三维语法框架在任务型初中英语语法教学中的应用研究——以西安市第八十五中学为例 78页

分类号１０７４６密级公开ＵＤＣ学号２０１４１４１３０３３青海师苑大带硕古学位论文Ａ－ｐｐｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎｏｆＴｈｒｅｅＤｉｍｅｎｓｉｏｎａｌＧｒａｍｍａｒＦｒａｍｅｗｏｒｋｋ－ｒｉｎＴａｓＢａｓｅｄＧｒａｍｍａｒＴｅａｃｈｉｎｉｎＪｕｎｉｏＨｉｈＳｃｈｏｏｌｇｇ—Ａ，ＣａｓｅＳｔｕｄｙｏｆＮｏ．８５Ｊｕｎｉｏｒ曲ｈＳｃｈｏｏｌｉｎＸｉａｎＣｉｔｇｙ＝维语法框架在任务型初中英语语法教学中的应用研究—Ｗ西安市第八十五中学为例研究生姓名惠巧瑶导师姓名（职称）裴正华，副教授专业学位类别教育硕±培养类别全曰制研究方向名称学科教学（英语）论文提交日期２０化年４月论文答辩日期２０１６年５月学位授予单位青海师范大学学位授予日期２０１６年７月答辩委员会主席袁复恩评阅人刘倩，冷慧 ApplicationofThree-DimensionalGrammarFrameworkinTask-BasedGrammarTeachinginJuniorHighSchool-ACaseStudyofNo.85JuniorHighSchoolinXi’anCity三维语法框架在任务型初中英语语法教学中的应用研究——以西安市第八十五中学为例ByXiMengyaoUndertheSupervisionofProf.PeiZhenghuaAThesisSubmittedtoGraduateSchoolofQinghaiNormalUniversityinPartialFulfillmentoftheRequirementfortheDegreeofMasterofEducationInEnglishLanguageTeachingXining,China,2016 青海师范大学学位论文独创性声明本人声明所呈交的学位论文是我个人在导师指导下进行的研究工作及取得的研究成果。尽我所知，除了文中特别加ＬＸ标注和致谢的地方外，论文中不包含其他人己经发表或撰写过的研究成果，也不包含为获得青海师范大学或其它教一育机构的学位或证书而使用过的材料。与我同工作的同志对本研究所做的任何贡献均己在论文中做了明确的说明并表示了谢意。研究生签矣：ｉ每為曰期：训青海师范大学学位论文使用授权声明青海师范大学、中国科学技术信息研究所、国家图书馆有权保留本人所送交学位论文的复印件和电子文档，可１义采、用影印缩印或其他复制手段保存论文。本人电子文档的内容和纸质论文的内容相一致。除在保密期内的保密论文外，允许论文被查阅和借阅，可Ｌ乂公布（包括刊登）论文的全部或部分内容。论文的公布（包括刊登）授权由青海师范大学研究生部办理。研究生签省令曰期抑么：表每＾导师签省：旅坪 AcknowledgementsHereIwouldliketoexpressmysinceregratitudetothosewhoofferedmegreathelpduringthecourseofthisthesis.Thecompletionofthispaperwouldnothavebeendonewithoutthegeneroushelpofmysupervisor,ProfessorPeiZhenghua,whoseinvaluableinstructions,unselfishguidance,constantencouragementhashelpedmeovercomethedifficultiesandhelpedmetocompletethisthesis.MyindebtednessisalsogiventoalltheprofessorsintheForeignLanguageDepartmentinQinghaiNormalUniversity.TheyareProfessorLiZengying,ProfessorFanRongling,ProfessorNaChengcang,andProfessorLiYongxue.Ihavebenefitedsomuchthroughtheiroriginallecturesandinstructions.Iwouldalsoliketotakethisopportunitytothankmyfriends,ZhangErchun,LiuFei,BaiLu,LiJing,fortheirhelpandsuggestionstomewhenIwasdoingmypaper.MythanksarealsoextendedtomyadvisorJiangLininNo.85juniorhighschoolinXi’anCityShaanxiProvince,whohelpedmetoconducttheexperimentandwithouthersupport,thisexperimenthavenotbeenaccomplished.IwouldliketoexpressmythankstoallofmystudentsinClassFiveandClassSixinNo.85juniorhighschool.Withouttheirsupportandunderstanding,Iwouldnotbeabletoconducttheexperimentsuccessfullyandgetsufficientdataformythesis.Finally,Iwishtogivespecialappreciationtomydearparents.WithouttheirloveandunderstandingIcouldnotovercomethedifficultiesIcameacrossduringthecompletionofthethesis.I AbstractAsaveryimportantpartofforeignlanguageteaching,grammarteachinghasalwaysbeenfocusedonbylinguisticresearchersandforeignlanguageteachers.ButtherehasbeentwocommonproblemsinEnglishgrammarteachingforalongtime.Firstly,theteachingresultisnotverywell.Secondly,studentsgenerallyconsiderthatgrammarlearningmakesthemfeelbored.Dr.LarsenFreeman(2010)believesthatthekeytosolvethetwoproblemsistochangetheconceptofteachersandstudents.Larsen-FreemanputsforwardThree-DimensionalGrammarFrameworkatthebeginningof21stcentury.ShethinksthatEnglishgrammarteachingshouldcombineform,meaninganduse.Grammarisameaningfulanddynamicsystem,anditisnotonlylanguageknowledge,butshouldbeconsideredasaskill.IntheprocessoftheimplementationandimprovementofNewEnglishCurriculumStandard(2003),thetask-basedapproachismoreandmorewidelyusedinelementaryandsecondaryschoolsinXi’ancity.Thisstudyaimsatputtingthree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkintotask-basedapproachinEnglishgrammarteaching,andfindingthejunctionofthem.Bycompletingthetasks,thestudentscanlearnthegrammarandusethegrammarreasonablyincontextofthree-dimensiongrammarframework.Thisstudyattemptstoidentifytheeffectsofthree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkinthejuniorhighschool.Therefore,anempiricalresearchwhichcombinesqualitativeandquantitativeresearchiscarriedoutintwoparallelclassesofGradenineofNo.85juniorhighschoolinXi’anCity,ShaanxiProvince.TheexperimentbeganinSeptember14,2015andlastedforonesemester.Withacombinationofquestionnaires,interviewsandtests,thisresearchattemptstoanswerthefollowingthreequestions:1.Whattypesoftasksarethestudents’preferencesingrammarlearning?2.Whatcompetencesofstudentscanbeimprovedthroughthree-dimensionalgrammarframework?II 3.Iscombiningthree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkwithtask-basedapproachinEnglishgrammarteachingmoreeffectivethanmeretask-basedapproach?Accordingtotheresearchresults,thisstudyfindsthatmostjuniorstudentsprefertolearnEnglishgrammaringame-orientedtasks.Althoughthereisnosignificantdifferenceinimprovingstudents’testscoresofEnglishgrammar,three-dimensionalgrammarframeworkhasmoreobviousadvantagesinenhancingthestudents’interestandconfidenceintheirEnglishlearning.What’more,combiningthree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkwithtaskstoteachstudentsgrammarismoreeffectiveinEnglishgrammarlearningandteaching.Keywords:Three-DimensionalGrammarFramework,Englishgrammarteaching,juniorhighschoolIII 摘要作为外语教学一个极为重要的组成部分，语法教学一直是语言教学研究的焦点。但是语法教学长期以来存在两个普遍问题:一是效果欠佳,二是学生普遍觉得语法和语法教学枯燥。拉森-弗里曼博士认为，解决这两个问题，关键在于转变教师和学生的语法观念。拉森-弗里曼于本世纪初提出了三维语法框架，认为英语语法教学应将形式、意义和使用这三个维度有机地统一。语法是一个有意义的动态系统,它不仅是一种语法知识,而且应该把它视为一种技能。目前在实施和完善新课程标准的过程中，任务型教学模式在西安中小学课堂上实施的越来越广泛。笔者试图在任务型教学法的基础上运用三维语法框架，通过完成任务让学生在三维立体的语境中感受语法、学习语法、并且合理地运用语法。本研究试图探究三维语法框架在初中任务型英语语法教学中的应用效果。通过定量与定性相结合的方法在陕西省西安市第八十五中学初三年级的两个班中进行实证研究。实验从2015年9月14日开始进行，持续一个学期。本实验结合问卷调查、访谈以及测试等方法，对实验数据进行了综合对比。本研究旨在探索以下两个问题:1.在语法学习中学生更喜欢那种类型的任务？2.在三维语法框架的指导下，学生的哪种能力得到了更好的提高？3.在英语语法教学中，将三维语法框架与任务型教学法结合教学是否比单纯使用任务型教学法效果更好？研究结果发现,在语法学习中初中学生更喜欢游戏型的任务。虽然在提高初中生书面英语语法（传统考试）成绩上无显著差异，但在提高初中生学习英语语法的兴趣以及自信心方面，三维语法框架教学具有明显的优势和效果。而且对于初中英语语法的教与学，结合三维语法框架通过任务教授学生语法更为有效。关键词：三维语法框架，英语语法教学，初级中学IV ContentsAcknowledgements.........................................................................................................IAbstract.........................................................................................................................II摘要..............................................................................................................................IVContents........................................................................................................................VChapterOneIntroduction...........................................................................................11.1ResearchBackground.......................................................................................11.2Researchpurposes.............................................................................................31.3Researchsignificance........................................................................................31.4ResearchHypothesis.........................................................................................4ChapterTwoLiteraturereview...................................................................................52.1GrammarandGrammarTeaching.....................................................................52.1.1TheDefinitionofGrammar....................................................................52.1.2TheRoleofGrammarinEnglishTeaching............................................62.2Task-basedApproach(TBA)............................................................................72.2.1TheDefinitionofTBA............................................................................72.2.2TheCharacteristicsofTBA..................................................................102.3CurrentStudiesofTBAbothatHomeandAbroad........................................122.3.1ResearchonTBAAbroad.....................................................................122.3.2ResearchonTBAatHome...................................................................132.4Three-DimensionalGrammarFramework......................................................152.4.1TheDefinitionoftheThreeDimensions..............................................152.4.2TheCharacteristicsofThree-DimensionalGrammarFramework.......17ChapterThreeTheoreticalbasesofTBAinEnglishGrammarTeaching.................193.1InputHypothesisandInteractionTheory.......................................................193.2CognitiveTheory............................................................................................203.3Constructivism................................................................................................21ChapterFourResearchDesign.................................................................................234.1ResearchQuestions.........................................................................................23 