数据驱动学习在高中英语语法教学中的应用——以定语从句为例 68页

？■１４２５０２２５９学校代码：１０２７０分类号：Ｇ６３学号：上辜啼絶Ｉ夫多硕±专业学位论文数据驱动学习在高中英语语法教学中的应用：从定语从句为例专业学位类别：教官硕±＇专业领域：尝科教学（英语）＇．‘．．＇非：：杨雪薇作者姓名？指导教师；李四清答辩日期：２（ｈ６年５月‘－＊－．Ｖ．．－．町？＇＇ｒ．．．．■； 论文独创性声明本论文是我个人在导师指导下进行的研巧工作及取得的研究成果。论文中除了特别加Ｗ标注和致谢的地方外，不包含其他人或机构已经发表或撰写过的研究成果。其他同志对本研巧的肩发和所做的贡献均已在论文中做了明确的声明并表示了谢意。作者签名；日期；Ｉ论文使用授权声明本人完全了解上海师范大学有关保留、使用学位论文的规定，即；学校有权保留送交论文的复印件，允许论文被查阅和借阅；学校可Ｗ公布论文的全部或部，可分阳容＾＾＾采用影印、缩印或其它手段保存论文。保密的论文在解密后遵守此规定。／＾作者签名；师签名；Ｌ＾＾＾＾１ 本论文经答辩委员会全体委员审查，确认符合上海师范大学硕（博）±学位论文质量要求。．答辩委员会签名：主席（工作单位、职称）：如户乂ＩＷ如化＾於份委员：辦东、抑）抑条导师；＾方； TheApplicationofData-drivenLearningtoEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchool:ACaseofAttributiveClauseYangXueweiSupervisor:LiSiqingAThesisSubmittedtoForeignLanguagesCollegeShanghaiNormalUniversityInPartialFulfillmentoftheRequirementsforTheDegreeofMasterofEducationMay2016 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationAbstractAbstractGrammarplaysanimportantroleinEnglishteachingandlearning.Althoughgrammaticalknowledgeisemphasizedintraditionalgrammarteaching,however,grammarinstructionintheclassroomisoccupiedwithexplanationandendlessexercises.Studentsmaynotlearngrammarpositivelyandinitiatively,thus,leadingtounsatisfyinglearningresults.Inordertostimulatestudents’enthusiasmtogrammarlearning,andimproveefficiencyofthelearningeffects,autonomouslearningisencouraged.Withthedevelopmentofcorpusandtheconceptofinductivelearning,data-drivenlearningwhichisbasedoncorpusfirstputforwardbyTimJohnsin1991andconsideredasachallengetothetraditionalforeignlanguageteachingwhichisusuallyteacher-or-textbook-centered.Thepresentstudyaimstoexploretheeffectivenessofdata-drivenlearningonenhancinglearners’grammaticalcompetenceandimprovingtheefficiencyofgrammarteachinginseniorhighschoolinthecaseofattributiveclause,andseekstoanswerthefollowingresearchquestions:(1)Whatistheeffectofdata-drivenlearningonstudents’attributiveclauselearning?(2)Whetherdata-drivenlearningismoreeffectivethantraditionalteachingmethodinstudents’attributiveclauselearning?(3)Whatarethestudents’attitudestowardsdata-drivenlearning?Thestudyadoptedanempiricalmethodandconductedanexperiment.Theexperimentlastedfor6weeksandconsistedproceduresofteachingtreatments,pretest,posttestandaquestionnaire.Subjectschosenfortheexperimentare80studentsfromtwoparallelclassesinHangzhouChangheHighSchool.Oneclassistheexperimentalclass,theotheroneisthecontrolledclass.Theexperimentalclassconducteddata-drivenlearningtoteachAC,whilethecontrolledclassusedthetraditionalteachingmethod.Thepre-testandthepost-testaretoobservetheeffectsofthetwomethodsoflearningongrammarlearning.Atthesametime,students’attitudetowardsdata-drivenlearningisinvestigatedthroughthequestionnaire.AllthedatacollectedfrompretestandposttestareenteredintoSPSS16.0todofurtheranalysis.TheresultsofthestudyindicatethattheperformanceoflearnersissignificantlyI AbstractShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationimprovedintheexperimentalclass.Anddata-drivenlearningispopularwiththestudents.Inshort,tosomeextent,theapplicationofdata-drivenlearningtogrammarteachingimproveslearners’AClearning,whichshedslightuponEnglishgrammarteachinginseniorhighschool.Keywords:data-drivenlearning;grammarteaching;attributiveclauseII 上海师范大学硕士学位论文摘要摘要在英语教学中，语法教学起着非常重要的作用。尽管传统的语法教学重视语法知识，但讲解和练习在传统的语法课堂教学中占很大比重。学生往往消极地接受教师讲授的语法知识，缺乏学习的积极性与主动性，导致传统的语法教学效果不尽人意。为了激发学习的学习热情并提高学习效率，学生需要运用一种自主的学习方式。随着语料库的发展以及基于归纳法的概念，语料库数据驱动学习法应运而生。该方法是约翰在1991年提出的基于语料库的学习方法，对于以老师或课本为中心的传统语法教学来说是一种挑战。本研究以定语从句为例，旨在探索数据驱动学习能否有效提高学习者的语法能力从而提高高中语法教学效率。研究问题主要包括：1）将数据驱动学习应用于定语从句教学效果如何？2）相对于传统语法教学，基于数据驱动的定语从句学习是否更具优势？3)学生对于数据驱动学习的反馈如何？本文采用实验研究方法。实验历时6周，包括施教、前测、后测以及问卷调查。以杭州市长河高级中学的两个平行班级的80名学生为实验对象。一个班为实验班，一个班为控制班。实验班采用数据驱动学习进行定语从句的学习，而控制班则用传统语法教学法进行定语从句的学习。前后测试卷用来对比两种教学法的教学效果。同时，实验班学生对于数据驱动学习的反馈将通过问卷调查而得知。使用SPSS16.0统计软件对前后测成绩进行数据的处理，并对相关结果进行了分析。研究结果表明：实验班学生在经过数据驱动学习后，成绩显著提高。该方法也受到同学的认可。总体而言，数据驱动学习在一定程度上提高了学习者对定语从句的掌握，为高中英语语法教学提供了新的方向。关键词：数据驱动学习；语法教学；定语从句III ContentsShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationContentsAbstract.................................................................................................................................................I摘要....................................................................................................................................................IIIContents............................................................................................................................................IVChapterOneIntroduction...................................................................................................................11.1.ResearchBackground..........................................................................................................11.2ResearchSignificance............................................................................................................21.3StructureoftheThesis..........................................................................................................3ChapterTwoLiteratureReview...........................................................................................................52.1CorpusandData-drivenLearning.........................................................................................52.1.1Corpusandcorpuslinguistics....................................................................................52.1.2ConceptsofData-drivenLearning.............................................................................72.1.3FeaturesofData-drivenLearning..............................................................................82.1.4ClassificationsofData-drivenLearning.....................................................................92.2TheoreticalBasisofData-drivenLearning..........................................................................112.2.1Constructivism.........................................................................................................112.2.2DiscoveryLearning..................................................................................................122.2.3InputTheory............................................................................................................132.3PreviousResearchesonData-drivenLearningandAttributiveClause..............................142.3.1ResearchesonData-drivenLearningAbroad.........................................................142.3.2ResearchesonData-drivenLearningatHome.......................................................162.3.3ResearchesonAttributiveClause...........................................................................182.4Summary.............................................................................................................................19ChapterThreeMethodology.............................................................................................................203.1ResearchQuestions............................................................................................................203.2ResearchSubjects...............................................................................................................203.3ResearchInstruments.........................................................................................................203.3.1Pre-testandPost-test..............................................................................................213.3.2Hands-offdata-drivenlearningmaterial................................................................223.3.3Questionnaire..........................................................................................................233.4ProceduresoftheResearch................................................................................................23ChapterFourDataAnalysisandDiscussion......................................................................................254.1ResultsandAnalysis............................................................................................................254.1.1ReliabilityoftheTwoTestPapers............................................................................254.1.2ResultsandAnalysisfromthePre/Post-testsoftheExperimentalClass...............26IV ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationContents4.1.3ResultsandAnalysisfromthePre-tests..................................................................314.1.4ResultsandAnalysisfromthePost-tests................................................................324.1.5ResultsfromtheQuestionnaire..............................................................................344.2Discussion...........................................................................................................................364.2.1TheEffectsofData-drivenLearningonAttributiveClauseLearning......................364.2.2DiscussionoftheFeedbacksfromStudentstoData-drivenLearning....................38ChapterFiveConclusion....................................................................................................................405.1MajorFindings....................................................................................................................405.2PedagogicalImplications....................................................................................................415.3LimitationsoftheStudy......................................................................................................425.4SuggestionsforFutureStudy..............................................................................................43Bibliography.....................................................................................................................................44AppendixⅠHands-offdata-drivenlearningmaterial................................................................47AppendixIIPre-test........................................................................................................................54AppendixIIIPost-test.....................................................................................................................56AppendixⅣQuestionnaire...............................................................................................................58Acknowledgements...........................................................................................................................59V ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterOneIntroductionChapterOneIntroduction1.1.ResearchBackgroundThereisnodoubtthatgrammarplaysanimportantroleintheprocessoflanguageteachingandlearning.Alotofresearchersandeducatorshavebeentryingtoworkouttheeffectivewaystoteachgrammar.Inthehistoryofgrammarteaching,variouskindsofmethodshavebeenintroducedintotheEnglishclass,suchasGrammar-translationMethod,DirectMethod,SituationalMethod,CognitiveApproach,CommunicativeLanguageTeachingandTask-basedLanguageTeaching.However,allthesemethodshavetheirownlimitationsandthegrammarteachingeffectisunsatisfactory.Thus,teachersareconfusedaboutwhetheritisnecessarytoteachgrammarornotandhowtoteach.Withthedevelopmentofcorpuslinguisticsandtheadvancementofcomputertechnology,“corpus”and“corpuslinguistics”haveenjoyedagreatpopularityinthefieldsoflinguisticssince1980s.Researchersbothathomeandabroadhaveachievedabundantmeaningfulresultsbyapplyingcorpuslinguisticsintoforeignlanguageteachingandlearning.Asanewnetworkinformationresource,corpushasmadeagreatcontributiontolanguageresearchandteachingbyprovidingamountofauthenticlinguisticdata.Thereby,Data-drivenLearning(DDL)hasbeenputforwardbyTimJohnsin1991.Johns(1991:2)writesthatthe“…languagelearnerisalso,essentially,aresearchworkerwhoselearningneedstobedrivenbyaccesstolinguisticdata—hencetheterm‘data-drivenlearning’todescribetheapproach”.DDLisanewmethodforforeignlanguagelearningonthebasisofcorpusdata.IthasbeenwidelydiscussedinEnglisheducationalfieldsforatleast20yearstotheteachingofvocabulary,grammar,translationandwriting.Basedoncorpusdataandconcordances,Identify-Classify-Generalizearethreestepsforclassroomteachingandlearning.Theemergenceofthisnewmethodforforeignlanguageteachingandlearninghasposedgreatchallengesforteachersandthetraditionalnotions,whileintegratingthelearner-centeredteachingideaandconstructivismlearningtheory.Therefore,itattractstheattentionandaffirmationofresearchersbothathomeandabroad.Researchersabroad(Bernardini,2004;Boulton,2009;Cresswell,2007;Gaskell&Cobb,2004;Yoon,2008)havedoneextensiveresearchestoproveitseffectivenessby1 ChapterOneIntroductionShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationapplyingitintotheteachingofvocabulary,grammar,writingandtranslation.InChina,researchersalsohavedonealotaboutDDLintheareaofforeignlanguageteaching.ZhenFengchao(2005)introducedtheadvantagesandprinciplesofDDL.YuYanming(2009)andZhuHuimin(2011)discussedtheapplicationofDDLtoEnglishvocabularyteaching.HuangDawang(2003)andZhangLin(2007)appliedDDLintoEnglishwritingclass.LiDechaoandWangKefei(2011)discussedtheadvantagesofapplyingDDLintotranslationpractice.Asanewforeignlanguageteachingmethod,DDLhasproveditsvalueandbecomethenewtrendinEnglishteachingandlearning.Comparewithvocabulary,writingandtranslation,researchesaboutgrammarundertheguidanceofDDLisrareinChina.AndtheusingofDDLisseldomadoptedbyseniorhighschoolEnglishteachers.Therefore,theauthorattemptstodesigntheteachingmaterialaboutAttributiveClause(AC)onthebasisofDDLandapplyittotherealseniorhighschoolEnglishclass.ThereasonswhytheauthorchoosesACastheresearchgrammaticalpointareasfollows:First,theresearchsubjectsinthisstudyareGradeOnestudentsinHangzhouChangheHighSchoolwheretheauthorhadanopportunitytoworkasanintern.ThestudentstherehavealreadylearnedtheknowledgeofACinjuniorhighschool.However,mostofthemdoesn’tcommanditwellandoftenmakemistakeswhenusingitinsomecomplexsentences.Second,asweallknow,AChasbeenoneofthekeyitemsinCollegeEntranceExaminationformanyyears.Itisadifficultandimportantgrammaticalpointformoststudents.Third,althoughtherearemanyresearchesaboutAContheInternet,mostofthemfocusonsummarizingtherulesofACandanalyzingtheerrorsthatstudentsmade.TheresearchaboutapplyingDDLtoACteachingisrare.1.2ResearchSignificanceGrammarlearningiscrucialaswellasdifficultforstudentsofseniorhighschool.AsanindispensablepartofelementaryeducationinChina,Englishgrammarteachinghasafar-reachingimpactonstudents’wholedevelopmentofEnglishapplyingability.However,thecurrentsituationofEnglishgrammarteachinginseniorhighschoolisnotoptimistic.Ontheonehand,thetraditionalwayofgrammarteachingisoftenadoptedbysometeachersinseniorhighschool.Firstly,theteacherpresentsthenewgrammarstructuresandexplainsitsrules.Secondly,thestudentswouldbegivensometimetomemorizetherules.Thirdly,studentswouldhavegrammartrainingand2 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterOneIntroductionpracticebydoingendlessmechanicalexercises.Thus,theprocessofgrammarteachingandlearningiscompletedwithoutattachinganyimportancetotheparticipationofstudents.Ontheotherhand,withthepopularityofcommunicativelanguageteachingandtask-basedlanguageteaching,someteachersmisunderstandthatgrammarinstructionisnotnecessary.Thus,theypaymoreattentiontotheimprovementofstudents’productiveabilitywhileignoringtheiraccuracy.What’sworse,somestudentsgenerallyagreewiththeideathatgrammarlearningisboringanddifficultandtheydislikegrammar.Therefore,itisreallynecessarytoexploreanewwaytogrammarteaching.OnthebasisoftheideaofDDL,studentsarethecenterintheclass,andtheteachersaretheorganizers,instructorsandresourceproviders.Granger(1998:199)believesthatDDLisanattractivemethodwhichisbasedonauthenticlinguisticdata,thus,canhelpstudentsimprovetheaccuracyandidiomaticitywhenusingthelanguage.Besides,DDLalsopromotesdiscoverylearningandemphasizetheactiveinvolvementofstudentstoobserveanddiscoverthelanguagerules.What’smore,theactivitiesdesignedundertheprinciplesofDDLnotonlyinspirestudents’motivationandinteresttolearnthelanguage,butalsohelpthemdevelopastronggrammaticalconsciousnessandcultivatetheirabilitytoself-study(Tribble&Jones,1990:12).Inthisstudy,DDLwillbeappliedtotheteachingofACinseniorhighschool,andthisresearchhastwosignificances.First,astheauthorhasmentionedabove,theapplicationofDDLtoEnglishlanguageteachingandlearningisverypopularandhasachievedalotbothathomeandabroad.However,researchesaboutDDLandgrammarteachingarerare,especiallyinChina.Besides,mostoftheresearchesaredonebyuniversityteachers,whichmeanstheresearchsubjectsismainlylaidonthescopeofcollegestudents.MoreempiricalstudiesareneededtoexploretheapplicationofDDLtoEnglishgrammarteachinginseniorhighschools.Second,thisstudytriestoconfirmthatDDLcanbehelpfulnotonlyturnstudentsform“passiveaccepters”to“activelearners”butalsoprovideteachersanewteachingmethodtogetabetterteachingquality.1.3StructureoftheThesisThepresentsstudymainlyconsistsoffivechapters:Introduction,LiteratureReview,ResearchMethodology,DataAnalysisandDiscussion,andConclusion.3 ChapterOneIntroductionShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterOneisanintroductiontothestudy.Thefirstpartisaboutthebackgroundoftheresearch.Thesignificanceoftheresearchisintroducedinthesecondpart.Itprovidesthearrangementoftheresearchintheend.ChapterTwoistheliteraturereviewpartwhichincludesthereviewoftheoreticalbasisofdata-drivenlearningandresearchesaboutDDLandAC.ChapterThreeintroducesthedesignandimplementationofthepresentstudy.Theresearchquestionsarepresentedfirstly,followedbyresearchsubjects,researchinstrumentsandtheproceduresoftheresearch.ChapterFourmainlyconcernsaboutdatacollectionandanalysisoftheresults.TestscoresandotherresultsarereportedandanalyzedwiththestatisticalanalysissoftwareSPSS(Version16.0),dataanalysiswillbediscussedindetail.ChapterFiveistheconclusionpart.Itsummarizesthemajorfindings,pedagogicalimplicationsandlimitationsofthestudy.SuggestionsforfutureresearcharealsopointedoutinthischapterbasedonthelimitationsandpedagogicalimplicationstowellapplyDDLtoEnglishgrammarteachinginseniorhighschools.4 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterTwoLiteratureReviewChapterTwoLiteratureReview2.1CorpusandData-drivenLearningInthispart,corpusanddata-drivenlearningaretalkedabout.Corpusandcorpuslinguisticswillbereviewedfirst,andthenconceptsofdata-drivenlearning,featuresofdata-drivenlearningandclassificationsofdata-drivenlearningwillbediscussedaswell.2.1.1CorpusandcorpuslinguisticsTheword“corpus”or“corpora”isderivedfromLatinwordswiththemeaningof“body”or“collection”.AccordingtoCrystal(1991:221),corpusis“acollectionoflinguisticdata,eitherwrittentextsoratranscriptionofrecordedspeech,whichcanbeusedasastarting-pointoflinguisticdescriptionorasameansofverifyinghypothesesaboutalanguage”.Leech(1997:1)alsogavethedefinitionthat“Inthepastthirty-fiveyears,thetermcorpushasbeenincreasinglyappliedtoabodyoflanguagematerialwhichexistsinelectronicform,andwhichmaybeprocessedbycomputerforvariouspurposes.”Sinclair(1991:171)saidthatacorpusis“abodyofnaturally-occurringlanguagedatawhichcanbeusedasabasisforlinguisticresearch”.Therefore,inthefieldofmodernlinguistics,linguistsoftenusethistermtorefertothebodyoflanguagewhichisthecollectionofeitherwrittenororalspeechstoredinanelectronicdatabaseforthepurposeoflanguageanalysisanddescription.Differentcorporahavedifferentpurposes,andthepurposesofcorporadeterminetheapplicationofit.Generalcorpus,Specializedcorpus,Parallelcorpora,Comparablecorpora,LearnercorpusandMonitorcorpusareseveralcommontypesofcorpora.Atpresent,thecorpusresourceswhicharewidelyusedcontain:theAmericannationalCorpus(ANC),TheInternationalCorpusofEnglish(ICE),SantaBarbaraCorpusofSpokenAmericanEnglish,CorpusofContemporaryAmericanEnglish(COCA),CollinsBirminghamUniversityInternationalLanguageDatabase(CBUILD),andTheBritishNationalCorpus(BNC)andsoon.Inrecentyears,withthedevelopmentoftheInternetandcomputertechnology,andtheneedsoflanguagelearningandresearching,corpuslinguisticsisgettingmore5 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationandmorepopular.“Corpuslinguisticsisnotanendinitselfbutisonesourceofevidenceforimprovingdescriptionsofthestructureanduseoflanguages,andforvariousapplications,includingtheprocessingofnaturallanguagebymachineandunderstandinghowtolearnorteachalanguage”(Kennedy,1998:1).InChina,corpuslinguisticsstartedfrom1980s,likeJDESTcomputercorpusinShanghaiJiaoTongUniversity(Yang,1986).Thencorpuslinguisticsdevelopedveryfastandachievedalot,likeCLEC(ChineseLearnerEnglishCorpus)byGuiShichun&YangHuizhong(2003),SWECCL(SpokenandWrittenEnglishCorpusofChineseLearners)byWenQiufang(2005).ScholarslikeWangKefei(2003)andHeAnping(2009)alsocontributedalottocorpuslinguistics.Inthepresentstudy,theauthorwilluseAntConc3.2.2w,acorpustool,todotheresearch.Userscandownloaditfromhttp://www.antlab.sciwaseda.ac.jp/software.htmlforfree(HeAnping,2010:12).ThemaininterfaceofitisshowninPicture1.AndthelinguisticdatainthisresearchforattributiveclausecomesfrompedagogiccorpusmadebyHeAnping&ZhengWangquan(2009).Userscandownloaditfromhttp://www.pep.com.cn/download/gzenglish/yuliao.zipforfree(HeAnping,2010:92).6 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterTwoLiteratureReview2.1.2ConceptsofData-drivenLearningCorpuslinguisticsisayoungspecialization,however,itsvalueinforeignlanguageteachingandlearninghasdrawngrowingattentionandrecognition(suchasHunston,2002;Sinclair,2004;O’Keeffe,McCarthy,andCarter,2007;Bennett,2010;Reppen,2010).Asameaningfulpedagogicalapproachforusingcorpusinforeignlanguageteachingandlearning,DDLwasproposedbyTimJohnsin1991,whichhasreceivedwideattentioneversince.DDLwasdefinedas“theuseintheclassroomofcomputergeneratedconcordancestogetstudentstoexploretheregularitiesofpatterninginthetargetlanguage,andthedevelopmentofactivitiesandexercisesbasedonconcordanceoutput”(Johns&King,1991:iii).AsJohns(1994:297)stated,“whatdistinguishestheDDLapproachistheattempttocutoutthemiddlemanasfaraspossibleandtogivedirectaccesstothedatasothatthelearnercantakepartinbuildinguphisorherownprofilesofmeaninganduses”.What’smore,corpusdata“offerauniqueresourceforthestimulationofinductivelearningstrategies—inparticularthestrategiesofperceivingsimilaritiesanddifferencesandofhypothesisformationandtesting”(ibid.).Frommypointofview,themainassignmentofDDListodiscoverhowlanguageworks.Onthebasisofcorpusdataandconcordances,Identify-Classify-Generalizearethreestepsforlanguageteachingandlearning.Thefirststepistoidentifythequestionwhichneedstobesolved,andthequestioncouldbeproposedeitherbytheteacherorthestudents;alongwiththequestion,thesecondstepistoclassifyandselecttheusefuldata;thelaststepistogeneralizethelanguagerulesbyobservingthedata.DuringtheprocessofDDL,generalizingplaysasignificantrole.Johns(1997)describeslearnersas“languagedetectives”.Inordertodiscoverthelanguagerulesandtheusageofthelearningmaterial,studentshavetofind,identifyandinferthegrammarrulesbythemselves.Andtheywouldbecomethecenteroftheclassandparticipateinthelearningactivitiesactively.Thus,itishelpfulforthemtodevelopthegeneralskillsandraisetheirgrammarawareness.Hunston(2002:170)statesthat“thedata-drivenlearninginvolvessettingupsituationsinwhichstudentscananswerquestionsaboutlanguagebythemselvesthroughstudyingcorpusdataintheformofconcordancelinesorsentences”.Onthebasisofdifferentpurposes,situationssettingupforforeignlanguagelearningmaybedifferent.Teachersandstudentswouldworktogethertoobservetherawconcordancelistsandexplorethelanguagerules,patternsandmeanings.7 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationItisclearthatstudentsplayacrucialroleinDDL,andtheteacherwouldbecomethedirectorandfacilitator.Herereferstohands-offdata-drivenlearning(see2.1.4).Accordingtotheteachingaimsandcontent,theteachershouldpreparetheproperteachingmaterialfromthecorpusinadvance.Then,bygiventhematerials,studentswouldobserveanddiscusswitheachotherbasedontheguidingquestions,andthengeneralizetheresults.Ofcourse,theteachershouldgivestudentscarefulguidanceinthewholeprocess,andsummarizethelinguisticfeaturesorgrammarrulesattheendoftheclass.Inthisstudy,theauthorwouldtakeACasanexampletopresenthowtoapplyDDLtoACteachingandlearning.2.1.3FeaturesofData-drivenLearningComparingwithtraditionalforeignlanguageteachingandlearning,themainfeaturesofDDLareasfollows:First,DDLadvocatesautonomouslearningandthemainideaofitgoesinlinewithstudent-centeredlearningmethod.Atpresent,whenitcomestoEnglishgrammarteaching,studentsarestillthepassivelistenersoftheteacher.Thisteacher-centeredmethodnotonlymakestheteacherfeeltiredofkeeptalking,butalsomakesstudentsloseinterestingrammarlearning,causingdumblearners.However,intheprocessofDDL,studentsarethecenteroftheclass.Ontheonehand,itemphasizesstudents’autonomouslearningandindependentlearningability.Students’learninginterestisexcitedandthepracticalabilityisexercised.Thus,itwillhaveapositiveeffectonotherfactorssuchaslearningobjectives,motivation,needs,motivationsandsoon.Ontheotherhand,theteacheralsoplaysanimportantroleinDDL.Theyaretheorganizers,facilitatorsandguidersinthewholeprocess.Withthehelpoftheteachers,studentswouldbettercommandtheknowledgethroughDDLandbecomeautonomouslearners.Besides,DDLnotonlyattachesgreatimportancetoautonomouslearning,butalsoemphasizescooperativelearning.Itencouragesstudentstodiscoverthelinguisticfeaturesandlanguagerulestogether.Second,theauthenticlearningmaterialisthemainlanguageinput.Inmostcases,teachers’utteranceandthetextbooksarethemainresourceofthelanguageinputforstudentsintheclass.However,asweallknow,thelinguisticabilityofmostEnglishteachersinChinacannotreachthelevelofnativespeakers.Also,duetoallkindsofreasons,thelearningmaterialsinthetextbooksarebeyondauthentic.Therefore,theauthenticlanguageinputisbadlyneededforstudents.James(1998)believesthatmost8 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterTwoLiteratureReviewerrorsstudentsmadeareduetotheimproperinstructionoftheteacherorthewronginterpretationofthetextbook.Takevocabularyteachingasanexample,therearealotofwordsinEnglishsharingthesimilarmeaning,yet,theusageofthemaredifferent.Sometimestheexplanationoftheteacherorthedictionarycannotexpressthesesubtledifferences,thus,makingstudentsmisusingthosewordsinpractice.However,DDLcouldbettersolvethisproblem.Third,DDLischaracterizedby“bottom-upinductivelearning”.Generallyspeaking,the“top-downdeductive”wayisfrequentlyadoptedinEnglishgrammarteaching.Theteacherfirstclearlyexplainsthelanguagerules,andthenpresentssomeexamplestostudents.Themechanicalpracticeandexercisesarethemaintaskstostrengthenthenewknowledgeforstudents.However,duetothelimitedlanguagematerialsandtheknowledgeoflinguisticanalysis,moststudentscannotunderstandthegrammarrulesverywell.Theyjustremembertherulesandcannotusethemflexibly.InDDL,thelearningmaterialswouldbepresentforstudentsfirst,andwiththequestionstobesolved,thelanguageruleswillbediscoveredbystudentsthemselves.Itisameaningfulprocessduringwhichstudentsmaketheirownconstruction.Tognini-Bonelli(1996:44)believesthatstudentscouldactuallylearnalotthroughthismethod.Inshort,DDLrevealsanewmethodforlanguageteachingandlearning,andit’sworthytobediscussedfurther.2.1.4ClassificationsofData-drivenLearningTheapplicationofDDLtolanguageteachingandlearningisflexible.Generallyspeaking,DDLcanbeclassifiedintotwokinds:hands-ondata-drivenlearningandhands-offdata-drivenlearning.