列举出来。你认为这样的方式对你有帮助吗？DidMissABmakeuseofsomestrategieslikeexamples,tablesorotherwaystohelpyouunderstandthegrammar?Ifshedid,pleasegiveanexampletoexplainit.Andwhetherthestrategiescouldhelpyoulearnthegrammarbetteroreasier?9.最后，请你对MissAB的这节课做一个简单的评价。你对她有什么建议?Atlast,pleasegiveabriefevaluationonMissA’sB’sclasses.Andwhatsuggestionsdoyouhaveforher?100 AppendixGASampleoftheTranscriptionoftheClassroomObservationtothePre-serviceEFLTeachers11:01139.SS&T:Talltallertallest140.T:OK,verygood,andlookatthetwoclocks.Thistimeweshouldus,这什么符号?141.SS&T:小于符号.142.T:那我们应该用哪个形容词造句?143.SS&T:Small144.T:Small的比较级是?145.SS&T:Smaller146.T:Good.So,whocanmakeasentence?我们要说clockB比clockC小对不对?So,whocan?11:28147.T:Whocan?So,let`s,let`smakethesentencetogether.Clock...148.SS&T:ClockBissmallerthanclockC.149.T:ClockC,right.So,youcansee,thereisananotherclock,clockA.So,clockAissmallerthanclockB,right？所以我们可以说,clockA是？150.SS&T:最小的151.T:对不对？So,let`stryit.Clockais.152.SS&T:Thesmallestofthethreeclocks.153.T:Verygood.Payattention,thesmallest.So,readit,诶,sorry,readit.Smallsmallersmallest154.SS:Smallsmallersmallest12:18155.T:所以，最高，small的最高级是？156.SS&T:Smallest157.T:Good,andnextone.Lookatthetwohouses.Whichoneisnewer?Whichoneisnewer?哪一个更新？158.SS:HouseB.159.T:HouseB,right?So,我们要说B房子比A房子更新。Howcanwesay？160.SS&T:HouseBisnewerthanhouseA.161.T:Verygood.So,youcansee,thereisananotherhouse.Thisismyhome,right?Justnowwehaveseenit.刚刚我们已经见过了这幅图片，对不对?所以我们可以说houseC是三个房子中最新的一个,whatcanwesay？Whowanttotry?Whowanttotry?101 西南大学硕士学位论文162.SS:（小声议论ing）163.T:Canyou?OK,let`sdoit,houseCis?164.SS&T:Thenewestofthethreehouses.165.T:Yesverygood.So,wecansaythecomparativeandsuperlativeofnew.New的比较级和最高级是什么？一起说.13:29166.SS&T：Newnewernewest167.T:Readittogether.Newnewernewest168.SS&T：Newnewernewest169.T:Good!nextone.LookatthepinkT-shirt.Howmuchisit？Howmuch?170.SS&T:EightyRMB171.T:Right.So,Ithinkitischeap.Doyouthinkso?172.S:Yes.173.T:Yesorno.Itdoesn"tmatter.Wecansaythepink,thepinkT-shirtis174.SS&T:Cheap,175.T:Right,cheap.Whatdoesmean?Cheap什么意思啊？176.SS&T:便宜177.T:Yes,verygood!LookatwhiteT-shirt.Howmuchisit?Howmuch?178.SS&T:SixtyRMB179.T:So,comparethetwoT-shirts.whichoneischeaper?Whichone?180.SS:(小声议论中)181.T:哪一个更便宜?182.SS&T:WhiteT-shirt183.T:So,wecanmakesentence.Canyou?184.SS&T:ThewhiteT-shirtischeaper.185.T:Yes,verygood.186.SS&T:ThanthepinkT-shirt.187.T:Pleasereadthesentencetogether.ThewhiteT-shirt,onetwobegin.14:41188.SS&T:ThewhiteT-shirtischeaperthanthepinkT-shirt.189.T:Good!Howabouttheblueone?Howmuchisit?190.SS&T:FiftyRMB.191.SS&T:BlueT-shirt192.T:So,canyoumakeasentence?Whocan?Please.Whocan?14:59193.SS:(小声议论中)194.T:OK.Tryittogether.我们要说蓝色的这件T恤是三件中最便宜的，怎么说？195.SS&T:TheblueT-shirtisthecheapestofthethreeT-shirts.102 AppendixHASampleofthePre-serviceEFLTeachers’ReplytothePre-observationInterview被访者姓名：MissA访谈回收日期：2015.10.211.请简单介绍一下您的英语学习经历、英语师范教育（如您选修的课程）及英语教学实践经历（如教育实习、培训机构任教及家庭教师）。这些经历对您从事英语教学有何影响？答：我本科就读于E大学（某地方师范院校，为保护被研究者隐私，故该处采用匿名处理，下同），所学专业为英语师范，现就读于F大学（某直属师范院校），攻读英语教育硕士学位，主要进行英语教学理论、教学方法、教育心理学等方面的学习。我从初中开始正式学习英语，迄今为止已有12年的英语学习经历。一直以来，英语就是我的强项，英语成绩名列前茅，这也是我选择英语专业的原因。从小我就希望能够成为一名教师，现在是英语教师，所以在课程学习之余，我也经常参加一些课外教学实践活动，曾担任过多名厨（初）高中生的英语家教，也有两次培训班任教的经验。除此之外，在大四上学期我也参加了学校组织的实习，在G中学实习了三个月。我从这些经历中收获良多。一方面，这戏（些）实践经历帮我熟悉了教材，对学生的困难也有所了解，另一方面，我也学到了一些教学方法，并学会了如何处理课堂中的突发状况。这些经历让我更有信心开始我的教学生涯。2.您认为中学英语语法教学的目的是什么？在英语语法教学中，学生最应该掌握和发展的知识、能力或技能是什么？答：我认为中学语法教学和英语教学的总体目标是分不开的。英语课程标准中所提出的五维教学目标，也应该适用于英语语法教学。课程标准要求我们教师要重视英语教学的实用性，不要让学生学了多年的英语，最后却成了“哑巴英语”，要让学生在实际生活中也能使用英语。中国学生学习英语，在日常生活中接触英语的机会非常少，因此，这就要求我们教师尽可能的（地）为学生创造一个生活中使用英语的场景，创设使用某个语法的语境。所以，在我看来，中学英语语法教学的目的不但是帮助学生正确使用英语这门语言，更重要的是，（让）帮助学生提高恰当使用英语的能力。在英语教学中，学生最应该掌握的是交际能力，也就是能够用英语同他人顺利的交流，表达自己观点，听得懂他人的意见。3.您在设计本模块语法教学时，是如何设定语法教学目标的？您在制定本课的语法教学目标时，考虑了哪些因素？答：制定语法教学目标时，我主要是根据课程标准提出来的五维目标，即语言、技能情感价值观、文化意识和语言策略五个方面。主要考虑了课程标准提出来的英语教学指导原则，学生学能，英语学习情感态度，还有就是目标的具体性和可操作性。目标不是泛泛而谈，而是切实可行，符合学生现阶段的英语水平和认知水平。4.此次语法教学，您采用了哪种教学方法？为什么选择该教学模型？答：我主要采取了3P教学法。在我本科的时候，我们有一门课，专门讲教学法的，当时我103 西南大学硕士学位论文们老师推荐的语法教学方法就是3P模式，它主要是先向学生呈现某个语法知识，再由老师引导学生练习这个语法，等到学生对这个语法比较熟悉的时候，老师再鼓励学生自己去产出语法.我觉得这样的一个过程比较适合初中生的思维水平。我们在大学时的微格教学中也进行过这样的模拟教学，对这种教学也相对熟悉一些。5.请您描述一下您是如何设计本课的教学过程的？并说明您作出该设计的原因和依据。答：在设计本课教学时，我主要是遵循3P语法教学模型的步骤展开的。第一步，呈现语法项目。我准备通过图片向学生（子）呈现出本单元将要学习的语法项目，即形容词最高级，与此同时，我也会顺带复习上个单元学习的比较级。第二步，我将带领学生跟我一起练习不同种类形容词的比较级和最高级，比如跟读或让学生自己看图造句。第三步，我将鼓励学生在同同学交流的过程中产出该语法。我会带领他们进行一个小组讨论，鼓励他们在交流中使用比较级和最高级。