4.2ResearchSubjects...........................................................................................234.3ResearchMethods...........................................................................................244.3.1Questionnaires.......................................................................................254.3.2Interviews..............................................................................................254.3.3Tests......................................................................................................264.4ATeachingsampleunderThree-DimensionalGrammarFramework............26ChapterFiveDataCollectionandAnalysis..............................................................325.1DataCollection...............................................................................................325.2DataAnalysis..................................................................................................325.2.1AnalysisofPre-questionnaire...............................................................325.2.2Analysisofpost-questionnaire..............................................................355.2.3AnalysisofInterviews...........................................................................365.2.4AnalysisofPre-test...............................................................................385.2.5Analysisofpost-test..............................................................................39ChapterSixConclusion............................................................................................406.1MajorFindings................................................................................................406.2ResearchLimitations......................................................................................416.3ResearchSuggestions......................................................................................42References....................................................................................................................44Appendixes..................................................................................................................47AppendixIPre-Questionnaire(forCCandEC)................................................47AppendixIIInterviewwithTeachers.................................................................49AppendixIIIPost-Questionnaire(forEC).........................................................50AppendixIVPre-test.........................................................................................52AppendixVPost-test.........................................................................................64攻读硕士学位期间发表的学术论文..........................................................................69 ChapterOneIntroductionAccordingtoUr(1996),grammarisdefinedas“thewaywordsareputtogethertomakecorrectsentences”,whichfunctionsasaruletomakethelanguageoutputpossible.Thus,theteachingofgrammarbecomesanecessityinlanguageteachingprogram,andgrammaritselftakesthefundamentalanddominantpositionin“accumulatedentities”(Rutherford,1987),whichhelplearnersimprovetheirlearningtocertainlanguageproficiency.Howtoteachgrammareffectivelyhasbecamethefocusoflanguageteaching.1.1ResearchBackgroundGrammarteachinghasbeenaresearchers’debatingtopicallthetimeinEnglishlanguageteaching.Inthepast,thetraditionalEnglishgrammarteachingplaysanimportantroleinChinesejuniorhighschoolEnglishclasses.Althoughithelpstoimprovestudents’accuracyofEnglishexpression,itdoeshavemanyshortcomings.ThisstyleofEnglishgrammarteachingmethodmakesthestudentslackofnotonlycommunicativecompetence,butalsocooperativecompetence,andstudentsaretoomuchdependentontheirteacher,sotheybecomepassivereceiversofEnglishgrammarknowledge.Withtheintroductionandpopularizationofcommunicativeteachingmethod,moreandmoreattentionispaidtolearners’abilitytouselanguageandneglectthesystematiclearningofgrammarknowledgeinteaching.Then,communicativeteachingmethodhasbecomethemainstream.Thecoreofthismethodistoimprovethestudents’sociolinguisticcompetenceaswellastheirlinguisticcompetence.Inordertoimprovethecommunicativecompetenceofthestudents,someteacherspaynoattentiontothegrammaticalstructureoftheirstudents’speaking;someevenrejectgrammarandonlycareforthecommunicativefunctionofthelanguage.Asaresult,studentsattachlittleimportancetogrammarlearninganddonotgetgrammarsystematically.1 InChina,alotofcurriculumreformshavebeencarriedoutinelementaryandsecondaryschools.Englishisnoexception.AccordingtothecurriculummadebytheMinistryofEducation,theaimachievedbyEnglishclassistoarousestudents’interestinEnglishlearning,tohelpthemmakecleartheaimoftheirEnglishteaching,andtoimprovetheirabilitiestolearnbythemselvesandlearnhappily.Inotherwords,whatEnglisheducationtriestoachieveistoincreasestudents’overallcompetence.WiththeissueofNewEnglishCurriculumStandard(2003),task-basedapproachischosenbyalargenumberofteachers.thThetask-basedapproachhasbeenverypopularinthepastfewyearsofthe20centuryandaverylargenumberofexpertshavejoinedinthisdiscussionandagreatnumberofresearcheshavebeenmadeonthisissue.Thetask-basedapproachisamoreeffectivewaytoimprovestudents’Englishcommunicativecompetenceandenlargetheirlanguageknowledgesimultaneously.Asanewteachingmode,whetherthetask-basedapproachcanbesuccessfullyappliedtogrammarteachingdependsonthechangeofteachers’ideasandthematurationofteachers’teachingmethodsandtechniques.Therefore,ourEnglishteachersshouldfindsomenewmethodsingrammarteaching.ProfessorofEnglisheducationschoolofMichiganUniversityDianeLarsen-freeman(2010)proposes“Three-DimensionalGrammarFramework”.Itemphasizestheimportanceofgrammarstructure,aswellasthecultivationofgrammarcompetence.Inherview,grammarisameaningfulanddynamicsystem,anditisnotonlylanguageknowledge,butshouldbeconsideredasaskill.Basedontheabovetheory,Larsen-freemanproposes“Three-DimensionalGrammarFramework”,whichmeansEnglishgrammarteachingshouldcoverform,meaninganduse.Shebelievesthree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkcanhelpstudentsgraspknowledgepointscomprehensively,andplaysanimportantroleinleadingstudentstousegrammarcorrectlyinauthenticcommunications.Thisstudyaimsatcombiningthree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkwiththetask-basedgrammarteachingtofindthejunctionofthem.Therebyimprovetheeffectivenessofgrammarteaching.2 1.2ResearchpurposesAlthougheducatorsbothinChinaandwesterncountrieshavemadealotofefforttodoontheapplicationofTBAinEnglishteaching,andhavemadeachievements,ithastobeadmittedthattillnowfewresearchershavebeendoneincontextofChinatoapplyTBAtosecondaryschoolEnglishgrammarteaching(Yu,2002).Fromtheresearchers’view,TBAcanbesuccessfullyappliedtogrammarteachingdependsonthechangeofteachers’ideasandthematurationofteachers’teachingmethodsandtechniques.Therefore,theresearchattemptstocombingthree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkwithtask-basedapproachinEnglishgrammarteachingtoexploreabetterteachingmethodinjuniorhighschoolEnglishteachinginChina.Andtheresearchtriestoexplorewhethercombiningthree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkwithtask-basedapproachismoreeffectiveinEnglishgrammarteaching.ThisstudytriestofindamoresuitableEnglishgrammarteachingmethodforjuniorhighschoolinChina.1.3ResearchsignificanceNewEnglishCurriculumStandard(2003)putshigherrequirementsintojuniorhighschoolEnglishteaching,especiallygrammarteaching.SoitisnecessaryforEnglishteacherstofindabetterandmoreeffectivewaytoimprovestudents’languagecompetence.ThisstudyanalyzestheneedsofEnglishteaching,three-dimensionalgrammarframeworkandTBAtheoryunderNewEnglishCurriculumStandardfromdifferentperspectives.Thestudyhopestousethree-dimensionalgrammarframeworktocarryoutEnglishgrammarteachinginjuniorhighschool,andverifyitsfeasibilityandnecessity,soastoprovideareferenceforjuniorhighschoolEnglishgrammarteaching.TheresearchsubjectsfromGradenineofNo.85juniorhighschoolinYantaDistrict,Xi’anCity,ShaanxiProvince.Thestudyusessomemethods(includingquestionnaires,interviewsandtests)toexplorewhetherthree-dimensionalgrammar3 frameworkcanimprovestudents’enthusiasmandgrammarlearningefficiency.ThestudyalsohopestoexploreanewwayofjuniorhighschoolEnglishgrammarteaching.1.4ResearchHypothesisInthisexperiment,weuseddifferentEnglishgrammarteachingmodesfortwoparallelclassesofGradenineofNo.85juniorhighschoolinXi’anCity,ShaanxiProvince.Thestudyistoanalyzethegrammartestresultsbeforeandaftertheexperimentandinvestigatestudents’attitudeonteachers’grammarteachingapproachandtheteachers’teachingeffect.Thestudyaimstoverifythepositiveeffectsofthree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkintask-basedapproachinjuniorhighschool.Three-dimensionalgrammarframeworkfollowsthehumancognitivelawsandcreatestheteachingactivitiesbasedonthecontext,makingthestudentskeepinmindthegrammaticalformandunderstandthegrammaticalmeaning.Finallystudentswillachieveflexibleandreasonableuseoftargetgrammar.4 ChapterTwoLiteraturereview2.1GrammarandGrammarTeachingThereisnodoubtthatEnglishgrammarisanintegralcomponentinEnglishlanguage.ButthereisstillalongdebateaboutitsimportanceaswellaswhatisamoreproperwaytoteachandlearnEnglishgrammar.AndtheEnglishgrammarteachingmethodshavebeenchangingoverthetime.2.1.1TheDefinitionofGrammarDifferentlinguistshavedefinedgrammarindifferentways.Ur(1996)definesgrammaras“thewaywordsareputtogethertomakecorrectsentences”.Beverlythinksgrammaras“thesound,structure,andmeaningsystemoflanguage(Liu,2014).Alllanguageshavegrammar,andeachlanguagehasitsowngrammar.”Bastonethinksthat“grammarisnotasimplyformalnetwork,butacommunicativedevicewhichisfunctionalmotivated”(Liu,2014).LongmanDictionaryofContemporaryEnglish(Longman,1995)saysthatgrammaristherulesbywhichwordschangetheirformsandarecombinedintosentences.Intheteaching,teachersandstudentsareindifferenttheoreticalguidanceforgrammarteachingandlearning.Andinthisprocesstoformtheirownnewunderstanding,soastoenrichtheirgrammarsystem.Onthegrammar,domesticandforeignscholarshavealotofresearches,butalsoformtheirowndifferentunderstanding.Ingeneral,therearetwoviewsongrammar.Onethinksthatgrammarisstaticandformal.Theythinkthatgrammartellusacombinationofwordsandsentencesintheformofdescription.Peopleusinggrammartoindicatethechangeofvocabularyandsentencerules.Undertheguidanceofconceptofstaticgrammar,teachersthinkthatstudentsonlytomastertherelevantgrammaticalformsandcanbeusedcorrectly.Theotherthinksthatgrammarisdynamicandfunctional.Theythink5 