(1)Hands-ondata-drivenlearningInhands-ondata-drivenlearning,learnersarerequiredtousecomputerstodothecorpusconcordancethemselves.Itisahighlyautonomouslearningmodel,foronething,itremovestheintermediatelinkofthewholeprocessinthelargestdegree,makingthelearnersusethelinguisticdatadirectly;foranotherthing,duringthewholeprocess,allthetasksshouldbedonebythelearnersandtheteacherjustplaystheroleof“directorandcoordinator”(Johns,1991:3).Fromthisaspect,thelearnershereareadultswhohavethehighmotivationandlearningability.Thisnewapproachsupportedbycomputertechnologywithautonomouslearningascharacteristicwillbe9 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationinobviouscontrastwiththetraditionalteachingmodel.SinceDDLhasbeenputforward,ithasenjoyedagreatpopularity.Asbeingthemainstreammodel,alargeamountofempiricalstudieshasbeencarriedouttotextitsvalueinlanguageteachingandlearning.However,theresultsarenotsatisfactory.Manyresearchesconfirmedthatthisnewapproachhasapositiveeffectonforeignlanguageteachingandlearning,yet,verylittlecanbeshowntoitsexpectedadvantages(Boulton,2010b).Thereasonsthatcausethissituationareasfollows:Firstly,thelinguisticdataincorpusistoobig.Thecorpuscanprovideatleastdozensoforeventhousandsofexamplesforanycommonlanguageitem.Forordinarylearnerswhohavenoexperienceofprocessingcorpusdata,itisratherdifficultforthemtoanalyzethoseinstances(Chengetal.,2003:183).Secondly,learnershavedifficultyinunderstandingthelinguisticdatawhichcollecteddirectlyfromnativelanguage.Itishardforlower-levellearnerstoanalyzeandinducttheseoriginallinguisticdata(Keck,2004:95).Johns(1986:161)himselfoncestatedthathands-ondata-drivenleaningismoresuitableforadvancedlearnerswhohavealreadycommandseveralresearchmethodsandhavedataprocessingexperience.Thirdly,thiskindofDDLnotonlyrequireslearnershaveacertainabilityofcomputerapplication,butalsosetsuphighstandardforlearningenvironment(Yoon&Hirvela,2004).Thatistosaythisapproachcanonlybeappliedinmulti-mediaclassroomswithcomputers,ratherthanintheregularclassrooms.Therefore,inorderto“makeaseriouscontributiontolanguageteaching,corporamustbeadoptedbyordinaryteachersandlearnersinordinaryclassrooms”(Mauranen,2004:119).(2)Hands-offdata-drivenlearningLinguisticdatafromcorpuswillbebroughtintotheregularclassroomsinhands-offdata-drivenlearning,andlearnerscoulddothedata-drivenlearninginclasswithoutcomputers.Inthisway,learnersdon’tneedtodotheconcordanceofthecorpus,andthatwouldbedonebytheteacher.Theteacherwouldfirstlymakeselectionsandclassificationsoftheconcordanceresults.Thenbasedontheteachingneedsandthelearnersfactors,thepaper-basedlearningmaterialswouldbemadeout.Finally,learnerscanmakeuseofthosepreparedpaper-basedmaterialstodothedata-drivenlearning.10 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterTwoLiteratureReviewHands-offdata-drivenlearningnotonlyreservesthemainfeaturesofDDL,butalsoreducestherequirementsforthelearnerstoalargedegree.Atfirst,thiskindofapproachdoesn’taskleanerstousecomputers,thus,thecomputerapplicationabilitynolongerbeaprerequisiteforlearners.Besides,thearrangementofsuchamountofcorpusdatawouldbedonebytheteacher,whichgreatlyreducestherequirementsoflearners’linguisticlevel.Equallyimportant,thecorpusdatawhichpreparedbytheteacherismoretargetedandeasierforlearnerstoaccept.Inaddition,thepaper-baseddata-drivenlearningmaterialcangetridofthedirectdependenceonthecomputer,thus,makingtheapplicationofcorpusdataintheregularclassespossible(Boulton,2010a:539).FormostseniorhighschoolstudentsinChina,theirlearningtasksareveryheavyandmostofthemlacktheabilityofautonomouslearning.Therefore,hands-offdata-drivenlearningismoresuitableforseniorhighstudents.Inthisstudy,theauthorwillusehands-offdata-drivenlearningtodotheexperiment.2.2TheoreticalBasisofData-drivenLearningThispartmainlyreviewstheoreticalbasisofdata-drivenlearning,containingconstructivism,discoverylearningandinputtheory.2.2.1ConstructivismConstructivismbelongstocognitivepsychologywhichreflectsthecognitiverulesofhumans’learningprocess.Itisatheoryaboutknowledgeandlearning(Brooks&Brooks,1993:45).Onthebasisofconstructivism,“knowledgeisnotpassivelyreceivedbutactivelybuiltupbythecognizingsubject”(Glaserfeld,1995:162).Candy(1991:270)statesthat,“constructivismleadsdirectlytothepropositionthatknowledgecannotbetaughtbutonlylearned(thatis,constructed)”.Thatistosay,aslongaslanguagelearningisconcerned,itwouldbeanactiveprocessduringwhichlearnersconstructnewconceptsbasedontheircurrentknowledgeandtheirinductivelearningability.Constructivistsbelievethatlearningisameaningfulprocessofconstructionundercertainsituations.Inthisprocess,theinteractionbetweenstudentsandtheteacher,andbetweenstudentsandstudentsarefrequent.Besides,allkindsoflearningresourceandlearningapproachesarenecessary.Inconstructivistmodel,teacherswill11 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationdirectandhelpstudentstofulfilltheconstruction,puttingstudentsinthepositionofthesubjectsofknowledgeconstruction.Thewholelearningprocesswouldbedoneinacompleteandauthenticlanguageenvironment.Andtheideaof“student-centered”waywouldbetotallyrealized.Therearefourcharacteristicswhichconstructivistsconsiderimportant,namely,subjects,situations,cooperationandresources.AndtheideasofconstructivismaresimilartotheprinciplesofDDL.First,studentsarethecenteroftheclass.Thesameasconstructivism,DDLalsoattachesgreatimportancetolearners’ownlearningprocess.Bothofthemsupport“student-centered”learningmodelandencouragestudentstoconstructnewunderstandingsbasedontheirownexistedknowledge.Second,thelearningsituationsshouldbeauthenticandreal.Accordingtoconstructivism,theknowledgeconstructionwithouttherealsituationisnotauthentic,anditwouldbemeaninglessforlearners.DDLalsoemphasizestherealisticoflearningprocess.Thelinguisticdatafromcorpusisrealandauthentic,anditwouldprovidelearnersthereallearningsituations.Third,cooperativelearningbetweenstudentsareencouraged.Constructivismpaysmuchattentiontocooperation,andencourageslearnerstocommunicateandexpresstheirideas.Learnerscouldhavetheirownunderstandingsaboutthenewknowledgeinconstruction.InDDL,cooperativelearningisalsoencouraged.Itwouldbehelpfulforlearnerstodiscoverandconcludethelanguagerules.Four,bothofthemprovidelearnersabundantlearningresources,andlayemphasisonthedesignofthelearningprocess.2.2.2DiscoveryLearningGenerallyspeaking,whenitcomestolearningmodels,receptionlearninganddiscoverymodelaretwomainforms.Ausubel(1968:65)proposedmeaningfulreceptionlearningwhichconcernshowstudentslearnamountofmeaningfulmaterialsinclass.Inreceptionlearningmodel,teacherswouldpresentwell-organizedlessonsforstudents,andtheonlytaskforstudentsistofollowteachers’instruction.However,discoverylearningfollowsanotherway.Itisdefinedas“anapproachtoinstructionthroughwhichstudentsinteractwiththeenvironmentbyexploringandmanipulatingobjects,wrestlingwithquestionsandcontroversies,orperformingexperiments”(Ormrod,1995:442).Indiscoverylearning,studentsareguidedandmotivatedtoexploretheknowledgeandconcepts.Newideaswillbeconstructed;new12 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterTwoLiteratureReviewrelationshipswillbeidentified;andnewmodelsofthinkingandbehaviorwillbecreated.Thediscoverylearningmodelrequiresthat“thestudentparticipatesinmakingmanyofthedecisionsaboutwhat,howandwhensomethingistobelearnedandevenplaysamajorroleinmakingsuchdecisions.Insteadofbeing‘told’aboutthecontentbytheteacher,itisexpectedthatthestudentwillhavetoexploremanyexamplesandfromthem‘discover’theprinciplesorconcepts,whicharetobelearned”(Snelbecker,1974:425).Learners’creativity,imagination,andintuitionareencouragedindiscoverylearning.Itinvolvesahypothesis-test-conclusionprocess.Firstly,materialstothequestionsproposedwouldbefoundbythelearners.Thenbasedontheobservationsandexperiences,thegeneralideaswillbetested.Finally,learnerswillmakeconclusionsafterdiscussion,thus,theproblemissolved.Withtheconvenienceprovidedbycorpusandconcordancetool,DDLsharesthesimilarprinciplesofdiscoverylearning.AccordingtoJohns(1991),Identify-Classify-GeneralizearethreestepsofDDL.Inthisprocedure,learnersareactivelyinvolvedinthecognitiveprocessofgeneralizinglanguagerules.Basicallyspeaking,thediscoverylearningtakeseffectintwoformsinDDL.Ontheonehand,the“bottom-up”approachrequireslearnerstoexamineandgeneralizethelinguisticfeaturesandpatternsthroughinductivereasoningwithoutlearningtheknowledgeinadvance.Ontheotherhand,the“top-down”approachwillbeadoptedtotestthelinguisticassumptionsbyrunningconcordance.2.2.3InputTheoryWhenitcomestotheimportanceofinputinlanguageacquisition,thereexistdifferentviews.AccordingtoEllis(1985),thebehavioristviewattachesimportanceoflinguisticenvironment,whilethenativistviewminimizestheroleofinputandemphasizesthelearners’internalprocessingmechanisms.However,theinteractionistsviewregardslearners’languagedevelopmentastheresultofinputfactorsandinnatemechanisms.InLongmanDictionary,inputisdefinedas“somethingputintoasystemorexpendedinitsoperationtoachieveoutputorresult”.Gass(1997:35)statesthat“inputisperhapsthesinglemostimportantconceptofsecondlanguageacquisition.Itistrivialtopointoutthatnoindividualcanlearnasecondlanguagewithoutinputofsomesort”.Krashen(1982)alsostressedtheimportanceofinputinhisinput13 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationhypothesis.Heclaimsthatthecomprehensibleandauthenticlanguageinputissignificanceforsuccessfullanguagelearning.Little(1989:11)claimsthatauthenticlanguageisacquisition-promotingcontent.Alargeamountofnaturallanguagewillbeprovidedforlearnerstoacquirethelanguage.Forlanguageacquisitiontooccur,agreatdealofauthenticlanguageinputisoneofthenecessaryconditions,togetherwiththechancetousethelanguage,aswellasthemotivationtousethelanguage.Besidesauthentic,thelanguageinputshouldalsobeappropriateandcomprehensible.Infact,“DDLalsodrawsfromproductteachinginthatitprovidesauthenticlanguagematerialforstudy.Thedata-drivenlearningbringstotheclassabundantexamplesofauthenticlanguagesamplesthatcanbestudiedandexploitedinmanyways.”(Tribble&Jones1990:78).DDLsharessomethingincommonwithInputtheory.Takegrammarteachingasanexample,DDLcanhelplearnerslearnthegrammarrulesthroughalargeamountofcomprehensibleinputwhichderivesfromcorpus.Thelanguagefromcorpusisnaturalandauthentic,andthisnewapproachcouldarouselearners’interestintheprocessofdiscoveringthelanguagerulesthroughconcordanceanalysis.Inthisstudy,hands-offdata-drivenlearningwillbeadopted,andthelearningmaterialaboutACiscarefullyselectedandcarriedoutbytheteacherinadvance.Thatistosay,thelanguageinputismoretargetandmoresuitableforlearners.Also,thenewapproachisseldomadoptedinseniorhighschools,thus,studentsmaybeveryinterestedinit.2.3PreviousResearchesonData-drivenLearningandAttributiveClauseThispartmainlydiscussespreviousresearchesaboutdata-drivenlearningandattributiveclause.Researchesondata-drivenlearningabroadandathomewillbereviewedinthefollowingpart.Researchesonattributiveclausewillbediscussedaswell.2.3.1ResearchesonData-drivenLearningAbroadData-drivenlearning,orcalledDDLisdefinedbyJohns&King(1991:iii)as“theuseintheclassroomofcomputer-generatedconcordancestoregularitiesofpatterninginthetargetlanguageandthedevelopmentofactivitiesstudentstoexplore14 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterTwoLiteratureReviewexercisesbasedonconcordanceoutput”.Identify-Classify-GeneralizearethreestepsinDDL.Sincethen,agreatnumberofscholarshavebeguntostudytheapplicationofcorpustolanguageteaching.Barlow(1994)holdstheviewthattherolesofteacherandstudentsbothhaveachangeinDDL.Thestudentsbecomethecenteroftheclassroom,whiletheteacherplaystheroleasaguiderorafacilitator.Hunston(2002)assumesthatthiskindoflearningmethodcanpromotelearners’motivationandimprovethelearningeffect.Becausestudentsaremoreinterestedintheknowledgediscoveredbythemselves.Bycomparingproductapproachwithprocessapproach,Hadley(2002)pointsthatdata-drivenlearningisamatchingpointbetweenthesetwoapproaches.Itnotonlyabsorbstheadvantagesofboththeapproaches,butalsoovercomethedisadvantages.Yoon,H.(2008)conductsaqualitativestudywhichinvestigatesthechangesinstudents’writingprocesswiththehelpofcorpususeoveranextendedperiodoftime.Themainpurposeofthestudyistotesthowcorpustechnologycouldaffectstudents’developmentofcompetenceassecondlanguagewriters.Theresultsrevealthatcorpususehasanimmediateeffectbyhelpingstudentssolvinglanguageproblemsinwritingaswellaspromotestudents’perceptionsoflexicalgrammarandlanguageawareness.Boulton(2009)presentsusanexperimenttoseehowlow-levellearnersdealwithcorpusdatawithoutpriortraining.ThegrammaticalpointinthisexperimentislinkingadverbialsinEnglish,whichisdifficulttocommandforstudentsundertheinstructionoftraditionalteachingmethod.Thesubjectshereare132freshmenwhocomefromanengineeringcollegeinFranceandmostofthemhavepoorabilityinEnglish.Thestudentsaredividedintoseveralgroupstocomparetheirabilitytodealwiththetargetitemsbyusingtraditionalsourcesorcorpusdata.