我觉得这样一个过程，既能让学生熟悉形容词比较级和最高级的构成规则，也能让学生在与同学的交流过程中体会如何在实际生活中使用该语法。6.您认为英语语法规则在中学英语教学中是否重要？为什么？答：我认为英语语法规则在中学英语教学中是很重要的，也是必不可少的。一方面，语法规则可以帮助学生正确的（地）运用语法，另一方面，语法规则也是听说读写等技能的基础，帮助学生无论是在书面还是口头表达中更加自如、自信的（地）表达自己。而且，在中国这样的大环境下，我们还地（要）应对中考，中考考查的也都是语法规则，所以，语法规则还是非常重要的。7.您认为教师可以采取哪些语法教学策略（如：如何帮助学生理解某一语法项目）来进行语法教学？请列举出这些策略。答：语法教学中，教师可以通过图片展示或者给学生范例帮助学生更好的理解和掌握某个语法项目。我对具体有哪些策略还不是太清楚。8.假设现在需要您教学生动词过去式，您将如何做？是先向学生系统地介绍语法规则，还是在实际教学中让学生自己去体验和总结该规则？为什么？答：我会先向学生呈现一些例句，再给他们总结出过去时的规则。因为，刚刚接触该语法，学生对这个语法也不了解，而且初中生的归纳总结能力还是挺有限的，所以让他们自己去总结语法规则可能还是会有一定的困难。9.您对中学生的英语语法水平是否有所了解（特别是您将任教的班级）？您认为学生在学习本单元语法时可能出现的错误有哪些？请将学生可能出现的错误列举出来。对于这些错误，教师应当如何预测及准备？答：我所实习的班级是这个年纪（级）上相对较好的班级，而且这个学校是当地最好的中学，我的指导教师告诉我说，班上学生平时的英语成绩也都还不错，上课气氛也比较活跃。但是，班上还是有部分学生英语底子比较差，需要更多的帮助和时间。我认为在学习本课时学生可能会出现以下三方面的错误：①不规则形容词的比较级和最高级；②在三个或三个以上多音节词上加“-est”;③在最高级前面忘记加定冠词“the”104 AppendixHASampleofthePre-serviceEFLTeachers’ReplytothePre-observationInterview对于这些错误，我（肯呢个）会通过强调、特别指出、多次练习或让学生自己去反思发现，改正错误。10.在本课的学习中，您认为学生之前已经具备了哪些知识？具备怎样的相关背景知识？这些知识对您本单元的语法教学有何影响？答：上周，在我的指导老师MissC（为保护隐私，此处也将指导教师姓名做了匿名处理）学生已经学习了比较级，因此他们已经知道形容词变比较级的规则了，比如说，以y加辅音结尾的形容词，要变y为i，再加er.MissC也告诉他们了怎样判断一个词是有三个或三个以上的音节。变最高级的规则和变比较级有很多相似的地方，所以我可以对此加以利用。但是，有的学生可能会忘了他们之前学习的内容，甚至上周学习的内容也会忘记，因为有的学生根本没有复习的习惯。因此，在这个单元，在教授信（新）的语法的时候，也就是最高级的时候，我也会复习比较级。11.您对英语语法的掌握情况如何？例如是否清楚英语中有哪些重要的语法项目，对各个语法项目的掌握情况以及他们之间的联系等。答：一直以来，我就觉得语法是非常重要的，大学时也开设了专门的语法课。那个时候我经常会自己去琢磨那些语法规则，甚至还总结了自己的一个语法笔记本。平时有疑惑的时候就会去翻翻。这几年的家教经历，也让我对中学哪些语法比较重要，哪些语法必须掌握，哪些语法只需要有所了解，有了一定的了解。对语法知识点还是有一定的掌握，但是我的了解还比较片面，非常局限，还是会遇到一些自己拿不准的项目。至于他们之间的联系，我还没去分析过。12.请列举出本单元将要学习的语法项目(即形容词最高级)所涉及的语法规则(注:请不要参考网络或其它资料)答：形容词最高级的规则变化：1)一般来说直接在形容词词尾加“-est”;2)以不为y的辅音加e结尾的形容词加“-st”;3)以辅音加“y”结尾的形容词，变“y”为“i”，再加“-est”；4)重读闭音节，双蝎（写）最后一个字母，再加“-est”；5)部分双音节词和三音节及以上的形容词，在形容词前加most.不规则形容词：如good,bad,ill,far等。13.对于不同的语法项目，您在实际教学中是否会进行不同的处理（如采取不同的语法教学过程，利用不同的教学策略等）？请举例说明。答：会。不同的语法项目重点、难度都不一样。教师需要根据实际情况，如时间、难度、学生水平等制定相应的学习计划。具体情况需要教师进行具体分析。（具体的例子一时想不出，抱歉）。105 AppendixIASampleofthePre-serviceEFLTeachers’ReplytothePost-observationInterview被访者姓名：MissB访谈回收日期：2015.10.311.请对您此次授课做一个简短的评价。如您对此次语法授课是否满意？为什么？我对此次授课基本满意。基本完成了课前设定的教学目标，教学步骤也基本是按照教案实施的，学生们配合也挺积极的，大部分的学生也已经掌握了形容词最高级的构成规则，效果还是可以。