thatgrammarisnotonlyalanguagerule,butacommunicatedtool.Therefore,studentslearninggrammarnotonlytolearntherule,butalsotolearnthefunction.Therefore,teachersshouldnotonlyteachstudentstoexplainthegrammarrules,butmoreimportantlytoprovidestudentswiththepracticalopportunity,sothatstudentscanmasterthelanguagefunctionauthentically.GeorgeYuleandLarsen-Freeman(2010)considerthatgrammarincludesthreeaspectswhichindependencebutinfluenceeachother.Thethreeaspectsareform,meaninganduse.Thepurposeofgrammarteachingistomakelearnerslearntouselanguageproperly.ThegreatinfluenceofthejuniorhighschoolEnglishgrammarteachingisZhangZhenbang.Hestressesthatthegrammarrevealsthelawoflanguage,mainlyembodiedinthestructureofthelanguage.Andthevocabularyisdependentonthegrammartoachievelanguagemeaning.Sohebelievesthatgrammarteachingshouldnotonlyexplainthegrammarstructuretostudents,butalsohelpthemtolearnhowtouselanguageproperlyintheactualsituation(Ge,2009).2.1.2TheRoleofGrammarinEnglishTeachingTheteachingofgrammarhaslongbeendoneinsecondandforeignlanguage,althoughthepositionofgrammarinforeignlanguageteachingiscontroversial.AccordingtoAzar(2007),theroleofgrammaristo“helpthestudentstodiscoverthenatureoflanguage”.AsAzarstates,peoplewouldhaveonlyindividualwordsorsoundsandbodylanguagetocommunicatemeaningswithoutgrammar.Besides,effectivegrammarteachingcanhelpstudentstousethisknowledgewhiletheyarewriting.What’smore,Ellis(2003)suggeststhatgrammarcontinuestoholdacentralpositioninlanguageteaching.Similarly,HinkelandFotosremark“althoughgrammarteachinghasbeenathornyproblemamongteachersandeducators,italwayshasadominantpositioninEnglishteachingandlearning”(Liu,2014).Grammarteachinghasalwaysbeenthefocusofdebateamongpractitionersoflanguage,andeachpartyhasitsownuniqueunderstandingofgrammarteaching.Althoughthesecognition6 havetheirowncharacteristicsandenrichthelanguageteaching.Butatthesametime,italsobringspeopleintothemisunderstanding.Thetraditionalgrammarteachingistakingteachersasthecenterofconcentratedteaching.Studentsarelisteningandnote-taking,butrarelyhaveopportunitiestoparticipateintheclassroominstruction.Appearthiskindofcircumstanceisbecausethetraditionalgrammarteachingemphasisonthegrammarrules,whileignoringthecomplexityofenvironmentandhumancreativityandwithoutconsideringtheexchangeoflanguage.Withtheintroductionofcommunicativeapproachtoclassroominstruction,peoplepaymoreattentiontothepracticaluseoflanguageskills,whilethesystemofgrammarteachingisignoredgradually.Evensomepeoplethinkthatgrammarteachingcanhinderthedevelopmentofstudents’languageability.Undertheguidanceoftheconcept,thereisalivelysceneofthewholeclassofteachersandstudentscommunicateinEnglish.Buttherearemanyerrorsinthelanguageofthisclassroom,suchasChineseEnglishwhichisinfluencedbyChinese.Becausethereisnogrammartheoryasthefoundation.Infact,grammarteachingisaprocessthathelplearnerstodiscover,understandanduselanguagerules.Bothteachersandstudentsareparticipantintheprocess.Richknowledgeofgrammaticaltheoryisthebasisofcorrectuseoflanguage,butwecannotbeconfinedbytheserules.Thepurposeofstudygrammaticaltheoryistocommunicatewithothersproperly.Asteacherswecannotarbitrarilyacceptorrejectakindofmethod,butneedtolearnwidelyfromothers’strongpoints.Inthisway,thefocusofgrammarteachingshouldbetoteachwhatandhowtoteach.2.2Task-basedApproach(TBA)2.2.1TheDefinitionofTBATolearnaboutTBA,wemustunderstandwhatistaskfirstly.Fromdifferentangles,manyscholarsgivedifferentdefinitionstothetask.Richars(1986)considers7 thattaskisanactofdealingandcomprehendinglanguages.WhileLong(1985)definestaskfromanon-linguisticviewas:apieceofworkundertakenforoneselforforothersfreelyorforsomerewards.Nunan(1989)considersthattasksarethelearningactivitiescontrolledaswellasregulatedbyteachers.Studentsatfirstaccesstheinformation,thenprocessitbythinkingandoutputlanguagesintheend.What’smore,Nunanalsoconsidersthattaskisstructural,anditconsistsoffiveparts:goals,input,activities,teacher-studentrolesandsettings.Skehan(1996)definestasksbysummarizingCandlin(1987),Nunan(1989)’sunderstandingofit:Tasksgiveprecedencetothemeaning.Ifthereareproblemsintasks,languagecommunicationsareneededtosolvetheproblems.Tasksandactivitiesintherealworldhavesimilarities.Tasksneedtobefinishedinthefirstplace.Herearesometypicaldefinitions(table2-1).Table2-1ThedefinitionsoftaskRepresentativeMichaelLongRichardsDavidNunanWillisfiguresDosomethingforAnactivityorCommunicativeThelearnersuseyourselforothersactionthatistasksareallthetargetforfreeorpaid.completedonthekindsoflearninglanguagefortheInotherwords,basisofanactivitiesinpurposeofapeopleinthelife,understandingofwhichlearnerscertainDefinitionwork,thelanguage.understand,communicativeentertainmentThetaskmaynotprocess,exportpurpose,inorderandotherprocessbeinvolvedintargetlanguagetoobtainsometodoavarietyoftheproductionoforusetargetresults.things.alanguage.languageinclass.Brushpaint,fillListentothetapeExampleintheform,shop,anddrawthebooktickets,testmapaccordingdriver’slicense.totheinstruction.8 Aswiththedefinitionoftasks,therearemanydifferentopinionsabouttheclassificationoftask.ThispapermainlyusesWillis(1996)’sclassificationmethod(table2-2).Table2-2ClassificationoftaskItisacommonmethodinoralandwritten1.Listingcommunication.Itreferstothefacts,information,data,etc.,accordingtotheinformationobtainedbyhimself.Intheorderofacertainstandard,events,ideas,2.Orderingandsortingconceptsorproceduresarearrangedintheorderoftime,space,logic,andimportance.Tocomparethesamepersonsorthingsofthe3.Comparingsamenature,tofindouttheircommonordifferentpoints.Problemsolvingmeanstodealwiththe4.Problemsolvingproblemthatoccur.Bycommunicatingwithotherstheaimisachieve,whichistosolveproblems.Referstothestudentsonaspecificissueto5.Sharingpersonalexperienceexpresstheirviews,listentotheviewsofothers.Itcanexaminethelearners’learning6.Creativetaskscompetencecomprehensively.Creativetasksarerelativelycomplicated,andcommonlytakealongtimetobeaccomplished.Ithastobeadmittedthatallkindsoftasksareintercrossedratherthansolelyused.InEnglishteachingclass,thetasksshouldbeassignedaccordingtoclasstypes,teachingobjectsaswellasteachingtime.Thus,certaintypesoftaskswillbeusedcomprehensivelyintheauthor’slaterempiricalteachingexperiment.Prabbu(1987)proposesanewEnglishteachingmethodTBA,andmakesadefinitionofit:TBAisateachingmethodwhichencouragesthestudentstolearnEnglishbyfinishingvariouscommunicativetasks.HealsoemphasizesthattheaimofTBAistolearnEnglishbycommunicatingratherthantocommunicatebylearningEnglish.NewEnglishCurriculumStandard(2003)hasalsopointedoutthatTBAisakindofapproachwhichencouragesthestudentstofinishtheconcretecommunicativetasksthroughtheirownefforts.Andduringtheprocessoffinishingtasks,students9 continuouslymakeanassessmentoftheirlearningeffects.TBAisoperatedbyatask,andthestudentsarethemainbodyofthetask(learninglanguage).Thisapproachisdifferentfromthepreviouslanguageteachingmethods.TBApaysmoreattentiontocultivatestudents’abilitytouselanguagetosolvepracticalproblems.Task-basedapproachpaysattentiontostudents’interest,theoriginallifeexperienceandlanguagelevel.TBAdesignsarealcontexttomobilizestudentstoparticipateincommunicativeactivities.Atthesametimetoachievethepurposeoftrainingstudentstousethelanguageability.Ingeneral,TBArefersto“learningbydoingaswellaslearningbyusing”.Inthisway,thestudentscanintegratelanguagelearningwithlanguageuse,andimprovetheircommunicativecompetence.2.2.2TheCharacteristicsofTBACandlin(1987)believesthatreasonabletaskistohaveacleardirectionandencouragement,thespecificoperationandformofdiversity.Nunan(2004)summedupthemaincharacteristicsoftask-basedapproachasthefollowing:Throughtheuseoftargetlanguagecommunicationtolearnthelanguage.Introducingrealscenesintotheclassroom.Creatingopportunitiesforlearnerstoparticipateinteaching,payattentiontothelanguagesenseandfunction.Thepastexperienceofthelearnerscanbeintegratedintotheteaching.Establishingtherelationshipbetweenthelanguagelearningintheclassroomandoutside.Nunan(2004)assumesthatTBAhasthefollowingcharacteristics:TBArequiresteacherstobringauthenticmaterialsintoteaching.What’smore,studentsshouldnotonlypayattentiontoEnglishlanguagepoints,butalsofocusonlearningprocess.Besides,TBAemphasizeslearningbydoingandrequiresstudentsacquireself-studycompetence.Finally,TBAalsorequiresstudentstocombinein-classlearningwithextracurricularlearning.10 Later,ChineseeducatorLu(2002),byreadingandanalyzingpreviousliteraturereviewofTBA,makesaconclusionabouthisunderstandingofTBA:TBAisanewformaswellasgreatdevelopmentofCommunicativeApproach.TBAtakestheauthentictasksasthecenterofteaching.Itmakesupthedeficiencyoffunction-basedteachingactivities,whichlacksofauthenticity.AlthoughTBAstillemphasizestocultivatestudents’communicativecompetencebyusingEnglish,itemphasizestogaincommunicativecompetencebycontactingwitheachotheraswell.TBArequiresthattheteachingactivitiesshouldbegoodforstudentstolearnEnglishlanguagepointsanddeveloplanguageskills.Atthesametime,italsopointsoutthatthein-classlanguagelearningshouldbecombinedwithextracurricularactivities,sothatstudentscanimprovetheirpracticalEnglishabilities(Lu,2002).InthecourseofthetraditionalEnglishteaching,theteachingcontentandtheteachingprocessarecontrolledbytheteachers.Thestudentsjustpassivelyacceptthestudy,andthereisalittleinteractionbetweenteachersandstudents.thusstudents’creativitygraduallydeclineandevenloss.Incontrast,thetaskbasedlanguageteachingmethodtopayattentiontothecultivationoftheabilityoflanguagecommunication.Rubdy(1998)makesasummaryoftheadvantagesofTBA:InTBAEnglishteachingclass,studentsarethecentersofthewholeclass.Inparticular,thetasksareusuallyperformedinpairsorsmallgroups,soitcanarousestudents’senseofcooperation.InTBAEnglishteachingclass,tocompletethetasksuccessfully,studentsshouldfocusonunderstandingandcommunicatingmeanings.Therefore,itcanimprovestudents’communicativecompetence.InTBAEnglishteachingclass,theperformanceofthetaskhelpsstudentstoformsenseofachievementsandbuildconfidenceinlearningEnglish.Andthisapproachfocusesnotonlyonformandmeaning,butalsoonproductsandprocess,itcreatesmoreadvantageousconditionsforthestudentstodeveloptheirEnglishskillsandabilities.Admittedly,TBAhassomedisadvantageswhichhavelittleinfluenceonthe11 