“Performancewastestedpriortotheexperiment,subsequentlytocheckabilitytousethedifferentinformationsourcesasareference,andlatertotestrecall.”BoultonconcludesthatDDLseemstobemoreeffectiveforreferencepurposes.Intheirstudy,Geluso&Yamaguchi(2014)aim“(1)topresentanEFLcurriculumdesignedaroundDDLwiththeaimofimprovingspokenfluency;(2)togaugehoweffectivestudentswereinemployingnewlydiscoveredphrasesinanappropriatemanner;and(3)toinvestigatestudentattitudestowardsuchanapproachtolanguagelearning.”ThefindingsindicatethatDDLiswelcomedbystudentsinthe15 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationclassroomandtheyfinditveryusefulandeffective.However,somestudentsdohavesomedifficultiesrelatedtoDDL,suchasencounteringunfamiliarwordsandcut-offconcordancelines.Smart(2014)conductsanexperimentinanAmericanpublicuniversitytoexaminewhethercorpus-informedgrammarinstructionismoreeffectivethroughinductive,data-drivenlearningorthroughtraditionaldeductiveinstruction.Inthestudy,49participantsaredividedintothreegroupsreceivedifferenttreatments(adata-drivenlearningtreatment,adeductiveinstructionaltreatmentusingcorpus-informedteachingmaterials,andadeductiveinstructionaltreatmentusingtraditionalmaterials)onthepassiveinEnglish.TheresultsshowthattheDDLgroupsignificantlyimprovedtheirgrammarabilitywiththepassivevoice,whiletheothertwogroupsdidnotshowsignificantgains.2.3.2ResearchesonData-drivenLearningatHomeThestudyofcorpusdata-drivenlearninginChinaiscloselyrelatedtoEnglishteachingandlearning.Withthedevelopmentandpopularizationofcorpuslinguistic,thedata-drivenlearningapproachdrawsagrowingattentionofnumerousresearchers,andmostofthemhavetestedthevalueoftheapplicationofthenewapproachtoEnglishteaching.HuangDawang,NanZuomin,YangXinliang(2003)believethatthelearningofregisterknowledgehasalwaysbeenanobstacleinthedevelopmentofstudents’writingability.Therefore,theydoanexperimentwhichaddressestheutilizationofDDLintheefficientinstructionofregisterknowledgeinEnglishcompositionpedagogyaswellastheexplanationoftheteachingprocedure.Aftertheexperiment,theyconcludethatwiththecarefulguidanceoftheteacher,studentscanretrieveconcordancelinesfromappropriatecorpora,discoverfactsaboutthelanguagefromauthenticexamples,thus,consequentlyimprovetheirregisterknowledge.ZhenFengchao(2005)madecommentsonthefourfeaturesofDDL,thendiscussedthemethodsofit,namelyKWICconcordanceanalyzingcollocation,colligation,extendingcontext,andusingkeywordsandmakingcourseware.Itstatesthatbyusingthesemethods,learnersnotonlylearnlanguageautonomously,butalsoachievethenative-likeproficiencyofspeaking,readingandwritingskillsofthetargetlanguage.XieYanhong,PanYuping,ZhangYuting(2010)makesasurveyaboutthe16 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterTwoLiteratureReviewcurrentsituationofgrammaracquisitionamongChineseCollegestudents.Accordingtotheresult,itisstillnecessarytoconductgrammarinstructionincollegestageandDDLcouldprovideanewperspectiveforsecondlanguagegrammarteachingandlearning.LiuShasha(2011)discussedtheconceptsofcorpusandDDL,andpresentedhowtoapplyDDLtoEnglishvocabularyteachinginSeniorHighSchools.SheconcludedthatvocabularylearningundertheprinciplesofDDLnotonlyhelpstudentsbetterunderstandingthemeaningofthewords,butalsoenlargethesizethevocabularyofthem.Inaddition,DDLcanraisestudents’interestinvocabularylearning.Also,LiuShashaalsomentionedthatthebestwaytoteachvocabularyistocombineDDLapproachwithtraditionalmethod.LiDechao,WangKefei(2011)discusshowtodevelopdifferentkindsofDDLmodelstoassisttourismtranslationinstructionbasedontheconcordsresultsfromspecializedbilingualcorpora.Theybelievethat,DDLmodelcannotonlypromotetheconceptualchangeoftourismtranslationinstructionbyenrichingteachingmaterialsanddiversifiedteachingmethods,butalsopromoteinductivelearningamongstudentsbyencouragingthemtobecomeautonomouslearners.ZhuHuimin(2011)takescollegeEnglishvocabularyteachingasanexample.ShemainlydiscussesthetheoreticalbasisofDDL,thedefinitionandnatureofDDLandsomesoftwaretoolsforcorpusretrievalsystem.What’smore,classroommethodologicalissuesarefurtherdiscussedaimingtoprovideconstructivetheoreticaladvicetotheapplicationofDDLtovocabularyteachingandlearning.LuoLing,WenShanyi,ZhuYonghong(2014)proposethreetypesofDDLmodelandtheclassificationbasis,namelyFreeDDL,GuidedDDLandControlledDDL.TheadvantagesofapplyingDDLtogrammarinstructionareclarified,togetherwiththedifficultiesandsolutionstothiskindofnewmethod.TheyspecificallyintroducehowtobuildanEnglishgrammarDDLmodelbycitingarealexperimentanditstheoreticalbasis,whichincludessixsteps,namely,needsanalysis,corpuscollection,guidedobservation,rulessummarization,consolidatedpracticeandeffectassessment.Theexperimentresultindicatesthatthenewteachinginstructioncanbetterpromotetheautonomouslearningamongstudentsandalsoamorepleasingteachingeffect.Aswecansee,scholarsbothathomeandaboardhaddonelotsoftheoreticalresearchesandempiricalstudiestoprovethevalueofdata-drivenlearningonEnglishteachingandlearning.Itisanewapproachwhichiseffectiveandscientific.However,17 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationresearchesaboutDDLaremainlylaidonthescopeofEnglishvocabularyteachingandlearning.StudiesaboutDDLongrammarteachingandlearninginChinaarerare,andnearlynoneofthemfocusoncertaingrammaticalpoint.Besides,thesubjectsaremainlycollegestudents,nothighschoolstudents.Moreempiricalstudiesshouldbedonetomakeupthisfield.Therefore,theauthorchoosesthistopictoenrichthetheoreticalstudyandprovidesomesuggestionsforEnglishlanguageteachers.2.3.3ResearchesonAttributiveClauseAttributiveClause(AC)isasentencethatisusedtomodifyanounorapronoun,calledantecedentsinattributiveclause,andtherelativepronounsandadverbsusuallyappearaftertheantecedents.Inseniorhighschool,grammartakesabigpartinEnglishteachingandlearning.Asoneofthemostdifficultandimportantgrammaticalpoint,AChasbeenthefrequentkeyiteminCollegeEntranceExaminationformanyyears,andmoststudentshavedifficultieswhenlearningAC.Therefore,itattractsteachersandresearcherstodothestudyaboutit.Basedonherownexperience,ChenLing(2014)mainlydiscussedhowtoteachACmoreeffectively.Shebelievesthatteachersshouldmakestudentscommandeverysinglepointoftherulesandpracticealot.HuangJinchun(2015)believedthattherulesofACpresentedinthetablewouldbebetterunderstoodandeasierforstudentstoremember.RuanXiaofeng(2015)firsttalkedabouttheimportanceofACandthendiscussedthefrequenterrorsstudentsmadeaboutACandthereasonsofit.Themostfrequentonesarethemisuseofrelativepronounandrelativeadverb;theusageofthatandwhich;the“preposition+relativepronoun”structure;andthemisuseofrestrictiveattributiveclauseandnon-restrictiveattributiveclause.Byapplyingthiscorpus-aidedapproachtoACstudyisnotnew,butrare.In2011,QiuXiaoyanmadeuseofthecollectedlinguisticdata(Englishcomposition)fromCollegeEntranceExaminationofyear2009inGuangdongprovincetodotheerroranalysisofAC.Theresultsshowthatthemisuseofrestrictiveattributiveclauseandnon-restrictiveattributiveclausetakesabigpartoftheerrors.HuangLiquan(2011)alsomadeuseofthecorpustohelpstudentsreviewthe“preposition+relativepronoun”structureofAC.Shefoundthatstudentsperformedbetterandmoreactiveunderthenewapproach.Inthisstudy,theauthorwillapplyDDLintoACteaching.Onthebasisofpreviousresearchandthemostfrequenterrorsstudentsmade,theauthorwillapply18 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterTwoLiteratureReviewhands-offdata-drivenlearningtoACteaching,andtheteachingmaterialsaimtosolvetheproblemsofstudentsinlearningAC.2.4SummaryInthepreviouspartofliteraturereview,theauthormainlydiscussestherelationshipbetweencorpusanddata-drivenlearning,andbasisknowledgeofdata-drivenlearning.Also,thetheoriesbehinddata-drivenlearningarediscussedaswell,togetherwithpreviousresearchesaboutdata-drivenlearningandattributiveclause.Inthefollowingpart,theauthorwillmainlydiscussthejustificationofthepresentstudy.Firstly,whenJohns(1986)firstputforwardtheideaofdata-drivenlearning,thesubjectshepresupposedareadultswhohavegoodmotivationsandcommandedacertainresearchmethods.However,thestudyofYoon&Hirvela(2004)showedthattheeffectivenessoftheapplicationofdata-drivenlearningtomiddle-levellearnersisbetterthanthehigh-levellearners.Inthepresentstudy,theauthorwillapplydata-drivenlearningtoEnglishgrammarteachinginseniorhighschooltoexplorethisarea.Secondly,astheauthorhavementionedabove,theapplicationofdata-drivenlearningtolanguageteachingandlearningisflexible.Itcanbeclassifiedintotwokinds:hands-ondata-drivenlearningandhands-offdata-drivenlearning.Consideringtherealteachingsituationhands-offdata-drivenlearningismoresuitableforseniorhighstudents.Inthisstudy,theauthorwillusehands-offdata-drivenlearningtodotheexperiment.Thirdly,aswecansee,scholarsathomeandaboardhavedonelotsoftheoreticalresearchesandempiricalstudiestoprovethevalueofdata-drivenlearningonlanguageteachingandlearning.Itisanewapproachwhichiseffectiveandscientificandgoesinlinewiththedevelopmentofthesociety.However,researchesaboutdata-drivenlearningaremainlylaidonthescopeofEnglishvocabularylearning,writingandtranslation.Studiesaboutdata-drivenlearningongrammarteachingandlearningarerare,especiallyforattributiveclause.Empiricalstudiesshouldbedonetomakeupthisfield.Therefore,theauthorchoosesthistopictoenrichthetheoreticalstudyandprovidesomesuggestionsforEnglishlanguageteachers.19 ChapterThreeMethodologyShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterThreeMethodology3.1ResearchQuestionsTheresearchquestionsinthisstudyareasfollows:(1)Whatistheeffectofdata-drivenlearningonstudents’attributiveclauselearning?(2)Whetherdata-drivenlearningismoreeffectivethantraditionalteachingmethodinstudents’attributiveclauselearning?(3)Whatarethestudents’attitudestowardsdata-drivenlearning?3.2ResearchSubjectsThestudentsfromtwoparalleledclassesofGradeOneinHangzhouChangheHighSchoolareparticipantsinthisstudy.Thesamplecapacityis80students.ClassFiveisthecontrolledclasswithatotalnumberof40students;ClassOneistheexperimentalclass,andthenumberofthestudentsissameasthecontrolledclass.Twoclasseshavethesimilargenderproportionandthestudents’Englishlearninglevelaresimilar.ThestudentsparticipatedinthisstudyfromSeptember,2015toOctober,2015.Thetotalexperimentlastedsixweeks.Bothoftheclassesaretaughtbythesameteacherwiththesamecontentbutwithdifferentteachingapproaches,namelydata-drivenlearningintheexperimentalclassandtraditionalteachingmethodinthecontrolledclass.ThestudentsinthisexperimenthavealreadylearnedACinjuniorhighschool.Therefore,theyknowthebasicknowledgeandgrammaticalrulesofAC.ThepurposeoftheexperimentistoenhancetheirgrammaticalcompetenceofACaftertheyenteredseniorhighschoolfornearlyonemonth.What’smore,theknowledgeofACwouldbefurtherdiscussedinUnit4intheircurrentsemester.3.3ResearchInstrumentsTheresearchinstrumentswhichtheauthorhasemployedinthisexperimentconsistofpre-testofAC,thetreatmentofhands-offdata-drivenlearningmaterial,post-testofACandaquestionnaire.Amongtheseinstruments,thetwotestsandthe20 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterThreeMethodologytreatmentteachingmaterialareusedasthemaininstruments,andthequestionnaireisacomplementarymeasure.3.3.1Pre-testandPost-testThepurposeofthepre-test(seeAppendixII)istoteststudents’initialknowledgeofACatthebeginningoftheexperiment.Bothclasseswouldbegiventhetestwiththreeaims:First,tofindoutwhetherthedegreeofACmasteringofthestudentsarethesameornot;Second,tofindoutwhetherstudentscouldbettercommandtheusageofACafterthetreatmentofhands-offdata-drivenlearningmaterial;Third,accordingtotheresultofthepre-test,theauthorcouldfindouttheveryerrorsmadebystudentsinAC,whichhelpstheauthorbetterdesignthetreatmentteachingmaterialandmakesitmorespecific.Thepurposeofthepost-test(seeAppendixIII)isdesignedtotestwhetherthestudentsgetimprovementinAClearningaftertheexperiment.Bothclasseswouldbegiventhetestwithtwoaims:First,tofindoutwhetherthetreatmentofhands-offdata-drivenlearningmaterialcanimprovethestudents’AClearning;Second,tofindoutwhetherthereareanydifferencestothedegreeofACmasteringbetweenthetwoclassesafterthree-weektreatmentforexperimentalclassandthetraditionalteachingwayforcontrolledclass.Thecontentofthetwotestpapersarethesame,includingfourpartsineachtestpaper.PartOne:Multiplechoices(1pointperchoice,10pointsinall).Thereare10multiplechoicesinthispart,whichasksstudentstomakeabestchoiceofrelativepronounorrelativeadverbfortheantecedent.Parttwo:Blank-filling(1pointperblank,8pointsinall).Thereare8blanksinthispartandalltheblanksareneededtobefilledwithappropriaterelativepronounorrelativeadverb.ThispartisalittlebitdifficultthanPartOne.PartThree:Grammaticalityjudgment(2pointsperitem,20pointsinall).Inthispart,alltheitemsneedtobecorrected.Studentsarerequiredtofindouttheincorrectpartandunderlineitandthencorrectitwiththerightanswer.Someitemshavemorethanoneanswer,whichmeansthewayofcorrectionisflexible.PartFour:Sentencecombination(2-3pointsperitem,12pointsinall).Therearefiveitemsinthispart,andeachitemhastwosmallsentences.Thestudentsarerequiredtocombinethetwosentencesintoone,containingtheattributiveclause.Thearrangementofthescoresofeachitemisaccordingtoitsdifficulty.Twoitemsoffiveare3pointseach,andtheremainingthreeare2pointseach.Theanswerstoeachitem21 ChapterThreeMethodologyShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationarenotonly,studentscanansweritflexiblyaslongasitiscorrect.Thetotalscoreofthepaperis50points.Inordertoensurethevalidityofthetwotestpapers,thesourceoftheitemsisfrompublishedbooksforseniorhighschoolstudents.What’smore,thereliabilityofthetwotestpaperswillbeanalyzedfirstbeforetheexperiment.Thetestlasts30minutes,andthepapersarecollectedimmediatelyafterstudentsfinishedbytheauthor.3.3.2Hands-offdata-drivenlearningmaterialThetreatmentofhands-offdata-drivenleaningmaterial(seeAppendixI)isdesignedfortheexperimentalclassonly,whichconsistsofthreeparts,andeachpartisdesignedforthetreatmentofthespecificusageofAC.ThefirstpartofthetreatmentmaterialpresentsthefeaturesofantecedentsandtheircorrespondingrelativesineachAC.Forthematchedexercises,studentsarerequiredtofindoutthewordsbeforeeachrelative,andthencategorizethem.Thepurposeofthispartistohelpstudentshaveaclearknowledgeaboutwhentouserelativepronounandwhentouserelativeadverb.Forinstance,fromthetreatmentmaterial,itcanbefoundthat“who”usuallymodifiesaperson,while“which”oftenhassomethinginfrontofit.Thesecondpartofthetreatmentmaterialfocusesonthedifferentusagesof“that”and“which”.AccordingtoRuanXiaofeng(2015),moststudentsfeelconfusedwith“that”and“which”,andtheresultofpre-testalsoreflectsthisphenomenon.Therefore,theauthordesignedthistreatmentpart.Thispartaimstoletstudentsnoticeandanalyzetheantecedentsaswellasthewordswhichmodifytheantecedents.Thestudentswouldclearlyandeasilysummarizethat“that”canmodifyindefinitepronouns,thesuperlativeformsofadjectivesandsoon,while“which”cannot.However,innonrestrictiveAC,only“which”canbeused.ThethirdpartofthetreatmentmaterialmainlydealswithanotherlearningdifficultyinAC,namely,thepattern“preposition+which”.Thisisthefinalandthemostdifficultpartamongthreetreatments,whichrequirescarefulobservationoftheconcordancelines.Studentswouldgraduallycommandtheusageofthepattern“preposition+which”bydoingthematchedexercisesandgroupdiscussion.Accordingtotherealsituationinclassandthereflectionofstudents,eachtreatmentlastsabout30-40minutes.Inthewholeprocessoftreatment,studentsarethecenterinclass,whiletheteacheristhefacilitator.22 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterThreeMethodology3.3.3QuestionnaireThequestionnaire(seeAppendixIV)designedbytheauthorconsistsofeightquestionsnotonlytoinvestigatethestudents’feedbacktothedata-drivenlearning,butalsoprovidesomeenlightenmentsforfutureresearch.Thequestionnairetriestogetthefollowinginformationfromstudents:Havetheyeverheardofcorpus?Whatarethestudents’attitudestowardhands-offdata-drivenlearning?Whichteachingmethoddostudentspreferto,thetraditionaloneorthenewone?Andanopenquestionalsoincludedintheend,whichfocusesontheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofdata-drivenlearning.Thequestionnairewouldbegiventotheexperimentalclassonly.3.4ProceduresoftheResearchTheexperimentlastssixweeks,fromSeptember,2015toOctober,2015.AsisshowninTable3-1,thewholeprocessoftheexperimentconsistsofonepre-test,three-weektreatments,onepost-testandonequestionnaireinvestigation.Table3-1TheProceduresoftheExperimentWeekProcedureTimeDate1Pretest30minutesSept.16th2Treatment130minutesSept.23rd3Treatment235minutesSept.30th4Treatment340minutesOct.8th5Posttest30minutesOct.14th6Questionnaire5minutesOct.21stTheexperimentcanbedividedintofourstages:Stage1,apre-testpaper,whichisaboutAC,isgiventoboththeexperimentalclassandthecontrolledclassbeforetheexperiment.ThepurposeofitistofindouttheverydifficultiesthatstudentsencounteredinpreviousAClearning.Inaddition,apre-testcouldcheckthetwoclasses’degreeofACmasteringandthentoadjustthetimearrangementofthetreatment.What’smore,whetherthereexistsignificantdifferencebetweenthetwoclassescanalsobefoundthroughtheresultanalysisofthepre-test.Thetestlasts30minutes.23 ChapterThreeMethodologyShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationStage2,onthebasisoffirststage,thetwoclassesbegantobeexposedtotwodifferentteachingapproachestolearnAC.ThetotaltimeforAClearningforbothclassesisthesame,threeweeks.Thetraditionalteachingmethod,whichisteacher-centered,isadoptedinthecontrolledclass.Inthismethod,thegrammaristaughtinthedeductiveway,inwhichtheteacherfirstexplainsthedefinitionofAC,andthenthegrammaticalrulesofACexplainedlittlebylittlewithsomerelatedexercises.Duringthisprocess,studentsarethereceiveroftheknowledgeandtheyarerequiredtoremembertherulestaughtbytheteacher.However,intheexperimentalclass,data-drivenlearningisadoptedtoteachAC.Astheauthorhasmentionedabove,hands-offdatadrivenlearningplaysamainrole,inwhichthelearningmaterialiscarefullyselectedanddesignedbytheauthor.Firstly,studentsarehandedoutthetreatmentmaterialandthentheyaregiven5minutestoobserveallthelinguisticdataonthepaper.Secondly,undertheguidanceoftheteacher,studentsarerequiredtofinishthematchedexercises.ThepurposeofthematchedexercisesistohelpstudentshaveacomprehensiveunderstandingoftheusageofAC.Itwouldcostthemabout10minutes.Thengroupdiscussionisfollowedrightafterit,anditwouldlast5-10minutes.Inlast10-15minutes,theteacherfirstaskssomegroupleaderstoreporttheirresultsofdiscussionandthengivethemthefeedback.Allthisprocessiscommunicativeandinductive,andstudentsareallactivelyinvolved.Stage3,afterthetreatments,apost-testpaperisgiventoboththeclassesinordertoseethelearningeffectsofthetwodifferentapproaches.Inotherwords,thepurposeofthepost-testistofindoutwhichteachingmethodismoreeffectivetoimproveAClearning.However,thedateofthetestisnotinformedinadvanceandthepurposeofthetestisneverexplainedtothesubjectsintheexperiment.Thetestlasts30minutes.Stage4,aquestionnaireisconductedtotheexperimentalclassonly,includingeightquestions.Thequestionnaireisusedtoknowthestudents’feedbackonhands-offdata-drivenlearningandtoinvestigatewhetheritispopularwiththestudents,thus,helptheauthorcometoaconclusion.Thestudentsarerequiredtoanswerallthequestionshonestly.Itlasts5minutes.Thedatacollectedfromthetwotestsandthequestionnairewouldbeanalyzedtoanswertheresearchquestionsthatproposedinthestudy.Anditwillalsoprovetheeffectivenessofdata-drivenlearningonimprovingthestudents’AClearninginseniorhighschool.24 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterFourDataAnalysisandDiscussionChapterFourDataAnalysisandDiscussion4.1ResultsandAnalysisInordertofindoutwhetherdata-drivenlearningcanimprovestudents’AClearningandwhichapproachismoreeffectivetoimproveAClearning,thedataiscollectedandanalyzedfromthetwotests.Inaddition,beforetheexperiment,thereliabilityofthetwotestpapersshouldbetestedfirst.Thus,thissectionincludesthereliabilityofthetwotests,resultsandanalysisfromthepre/post-testsoftheexperimentalclass,resultsandanalysisfromthepre-test,resultsandanalysisfromthepost-test,andresultsfromthequestionnaire.4.1.1ReliabilityoftheTwoTestPapersBeforethedataanalysisofpre-testandpost-test,thereliabilityofthetwotestsshouldbeanalyzedfirst,whichwecallitequivalent-formsreliability.Thecalculationresultofthecorrelationcoefficientbetweentwosetsofthescoresoftwotestpapersindicatesthedegreeofrelationshipbetweenthescoresonthetwoforms.Theresultingequivalent-formsreliabilitycoefficientcanbeinterpretedasthepercentofreliable.Inthisstudy,studentsfromanotherparallelclassofGradeOneinHangzhouChangheHighSchoolaretheparticipantstodotheexperimentofreliabilityanalysis.ThestatisticalanalysissoftwareusedhereisSPSS(16.0).Theresultsareshownasfollows:Table4-1CorrelationsPREPOSTPREPearsonCorrelation1.829**Sig.(2-tailed).000N4040POSTPearsonCorrelation.829**1Sig.(2-tailed).000N4040**.Correlationissignificantatthe0.01level(2-tailed).25 ChapterFourDataAnalysisandDiscussionShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationFigure4-2AsisshowninTable4-1,wecanseethattheindexofPearsonCorrelationbetweenpre-testandpost-testis0.829withthemark**.Thatistosay,thecorrelationissignificantatthe0.01level.Also,Sig.(2-tailed)=0.000<0.05,whichmeansitisatruecorrelationbetweenthetwosetsofthescoresmarkedbythesameteacher.Besides,asisvividlydepictedinFigure4-2,whichwecallitthescatterplot,wecanclearlyseetheresult.Fromthescatterplot,wecandirectlyfindthatthedatapointsarewellplottedtomakeanearlystraightline.Inotherwords,thereexiststruecorrelationbetweenthetwosetsofthescores.Thehigherthecorrelationthetwovariableshave,thestrongertherelationshiptheyhave.Basedonthetwoanalysisresults,wecanconcludethatthereexiststrueandhighcorrelationbetweenthetwosetsofthescores.Itmeansthat,boththepre-testandthepost-testarereliable.Therefore,thescoresthatgotfromthetwotestsintheexperimentareeffectiveandhavereliability.4.1.2ResultsandAnalysisfromthePre/Post-testsoftheExperimentalClassInthispart,theresultsandanalysisfromthepre/post-testsoftheexperimentalclassismainlydiscussed.Itincludestheresultsandanalysisoftheoverallscores,26 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterFourDataAnalysisandDiscussionmultiplechoices,blank-filling,grammaticalityjudgmentandsentencecombination.4.1.2.1ResultsandAnalysisoftheOverallScoresAtfirst,thedataofthetwotestpapersarecollectedandanalyzed.Allthestudentswererequiredtotakepartinthepretestandposttest.Paired-SamplesTTestisusedtocomparetheresultsoftheoverallscoresofthetwotests.TheresultsareasfollowsinTable4-3andTable4-4:Table4-3PairedSamplesStatisticsMeanNStd.DeviationStd.ErrorMeanPair1PRE36.82405.188.820POST40.82404.914.777Table4-4PairedSamplesTestPairedDifferences95%ConfidenceIntervaloftheDifferenceStd.Std.ErrorSig.MeanDeviationMeanLowerUppertdf(2-tailed)Pair1PRE--4.0003.063.484-4.980-3.020-8.25839.000POSTAsisshowninTable4-3,theoverallmeansthatthestudentsgotintwotestpapersaredifferent.FromtheTable4-3,wecanclearlyseethatthemeanscoreis36.82inthepre-test,whilethatofthepost-testis40.82.Itisobviouslythat,afterthree-weektreatmentofhands-offdata-drivenlearningaboutAC,studentsfromtheexperimentalclassperformedbetterinthepost-testthantheydidinthepre-test.Ontheonehand,thepurposeofthepost-testinthepresentstudyistoexaminewhetherstudents’AClearningisimprovedaftertheyreceivedthree-weektreatment.Ontheotherhand,thepre-testisdesignedistoteststudents’initialknowledgeofACatthebeginningoftheexperiment.Thus,thecomparativeresultsofthescoresthatthestudentsgotinthetwotestscananswertheresearchquestionsinthisstudy.AstheTable4-4shows,themeanscoreinthepost-testoftheexperimentalclassis4higherthanthecorrespondingoneinthepre-test.What’smore,theSig.(2-tailed)=0.000<0.05,whichmeansthereexistssignificantdifferencebetweenthe27 ChapterFourDataAnalysisandDiscussionShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationperformanceofthestudentsinthetwotests.ThedistinctivedifferenceintheoverallscoresthatstudentsgotinthetwotestsisawaytomeasurethemasteringofAClearning.Thatistosay,itindicatesthatthestudentsmadeprogressandgainedalotinAClearningafterthree-weektreatment.Theanalysisdiscussedaboveclearlypresentsthatthehands-offdata-drivenlearningcanimprovestudents’AClearninginseniorhighschool.4.1.2.2ResultsandAnalysisoftheMultipleChoicesTestsMultiplechoicesareusedinbothofthetwotestpapers.Thefullmarkofthispartis10points.Eachitemgets1point.Thereare10multiplechoicesinthispart,whichasksstudentstomakeabestchoiceofrelativepronounorrelativeadverbfortheantecedent.Paired-SamplesTTestisusedtocomparetheresultsofthetwotests.TheresultsofmultiplechoicesintwotestpapersareasfollowsinTable4-5andTable4-6:Table4-5PairedSamplesStatisticsMeanNStd.DeviationStd.ErrorMeanPair1PRE7.75401.373.217POST8.70401.244.197Table4-6PairedSamplesTestPairedDifferences95%ConfidenceIntervaloftheDifferenceStd.Std.ErrorSig.MeanDeviationMeanLowerUppertdf(2-tailed)Pair1PRE--.9501.449.229-1.413-.487-4.14639.000POSTFromtheTable4-5,wecanclearlyseethatthemeanscoreis7.75inthepre-test,whilethatofthepost-testis8.7.Itmeansthatthescoresofmultiplechoicesinthepost-testishigherthanthatinthepre-test.Inadditional,inTable4-6,theSig.(2-tailed)=0.000<0.05,whichmeansthereexistssignificantdifferencebetweentheperformanceofthestudentsinthetwotests.Besides,themeanscoreinthepost-testis0.950higherthanthecorrespondingoneinthepre-test.Theresultisidenticalwiththe28 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterFourDataAnalysisandDiscussionoverallscorepattern.Itindicatesthattherearegreatlydistinctivelydifferencesinmultiplechoicestestbetweenpre-testandpost-test.Theresultprovesthatdata-drivenlearningisconducivetothemultiplechoicesteachingandlearning.4.1.2.3ResultsandAnalysisofBlank-fillingTestsBlank-fillingtestsareusedinbothofthetwotestpapers.Thefullmarkofthispartis8points.Eachitemgets1point.Thereare8blanksinthispartandalltheblanksareneededtobefilledwithappropriaterelativepronounorrelativeadverb.Thispartisalittlebitharderthanmultiplechoices.Paired-SamplesTTestisusedtocomparetheresultsofthetwotests.Theresultsofblank-fillingtestsintwotestpapersareasfollowsinTable4-7andTable4-8:Table4-7PairedSamplesStatisticsMeanNStd.DeviationStd.ErrorMeanPair1PRE4.88401.343.212POST5.48401.176.186Table4-8PairedSamplesTestPairedDifferences95%ConfidenceIntervaloftheDifferenceStd.Std.ErrorSig.MeanDeviationMeanLowerUppertdf(2-tailed)Pair1PRE--.6001.215.192-.989-.211-3.12239.003POSTFromtheTable4-7,wecanclearlyseethatthemeanscoreis4.88inthepre-test,whilethatofthepost-testis5.48,whichmeansthatthescoresofblank-fillingtestsinthepost-testishigherthanthatinthepre-test.Also,fromTable4-8,theSig.