但是，还有一些地方做得不是很好，比如课堂控制，因为紧张，有的指令也不够清楚，甚至还有一些发音错误，实在很不应该。2.请列举出您认为您在此次语法教学中做得好的地方。如果让您下次再上该课，您会在哪些方面进行改进？上课时，热情有朝气，课堂氛围较好；词语接龙游戏反响不错，受到了学生的喜欢；对重点、难点的把握也比较准确。但是，需要改进的地方也很多，比如课堂控制，指令下达，减少紧张情绪等。但是，最应该提高的是我的时间管理能力。在写教案时我就很困惑每一个活动我应该花多少时间，上课时，我也意识不到我在每一步花了多少时间。我完全无法控制我自己，当学生侃侃而谈，不受控制时，或者不愿回答我的问题，保持沉默时，我也不知道如何去处理。这浪费了我很多时间，导致我时间很赶。希望在以后的教学中，能够有所提高。3.实际教学是否按照您之前的教学设计顺利地进行？如各教学步骤的活动是否按预期完成、对学生先前知识的预测是否准确、重点难点是否恰当等。在实际授课中，您遇到了哪些突发情况（即在您备课时未曾考虑到或者与您之前的预测不一样）？总体上，实际的教学是按照我之前的教学设计顺利地进行的，大多数活动也都按预期完成了，重难点也比较恰当，对学生的错误也预测对了一些。但是，我还是漏掉了一些学生可能犯的错误，比如，他们喜欢一边在形容词前面加“most”，一边又在词尾加“-est”．．．他们甚至会把有些单词读错，这也是我没想到的。比如说，有的同学居然不知道怎么发“closest”...这是我实在没有想到的。106 AppendixJASampleofthePre-serviceEFLTeachers’Mentor’sReplytothePost-observationInterview被访者姓名：MissD访谈回收日期：2015.10.311.请从以下几个方面，对您所指导的实习教师做一个具体的评价。教学目标教学过程（如各教学过程是否完整、活动设计效果、指令是否清晰、时间安排是否合理等）教学重点、难点分析教材分析和课外材料准备学生学习情况分析MissB教学目标清晰、具体、可操作性强，不仅关注学生知识的获得，也能够关注学生能力的发展，值得肯定；整个教学过程非常完整且自然，但第一步，即presentation部分。这部分包括了复习和引入，用时可能过长，会有一些耗时。但我认为随着她教学经验的增长，她的时间管理能力肯定会有所提高。教学重点、难点的分析也比较到位，但在课堂教学中有时会偏离主题；她准备的教学材料非常丰富，举例得当，将多媒体进行了很好运用，图片、视频的引入也缓解了课堂氛围，但是《小黄人》片段似乎和本单元无太大的关联；她对学生的学情也有所了解，对绝大多数的重点问题都给出了清楚的解释，对学生可能犯的错误也预测到了，只有一些细小的点被遗漏了，即使她没预测到，但她能及时地纠正学生的错误，也是非常不错的。我相信，MissB将来一定能成为一位不仅合格，而且优秀，深得学生喜欢的英语教师！2.您对您所指导的实习教师今后的英语教学有何意见及建议？一、注意与学生的眼神交流，多关注位于教室后几排的同学。二、注意细节，仔细检查PPT内容，多注意自己的发音，放慢语速。三、注意时间安排，学会合理控制时间。107 AppendixKASampleofthePre-serviceEFLTeachers’Student’sReplytothePost-observationInterview被访者姓名：StudentA访谈回收日期：2015.11.241.你在MissAB的这堂阅读课中学到了什么？最大的收获是什么？让你印象最深的是什么？答：这堂课我主要学习了比较级和最高级。最大的收获是，基本上懂得了怎么去变比较级和最高级。让我印象最深的是，老师让我们小组讨论附近好吃的餐馆。我是一个货真价实的吃货嘛，同学们推荐了那么多好吃的地方，以后可以去吃了。哈哈。2.你认为Miss.AB这节课想让你学会什么？答：MissA这堂课应该就是想让我们掌握比较级和最高级吧。3.你认为Miss.AB上课时课堂氛围怎么样？和同学们的交流和互动多吗？能否激发你学习的兴趣？是否开展了丰富多样的学习活动？你认为这样的活动怎么样？答：课堂氛围挺好的，MissA经常都会问我们问题，答不上来她也不会生气，有的时候还会跟着我们一起笑，像个小孩子一样。我觉得她的课堂还是挺欢乐的，一点也不无聊。4.MissAB是怎样上这堂课的？在你看来，这样的教学安排是否合理？为什么？你是否完全理解Miss.AB的各个教学步骤？对于她的这堂课，你有没有感到迷惑、不理解的地方？答：其实我不知道她的课堂安排是否合理，我只知道通过这堂课的学习，我还是学到了不少知识，至少知道了最高级的用法。但是，我有的时候不是很喜欢跟着她读，好机械，读了之后很快又忘了，后面她抽我回答问题我都没答上。5.你认为MissAB的提问、对知识点的讲解，是否让你觉得很容易理解？为什么（可举例说明）？答：是的。MissA对她要教的语法知识点非常清楚。比如说，有一次，我记得是在那天晚自习的时候，我问了她一个问题，further和farther的区别是什么，她很快就回答我了，而且她的解释还非常容易理解，我一下就理解了。6.你认为MissAB了解你的困难和疑惑所在吗？为什么（可举例说明）？答：了解吧。有的时候她解释的就正好是我不懂的，但又不好意思站起来问的。比如那个重读闭音节，她一解释，我就瞬间明白了，也不用去问了。7.上完该课后，MissAB是否解决了你的所有疑问？当你们提出疑问时，MissAB是怎样解答的？你对她的回答是否满意？答：是的。就是第５题说的father和further的区别。8.MissAB在课堂中是否会用举例、图表或者其它方式帮助你理解语法项目吗？如果有，108 AppendixKASampleofthePre-serviceEFLTeachers’Student’sReplytothePost-observationInterview请列举出来。你认为这样的方式对你有帮助吗？答：会。MissA用了一个图片来帮助我们理解语法，比如，她用饼状图来帮助我们学会popular的比较级和最高级。9.最后，请你对MissAB的这节课做一个简单的评价。你对她有什么建议?答：我觉得她的课非常好，讲解清楚，活动丰富有趣，能够激发我们的兴趣。建议的话，希望以后少点跟读。109 AppendixLASampleoftheTranscriptionofthePre-serviceEFLTeachers’StimulatedRecall第１课时姓名：MissA日期：2015.10.24时间：15：10-17：3305:15-6:18A:唉．．．G老师（这儿指作者本人，已做匿名处理）停一下。我．．．R:好的哈。不用慌。是在这儿吗？A:稍微往前面退一点，一点点就好了。R:好的。李老师，你是有什么想说的吗？A:嗯，对。你看，我说重读闭音节的时候，大家都不说话了。当时还有点儿尴尬，所以，在这儿，我就发现很少有同学明白什么是重读闭音节，所以我就决定换一种简单的方式跟他们解释。R:那你是怎么解释的呢？A:我就跟他们说啊，重读闭音节其实就是元音加辅音结尾。R:哦，是这样的啊。那李老师，这个规则你是怎么知道的呢？A:我记得以前我自己也不懂什么是重读闭音节，老师说是就是，我就机械地记，但后来，想着自己以后要当老师嘛，要给学生解释啊，所以就在网上问“度娘”，“度娘”就是这么说的，元音加辅音。然后我自己再拿几个单词来试了一下，还真是这样。R:李老师真是有心了。13:12-15:03R:李老师，不好意思打断你一下。你在这里是让学生自己去找popular有几个音节，对吧？A:嗯，是的。R:你没有直接告诉学生答案，让他们自己去发现，这儿您其实是用了一个策略．．．A:什么策略啊？我自己都不知道（笑了笑）。R:这叫elicitation,就是“引出”。A:没听说过呢。R:嘿嘿，没事儿。那我想请问一下李老师，你当时为什么不直接告诉学生答案，而是让他们自己回答？A:嗯．．．我想一下啊．．．R:你看后面你也是引导学生自己说出三个音节形容词怎么变比较级和最高级的。A:哦，是的哈。初中生嘛，他们注意力都很差的，他们很难长时间地注意老师在说什么．．．他们很容易分心。我让他们自己回答问题，而不是我自己直接把答案给他们，我觉得吧，110 AppendixLASampleoftheTranscriptionofthePre-serviceJuniorMiddleSchoolEFLTeachers’StimulatedRecall学生注意力可能会更加集中。R:哦哦，原来是这样啊。我知道了。那我们继续看录像，好吗？A:好的。54:27-56:23R:李老师，我想问一下啊，你在这儿为什么要带大家做multiplechoice练习题呢？A:我出这些选择题主要是为了去检查一下学生是不是已经掌握了最高级的变化规则。你看，这节课快结束了吧，总得检验一下我的上课效果呀。R:也是。但是，现在好多人都在批判单选题，甚者高考都要取消单选题了，你是怎么看的呢？A:其实也是没办法。我其实也不喜欢单选题，觉得没意思，题做对了，但还是不会用，也等于零。但是吧，要中考啊，学生，家长，校长都要看成绩啊，而且，一节课就40分钟，时间有限啊，根本不可能让学生自由地去畅谈，单选题是最简单的检验方法，省时间。R:嗯。是这样的。A:而且，我自己也缺乏经验嘛，也不知道怎么去平衡考试和培养学生能力之间的，怎么说．．．R:冲突？A:嗯嗯，对对，冲突。71:45-73:19R:李老师，第一节课我们就看完了，非常感谢你抽时间和我看，真的谢谢啦。A:没事儿啦。R:最后再耽误你两分钟，还有最后一个问题。A:嗯，没事。你问。R:我看你在整堂课中不时得会用中文，是这样吗？A:是的。当我一想到我学生可能会很难理解我的英文解释或者上课时，我经常会换到中文。我喜欢用中文向我的学生解释语法规则，因为，一方面，我自己可能无法把英语说得很流畅，很清晰，而且，另一方面，学生对那些语法术语也不是那么熟悉，比如说吧，这个单元的superlative，最高级。再说了，在中国，在英语课上用中文再普遍不过了。R:嗯嗯。谢谢李老师，再次感谢你的支持！A:客气了哈。