research.2.3CurrentStudiesofTBAbothatHomeandAbroad2.3.1ResearchonTBAAbroadTaskbasedteachingresearchinforeigncountriesbeganalittleearlier,theearliestbyN.S.Prabhuintheendof1970s.Hebelievesthatstudentsshouldlearnlanguageintheprocessofcompletingthetasks.Hedividedthetaskintothreemajorcategories:theinformationactivity,thereasoningactivityandtheopinionactivity.Thelearnerneedstochoosethelanguageaccordingtothedifferenttask.Inaddition,duringtheteachingprocess,Prabbu(1987)dividedthetask-basedactivitiesintofourtypes:planning-centeredactivities,form-centeredactivities,aim-centeredactivitiesandmeaning-centeredactivities.Onthetaskofteaching,hebelievesthatthemaintasksofthepre-taskstageandthetaskstage.Inthetaskstage,teacherscansuperviseandguidestudents.Besides,healsomentionedthatduringthetask-basedactivities,teachersdon’tneedtoteachstudentsgrammarrulesexplicitlyortocorrectgrammarerrorsovermuch,asstudentscaninternalizethegrammarsystemautomaticallyduringtheprocessofpayingattentiontolanguagemeanings.Sincethen,manyotherlinguistshavebeguntostudytask-basedapproach(suchasDavidNunan,JaneWillisandSkehanPeter,etc.).ThemaincontributionofNunan(1989)istoproposethedesignpatternsofcommunicativetasks:teachingobjectives,contents,procedures,inputinformation,activities,teachersandstudentsrolesandteachingenvironment.Willis(1996)providesoperationalguidanceforteachersduringTBAclassroomteaching.InherbookAframeworkforTask-basedLearning,shecomesupwithfiveprincipleswhilecarryingouttasks:contactingmeaningfulandsemanticlanguages.usingthelanguages.promptingthestudentstouselanguages.12 payingattentiontothelanguageitselfduringthetaskcycle.emphasizinglanguageswithdifferentlevelsduringdifferentstages.MoreimportantisthatWillis(1996)proposedthethreestagemodeloftask-basedapproach:pre-task,taskcycleandlanguagefocus.Thepre-taskstageismainlyteacherstoimportthetask,studentsdoapreparation.Taskcyclestageisthemainbodyofthetask,studentsaccordingtotheteachers’instructionstoperformtasks.Teachersfocusontheanalysisandsummaryofthelanguagephenomenonintheprocessofthetask,studentstoconsolidatethedifficulties.Skehan(1996)recognizedthethreestagemodelofWillis’stask-basedlearning.ButSkehanalsopointsoutthedeficiency:thetheoreticalbasisisnotenoughandlackofpracticalverification.Thesestudieshavedemonstratedthetask-basedapproachfromdifferentperspectives,whichitmakesTBAbefurtherenrichedanddeveloped.2.3.2ResearchonTBAatHomeTheresearchoftask-basedapproachinChinaisrelativelylate.TheearliestwasproposedbyProfessorWuXudongin1997.Hebelievesthatforeignlanguagelearningisdifficulty,sointheprocessoflearningtasksneedtobebasedondifferentdifficultiesintheuseofdifferenttasks.Oneyearlater,XiaJimeiandKongXianhuihavealsostudiedtherelevantresearch.Theythinkthattaskbasedinstructionneedstobeintroducedintotherealclassroom.Studentscanfeeltheprocessoflanguageuseintherealclassroom,understandlanguagelearningmethods,andthenlearntouse(Lu,2002).NewEnglishcurriculumstandard(2003)explicitlyproposedthetaskbasedteachingideain2001.Afterafewyears,YuGuangan,LiaoXiaoqing,GongYafu,LuoShaoqianandmanyotherexpertsandscholarsfromdifferentpointsofviewputforwardtheirowntheories.Thesetheoriesenrichthetask-basedapproachtheoryandpractice.Yu(2002)elaboratedonthebasisoftask-basedapproachtheory,andputforwardthepossibleproblemsintheteachingoftask-basedapproach.GongandLuo(2003)introducedthetheoryoftask-basedapproach,includingthedefinitionofthetask,theprincipleandcharacteristicsoftask-basedapproach,therelationshipbetween13 thetasksandtheteachingobjectivesofthecourse,therelationshipbetweenthetaskandtheperformanceoftheevaluation,andsoon.LiaoXiaoQingalsotalkedabouttherelevanttheories.NewEnglishCurriculumStandard(2003)clearlyadvocatestask-basedapproach.Itrequiresteacherstoavoidmerelyteachinglinguisticknowledge.Besides,itisalsosuggestedthatteachersshouldapplyTBAinclassesasmuchaspossible,sothatstudentscandeveloptheirlanguagecompetence,thinkingcompetence,communicativecompetenceaswellascooperativecompetence.Consequently,theircomprehensivelanguageapplicationabilitiescanalsobeimproved.Untilnow,therehavebeenalotofstudiesonTBAinChina.Theycanbedividedintotwotypes,thegeneraldescriptionsaboutTBAandtheapplicationofTBAinEnglishlistening,speaking,reading,andwriting.ThegeneraldescriptionaboutTBA:Yu(2002)discusseshowtodesigntasksduringteachingfromtheaspectoftaskaim,tasktypeaswellascombiningwithtextbooks.Inaddition,healsodiscussestheconcreteapplicationoftaskinEnglishclassfromtheroleoflearnersandtheroleofteachers.Feng&Tan(2004)discusstheapplicationofTBAinEnglishteachingfromtheaspectsoftaskdefinitions,tasktypesandtaskdesigning.Besides,theyalsodiscusshowtoapplyTBAtoimprovetheoralcommunicativecompetenceofstudents.Tan&Qi(2004)recognizethedefinitionoftasksaswellasTBA,differentmethodsofdesigningsyllabi,whichtheyfocusonthetheoreticalbasesaswellasexistingproblemsofthem.TheapplicationofTBAinEnglishlistening,speaking,readingandwriting:Du(2005),fromtheperspectiveofpragmatics,dealswithhowtoapplyTBAtominimizestudents’redundancywhilespeakingEnglish,andproposesthattheEnglishteachersshouldguidethestudentstoapplySchemaTheoryaswellasCommunicativePrinciple,sothattheycanimprovetheircommunicative14 competence.Deng(2007)mainlyanalyzestheconcreteapplicationofTBAinEnglishaudio-visualcoursewiththehelpofinternet.Heemphasizesthatwhendesigningthetasks,teachersshouldmakesurethatthetasksarereal,abundantandwithconspicuouscharacteristicoftimes,sothatthestudentscanbeencouragedtocommunicatewitheachother,andintheendlearntostudyindependently.Yang(2009)discoversthatafterayearofteaching120juniorhighschoolstudentsEnglishwritingwithTBA,thestudents’Englishwritingcompetencehaveimprovedgreatly.Thus,heconcludesthatTBAiseffectivetoteachandlearnEnglishwriting.2.4Three-DimensionalGrammarFramework2.4.1TheDefinitionoftheThreeDimensionsGrammarteachinghasexperiencedchangeradically,thentendedtoaquietthdevelopment.From19centuryuntil1970s,grammarteachingmethodshaveexperiencedfromthegrammartranslationmethod,thedirectmethod,theaudiolingualmethodtothecognitiveapproach.Theyareallfocusedonformofgrammarteaching.Thegrammaticalformsoftheaboveareconcrete,isolated,separateandoutofcontext.In1970sthecommunicativecompetenceofHymesalsomadethecommunicationlanguageteachingmethoddeeplyrootedinpeople’sminds(Hu,2002).Thentheconceptofsituation,meaningandfunctionareintroducedintothelanguageteaching,andthefocusoftheteachingparadigmisshiftedtothesemanticdimension.Grammarteachingfocusedonmeaningbecomesthemainstream.Withthechangeofgrammarfocus,thedimensionsofgrammarteachingarealsoexpanding.Form,meaninganduseofgrammararebecameabasiccommonsense.AmericanscholarLarsen-Freeman’s(2000)“athree-dimensionalgrammarframework(table2-3)”isoneoftherepresentatives.15 Table2-3FormMeaningHowisitformed?Whatdoesitmean?UseWhen/Whyisitused?Form:Phonology/Graphology/Semiology,Morphology,SyntaxThefirstdimension,theformofalanguage,consistsofthevisibleoraudibleunits:thesounds(orsigns,inthecaseofsignlanguage),writtensymbols,inflectionalmorphemes,functionwords(e.g.,of),andsyntacticstructures.Thesoundsorphonemesofthelanguageareaccountedforbythestudyofphonology.Graphologyisthestudyofgraphemes,theminimalcontrastiveunitsinthewritingsystemofalanguage.Semiologyisthesciencethatdealswithsignsorsignlanguage.Morphologyisthestudyofmorphemes,theminimalmeaningfulunitsofgrammar;intheformcategory,morphologyislimitedtoinflectionalmorphemes(e.g.,the-ingofthepresentparticiple)andtofunctionwords(e.g.,the).Astudyofsyntaxdetermineswhatcombinationsofwordandmorphemesequencesarepermittedandhowtheyaresequencedinsentences(Larsen-Freeman,2010).Meaning:SemanticsTheseconddimensionismeaning.Semanticsisthestudymeaningencodedinlanguage.Itmaybemorehelpfultothinkofsemanticasthestudyofmeaningpotential,becausewearewellawarethatthemeaningofawordorlexicogrammaticalstringthatisactuallyrealizedincommunicationmaybequitedifferentfromitsdictionarydefinition(Larsen-Freeman,2010).16 Use:PragmaticsPragmaticsisnotthemeaningencodedinlanguage,butwhatpeoplemeanbythelanguagetheyuse.Theunitsofthisdimensionaresocialfunction(suchaspromising,inviting,agreeing,disagreeing,andapologizing)anddiscoursepatterns(suchasthosethatcontributetothecohesionoftexts)(Larsen-Freeman,2010).Larsen-Freemanfindthistripartiteschemeisthatalthoughthereareprototypicalunitsthatcanbeassociatedwitheachofthethreedimensions,inordertoarriveatacompleteunderstandingofanyoneoftheunits,itmustbedescribedfromallthreeperspectives,notjustits“prototypicalhome”(Larsen-Freeman,2010).Inotherwords,thesametripartiteschemecanbeappliedatdifferentlevelsofscale.Indeed,nottodosoistotreatlanguageinaveryimpoverishedmanner.Thus,beingabletousegrammarstructuresdoesnotonlymeanusingtheformsaccurately;itmeansusingthemmeaningfully(semantics)andappropriately(pragmatics)aswell.Withthepiechart,andthefollowingthreequestions,wecaneasilymaptheform,meaninganduseofanylanguageunit(Larsen-Freeman,2010):Form:Howistheunitformed?Meaning:Whatdoesitmean(itsessentialmeaning)?Use:WhenandWhyisitused?2.4.2TheCharacteristicsofThree-DimensionalGrammarFrameworkThetraditionalgrammarteachinghastwocharacteristics.First,theformisthecenterwhichemphasizesthelanguagestructureandrules.Secondly,itisgenerallyconsideredthemeaningofthelanguage,butonlylimitedtotheunderstandingofsomesentences,languagecommunicationfunctionisignored.Inresponsetothedisadvantagesoftraditionalgrammarteaching,Larsen-Freemanproposesthree-dimensionalgrammarframework.Thistheorynotonlyaffirmstheimportanceofgrammarstructure,butalsoattachesimportancetothecultivationoftheabilitytousegrammar(Larsen-Freeman,2010).Inthetheoriesandresearchesofgrammarteaching,mostpeoplethinkthat17 