(2-tailed)=0.003<0.05,whichmeansthereexistssignificantdifferencebetweentheperformanceofthestudentsinthetwotests.What’smore,themeanscoreinthepost-testis0.600higherthanthecorrespondingoneinthepre-test.Theresultisalsofollowedbytheresultofitsoverallscorepattern.Inotherwords,itindicatesthatstudentshavemadeprogressinblank-fillingtestsbetweentwotestpapers.4.1.2.4ResultsandAnalysisofGrammaticalityJudgmentTests29 ChapterFourDataAnalysisandDiscussionShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationGrammaticalityjudgmenttestsareusedinbothofthetwotestpapers.Thefullmarkofthispartis20points.Inthispart,alltheitemsneedtobecorrected.Studentsarerequiredtofindouttheincorrectpartandunderlineit,andthentheycouldget1point.Andiftheycorrectitwiththerightanswer,thentheycangetanother1point.Thus,eachitemgets2points.Someitemshavemorethanoneanswer,whichmeansthewayofcorrectionisflexible.Paired-SamplesTTestisusedtocomparetheresultsofthetwotests.TheresultsofgrammaticalityjudgmenttestsintwotestpapersareasfollowsinTable4-9andTable4-10:Table4-9PairedSamplesStatisticsMeanNStd.DeviationStd.ErrorMeanPair1PRE15.42402.275.360POST17.25402.262.358Table4-10PairedSamplesTestPairedDifferences95%ConfidenceIntervaloftheDifferenceStd.Std.ErrorSig.MeanDeviationMeanLowerUppertdf(2-tailed)Pair1PRE--1.8251.838.291-2.413-1.237-6.27939.000POSTFromtheTable4-9,itisclearlyshowedthatthemeanscoreis15.42inthepre-test,whilethatofthepost-testis17.25.Itmeansthatthescoresofgrammaticalityjudgmenttestsinthepost-testishigherthanthatinthepre-test.Besides,inTable4-10,theSig.(2-tailed)=0.000<0.05,whichmeansthereexistssignificantdifferencebetweentheperformanceofthestudentsinthetwotests.Also,themeanscoreinthepost-testis1.825higherthanthatinthepre-test.Itprovesthattherearesignificantdifferencesingrammaticalityjudgmenttestsbetweenpre-testandpost-test.Theresultsindicatethatdata-drivenlearningiseffectivetoimprovestudents’commandofACmastering.4.1.2.5ResultsandAnalysisofSentenceCombinationTestsSentencecombinationtestsareexaminedinbothofthetwotestpapers.Thefullmarkofthispartis12points.Therearefiveitemsinthispart,twoitemsofwhichare30 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterFourDataAnalysisandDiscussion3pointseach,andtheremainingthreeare2pointseach.Theanswerstoeachitemisnotonly,studentscanansweritflexiblyaslongasitiscorrect.Paired-SamplesTTestisusedtocomparetheresultsofthetwotests.TheresultsofsentencecombinationtestsintwotestpapersareasfollowsinTable4-11andTable4-12:Table4-11PairedSamplesStatisticsMeanNStd.DeviationStd.ErrorMeanPair1PRE8.75402.529.400POST9.40402.540.402Table4-12PairedSamplesTestPairedDifferences95%ConfidenceIntervaloftheDifferenceStd.Std.ErrorSig.MeanDeviationMeanLowerUppertdf(2-tailed)Pair1PRE--.6501.210.191-1.037-.263-3.39739.002POSTFromtheTable4-11,wecanseethatthemeanscoreis8.75inthepre-test,whilethatofthepost-testis9.4.Wecantellthatthescoresofsentencecombinationtestsinthepost-testishigherthanthatinthepre-test.FromtheTable4-12,itclearlyshowsthattheSig.(2-tailed)=0.002<0.05,whichmeansthereexistssignificantdifferencebetweentheperformanceofthestudentsinthetwotests.Inaddition,themeanscoreinthepost-testis0.650higherthanthatinthepre-test.Itturnsoutthatthereissignificantdifferenceinsentencecombinationtestsbetweentwotests.Thatistosay,thestudentsfromexperimentalclassbenefitalotfromthree-weektreatment.4.1.3ResultsandAnalysisfromthePre-testsThepre-testsweregiventobothoftheclassesatthesametime.Thepurposeofthepre-testistestwhetherstudents’ACmasteringdegreefromtwoclassesaresimilarbeforetheexperiment.IndependentsamplesTtestisusedtocomparethepre-testresultsofthetwoclasses.Theresultsofthepre-testsoftwoclassesareasfollowsinTable4-13andTable4-14:31 ChapterFourDataAnalysisandDiscussionShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationTable4-13GroupStatistics组别NMeanStd.DeviationStd.ErrorMeanscoresofpre-testThecontrolledclass4036.385.333.843Theexperimentalclass4036.825.188.820Table4-14IndependentSamplesTestLevene"sTestforEqualityofVariancest-testforEqualityofMeans95%ConfidenceIntervaloftheDifferenceSig.MeanStd.ErrorFSig.tdf(2-tailed)DifferenceDifferenceLowerUpperscoresofEqualpre-testvariances.647.424-.38378.703-.4501.176-2.7921.892assumedEqualvariancesnot-.38377.941.703-.4501.176-2.7921.892assumedFromtheTable4-13,wecanclearlyseethatthemeanscoreofthecontrolledclassis36.38andtheexperimentalclassis36.82whichalittlehigherthanthecontrolledclass.Thestandarddeviationofthecontrolledclassis5.333andtheexperimentalclassis5.188.Thatistosay,theresultofthecontrolledclassismoredispersive.TheTable4-14shows:F=0.647,Sig=0.424>0.05,whichmeanstheStandardDeviationhasthehomogeneityofvariance.Inaddition,themeanscoredifferenceis0.450andSig(2-tailed)=0.703>0.05.ThedataaboverevealsthatthereexistsnosignificantdifferenceinACmasteringbetweenthestudentsfromthetwoclasses.Inotherwords,thestudentsfromtwoclassesarealmostatthesamelevelonACmasteringatthebeginningoftheexperiment.4.1.4ResultsandAnalysisfromthePost-testsThepost-testswerealsogiventobothoftheclassesattheendoftheexperiment.32 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterFourDataAnalysisandDiscussionThepurposeofitistoexaminewhichclassmademoreprogressinAClearning.Inotherwords,itisusedtoidentifywhichteachingmethodismoreeffective,answeringthesecondresearchquestion.IndependentsamplesTtestisusedtocomparethepost-testresultsofthetwoclasses.Theresultsofthepost-testsoftwoclassesareasfollowsinTable4-15andTable4-16:Table4-15GroupStatisticsgroupNMeanStd.DeviationStd.ErrorMeanscoresofpost-testThecontrolledclass4037.625.494.869Theexperimentalclass4040.824.914.777Table4-16IndependentSamplesTestLevene"sTestforEqualityofVariancest-testforEqualityofMeans95%ConfidenceStd.IntervaloftheSig.MeanErrorDifference(2-tailedDifferenDifferenFSig.tdf)ceceLowerUpperscoresofEqualvariances1.413.238-2.74678.007-3.2001.166-5.520-.880post-testassumedEqualvariances-2.74677.048.008-3.2001.166-5.521-.879notassumedFromtheTable4-15,attheendoftheexperiment,wecanclearlyseethatthemeanscoreofthecontrolledclassis37.62andtheexperimentalclassis40.82whichishigherthanthecontrolledclass.Thatistosay,theexperimentalclasshasmadeobviousimprovementinAClearning.Thestandarddeviationofthecontrolledclassis5.494andtheexperimentalclassis4.914,whichmeanstheresultofthecontrolledclassismoredispersive.Wecanalsojudgethattherearemorestudentsaroundaveragepointsintheexperimentalclassthanthestudentsinthecontrolclass.TheTable4-16shows:F=1.689,Sig=0.238>0.05,whichmeanstheStandardDeviationhasthehomogeneityofvariance.Inaddition,themeanscoredifferenceis3.200and33 ChapterFourDataAnalysisandDiscussionShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationSig(2-tailed)=0.007<0.05.ThedataaboverevealsthatthereexistsdistinctivedifferenceinACmasteringbetweenthetwoclasses.Inanotherword,afterthree-weekhands-offdata-drivenlearningaboutAC,theexperimentalclassimprovesmorethanthecontrolledclasswhoaretaughtwiththetraditionalteachingmethod.4.1.5ResultsfromtheQuestionnaireAftertheexperiment,aquestionnaireaboutthefeedbackofthedata-drivenlearningisgiventotheexperimentalclassonly.Thepurposeofthequestionnaireistoinvestigatethestudents’attitudetowardsgrammarlearningandtheirfeedbackofthree-weektreatmentofAClearning.Thequestionnaireisdesignedbytheauthor,therefore,inordertomakesureitsvalidityandreliability,apilotstudyhasbeendonebeforeusingthisquestionnaire.Themembersinthediscussiongroupallbelievethatthequestionsinthequestionnairearemeaningfulandtargeted,thus,itcanbedistributedtotheparticipants.ThequestionnairewaswritteninChinesetoavoidanymisunderstandingbysubjects.40piecesofthequestionnairewerehandedout,andallofthemweretakenbackandturnedouttobeuseful.Thequestionnaireswereansweredduringthebreak,withouttheirEnglishteacherpresent.Thustheparticipantscanbemorelikelytoofferthetrueinformationtoguaranteethereliabilityofthedata.Therearetotaleightquestionsinthisquestionnaire,includingsevenclosedquestionsandoneopenquestion.TheresultsoffirstsevenquestionsareasfollowsinTable4-17:Table4-17Dataofthequestionnaire(Q1-Q7)NumberRatio1A.7.5%B.40%C.52.5%2A.10%B.50%C.37.5%3A.72.5%B.22.5%C.5%D.0%4A.12.5%B.60%C.37.5%D.2.5%5A.35%B.7.5%C.40%D.17.5%6A.10%B.87.5%C.2.5%D.0%7A.7.4%B.67.5%C.2.5%D.0%TheTable4-17givesusavividdescriptionofthedataofthesurvey.Forthefirstquestion,40%ofthestudentsbelievethatitisdifficulttolearnEnglishgrammar,and34 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterFourDataAnalysisandDiscussion52.5%ofthestudentsholdtheopinionthatitdependentsonwhichgrammaticalpointtheyarelearning.Asforthesecondquestion,50%ofthestudentshavetheexperienceofusingtheInternetresourcetolearnEnglishgrammar,butonlyoccasionally.And37.5%ofthemneveruseitbefore.Asfarasthethirdquestion,72.5%ofthestudentsneverheardofEnglishcorpus.22.5%ofthemhaveheardofitbefore,butneveruseit.ForthenewwaytolearnEnglishgrammar,thefourthquestionshowsthat60%ofthestudentsshowsomeinterestsindata-drivenlearning.Accordingtotheresultsofthefifthquestion,35%ofthestudentspreferthedata-drivenlearningwaytoEnglishgrammarlearning,while40%ofthembelieveitisbettertocombinethetraditionalteachingmethodwiththedata-drivenlearningway.Andonly7.5%ofthestudentsprefertheoldwayofgrammarlearning.Throughthesixthquestion,87.5%ofthestudentsthinkthatdata-drivenlearningishelpfulforthemtoAClearning,andnoneofthembelieveitisnegative.Accordingtotheseventhquestion,67.5%ofthestudentsapprovetheeffectivenessoftheapplicationofdata-drivenlearningtogrammarlearning,andtheywouldliketolearnmorewithit.Question8isanopenquestionwhichrequiresstudentstopointouttheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofdata-drivenlearningandgivesomesuggestionsaboutit.Thestudentsarefreetoanswerthisquestionandtherearenorequirementsforit.TheanswersarewritteninChinese,theTable4-18istheresultscollectedandsummarizedbytheauthor:Table4-18TheanswersofQuestion8Thereareenoughexamplesentencesofhighquality.Thenewmethodisinnovativeandcaninspirethelearninginterest.AdvantagesTheknowledgeistargetedandparticular.Thesentencestructureisobvious.Itcanimprovethediscoveryabilityandautonomouslearning.Itcanbebettermemorizedandcommanded.Itleavesadeepimpressionoftheknowledge.Itishardtoadapt.DisadvantagesItisalittlehardforsomestudentstoanalyzeandsummarize.Itistimeconsuming.Thereexistunfamiliarwords.Lackfollow-upexercises.35 ChapterFourDataAnalysisandDiscussionShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationSuggestionsCombineitwiththetraditionalteachingmethod.Exploreothergrammaticalpoints.4.2DiscussionThisstudyfocusesontheeffectsofdata-drivenlearningonattributiveclauselearning.Alltheresultspresentedinthepreviouspartsarediscussedheretoanswertheresearchquestions.Thissectionmainlydiscussesthesummaryoftheresultsaboutthestudy,includingtheeffectsofdata-drivenlearningonattributiveclauselearning,andfeedbacksfromstudentstodata-drivenlearning.4.2.1TheEffectsofData-drivenLearningonAttributiveClauseLearningTheresultsandanalysisgotfromtheexperimentinthepreviouspartcanbeusedtoanswerthefirstresearchquestioninthispresentstudy.Basedonthecomparisonbetweentheresultsofpre-testandpost-testoftheexperimentalclass,thereexistsobviousincreaseofthetotalscores,whichindicatestheimprovementofstudents’AClearning.Thisisageneralresultthatpresentstheeffectivenessofdata-drivenlearning.Indetail,afterthree-weektreatmentofdata-drivenlearning,themeanscoresofeachpartofthetestsincreasedalot.Thefirsttwopartsofthetestpapers,multiplechoicesandblank-fillingtasks,areusedtoteststudents’basicknowledgeofattributiveclause.Thethirdpartofthetestpaperisgrammaticalityjudgment,whichnotonlyrequiresstudents’basicknowledgeoftherulesofattributiveclause,butalsotheabilitytojudgethegrammarmistakes.Thelastpartissentencecombinationpart,whichisthemostdifficultone.Itteststhestudents’comprehensiveabilityofusingattributiveclause,includingtheform,meaningandsentencestructure.Thereliabilityoftestpapersistested,sotheresultsofpretestandposttestareprovedeffectivetoanswertheresearchquestions.Inthepresentstudy,theauthorappliesdata-drivenlearningtoEnglishgrammarteachinginseniorhighschool.Fromthewholeprocessandtheexperimentdataanalysis,wecannotonlyconcludethatdata-drivenlearningcanbeappliedtoEnglishgrammarteaching,butalsothatthesubjectusingdata-drivenlearningcanbeyounger36 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterFourDataAnalysisandDiscussionlearners.Inotherwords,thesetwoconditionsconfirmthepracticabilityoftheapplicationofdata-drivenlearningtoEnglishgrammarteachinginseniorhighschool.Inaddition,fromthetablesandthedataanalysistheauthorhasmentionedabove,theresultscanconfirmthatthedata-drivenlearninghaspromotingeffectsongrammarlearning(takeACasanexample)inseniorhighschool.Asforthesecondresearchquestion,theresultsofthepre/post-testsofthetwoclassescanprovethatdata-drivenlearningismoreeffectivethanthetraditionalteachingmethodonAClearning.Fromthecomparisonbetweentheresultsofpre-testoftwoclasses,wecanclearlyconcludethatthereexistsnosignificantdifferencebetweentwoclasses.Inotherwords,Englishlevelsofstudentsfromthetwoclassesaresimilar.Italsoconfirmsthereliabilityoftheexperiment.Fromthecomparisonbetweentheresultsofpost-testoftwoclasses,thereexistssignificantdifferenceofthedataresults.Thatistosay,itisobviousthattheimprovementofthestudentsfromtheexperimentalclassismuchgreaterthanthatofthestudentsfromthecontrolledclass.Inotherwords,asfarasAClearningisconcerned,data-drivenlearningismoreeffectivethanthetraditionalteachingmethod.Generallyspeaking,thepromotingeffectsofthedata-drivenlearningcanbewitnessintheanalysisability,learningautonomy,summarizingandsoon.Intheprocessofthewholeexperiment,althoughthetotaltimeisthesame,theteachingmethodsarequitedifferent,whichleadstodifferentteachingefficiency.Inthetraditionalteachingmethod,thelearningprocessismainlyconductedbyteacher’sexplanation.Studentsarethereceiveroftheknowledge,andautonomouslearningabilityisnotimproved.Incontrast,indata-drivenlearning,autonomouslearningisencouraged,andstudents’analysisabilityandsummarizingabilityarealsowellpracticed.However,thiskindoflearningisnotfullyindependent.Theteacheristhefacilitatorandresourceproviderinthelearningprocess,andstudentsarethecenterinclass.Aboveall,itisthelearningprocessthatdeterminestheresultsoflearning.Data-drivenlearningprovidesmorechancesforstudentstocontroltheirownlearning.Inthisaspect,theawarenessofself-learningofstudentsispromoted.Itbringsaboutabundantexamplesofauthenticlanguagesamplestostudents.Throughsentenceanalysisandthesummarizingoftheusageofthegrammarpoints,studentswilldiscovertherulesandtheknowledgeactivelyratherthanreceivethempassively.Ingeneral,theresultsoftheexperimentindicatethatthedata-drivenlearninghas37 ChapterFourDataAnalysisandDiscussionShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationpromotingeffectsonEnglishgrammarlearninginseniorhighschoolanditismoreeffectivethantraditionalteachingmethodasfarasattributiveclauselearningisconcernedinthepresentstudy.4.2.2DiscussionoftheFeedbacksfromStudentstoData-drivenLearningFromthedataanalysisofthetwotestpapers,ithasconfirmedtheeffectivenessofdata-drivenlearningonAClearning.Besides,accordingtotheresultsofthequestionnaire,wecanalsoconcludethatdata-drivenlearningiswelcomedbyseniorhighstudents,whichanswersthethirdresearchquestion.Theadvantagesstudentsbelievetowarddata-drivenlearningareasfollows:Thereareenoughexamplesentencesofhighquality.Thenewmethodisinnovativeandcaninspirethelearninginterest.Theknowledgeistargetedandparticular.Thesentencestructureisobvious.Itcanimprovethediscoveryabilityandautonomouslearning.Itcanbebettermemorizedandcommanded.Itleavesadeepimpressionoftheknowledge.Inaddition,fromtheresultsofQuestions4,6and7,wecanconcludethatstudentsareinterestedindata-drivenlearning,andtheybenefitalotfromitinAClearning.Therefore,thefeedbacksofthequestionsandalltheseadvantagesconfirmtheeffectivenessofdata-drivenlearningandstudents’positiveattitudetowarddata-drivenlearning.However,studentsalsogivesomedisadvantages:Itishardtoadapt.Itisalittlehardforsomestudentstoanalyzeandsummarize.Itistimeconsuming.Thereexistunfamiliarwords.Lackfollow-upexercises.Besides,fromQuestions2and3wecanseethatdata-drivenlearningisnotpopularinseniorhighschoolsandmoststudentsandteachersarenotfamiliarwithit.Inaddition,fromQuestion5,wecanseethatalthoughdata-drivenlearninghasitsownadvantages,moststudentspreferthecombinationofitwithtraditionalteachingmethod.Alltheseresultsremindusthattheimplementationofthedata-drivenlearningshouldbeconductedcarefullyandflexibly.Herearesomesuggestionswhenconductingdata-drivenlearning.First,whenselectinganddesigningthehands-offdata-drivenlearningmaterial,thestudents’currentlinguisticlevelshouldbetakenintoconsideration.Asweallknow,thelinguisticdatausedinthematerialiscitedfromcorpus.Thus,theselectionofanappropriatecorpusisakeystep.Atpresent,therearemanyinternational38 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterFourDataAnalysisandDiscussionauthoritycorpuscanbeused,suchasBritishNationalCorpus(BNC)andCorpusofContemporaryAmericanEnglish(COCA).Itisnecessaryforteacherstoselectarightcorpusandclassifytheindexlineaccordingtotheteachingcontentsandlanguageproblemsproposedbylearners.Inaddition,thestudents’currentEnglishlevelanddemandshouldalsobetakenintoconsideration.Whenselectingtheexamplesentences,teachersshouldavoidunfamiliarwords.Becausestudentmayfeelconfusedaboutthenewwordsanditwouldbecometheobstacleforthefollow-upsteps.Ifthedifficultwordhastobeshowedinthematerial,theteacherhadbettergivetheChineseexplanationrightafterit.Second,theteachershouldperformhisdutiesaswellaspossible.Indata-drivenlearning,theteacherisafacilitatorandaguider,whilestudentsarethecenterinclass.Itemphasizestomakefulluseofthelinguisticdata,withthestudentsasthecenter,toexplorethegrammarinmanyaspectssuchassentencestructure,wordforms,usagesandrules.Inthismethod,studentsareencouragedtodiscussingroupsandinteractwiththeteacher.Therefore,itisanopenanddynamicteachingprocess.Third,itisbettertocombinedata-drivenlearningwiththetraditionalteachingmethod.Accordingtothefeedbackofthestudents,40%ofthempreferthecombinationofthetwoapproaches.Honestlyspeaking,data-drivenlearningisanewthingforstudentsandmostEnglishteachersinseniorhighschool.Almostnoneofthemhaveeverhearditbefore.What’smore,studentsinseniorhighschoolareaccustomedtolearningtheknowledgeunderthetraditionalteachingmethod.Thus,itishardforstudentstoadaptitforthefirsttime,especiallyforsomestudentswhohavepoorfoundations.Inaddition,althoughdata-drivenlearningisprovedtobeeffectiveingrammarteaching,itisactuallytimeconsuming.Thewholeprocessoftheimplementationcostsmuchmoretimethanthetraditionalteachingmethod.Therefore,alltimeusingitisnotpractical.Besides,fromthedataanalysis,wecannotdenythatthetraditionalteachingmethodcanalsohelpstudentsonAClearning,althoughtheeffectivenessisnotsoobvious.Thetraditionalteachingmethod,initsnature,isadeductivewaytoteachgrammar.However,theideaofdata-drivenlearningtendstobetheinductiveway.Therefore,thecombinationofthetwomethodsmayhaveabettereffectongrammarlearning.39 ChapterFiveConclusionShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterFiveConclusion5.1MajorFindingsThethesisaddressestheeffectsofthedata-drivenlearningthatcanbeappliedtoEnglishgrammarteachinginseniorhighschoolinthecaseofattributiveclause.Thehands-offdata-drivenlearningisusedinpresentstudytofindoutwhetheritiseffectivetoimprovelearners’AClearning.Majorfindingsofpresentstudyaresummarizedintothreepoints:Firstly,theexperimentalresultsshowthatstudentsfromtheexperimentalclassmakesomeprogressinthetests.Fromthedataresultsandanalysis,afterthree-weektreatmentofdata-drivenlearning,studentsgothigherscoresineachpartofthepost-testthantheydidinthepre-test.Itindicatesthatstudents’ACmasteringhasbeenimprovedalot.Data-drivenlearningisdesignedtohelpstudentsgetintoagoodhabitofautonomouslearning,whichisbeneficialtodeveloptheirlearningability.Theresultsoftheexperimentconfirmthatdata-drivenlearningiseffectivetoimprovestudents’AClearning,thus,itissuitabletobeappliedinEnglishgrammarteachinginseniorhighschool.Secondly,studentsfromtheexperimentalclassgothigherscoresintheposttestthanthestudentsfromthecontrolledclassdid.Inotherwords,thestudentsfromtheexperimentalclasshadabettermasteringofACwithdata-drivenlearning,whichconfirmsthatdata-drivenlearningismoreeffectivethantraditionalgrammarteachinginthecaseofattributiveclauselearninginthepresentstudy.Thirdly,fromtheresultsofthequestionnaire,togetherwiththestudents’classroomperformance,wecanseethatdata-drivenlearningcanstimulatestudents’learninginterestsinEnglishgrammarlearning.Moststudentsbelievethatdata-drivenlearningbringsthemanewexperienceofgrammarlearning.Underthecarefulguidanceoftheteacherandabundantcorpuslinguisticdata,data-drivenlearningcannotonlyinspiretheirlearninginterest,butalsoimprovetheirdiscoveryabilityandautonomouslearning,thus,leadingapleasingteachingandlearningresult.40 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterFiveConclusion5.2PedagogicalImplicationsThepresentstudyexaminestheeffectivenessofdata-drivenlearningonimprovinggrammarlearning----Attributiveclause.Basedontheresultsandthemajorfindingsinthestudy,thepedagogicalimplicationsfortheapplicationofdata-drivenlearningtoEnglishgrammarteachinginseniorhighschoolaresummarizedbelow:First,itiseffectivetoapplydata-drivenlearningtoEnglishgrammarteachinginseniorhighschool.Generallyspeaking,inseniorhighschool,thetraditionalteachingmethodisoftenadoptedbymanyEnglishteacherstoteachEnglishgrammar.Theyusuallyexplainthestructuresandrulesofgrammarfirstandthenaskstudentstorememberandconsolidatethenewknowledgewithalotofexercises.Itisprovedinthecurrentstudythatstudents’grammaticalcompetenceaswellastheautonomouslearningabilitycanbeenhancedthroughdata-drivenlearning.Teacherscanadoptdata-drivenlearningasaneffectiveteachingmethodinEnglishgrammarteachinginseniorhighschool.Asweallknow,theEnglishgrammarclassinseniorhighschoolisalwaysconsideredboring,thus,applyingdata-drivenlearningtoEnglishgrammarteachingdoesbringanewexperienceofgrammarlearningforbothteachersandstudentsandcaninspirethelearninginterestsofstudentsatthemeantime.Therefore,data-drivenlearningcanbeappliedtoEnglishgrammarteachinginseniorhighschooltoimprovelearners’proficiencyofcertaingrammarandmakegrammarteachingmoreefficient.Second,eventhoughdata-drivenlearninghaspositiveeffectsongrammarteachingandlearning,takeACasanexample,itisnotadaptedtoteachallthegrammaticalpoints.Asweallknow,grammaritselfisacomplicatedthingwithalotofrulesandclassificationssummarizedbylinguists.Itincludesmorphologyandsyntax,andthelateroneismorecomplexthantheformerone.Asfordata-drivenlearning,itisanewforeignlanguageteachingandlearningmethodbasedoncorpusdata.Mostresearchersusuallyapplyittovocabularyteaching.Becauseitismucheasiertosearchforacertainwordthanthesentencestructures.Therefore,itmayadaptformorphologyteachingandlearning,butnotallthesyntaxteaching.Forexample,inthisstudy,theauthortakeACastheresearchpoint.Indetail,thethree-weektreatmentsonlyinvolvesomebasicandmaindifficultiesstudentscomeacross.Althoughtheresultsoftheexperimentconfirmitseffectiveness,itcannotcoverallthegrammaticalpointsandrulesofAC.Therefore,data-drivenlearningisnotadaptforsomeverydifficultandcomplicatedgrammaticalpointsandsentence41 ChapterFiveConclusionShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationstructures.Third,whenitcomestoEnglishgrammarteaching,adoptingonlyonesamemethodallthetimeisneveradvisable.Astheauthorhasmentionedabove,theeffectivenessofdata-drivenlearningtoEnglishgrammarteachinghasbeenconfirmed.Besides,theresultsofdataanalysisalsoshowthatthetraditionalteachingmethodcanalsoimprovestudents’AClearning,althoughthedata-drivenlearningmethodismoreeffectivethanthetraditionalteachingmethod.However,bothofthemisnotperfect.Thetraditionalteachingmethodisteacher-centered,inwhichstudentshavelittlechancetodiscoverandanalyzetheknowledgebythemselves.However,thismethodismoredirectiveandcansavetime.Incontrast,data-drivenlearningisstudent-centered,inwhichtheautonomouslearningisencouragedandstudents’analysisabilityisimproved.However,thismethodisrelativelytimeconsuming,andisnotadaptiveforstudentsofallthelevels.Therefore,inordertocooperatewiththerealteachingandlearningsituation,thecombinationofthetwomethodsmayhavebetterteachingeffects.5.3LimitationsoftheStudyOnthebasisoftheoreticalbasesandempiricalsupports,thisthesisprovedtheeffectivenessofdata-drivenlearningappliedtoEnglishgrammarteachinginseniorhighschool.However,therearestillsomelimitationsinthepresentstudy.Firstly,thesamplesizeofthepresentstudyisnotlargeenough.Foronething,thesubjectsareonlyfromtwoclassesandthetotalnumberisonly80,40ofwhomfromtheexperimentalclassandtheotherhalffromthecontrolledclass.Individualdifferencesandlearnersfactorsarenottakenintoconsideration.Foranotherthing,thesubjectsareonlyseniorhighschoolstudents.ThepedagogicalimplicationsofthepresentstudyarenotsuitableforallEnglishlearners.Secondly,thepresentstudyonlyexaminedtheeffectivenessofdata-drivenlearningonimprovingthestudents’AClearning.Theapplicationofdata-drivenlearningothergrammaticalpointsisunknown.Besides,theotheraspectsofEnglishteachingandlearningsuchvocabulary,translationandwritingarenotexplored.Thirdly,asanewwaytoteachandlearnEnglish,data-drivenlearningchallengesthetraditionalteachingmethodunderwhichtheteacherandthetextbookisthecenter.Honestlyspeaking,studentsinseniorhighschoolhavealreadyadaptedtothe42 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationChapterFiveConclusiontraditionalteachingmethod.What’smore,data-drivenlearningistotallyanewthingforboththeteachersandstudents.Therefore,itrequiresaprocessforthemtoacceptandadapttoit.Inaddition,teachersinseniorhighschoolshouldunderstandwhatacorpusisandhowtoapplydata-drivenlearninginEnglishteachingandlearning.5.4SuggestionsforFutureStudyThepresentstudyisonlyapreliminaryoneontheapplicationofthedata-drivenlearningtoEnglishgrammarteachinginseniorhighschool.Basedonthelimitationsofthepresentstudy,herearesomesuggestionsforthefutureresearch.Firstofall,thenumberofthesubjectsinthefutureresearchshouldbelarger.Largerscaleofparticipantsneededtobeincludedinthestudytoverifytheeffectiveness.Also,individualdifferencesandlearnersfactorsshouldbetakenintoconsiderationtocompletetheconclusion.Inaddition,sincetheparticipantsinthepresentstudyareonlyseniorhighschoolstudents,participantsfromdifferentlanguagelevelscanbechosentohaveafurtherstudywiththepurposetofindoutwhetherdata-drivenlearningiseffectiveonEnglishgrammarteachingandlearningtolearnerswhohavedifferentlanguagelevels.Inthesecondplace,moregrammaticalpointscanbeexploredtoexaminetheeffectivenessofdata-drivenlearning,suchasmodalverb,thegerunds,objectclause,andsoon.Inaddition,data-drivenlearningcannotonlybeappliedtoEnglishgrammarteaching,butalsocanbeexaminedtootherscopesofEnglishteachingandlearningsuchasvocabulary,speech,writingandtranslation.Thirdly,itisnecessarytoestablishenoughspecificcorporawhicharerelatedtothetextbookandtargetwordsforseniorhighschoolstudentsandteachers.Astheauthorhasmentionedabove,duetosomepracticalreasons,mostteachersandstudentsareunfamiliarwiththeEnglishcorpusandneverapplydata-drivenlearningtoEnglishteachingandlearning.Asaneffectiveteachingandlearningmethod,data-drivenlearningshouldbepaidmoreattentionbyteachersinseniorhighschool.43 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ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationAppendixAppendixⅠHands-offdata-drivenlearningmaterialPartOne1.ination.]TalkingabouttheadventuresthatIexperiencedbefore,Iwouldlike2.outhinkitwasabouttheadvertisementthatastonishedDrWatson?