111 AppendixMASampleoftheResearcher’sFieldNotesoftheClassroomObservation职前英语教师语法教学学科教学知识观察量表SchoolClass课时学校班级学生人数54第一课时D14Unit4What’sthebest教师MissA主题课型语法课movietheater?观察者MissG(作者本人，已做匿名处理)日期2015.10.23观察点1职前英语教师对语法教学目的的了解情况教学过程及教师活效果教学目标学生行为分析和建议动ABCD1.Objectiveson呈现:1)学生记笔记√经过不同形knowledge:students1）向学生逐一呈现(最高级的构成式的练习，学areableto形容词最高级的构规则);生逐渐熟悉understandthe成规则;2)学生跟读或了形容词比grammaticalrules练习:朗读PPT上不同较级和最高ofcomparativesand2）向学生呈现例句,组别下形容词的级的构成规superlatives,andare并要求学生跟读;比较级和最高则，在单独的abletoreadand3）让学生根据图片级,以及一些句抽问中也能understandthe造句(如用饼状图标型;正确答出，但importantsentence明三个电影的票房,3)多数情况下,在跟读中，少patternslike“Ithas让学生使用popular学生难以独立完数同学精力thebiggestscreens”,的比较级和最高成一个完整的句不够集中，只“Ithastheshortest级);子,需要教师的是机械地跟waitingtime”,etc.4）带领学生讨论北帮助,但大多数着其它同学碚的电影院,并选出学生能正确地说读，效果不是最好的一家,并用比出目标形容词的很理想较级和最高级说明比较级和最高理由;级;产出:4)学生利用本5）单选和翻译练习;节课学的新词汇和短语,简单地表达自己喜欢UME的原因5)112 AppendixMASampleoftheResearcher’sFieldNotesoftheClassroomObservation2.Objectiveson练习：同上4）学生一致认为√学生的回答skills:studentsareUME最好，在老通常都只有ableto师带领下，简单似某个形容communicatewith表达自己的理由词的最高级，othersabouttheir很少是一个preferencesand完整的句子。hates,andgivetheir老师说的话reasonsbyusing明显多于学comparativesand生，难以达到superlatives;真正意义上的“交流”3.Objectiveson本节课还未发现相emotionand应的教学活动attitude:studentsareabletodeveloppositiveemotionandattitudebyappreciatinggoodandbeautifulthingsaroundthem观察点5职前英语教师语法知识的了解情况项目是否有所表现教师行为学生行为分析和建议清楚、有逻辑地对目标语法术语向学生呈现出形学生对照PPT记及语法规则的了是容词最高级的构笔记解成规则教学对话中对意义语言的意识将“重读闭音节”学生刚听到“重教师能够根据这一复杂术语用读闭音节”时保学生的反应，对从学生的角度反一种简单的表述持沉默，不说话，自己的解释方是思和分析语法方法向学生解释但听了教师的解式作出改变，从“元音加辅音，释后，多数同学学习者的角度除开y以外的”赶忙记笔记分析语法根据教学目的合理分解语法知识点113 西南大学硕士学位论文回避复杂的元语言解释语法知识点正确判断学生对目标语法的使用是否可接受自信、从容应对学生即兴、自发的提问其它114 AppendixNASampleofthePre-serviceEFLTeachers’TeachingPlanUnit4What’sthebestmovietheater?Period1-2(GrammarClass)ⅠTeachingaims1.Knowledgeaims:1)Studentscanrecognize,read,understandandwritecorrectlythesuperlativesofsomeadjectivesthey’velearned,suchasnew,close,big,heavy,good,expensive,andsoon.2)Studentsalsoneedtounderstandandmasterthesentencepatternslike,“whichisthebestmovietheater?”“Marryistheheaviestofthethreegirls.”2.Ability&skillaims:1)Studentscansharetheirpreferencewiththeirclassmatesusingcomparativesandsuperlatives.2)studentscandeveloptheirabilityinexploringandgeneralizingthegrammaticalrulesbythemselves.