grammarisakindofknowledge.WhileLarsen-Freemanthinksthatgrammarisa“grammaring”,justlikelistening,speaking,readingandwriting.Inherview,grammarisnotonlylanguageknowledge,butshouldbeconsideredasaskill,whichisameaningfulanddynamicsystem.Shestressesthatgrammarteachingshouldallowstudentstounderstandtherules,andtheultimategoalshouldbetousegrammarproperlyandcorrectly.Atthesametime,shepointsoutthat:“indifferentlearningstages,fordifferentlearners,learningfocusisnotthesame.Accordingtothestudents’mothertongue,languagelevelandlearningprogresstotakesomemeasures,analysisofthesethreeaspectsofthestudents’learningdifficulties,andthenfocusonthedifficultpoints.First,thestudentsshouldlearnthelanguagestructureintheformofimitation,repetitionandpractice.Then,thestudentsmakeameaningfulpractice.Finally,studentslearntousethecorrectstructuretoexpressintheappropriatecontext(Larsen-Freeman,2003).”BasedontheaboveLarsen-Freeman’sviewandtheory,three-dimensionalgrammarframeworkfeaturescanbesummarizedasthemethodwhichfocuslanguageformandstrengthenlanguagecontext.Everydimensionpointstoaspecificgoal,andignoringanyonedimensionwillreducethecommunicativecompetenceofusingthetargetlanguagegrammar.18 ChapterThreeTheoreticalbasesofTBAinEnglishGrammarTeaching3.1InputHypothesisandInteractionTheoryAmericanlinguistKrashen(1982)putsforwardMonitorTheory,whichiscomposedoffivehypotheses:Acquisition-LearningHypothesis,NaturalOrderHypothesis,MonitorHypothesis,InputHypothesis,andAffectiveFilterHypothesis.Besides,Krashen(1982)alsodistinguishesacquisitionfromlearning.Inhisopinion,acquisitionreferstotheunconsciousprocess,withthepurposeofmeaningfulcommunication,involvesthenaturalisticdevelopmentoflanguageproficiencybymeansofunderstandingaswellasusinglanguage.Whilelearningreferstotheconsciousprocessinwhichlanguagerulesaredeveloped(Yang,2008).ThecorepartofMonitorTheoryisInputHypothesis.InputTheorydescribestheprocessofacquisition.Itisassumedthatacquisitiontakesplacewhenthelearnerisexposedtotheunderstandableinput:i+1,whichisabitmoreadvancedthanthecurrentstateofthelearner’sinter-language.TheinteractiontheoryisproposedbyLongMichaelinthestudyoftwolanguageacquisition.Thestudiesonsecondlanguageacquisitionindicatethattherearenodirectconnectionbetweenlanguageinputandlanguageintake.Long(1985)paysmoreattentionabouthowtomaketheinputsbecomeunderstandable.Heproposesthatlanguageacquisitioncannotcometruewithoutmodifiedinteraction.Thetheorybelievesthatintheinteractiveprocess,theinteractionofthepartiesmayencountersomeobstacles.Inordertointeractsmoothly,thepartiesneedtomakeadjustmentstotheiroriginallanguage,andconstantlyadapttotheexchangeneeds,butalsoabsorbthelanguageofeachother.Interactivetheoryalsobelievesthatalthoughtheexchangeoflanguageneedstopayattentiontotheformoflanguage,butalsoneedstopayattentiontothelanguagemeaning.Therelationshipbetweenmodifiedinteractionandacquisitioncanbeconcluded19 thatmodifiedinteractionmakestheinputcomprehensible,andcomprehensibleinputisbeneficialtolanguageacquisition.Thusmodifiedinteractioncanpromotelanguageacquisition.Inlightoftheabovetheories,itcanbeconcludedthatinteractiveactivities,namelytasks,arenecessitiesinEnglishclass.Andstudentsmustgetinvolvedinlanguageusethroughfinishingtasks.Inthisway,theirlanguageacquisitioncanbeachievedinreality.3.2CognitiveTheoryCognitivetheoryisoneofthetheoreticalbasesoftask-basedlanguageapproach.Accordingtothecognitivetheoryoflanguagelearnersonlyhavesufficientknowledge,tounderstandanduselanguagetocompletethetask.Thetermcognitionisoftenusedlooselytodescribemethodsinwhichstudentsareaskedtothinkratherthansimplyrepeat.ItseemstobelargelytheresultofNoamChomskyreactiontoSkinner’sbehavioristtheory,whichledtotherevivalofstructurelinguistics.ThekeypointofChomsky’stheoryisreflectedinhismostfamousquestion:“ifalllanguageisalearnedbehavior,howcanachildproduceasentencethathasneverbeensaidbyothersbefore?”(Liu,2011)AccordingtoChomsky,languageisnotaformofbehavior,itisanintricaterule-basedsystem.Thereareanumberofgrammaticalrulesinthesystemandwithknowledgeoftheserulesaninfinitenumberofsentencescanbeproduced.Alanguagelearneracquireslanguagecompetencethatenableshimtoproducelanguage(Wang,2000).Skehan(1996)researchesTBAfromtheaspectofcognitionandraisesthreequestions:Howdothelearnersallocatetheirattentionswhenfinishingthetasks?Whatarethetypesandcharacteristicsoftask?Andwhat’stheinfluenceoftasks’environmenttotasks’performance?TheCognitiveTheoryconsidersthatthetraditionallanguageteachingapproachisnotbeneficialforthelearnerstoimprovetheirlinguisticcompetence,asitonlymakesthelearnerstofocusentirelyontheformoflanguage.WhileTBAencourageslearnerstoproperlydividetheirattentionstolanguageaccuracy,fluency,appropriatenessaswellasthechoiceandusageofgrammar.Thus,CognitiveTheory20 proposesthatteacherscandesignsomemoredifficulttasksforfearthatstudentsmaypaytoomuchattentiontotheformoflanguage.Ifthetasksaremoredifficult,studentswillpaymoreattentiontofinishthem.However,accordingtotheactualneeds,lessdifficulttasksareneededwhenitisnecessaryforthelearnerstopayattentiontotheaccuracyoflanguageforms.Thatistosay,itisbeneficialforlearnerstogetbalanceddevelopmentoflinguisticcompetenceifteacherscanpurposelydesignthetasksofdifferentdifficultlevelsandchoosedifferenttypesoftasks.3.3ConstructivismAnothertheoreticalbasisoftask-basedlanguageapproachisConstructivism.Constructivismdevelopsgraduallyafterabsorbingmanylearningtheoriesanditsbasisarepsychology,philosophyandanthropology.Thistheoryholdsthattheprocessoflearningisaprocessofconstructingtheknowledgesystemandaprocessoflearners’experience,discoveryandcreation.Itisthetheoryofhowlearnersconstructknowledgefromtheirownuniqueexperience.Piagét(1990)isthefirstmajorcontemporarieswhodevelopsaclearideaofConstructivism.Heproposesthatsituation,cooperation,conversationandmeaningconstructionarefourmajorcomponentsoflearningprocess.Teachersshoulddesignthesituationstohelpstudentsfindknowledge,studytheknowledgeandintheendbuildupanewbodyoflanguage.Studentsinthisprocessshouldexploreknowledgebycooperatingandcommunicatingwithothers.Besides,studentsinthisprocessaretheactiveconstructorsandatthesametimeteacherstransformtheirrolefromindoctrinatingknowledgeteacherstodirectorsandpromoters(Mu,2014).Therefore,Constructivismconfirmsthedominantrolesofthestudentsandduringtheprocessofteachingteachersarenotthecontrollersanymore.Teachersbecomeleadersaswellasfacilitators,andtheyshouldtrytheirbesttobuildstudent-centeredenvironmenttoencouragestudentstotakepartinconstructingtheirpersonalunderstandingtowardsEnglishability.Inaddition,thetheoryalsoconsidersthatConstructivismisbasedontheinteraction,andonlythroughtheinteraction21 betweenpeerstohavebetterresults.Thereforeintheteaching,teachersshouldgivestudentsmanyopportunitiestoparticipateintheinteraction.22 ChapterFourResearchDesign4.1ResearchQuestionsInthisexperiment,weuseddifferentEnglishgrammarteachingmodesfortwoparallelclassesofGradenineofNo.85juniorhighschoolinXi’anCity,ShaanxiProvince.Thestudyistoanalyzethegrammartestresultsbeforeandaftertheexperimentandinvestigatestudents’attitudeonteachers’grammarteachingapproachandteachers’teachingeffects.Thestudyaimstoverifypositiveeffectsofthree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkintask-basedgrammarteachinginjuniorhighschool.TheexperimentbeganinSeptember14,2015andlastedforonesemester.Theresearchquestionstobeaddressedinthestudyarethefollowing:1.Whattypesoftasksarethestudents’preferencesingrammarlearning?2.Whatcompetencesofstudentscanbeimprovedthroughthree-dimensionalgrammarframework?3.Iscombiningthree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkwithtask-basedapproachinEnglishgrammarteachingmoreeffectivethanmeretask-basedapproach?Three-dimensionalgrammarframeworkfollowsthehumancognitivelawsandcreatestheteachingactivitiesincludelistening,speaking,readingandwritingwhichbasedonlanguagecontext.Makingstudentskeepinmindthegrammaticalformandunderstandthegrammaticalmeaning.Finallystudentswillachieveflexibleandreasonableuseoftargetgrammar.4.2ResearchSubjectsThesubjectswere81studentsfromtwoparallelclassesofGradenineofNo.85juniorhighschoolinXi’anCity,ShaanxiProvince(class5andclass6respectively).Theschoolisaprovincialkeyjuniorhighschool.MoststudentscomefromXi’ancityandasmallpartfromthesurroundingcounties.Sothestudents’Englishlevelisnottoobad.MsJiangismyassistant,whoisanEnglishteacherinNo.85juniorhigh23 school.AllthestudentshavereceivedeightyearsofformalEnglishteachingbeforethisexperimentcarriedout(sixyearsinprimaryschoolandtwoyearsinjuniorhighschool).Class6ischosenastheControlClass(CC)andClass5ischosenastheExperimentalClass(EC).Theexperimentalgroupconsistsof21boysand20girlswhilethecontrolgroupincludes22boysand18girls.Theaverageageoftheexperimentalgroupandthatofthecontrolgroupbothare15.Inthisexperiment,itcouldbeguaranteedthattheexperimentalresultscomefromtheteachingmethodsratherthanthestudents’ageandgender.Beyondthat,fromthebeginningtotheend,noneofthestudentsmissanyoftheexperimentallessons.Thedeterminationofthesubjects’Englishproficiencylevelsarebasedontheirpreviousfinalexamination.TheaverageEnglishscoresofthetwoclassesarealmostsame.Accordingtotheanalysisoftheirscores,theaveragescoreofthetwoclassesdoesnotdiffersignificantlyinthepreviousfinalexaminationbeforethisexperimentcarriedout.ThestudentsfromCChaveameanscoreof77.1andthestudentsfromEChaveameanscoreof76.0.TheyareusingGoforItastheirtextbooks.Tothem,Englishisregardedasarequiredcourse.Andtheybothhave7Englishclasseseachweek.Andsomeinformationindetailsaboutthesubjectsinthetwoclassesisshownbelow(table4-1):Table4-1DetailaboutthesubjectsinthetwoclassesBackgroundControlClassExperimentalClassThree-DimensionalMethodoflearningTask-basedapproachGrammarFrameworkinTBATotalnumberofstudents4041Gender18females20females22males21malesTeacherMsJiangMsJiangLearningMaterialsGoforIt(Gradenine)GoforIt(Gradenine)4.3ResearchMethodsThreedatacollectioninstrumentswereusedinthestudy:questionnaires,24 