…3.eater."Iwouldliketoseetheanimalsthatgavefurtomakethissweater,"she4.ingstation.Ihadheardofthekillersthateveryyearhelpedthewhalerscatch5.thatyoushouldn’treallyaskpeoplethatyoudon’tknow,“Howoldareyou?”6.Thatisreallyoutofdate.TheoldmanthatIvisitedyesterdayismyteacher.7.mylifehere.I"veincludedsomephotoswhichwillhelpyoupicturetheplacesI8.areeventslikeskiingandiceskatingwhichneedsnowandice.…9.thenighttohelppullpeopleoutofabuswhichhadcrashedatlacurvadeldiablo.10.him.Headmittedthatheknewthemanwhowassupposedto11.dsarevisitingLondon.ShehasanauntwholivesinthewesternpartofLondon.12.ingquestions.][1Listthecharacterswhoappearinthispartoftheplay.13.rkersbuiltsheltersforsurvivorswhosehomeshadbeendestroyed.2.[Nowad14.Itismakingfunofthosemotherswhoseonlywishistomarrytheirdaughter15.probablynotPeel,butanengineerwhosenamehastodaybeenforgotten;16.themiddleofthenineteenthcenturywhengoldwasdscoveredandthousandsof17.yWhathappened?Whatwasthedatewhenthisincidenthappened?18.Hemingway’sboatduringtheyearswhentheauthorlivedinCuba.Fuentes19.ingtothetapeandfindoutthereasonwhyEliasjoinedtheANCYouth20.NelsonMandela.HerearesomereasonswhyIthinkheshouldbefreed.21.youreciteany?Therearemanyreasonswhypeoplewritepoems.Insmallgroups22.therewasafamousprisonontheislandwhereallthemostdangerousprisonersw23.isements.Shehassetupspecialplaceswheretheycanlivesafely.Herlifeis24.Admirethebeautifullydecoratedroomswherehemetthekingsfromothercountr47 AppendixShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationExercises:1.Lookatline1to24,listallthewordsusedbeforeeachrelativepronounorrelativeadverb.RelativepronounoradverbAntecedentsthatwhichwhowhosewhenwhywhere2.Lookatthetableinexercise1,analyzethefeaturesoftheantecedents.Dotheantecedentsrefertosomething,somebodyorothers?3.Basedonexercise2,summarizehowtochoosetheappropriaterelativepronounorrelativeadverbtomodifytheantecedentsineachattributiveclause.48 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationAppendixPartTwo1.Sowhatisafact?Isitsomethingthatmorethanonepersonbelieve?Oris2.Aculturalrelicissomethingthathassurvivedforalongtime,often3.anthehouse;infact,doanythingthatwillkeepyourmind,andespecially4.emoryofhim?Isthereanythingthatyouregret?What’syourrelationshiplike5.sandnotbindlyaccepteverythingthatissaidinadvertisements.Asweare6.thesentencesornot.]Everythingthatwedoisastepinonedirectionor7.Asweallknowaboutis.Nothingthattheteacherdoesdoesn’tinfluencehis8.cycleisanthorpopularwaytoseeall(that)thecountryhastooffer.NewZealand9.lyspendseveralmonthsexploringall(that)NZhastooffer.NewZealandhas10.dthesesentencesandcrossouttheonethatiswrong.]Freddyandhisband11.approachesandconcentrateontheonesthatarecreativeandoriginal.Eachide12.themattersaforesaid.Buttheveryfactthatyouarereadingthisbookmakes13.tions.Youknowwhat,thefirstnovelthatIreadwasCities,andit’sgood.14.singersrecordtheirsongs?Thethirdtimethatrapartistsrecordedtheirmusic,15.thefilmindustry,itisthehighestawardthattheirindustryhastogive.Toactors,16.tributiveclause.]ThetallestbuildingthatIhaveseenistheEmpireStateBuildi17.Thescientistandhisachievementsthatyoutoldmeaboutareadmiredbyusall.18.Thevisitorsspokehighlyofthepioneersandtheirperformancesthattheysawat19.e.TheycalledtheirnewhomeAotearoa,whichmeans"LandoftheLongWhite20.istheDragonBoatFestivalinChina,whichhonoursthefamousancientpoet,Q21.edtheearthtodissolveharmfulgases,whichhadbecomepartoftheearth"satm49 AppendixShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationExercises:1.Lookatline1toline7,whataretheantecedentsusedbefore“that”?2.Lookatline8toline9,whatcanyoufindabout“that”?3.Lookatline10toline12,whataretheantecedentsusedbefore“that”?4.Lookatline13toline16,whataretheadjectivesthatmodifytheantecedents?5.Lookatline17toline18,whataretheantecedentsusedbefore“that”?6.Basedonexercise1toexercise5,summarizethespecialusageof“that”?7.Lookatline19toline21,whatpunctuationisusedbefore“which”?Does“that”havethesamepunctuationinfrontofit?8.Pleasereadallthesentencesagain,andcombinetheabove7exercises,summarizethedifferentusagesof“that”and“which”.50 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationAppendixPartThree1.forfreedom.ThisistheofficeinwhichIusedtowork.I’dlikeyoutoex2.stheytalkabouttoshowtheorderinwhichyouhearthem.][]geographicare3.healthyliving.Thisisadietonwhichyou’llfindyoucaneathearty,sensible4.IenjoyedmyholidayonwhichIwenttoaconcertofpopmusic.5.worksofsciencefiction,oneforwhichhewonanawardwas"TheFoundatio6.Atpreciselythesamemomentatwhichcentralgovernmentconcernstoreduc7.otnecessarilyenhanced,thespeedatwhichthesubjectisabletoreason8.ofthemanyotherdolphinspeciesaboutwhichweknowsolittle.Thestoryis,tha9.ostsevenyears.HereisthehouseaboutwhichItoldyou.Arecentreporton10.ndmadeusafraid.Itwasaprisonfromwhichnooneescaped.ThereIspentthe11.gmeanings.]1...ahighplacefromwhichariversuddenlygoesdown12.hasanorganizationtowhichcitizenscancomplainifthey13.hemasteredanysubjecttowhichheturnedhisattention....14.Examinethecarewithwhichheprovidedtoiletsforallhisfollo15.producedthosefamiliarsongswithwhichheismostpopularlyassociated,such16.ThisisfollowedbyaperiodduringwhichheistrappedinLondon’sunderworld17.noconcentrateonthe15yearsduringwhichthetwoofthemlivedandworked18.I’dlikeyoutoexplainthereasonforwhichyouwereabsent.Ifyoucannotgivea19.ThereusedtobeatimeatwhichtheChinesepeoplestruggledforfreedo20.The4thofJuly1776wasthedateonwhichmostofthestates,orcolonies,which21.tlanguage.Malaysia,thecapitalofwhichisKualaLumpur,hasaborderwith22.rk.I’dlikearoomthewindowofwhichlooksoutoverthesea.I’dlikearoom51 AppendixShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationExercises:1.Lookatallthesentencesabove,whatarethewordsusedbefore“which”?Whatarethefeaturesofthesewords?2.Lookatline1toline15,pleasefindoutthephrasesineachsentenceandtherelationshipbetweenthephrasesandthepropositionsbefore“which”.LineNumberPhrasesProposition+whichLine1workintheofficeinwhichLine2Line3Line4Line5Line6Line7Line8Line9Line10Line11Line12Line13Line14Line1552 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationAppendix3.Lookatline1andline16toline20,anddiscusswithyourpartner,thenfillintheblanksbelow.Proposition+whichtheirequivalentrelativeadverbsduring+whichat+whichon+whichin+whichfor+which4.Lookatline21toline22,canyoufigureoutthefixedpatternusedintheexamples?Canyoureplacethepatternnoun+of+whichwithanewpattern?5.Fromalltheexamplesabove,canyousummarizethemainpointsoftheusagesofproposition+whichintheattributiveclause?53 AppendixShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationAppendixIIPre-testPre-test一、Choosethebestanswer:(单项选择)1.Thisisthebag_____mymotherboughtyesterday.A.thatB.whoC.whomD.this2.Theystudyinasmallclassroom____floorisbroken.A.whereB.whichC.whoseD.that3.Isthisthefactory_____alotofstudentsvisitedyesterday?A.theoneB.whichC.whoD.whom4.Theonlylanguage_____iseasytolearnisthemothertongue.A.whichB.thatC./D.it5.Hewasfoundtobeathief,____madehiswifedisappointed.A.whoB.whomC.thatD.which6.Thedaysaregone________physicalstrengthwasallyouneededtomakealiving.A.whenB.thatC.whereD.which7.Englishisalanguagesharedbyseveraldiversecultures,eachof____usesitsomewhatdifferently.A.themB.whatC.whichD.those8.Theoldtownhasnarrowstreetsandsmallhouses_____arebuiltclosetoeachother.A.theyB.whereC.whatD.that9.Thisistheroom_____Shakespearewasborn.A.thatB.inwhichC.ofwhichD.whose10.Ihavemanyfriends,__________somearebusinessmen.A.ofthemB.fromwhichC.whoofD.ofwhom二、Fillintheblanksinthefollowingsentenceswithappropriaterelatives.（用适当的关系代词或关系副词填空）1.Thisisacruelpractice________shouldbestoppedimmediately.2.Hisbrother,_______iseightyearsold,isstudyinginGrade3now.3.Thatisthereason______theseresearchershavereacheddifferentconclusions.4.Theprofessorcanhardlyfindsufficientgrounds___________tobasehisargumentinfavorofthenewfactory.5.Isthisaphonenumber______Icancontacther?54 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationAppendix6.Inordernottodisturbthem,Iselectthetime______theyarenotworking.7.Thetruthisonething___________therearenoknownsubstitutes.8.Itis,however,theonlyoneoftheseislands______carriesitsownmysteries.三、Correcterrorsinthefollowingsentences.(下面每句均有一处错误，请找出并改正。)1.Theytalkedforhalfanhourofthethingsandpersonswhotheywoulddealwithafewdayslater.2.Whoisthemanwhowaspraisedatthemeeting?3.Isthisthefarmwhereyouvisitedtheotherday?4.Thereisaseatinthecornerwhichisstillfree.5.CouldyoushowmetheroomwhereMr.Wanglivesin?6.That’sallwhatIwanttosay.7.ThisisthebestfilmwhichIhaveeverseen.8.ThefirstarticlewhichLucywroteinChinesewasnotgood.9.Theyaretalkingaboutteachersandschoolswhichtheyhavevisited.10.Thechaironthatheissittingismadeofbamboo.四、Combineeachofthefollowingsentencesintoonecontaininganadjectiveclause.（将以下句子合并成定语从句）1.Themanwaswearingablueshirt.Hewitnessedtheaccident.2.ThebookisaboutthehistoryofMexico.Iboughtityesterday.3.Themanreportedtheaccident.Hiscarwasdamaged.4.Thechurchisveryold.Mygrandparentsweremarriedthere.5.Thepeopleareverykind.Iamstayingintheirhouse.55 AppendixShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationAppendixIIIPost-testPost-test一、Choosethebestanswer:(单项选择)1.Thegirl_____yousawinthestreetisMary.A.thatB.whoseC.whichD.as2.Pleasepassmethedictionary____coverisblack.A.whichB.whichofC.itsD.whose3.Thebuilding____arebrightatnightisourschoollibrary.A.whichB.whoseC.whereD.ofwhich4.All____hastobedoneistopracticeeveryday.A.whoB.thatC.whichD.what5.HebelievedinGod(上帝),____Ifindstrange.A.asB.thatC.whichD.whom6.Doyoustillremembertheday_____wefirstmet?A.thatB.whenC.whatD.onthat7.Shehadthreesons,all___becamedoctors.A.whoB.whomC.ofthemD.ofwhom8.We’retalkingaboutthepianoandthepianist__________wereintheconcertweattendedlastnight.A.whichB.whomC.whoD.that9.Thisisthehotel_______thevisitorscanenjoyallgoodthings.A.inwhichB.whichC.thatD.ofwhich10.I’llneverforgettheday___IjoinedtheLeague.A.inwhichB.whichC.onwhichD.atwhich二、Fillintheblanksinthefollowingsentenceswithappropriaterelatives.（用适当的关系代词或关系副词填空）1.Itshouldincludeendlesshopeandideals______areconstantlyseething.2.Shanghai,_______thereareover10millionpeople,isthelargestcityinChina.3.Allthecountriesintheworldknowtherealreasons______USAisdeterminedtocarryoutitsNMD(NationalMissileDefense)plan.4.ItliestwothousandmilesfromtheSouthAmericancoastandfourteenhundredmilesfromthenearestisland__________thereareinhabitants.5.Joanisoneofthebestwriters_______booksthepeopleintheworldenjoyverymuch.56 ShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationAppendix6.October1,1949wastheday_____thePeople’sRepublicofChinawasfounded.7.Hewaseducatedatalocalgrammarschool,_______________hewentontoCambridge.8.It’shelpfultoputchildreninasituation______theycanseethemselvesdifferently.三、Correcterrorsinthefollowingsentences.(下面每句均有一处错误，请找出并改正。)1.Thehousewherehelivesinisanoldone.2.Whoisthemanwhoshookhandswithyoujustnow?3.ThisistheeverybookwhichIamlookingfor.4.ThisisthelasttimewhenIshallgiveyouadviceonsuchthings.5.Allwhichweneedmostisyourhelp.6.ThatisthebookwaswrittenbyLuXun.7.Schoolistheplace,whichweareworking.8.ItisthefirsttimewhenIhaveseenher.9.Iwastheonlypersoninofficewherewasinvited.10.Shehastwodaughters,neitherofwhichworksasateacher.四、Combineeachofthefollowingsentencesintoonecontaininganadjectiveclause.（将以下句子合并成定语从句）1.Theboywasstudyinginthelibrary.Italkedtohimveryquietly.2.Thehouseisstillstanding.AbrahamLincolnwasbornthere.3.TheresearchpapermustbefinishedbyFriday.Davidisworkingonit.4.1910istheyear.Therevolutionbeganthen.5.Thestudentspassedtheexam.Theystudiedhard.57 AppendixShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationAppendixⅣQuestionnaire数据驱动学习反馈调查亲爱的同学：你好！经过三次数据驱动学习的方式（DDL学习）来进行英语定语从句的学习，相信每位同学对这一“数据驱动学习方式”都会有切身经验与体会。为了解同学们对这一全新学习方式的体会与感受，望每位同学能够如实地回答以下问题。本问卷不记名，只作调查研究之用，并无其它目的，谢谢合作！1.你认为英语语法好学吗？A．较简单B.较困难C.看情况（）2.你是否尝试过使用网上英语资源来学习英语语法？A．经常B.有时C.从未尝试过（）3.你过去在英语学习中有听说或使用过英语语料库吗？A．从未听说过B．听说但未使用过C．曾使用过D．一直在用（）4.你对DDL学习方式呈现语法现象，总结语法使用规则的课堂模式_________。A．很感兴趣B．比较感兴趣C．兴趣一般D．不感兴趣（）5.将DDL学习应用于英语语法教学的方式与传统英语语法教学方式相比你更喜欢_________。A．前者B．后者C．两者结合D．A或B，因两者不分上下（）6.DDL学习对你的语法学习有怎样的帮助和影响。以定语从句为例________。A．帮助很大B．有一定的帮助C．没有帮助D．有负面影响（）7.总体而言，你对语料库辅助英语语法学习（以定语从句为例）这一“数据驱动学习方式”的评价是________。A．很好，对英语学习进步很有益。B．还行，愿意继续尝试。C．一般，其效果有待进一步观察。D．很差，费时费力，对英语学习无益。（）8.你认为语料库辅助英语语法教与学这一“数据驱动”教学方式的优点及缺点是什么？你有什么具体看法与建议？今后是否尝试使用(将答案写在横线上，详略皆可)58 AcknowledgementsShanghaiNormalUniversityMasterofEducationAcknowledgementsIwouldliketoexpressmydeepestandsinceregratitudetopeoplewhohavegivenmeextensiveandinvaluablesupportwiththeaccomplishmentofthisthesis.Firstandforemost,Iwouldliketoexpressmysinceregratitudetomysupervisor,ProfessorLiSiqing,whohasprovidedmewiththemostpreciousadviceandinstructions.Hispatience,consideration,timelysuggestions,insightfulguidanceandfrequentencouragementhaverenderedthecompletionofthispaper.Secondly,IamgratefultothestudentsfromHangzhouChangheHighschool,whoaretheparticipantsinmyexperimentandprovidemealotofusefulinformation.MygreatgratitudealsogoestoMissYan,whoistheEnglishteacherofClassOneGradeOne.Shehasgivenmethoughtfulinstructionsinconductingtheresearch.Withouttheircooperation,thestudycouldnotbecarriedoutsmoothly.Thirdly,IownmythankstoalltheteachersandprofessorsinForeignLanguagesCollegeofShanghaiNormalUniversityforgivinglessonsandlecturesduringmystudyofpostgraduatecoursesandalsothankstomyclassmateswhohavehelpedmedealwiththepuzzlingproblemsinaccomplishingthisthesis.Lastbutnotleast,Iamdeeplygratefultoallofmyfriendsandfamilymemberswhogavemealotofencouragementandsupportinallrespectsduringthecompletionofmythesis.59