ⅡTeachingimportantpoints1.Studentscanusecomparativesandsuperlativestotalkabouttheirpreferences.2.Studentscanchangedifferentkindsofadjectivesintotheirsuperlativescorrectly.ⅢTeachingdifficultpointsStudentscantellthedifferencesbetweencomparativesandsuperlativescorrectly.ⅣTeachingaids:PPT,blackboard,chockⅤTeachingproceduresStepTeacheractivityStudentactivityStep1GreetingTsaysgoodmorningtostudents.Ssreply.Step2PresentationReviewofcomparativeslearnedlastSsrecalltherulesofformingweek.comparativeslearnedlastweekUsepicturestoleadinsuperlatives.andspeakoutthecomparativesGuidestudentstofindtherulesofofsomeadjectivesgivenbytheformingcomparativesofdifferentteacher.kindsofcomparativesbythemselves.Studentsareaskedtofindthe115 西南大学硕士学位论文differencesbetweencomparativesandsuperlatives.Studentssummarizetherulesbythemselves.Step2PracticeGivestudentssomeexamplesintheStudentsreadaftertheteacherfivedifferentgroupsofadjectives.theexampleadjectivesandtheirAskstudentstomakesentencesbycomparativesandsuperlatives.themselvesbyaccordingtotheTrytomakesentencesbypicturestheteachergivethem.themselves.InvitestudentstodiscussthebestTalkabouttheirfavoritemoviemovietheaterinBeibei.theaterinBeibeiandspeakouttheirreasonsbyusingsuperlatives.Step3ProductionPairwork:getstudentstoworkin1.Studentsworkinpairsandpairsandmakeconversationslikemakedialogueslikethis.this.2.StudentsdiscussingroupsandA:What’sthebestmovietheater?onestudentineachgroupreportsB:Screencity.It’sthemostpopulartheirresults.nearhere.A:ButithinkMovieWorldhasthebiggestscreen.2.Groupwork:discusswithgroupmemberthebestrestaurantnearhome.Step4HomeworkWriteanarticleaboutthebestmovietheaterrestaurantclothesstoreparkneartheirhome.116 AppendixNASampleofthePre-serviceEFLTeachers’TeachingPlanⅥBlackboarddesignUnit4What’sthebestmovietheater?Smallsmallersmallest--What’thebestmovietheater?bigbiggerbiggest--MovieWorld.Ithasthemostcomfortableclosecloserclosestseats.Andit’sthecheapest.ComfortablemorecomfortablethemostcomfortableGoodbetterbest117 AppendixOASampleoftheScreenshotsofInformalInterviewforthePre-serviceEFLTeachers118 AppendixPASampleofthePPTSlidesUsedbythePre-serviceEFLTeachersnew<