interviewsandtests(pre-testandpost-test).Theinterviewsweredownbeforetheexperiment.Whilethequestionnairesandthetestswereusedbeforeandaftertheexperiment.Thisresearchattemptstoidentifytheeffectivenessofthree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkinthejuniorhighschool.4.3.1QuestionnairesQuestionnaireisverypopularamongeducationalresearches,asithasseveraladvantages:firstofall,itaffordsagooddealofprecisionandclarity.Inaddition,datacanbegatheredinseveraldifferenttimeslotsandself-completionquestionnairesalsoallowaccesstooutsidesotheinformationcanbegatheredfromotherschoolsandevenothercountries(Cohen&Manion,1989).Thepre-questionnaire(seeappendixI)isdesignedtoinvestigatestudents’opinionofgrammarteaching.Itconsistsof2parts.Thefirstpartisaboutpersonalsituationwhichiscomposedof3questions.Thesecondpartiscomposedof15questions,andthelastquestionsisanopen-endedquestion.allthequestionsarewritteninChineseinorderthatthestudentscouldclearlyunderstandthemeaningsofthequestions.Beforetheexperiment,thesamequestionnaire(seeappendixI)wasgiventothestudentsintheexperimentalclassandthecontrolclass.Aftertheexperiment,thestudentsintheexperimentalclassdonethequestionnaire(seeappendixIII)again,inordertoknowthestudents’attitudetotheteachers’grammarteachingandthedegreeofsatisfactionwiththeteachers’teachingeffects.Theresearcherreleasedthequestionnairesrespectivelyintwotimesbeforeandaftertheexperiment.Atotalof81copiesweredistributedintheexperimentalclassandthecontrolclassbeforetheexperiment.Aftertheexperiment,only41copieswereissuedintheexperimentalclass.Thetwoquestionnaireswereallrecoveredandeffective.4.3.2InterviewsInterviewmethodisjustanotherwaytothecollectionofdetailedinformation,infactitisaface-to-faceinteraction.Wecandirectlyunderstandtherespondents’ideas,25 mind,andtheconceptofdeepcontent.Inparticular,tounderstandthereasonsbehindthephenomenon.Inthecourseoftheinvestigation,theresearchercanadjusttheinterviewmethodandcontentaccordingtothespecificcircumstancesandtheobjectofinvestigation,soastogetmoreaccurateinformation.Themaintypesofintervieware:structuredinterview,semi-structuredinterviewandunstructuredinterview(Hopkins1993).Theinterview(seeappendixII)isasemi-structuredinterview,theplaceistheteacher’sindependentoffice,thiscanavoidtheinterferenceoftheoutsideworld,soastoenhancetheauthenticityoftheinterviewinformation.4.3.3TestsThedeterminationofthesubjects’Englishproficiencylevelsarebasedontheirpreviousfinalexamination.TheaverageEnglishscoresofthetwoclassesarealmostsame.Accordingtotheanalysisoftheirscores,theaveragescoreofthetwoclassesdoesnotdiffersignificantlyinthepreviousfinalexaminationbeforethisexperimentcarriedout.ThestudentsfromCChaveameanscoreof77.1andthestudentsfromEChaveameanscoreof76.0.Thefinalexaminationbeforetheexperimentischosenasthepre-test(seeappendixIV).Thepre-testcontainsallthegrammarsbeforehandandthescorescomefromtheteacher-MsJiang.Andthepost-test(seeappendixV)containsallthegrammarsduringthisexperiment.Themainpartsofboththepre-testandpost-testaremultiplechoicesandboththepre-testandthepost-testarescoredbycomputers.Thedataarekeptforfutureanalysis.4.4ATeachingsampleunderThree-DimensionalGrammarFrameworkThree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkconsistsofthreedimensions.Theyareform,meaninganduse.InEnglishgrammarteachinginjuniorhighschool,thethreedimensionscorrespondto“targetgrammarpresentation”“decontextualizedmeaningtraining”and“integrateduseofgrammarincontext”respectively.Thispartgivesa26 teachingsampleoftheapplicationofthree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkintask-basedclass.Three-dimensionalgrammarframeworkhasbeenintroducedinChaptertwo.Thefollowingpartstateshowtousethree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkintoEnglishgrammarclass.Teachingcontent:ILikeMusicthatICanDancetoSubjects:41studentsinclass5,Grade9Classduration:45minutesTeachingobjectives:1.Aimsoflanguage:1)Graspthefollowingusefulnewwordsandphrases:prefer,lyrics,intelligent,dialogue,ending,drama,documentary;plentyof,shutoff,onceinawhile,inthecase.2)Masterhowtoexpressyourpreferences.3)Mastertheusageofattributiveclause.2.Aimofemotionandattitude:Throughtheexpressionofpersonalpreferences,studentscanimprovetheirappreciationlevel.Importantteachingpoints:1.Mastertheusageofnewwordsandexpressions.2.Summarizetheexpressionpatternsofpersonalpreferences.Difficultteachingpoints:Mastertheusageofattributiveclause.Teachingprocedure:Step1:Targetgrammarpresentation1.Meaningfullead-in1)Reviewsomemainphraseswelearnedinthelastclass.2)Enjoyabeautifulsong:That’sWhyYouGoAway,Sungby“MichaelLearnstoRock”Baby,won’tyoutellmewhythereissadnessinyoureyesIdon’twannasaygoodbyetoyou27 LoveisonebigillusionthatIshouldtrytoforgetbutthereissomethingleftinmyheadYou’retheonewhosetitupNowyou’retheonetomakeitstopI’mtheonewho’sfeelinglostrightnowNowyouwantmetoforgeteverylittlethingthatyousaidbutthere’ssomethingleftinmyheadIwon’tforgetthewaythatyou’rekissingThefeeling’ssostrongwerelastingforsolongButI’mnotthemanthatyourheartismissingThat’swhyyougoaway,IknowThesongwhichcontainsalargenumberoftypicaltargetgrammar.Thiskindoflead-incanmakestudentsawareofgrammarinthespecificcontext.1.WarmingupTeacherasksomequestions:1)Whatkindofsongsdoyoulike?(teachercanshowsomeexamplesentences)2)Whatkindofmusicalgroupsdoyoulike?3)Whatkindofmusiccan’tyoustand?4)Whatkindofmoviesdon’tyoulike?5)Whataboutyourclassmates?Then,fillinthefollowingtable:Table4-2MyopinionClassmateswhoagreeIlikesongsthat...Ilovegroupsthat...Ican’tstandmusicthat...Idon’tlikemoviesthat...Shortexercise:completethesentencesasrequired,pleaseusingattributiveclause.1)Ilikequietandslowmusic.(makeaquestionabouttheunderlinedpart)________________doyoulike?28 2)Thatbookisinteresting.(thesameasabove)________________thatbook?3)Thatwomanismyteacher.SheiswearingapinkT-shirt.(puttwosentencesintoone)Thewoman_______________apinkT-shirtismyteacher.(1.whatkindofmusic;2.whatdoyouthinkof;3.whoiswearing)Step2:Decontextualizedmeaningtraining1.Teachergivesstudentssomesentenceswhichincludetargetgrammar,tohelpthemgraspsomerelatedconceptionsaboutattributiveclause.Examplesentences:pleaseobservetheseattributiveclauses,andfindtheruleabouteachsentence.1)Chinaisacountrywhich/thathasalonghistory.2)Thisisthebookwhich/thatmybrotherboughtmeyesterday.3)Thegirlwho/thatisstandingbythedoorishersister.4)Iliketheboywho/whom/thatImetattheparty.2.Fillintheblankstocompletecontents:1)Thegirl____yousawatthemeetingisagoodswimmer.2)Thetown____wevisitedafewyearsagoismuchlargerthanbefore.st3)April1isaday____iscalledAprilFools’Day.4)Thegirl____oftenhelpsmewithmyEnglishisfromNo.8MiddleSchool.(1.who/whom/that;2.which/that;3.which/that;4.who/that)Throughobservationandexercises,teacherleadsstudentstosummarizehowtochooserelativepronounsaccordingtoantecedents.2.Practice:choosewordsfromthedifferentcolumnstomakecorrectandmeaningfulsentences.29 Table4-3I/You/like(s)food/clothes/that/is/arefunny/comfortable/He/She/love(s)people/music/which/inexpensive/slow/We/Theyprefer(s)actors/singers/whosweet/salty/loud/moviesinteresting/intelligentAccordingtothecontentsoftheform,studentsuseattributiveclausetowritecorrectandmeaningfulsentences.Anddifferentstudentshavedifferentanswers.Step3Theintegrateduseofgrammarincontext1.Pairwork:pleasecompletethedialogueswithtargetgrammarandpresentyourdialoguestowholeclass.Forexample:S1:Whatkindofmusicalgroupsdoyoulike?S2:Ilikemusicalgroupsthatwearreallycoolclothes.S1:That’snotreallyimportanttome.Ilikemusicalgroupsthatcansing.S1:Whatkindofmusicalgroupsdon’tyoulike?S2:Idon’tlikemusicalgroupsthatsingothers’songs.….2.GroupwritingDiscussyourfavoritethingsintable4-4withyourgroup.Saywhyyoulikeeachthingwithtargetgrammar,andpresentittowholeclass.Forexample(Listsfivetopicsaroundthevirtualconditionsentence):Table4-4YourfavoriteWhyyoulikeitMovie:TitanicIlikemoviesthataresad.Book:Band:Music:Food:30 1)S1:Ilikemoviesthataresad.IloveTitanic.S2:Oh,Idon’tlikeit.Ilikemoviesthatarescary.Ireallylike….2)S1:Ilikebooksthatareinteresting.IloveJourneytothewest.S2:No,Idon’t.IlikeTheScienceBookforGirlsandotherintelligentbeings.Ithelpsusknowhowmuchfunsciencecanbe.S1:Ilikebandsthatplayfastandloudmusic.ThenIcandancetoit.IlikeTheCoolKids.S2:Yeah,Ilikethem,too.AndIalsolikebandsthatwriteandplaytheirownmusic.IliketheBeyond.Step4HomeworkWritealetterof150wordsaboutyourfavoritebooks,moviesorplacestoyourpenpalwholivesinforeigncountyandshareyourfeelingswithhimorher.Step5ReflectionandEvaluationFirstofall,three-dimensionalgrammarframeworkcanmakestudentspayattentiontothecorrectmeaningofthesentences.Ancorrectunderstandingofthemeaningofasentencecanhelpstudentstocompletethefollowinglearningtasks.Secondly,three-dimensionalgrammarframeworkistocreatealanguageenvironmentwhichisclosetostudents’actuallife,makingstudentsrememberthegrammaticalformandunderstandthegrammaticalmeaning.Finally,studentswillachieveflexibleandreasonableusageoftargetgrammar.Studentswillbecomemoreactiveandtheywillalsoenjoycommunicatingwithothers.Throughouttheteachingsampleabove,inpresentation,practiceandproduction,theteachingsamplehasmanyremarkableplaces.Theycombinedgrammarteachingwiththeteachingoflistening,speaking,readingandwriting.Throughteachingpractice,researcherprovidesthestudentsavarietyofopportunities,letthemtocontact,touse,andtosolvethree-dimensionalrelationshipinavarietyofsituations.Makingthegrammartheylearnedbecomeapartoftheirintermediarylanguage.Narrowingthegapbetweengrammaticalknowledgeandgrammaticalcompetence(Hou,2013).31 ChapterFiveDataCollectionandAnalysis5.1DataCollectionThisstudyreleasedquestionnairesrespectivelyintwotimesbeforeandaftertheexperiment.Atotalof81copiesweredistributedintheexperimentalclassandthecontrolclassbeforetheexperiment.Aftertheexperiment,only41copieswereissuedintheexperimentalclass.Thetwoquestionnaireswereallrecoveredandeffective.Beforetheexperimentiscarriedout,theresearcherselectedsixEnglishteachersforinterviewing.AllofthemcomefromNo.85juniorhighschoolinXi’anCity,ShaanxiProvince,includingmyinstructor-Ms.Jiang.Theplaceofinterviewistheteacher’sindependentoffice,thiscanavoidtheinterferenceoftheoutsideworld,soastoenhancetheauthenticityoftheinterviewinformation.Thepre-test(seeappendixIV)containsallthegrammarsbeforehandandthescorescomefromtheteacher-MsJiang.Andthepost-test(seeappendixV)containsallthegrammarsduringthisexperiment.Themainpartsofthepre-testandpost-testaremultiplechoicesandbothofthemarescoredbycomputers.Thedataarekeptforfutureanalysis.5.2DataAnalysis5.2.1AnalysisofPre-questionnaireQuestionnairesconsistsoftwopartsaltogether18questions.Thefirstpartisthebasicsituationofstudents,thesecondpartisaboutthestatusofgrammarteaching.Thesecondpartincludes14questionsandanopen-endedquestion.Theseproblemscanbeclassifiedintofouraspects:Students’attitudesandstrategiesforgrammarlearning(1-5);thewayofteachers’grammarteachingandstudents’satisfaction(6-12);theeffectsofstudents’learninggrammar(13-14);thestudents’suggestionsforgrammarteaching(15).32 Table5-1Students’attitudestowardsgrammarlearning1234ClassNo.optionsN%N%N%N%A1229.31229.3717.01434.1EC(41)B1946.31741.51024.42048.8C614.6614.61024.4512.2D49.8614.61434.224.9A1230.01127.5717.51230.0CC(40)B1845.01640.01127.52050.0C410.0615.5922.5512.5D615.0717.51332.537.5Accordingtotheabovetable,forthenecessityofgrammarlearning,althoughtherearedifferencesinthespecificnumber,thetwoclassesaregenerallyconsidereditnecessaryandtheproportionsaremorethan60%.Andaboutthenumberofstudentswhothinkgrammarisnotnecessary,thecontrolclassnumberisslightlyhigherthantheexperimentalclassproportion.Thereasonforthissituationisthecurrenttestmode.Whetherforinterestorexaminationneeds,studentsfeelthatgrammarlearningisimportant.Table5-2Thewayofteachers’grammarteachingandstudents’satisfaction891011optionsN%N%N%N%A49.82663.4717.12253.7EC(41)B1024.3717.12458.5922.0C2356.1512.2819.5819.5D49.837.324.924.8A4102767.5922.52152.5CC(40)B1127.56152562.51127.5C2255.0410410615D37.537.52525Fromthetablewecanseethatthestudentsarenotverysatisfiedwithteachersjustteachgrammarrules.Studentsthinkthatitcannotgivethemmanyopportunitiestoparticipateinclassroomteaching.Butsomestudentsthinkthewayinwhichteachersputgrammarknowledgeintolanguagecontextisstillverygood,thisnumber33 ismorethanhalf(experimentalclass58.5%,controlclass62.5%).Thisshowsthatteachersshouldtaketheneedsofstudentsintoaccountingrammarteaching,mobilizestudentstoparticipateinclasses.Onlystudentsaresatisfied,thelearningeffectisguaranteed.Inaddition,morethanhalfofthestudentsbelievethatalthoughtheypracticegrammaroverandoveragain,theystilloftenbewilderwhentheyareintheexamination.Therefore,teachersshouldletstudentsusedifferentwaystoapplytheknowledgeofgrammar.Table5-3Theeffectsofstudents’learninggrammarClassNo.options1314N%N%A49.849.8EC(41)B1639.01946.3C1946.31536.6D24.937.2A410512.5CC(40)B18501947.5C1541.71437.5D37.525Ascanbeseenfromtheabovetable,thenumberofstudentswhobelievetheirgrammarlearningeffectisverygoodarelessthan10%.Andabouthalfofthestudentsthinktheresultsistheirownresponsibility.Onthesuggestionofteachers’grammarteaching,manystudentsputforwardthatteacherscanadoptflexibleanddiversewaystoteachgrammar.Otherwise,thestudents’interestingrammarlearningwillgraduallypassawayfromtimetotime.Inaddition,thereareveryfewstudentsbelievethattheso-calledproblemofseatacticsiseffective.34 5.2.2Analysisofpost-questionnaireTable5-4Students’attitudestowardsgrammarlearning1234ClassNo.optionsN%N%N%N%A1229.31229.3717.01434.1EC(41)B1946.31741.51024.42048.8BeforeC614.6614.61024.4512.2experimentD49.8614.61434.224.9A1536.624.949.8819.5EC(41)B2151.21024.449.81536.6AfterC37.31946.31946.31229.3experimentD24.91024.41434.1614.6Fromthetablewecanseethatthedatachanges.Aftertheexperiment,thestudentsofECaremoreinterestedingrammarlearning.ThenumberofstudentswhothinkEnglishisinterestingincreasedby10%.ThepurposeoflearningEnglishismoreclear.ThenumberofunclearpurposeoflearningEnglishisdecreased.AlthoughthetimeforlearningEnglishhasbeenreduced,thestudents’learningefficiencyhasbeenimproved.Table5-5Thewayofteachers’grammarteachingandstudents’satisfaction891011optionsN%N%N%N%A49.82663.4717.12253.7EC(41)B1024.3717.12458.5922.0BeforeC2356.1512.2819.5819.5experimentD49.837.324.924.8A1536.61946.32663.41639.0EC(41)B1843.91843.91024.41536.6AfterC614.649.837.3922.0experimentD24.90024.912.4Accordingtothechangesofthedataabove,wecanseethatthestudents’35 satisfactionlevelaboutteachinghasbeenraised.Thisisbecausethree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkprovidesstudentswithmoreopportunitiestoparticipateinclassroom.Fromthetable,wecanseethatteachersspentalittletimeteachinggrammar,andstudents’learningproficiencyandlearninginteresthavebeenimproved.Meanwhile,theboringdrillhasalsoreduced.Table5-6Theeffectofstudents’learninggrammar(13-14)option1314N%N%A49.849.8EC(41)B1639.01946.3BeforeexperimentC1946.31536.6D24.937.2A1029.2717.1EC(41)B2356.22663.4AfterexperimentC512.2717.1D12.412.4Comparingthedataofbeforeexperiment,wecanseethatalthoughthelearningtimehasbeenreduced,thestudents’learningproficiencyhasbeenimproved.Ontheonehand,studentsconsideredthataftergrammarlearning,noonecan’tusegrammar.Ontheotherhand,byusingthree-dimensionalgrammarframework,thestudents’performancehasbeenimproved.Thisshowsthatthree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkishelpfulforgrammarlearning.Aftertheexperiment,thestudentsputforwardsomerecommendations.Theyhopeteacherscouldmoreusethismethodforteachinggrammarinthefuture.Becauseitcannotonlyimprovetheirperformance,butalsoimprovetheirabilitytosolvepracticalproblems.5.2.3AnalysisofInterviewsMs.HeteachesGradeeightEnglish.Shelooksveryyoung.Shehasonlyfouryearsworkexperience.Fromtheinterview,IknewthatMs.HeprefersspeakingEnglishinawholeclass,andshethinksthatthelongestandthemostdifficultpartis36 grammarinEnglishteaching.Ms.Hesaid,“Iheardthree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkwhenIwasapost-graduatestudent.ButIdidnotunderstanditdeeply.”Whenaskedabouthowtheeffectofusingthisnewteachingmethodtocultivatestudents’grammarability.Shesaid,“Ithinkanewteachingmethodhaseffecttolanguageskills.Becausestudentsinterestedinnewthings.AnewmethodofEnglishteachingshouldarousetheirattention.”MyinstructorMs.Jianghas20yearsteachingexperience.ItcanbesaidthatshehasaveryrichexperienceinEnglishteaching.Intheinterviewprocess,sheshowedgreatenthusiasmandsheisverylively.Ms.Jianghassomeknowledgeofthree-dimensionalgrammarframework.WhenIaskedcombinethree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkwithtask-basedapproachreasonablyinEnglishgrammarteaching,shesaidquitepositively.“That’sgood,Ithinkitwillbeeffective.Becauselearninggrammarisrelativelyboring.Three-dimensionalgrammarframeworknotonlyaffirmstheimportanceofgrammarstructure,butalsoattachesimportanceoftheabilitytousegrammar.”Butatthesametime,shealsoshowedfears,“IteachtheGradeninenow,facinggreatpressureofseniorhighschoolentranceexamination.Three-dimensionalgrammarframeworkemphasizescreatingauthenticlanguageenvironment.Teachersasaguideshouldgivestudentsenoughtimeandspacetoletthemuselanguage.Buttheyneedmostistimenow.Onlytoensurethetime,wecancompletetheteachingtasks.Whetherstudentsgetgoodgradesinseniorhighschoolentranceexamination,thereisadirectrelationshipbetweentheteachingevaluationonme.”Ms.ZhaoisanEnglishteacherwith10yearsworkexperience.ThroughinterviewsIfoundthatsheisateacherwhoisverystrictwithstudentsandherself.WhenIaskedifcombiningthree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkwithtask-basedapproachreasonablyinEnglishgrammarteaching,Ms.Zhaotoldme,“Ifyouputasidetheexaminationsystem,thestudentsmustloveit.Therealimplementationmustbegood.Whilethree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkemphasizesthecreationoftherealenvironment,andtheuseofmodernteachingequipment.Andsomeruralschoolsinremoteareaswithoutthiscondition.Theyhadtousethetraditionalteaching37 methodandtools,ablackboard,apieceofchalk...”Ingeneral,MsZhaoholdapositiveattitudetothree-dimensionalgrammarframework.Butthepremiseistoputasidetheinherentexaminationsystem.Basedontheseteachers’interviewswecansee,(1)MostoftheteachersgivecoursessometimesinEnglish,sometimesinChinese.(2)AlmostalltheteachersbelievethatthemostcomplexandthemostdifficultpartisgrammarinEnglishteaching.Theyoungteachersandexperiencedteachershaveheardthree-dimensionalgrammarframework.Buttheyarenotimplementingitinclassroom.(3)Teachersthinkthatthree-dimensionalgrammarframeworknotonlyaffirmstheimportanceofgrammarstructure,butalsoattachesimportanceoftheabilitytousegrammar.Themajorityoftheteachersholdapositiveattitude.Butatthesametime,teachersareworried.Becauseoftheclassisalwaysinbigsize,anditisquitehardtoapplythismethodinalargeclass.Additionally,three-dimensionalgrammarframeworkneedsarealcontext.Itusuallytakesquitealongtimeinclass,andiftheteachersapplythismethodineveryclass,theymayfailtofinishtheteachingtasks.5.2.4AnalysisofPre-testThepre-testistheirpreviousfinalexamination(seeappendixIV).Thepre-testtotalscoreis100points.Thenumberofstudentsintheexperimentalclassis41.Thehighestscoreis94,andthelowestscoreis52.Theaveragescoreis76.Whilethenumberofstudentsinthecontrolclassis40.Thehighestscoreis95,andthelowestscoreis50.Theaveragescoreis77.1.Formoredetailedanalysis,pleaseseethefollowingtable.Table5-7T-testforcomparisonongrammarefficiencytestscoresinthepre-testGroupNumberofMeanStdtpthestudentsdeviationEC4176.09.530.4990.619CC4077.110.17Fromtable5-7wecanseethatthemeanscoreofECis1.1lowerthanthatofCC.38 However,thedatashowsthatthet-valuedoesnotexceedthecriticalvalue2.00inthepre-test,andthep-valueishigherthan0.05.ItcanbeconcludedthatthereisnosignificantdifferencebetweenthecontrolclassandtheexperimentalclassinEnglishgrammarproficiency.Sotheresearchcanstartexperimentinthetwoparallelclasses.5.2.5Analysisofpost-testTheresearchergivesthestudentsagrammartest(post-test).Thepost-testcontainsallthegrammarsduringthisexperiment:attributiveclause,objectclauseandnounclause(seeappendixV).Thepost-testincludes50multiplechoices.Eachquestionis2points,fullmarkis100points.Thenumberofstudentsintheexperimentalclassis40,lessonestudentthanbefore.Becausethestudentwentabroad.Thehighestscoreofexperimentalclassis94,andthelowestscoreis52.Theaveragescoreofexperimentalclassis76.Whilethenumberofstudentsinthecontrolclassisstill40.Thehighestscoreofcontrolclassis95,andthelowestscoreis50.Theaveragescoreofcontrolclassis77.1.Formoredetailedanalysis,pleaseseethefollowingtable.Table5-8T-testforcomparisonongrammarefficiencytestscoresinthepost-testGroupNumberofmeanStdtpthestudentsdeviationEC4083.35.590.4680.641CC4082.46.76Fromtheabovetable5-8,itcanbeobservedthatthemeanscoreofECis0.9higherthanthatofCC.ThroughtheanalysesofSPSSshowthatthet-valuedoesnotexceedthecriticalvalue2.00,andthep-valueishigherthan0.05.Therefore,theconclusioncanbedrawnthataftertheendoftheexperiment,thereisnosignificantdifferencebetweenthestudents’Englishgrammarproficiencyintheexperimentalclassandthecontrolclass.Althoughwiththehelpofthree-dimensionalgrammarframework,thedifferencebetweenthedataofthesetwoclassesisnotsignificant.However,westillcannotmakeaconclusionthatthree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkdoesnothaveeffect.BecausethedatashowinTable5-7andTable5-8,themeanscoreofexperimentalclassis0.9higherthanthatofcontrolclassaftertheendofexperiment.39 ChapterSixConclusion6.1MajorFindingsThisstudyisbasedontheanalysisofgrammarteaching,task-basedapproachandthree-dimensionalgrammarframework.Andusingtests,questionnairesandinterviews,inordertoverifytheeffectivenessofthree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkintask-basedgrammarteachinginjuniorhighschool.Throughthedataofthequestionnairesandthetestsdataanalysisoftheexperimentalclassandcontrolclass,themainfindingsareasfollows.1.Bytheanalysisofquestionnairesandtheteachingsample,mostjuniorhighschoolstudentsprefertolearnEnglishgrammaringame-orientedtask.Suchaswordsolitaire,replacementofinformationandgroupwork.Becausethesetasksgivethestudentsasenseofparticipation,andimprovetheirenthusiasm.ThisshowsthatteachersshouldtaketheneedsofstudentsintoaccountinEnglishgrammarteaching,andtrytousedifferentgame-orientedtaskstoenhancestudents’enthusiasmoflearningEnglish.2.Inthecourseoftheexperiment,eachgroupisgiven120classestothesubjects,studentsreallytouchthree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkonlymorethan60days.However,byclassroomobservationbothinexperimentalclassandcontrolclass,theresearcherhasfoundthatstudentsinECcommunicateinEnglisharemorefluentlyandappropriatelythanthoseinCC.What’smore,theteamspiritofstudentsinECalsohasimprovedsignificantly.Thus,itcanbeseenthatstudents’communicativecompetenceandcooperativecompetencecanbeimprovethroughthree-dimensionalgrammarframework.Althoughthereisnosignificantdifferenceinimprovingstudents’testscoresofEnglishgrammar,three-dimensionalgrammarframeworkhasmoreobviousadvantagesinenhancingthestudents’interestandconfidenceintheirEnglishlearning.Atthesametime,bytheanalysisoftests,theresearcherhasfoundthattheaveragescoreofECismorehigherthanthatofCCinthepost-test.40 Three-dimensionalgrammarframeworkfollowsthejuniorstudents’cognitivelawsandcreatesteachingactivitiesbasedonlanguagecontext,makingstudentsrememberthegrammaticalformandunderstandthegrammaticalmeaning.Finallystudentswillachieveflexibleandreasonableuseoftargetgrammar.3.BytheteachingsampleandthetestsdataanalysisbetweenECandCC(theresultofpost-testshowsthatthemeanscoreofECis0.9higherthanthatofCC),researcherfoundthatcombiningthree-dimensionalframeworkandtask-basedapproachinEnglishgrammarteachingismoreeffectivethanmeretask-basedapproach.Itisdisplayedbelowafewaspects.Firstofall,three-dimensionalgrammarframeworkcanmakethestudentspayattentiontothecorrectmeaningofthesentences.Ancorrectunderstandingofthemeaningofasentencecanhelpstudentstocompletethefollowinglearningtasks.Secondly,comparedwithtask-basedgrammarteaching,combiningtaskswiththree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkcanmorehighlyenhancethestudents’enthusiasmandinterestoflearningEnglish.EspeciallyintheEnglishgrammarclass,ifteachersonlyfocusonthepresentationofgrammarrulesandtheboringtasksexercises,thestudentswilleasilyfindoutthatEnglishgrammarlearningistediouswhichmayevenmakethemtogiveuplearningEnglishgrammarfinally.Besides,three-dimensionalgrammarframeworkistocreatealanguageenvironmentwhichisclosetothestudents’actuallife.Thestudentswillbecomemoreactiveandtheywillalsoenjoycommunicatingwithothers.Combiningthree-dimensionalgrammarframeworkwithtask-basedapproachismorehelpfultoimprovethestudents’Englishgrammarcompetence.Andinthelongrun,bylearningform,meaninganduse,studentscanbestimulatedinlearningEnglish,encouragedtothinkindependentlyandtheycanalsocommunicatereasonablyinmeaningfulsituations.6.2ResearchLimitationsAftertheendoftheexperiment,theresultsoftheexperimentalclassisindeedimproved,whichshowsthattheexperimentissuccessfultoacertainextent.However,41 intheimplementationprocesstheresearcheralsofoundsomedeficiencies.Unabletoguaranteetheprogressofteaching.Three-dimensionalgrammarframeworkisadvocatedthatteachinggrammarinlanguagecontext.AndinTBA,studentsarethemainparttocompletethetasks.Therefore,themainlearningcontentandthemajortasksareperformedbystudentsthemselves.Teachersareonlytheroleofsupervisionandguidance.Buttherearetoomanyclassesintheschool,andtherearealotofstudentsineachclass.Thedifferencebetweenthestudentsisalsogreat.ThestudentsofGradeninefacethepressureofseniorhighschoolentranceexamination.Schoolleaderswanttoseetheenrollmentrateandparentswanttoseetheresults.Therefore,eachstudent’sacademicburdenandtheteachers’teachingburdenareveryheavy.Sotheresearcheroftencannotcompletethetaskswithinthedesignedtime,theprogressofteachingwillfallbehind.Thustheprogressofteachingcannotbeguaranteed.Studentsdonotunderstandtheteachingmethod.Atthebeginningoftheimplementation,somestudentsintheexperimentalclasscannotunderstandandadaptthisteachingmethod.Theythinkthatonelessonends,theydidnotlearnsomeusefulknowledge.Aftertheimplementationofaperiod,thissituationhasimproved.Thechangeofteachers’conceptandability.AlthoughtheNewEnglishCurriculumStandard(2003)inshaanxihasbegunseveralyears,mostteachersareinfluencedbythetraditionalgrammarteachinggreatly.Soinashorttime,teachers’conceptcannotbecompletelychanged.Thisisreflectedinthetaskdesignwhichisverydifficulttohavenewideas.Ifstudentscannotkeepupwithteachers,teachersalwayswanttostopandtoexplainbythemselves.Meanwhile,becauseoftheheavyteachingtasks,learningopportunitiesarefew.Andthereisnosystematicteachingtheory,sotheresearcheroftenfeelpowerless.6.3ResearchSuggestionsFirstly,theprocessoftargetgrammarpresentationshouldbemeaningfulinclass.Andthenthroughtasksandinteraction,toenablestudentsgenerateanewcognitive42 conflict,toguidestudentstogainanewthinkingontheiroriginalcognitivestructure.Secondly,teachersshouldpayattentiontolanguageoutput.Accordingtothecharacteristicsofthetargetgrammar,teachersneedtocreateasituationwhichishighlightingthecommunicativefunctions.Combininggrammaractivitieswithlistening,speaking,readingandwriting,teachersshouldguidestudentstomasterthetargetgrammarandtoimprovetheircomprehensiveability.Accordingtothree-dimensionalgrammarframework,theultimategoalofgrammarlearningistousegrammarreasonablyandcorrectlyinaspecificlanguageenvironment(Zhang,2010).Teachersshouldbreakthroughtraditionalteachingconcept,asfaraspossibletoenrichteachingmethodstostimulatestudents’interestinlearninggrammar(Hu,2002).Theinfluenceofexaminationorientededucationonteachersisreflectedinthemethodsofdetectionandevaluation.Thatistosay,teachersoftenfocusonthetestscores.“Achild,aslongasinthetwoorthreemonthscannotseetheresultsofhisorhermentalwork,hisorherdesiretolearnwilldisappear”(Wang,2004).Itisabigblowtostudents’learninggrammar.Therefore,teachersshouldenrichthewayofdetectionandevaluation.Teachersshoulddetectandevaluatestudents’grammaticalcompetencescientificallyandcomprehensively.What’smore,theattitudeofstudents’grammarlearning,thedegreeofparticipationintheclassroom,thecompletionoftheclassroomactivities,etc.,allofthoseshouldbeincludedinthedetectionandevaluationsystem.Finallyteacherswillachievethegoalofscientificandcomprehensiveevaluationofstudents’Englishgrammarlearning.43 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[35]杨敏.中国文化语境下英语全程优化论[J].外语研究，2008.[36]杨行胜.任务型教学在高中英语写作教学中的应用[J].外语教学，2009.[37]王蔷.英语教学法教程[M].北京：高等教育出版社，2000.[38]王汉明.对任务型教学的认识和反思[J].基础教育外语教学研究，2004.[39]张瑞瑜.形意用三维语法模式对中专英语教学的启示[J].海外英语，2010(10).46 AppendixesAppendixIPre-Questionnaire(forCCandEC)初中英语语法教学现状问卷亲爱的同学：你好！为了了解初中学生目前的英语语法学习现状（以本校初中生为例），为今后语法教学提供参考，故编制了本套调查问卷。本次问卷采用不记名方式，你的回答只反映你对相关问题的基本看法和认识，不涉及个人隐私也无对错之分，其结果也只供研究之用。大家在作答前，请仔细阅读每一道题，并根据实际情况如实作答(第一部分请在选项上画对勾。第二部分为单项选择，请把你认为正确的选项写在题号前)。谢谢大家的合作！第一部分：个人简况1、性别：①男②女2、和班里其他同学相比，你认为你的英语水平：①差②一般③很好3、你自身对于语法的态度：①非常喜欢②喜欢③不喜欢④非常不喜欢第二部分：1、我认为语法在英语学习中占重要地位，不可忽视。A非常同意B有点同意C不同意D既不同意也不反对2、我认为英语语法很难学懂。A非常同意B有点同意C不同意D既不同意也不反对3、我认为语法课既枯燥又低效。A非常同意B有点同意C不同意D既不同意也不反对4、我投入______时间精力学习语法。A非常多B多C少D非常少5、我认为语法教学是为了______A促进听、说、读、写技能发展47 B系统掌握语法知识C考试得高分D不清楚6、我遇到语法为题如何解决？A请教老师B和同学讨论C自己查询相关语法书籍或上网D其他（请填写）________7、我的老师通常用那种方法讲解语法？A直接讲B讲故事、看英文电影或者听歌曲C利用游戏D其他（请填写）______8、老师在课堂进行语法教学时，会让我们参与讨论吗？A经常B有时C很少D从不9、老师对语法知识进行集中讲解吗？A经常B有时C很少D从不10、老师会把语法知识放在语境中讲解吗？A经常B有时C很少D从不11、老师讲解语法是否要求反复操练？A经常B有时C很少D从不12、你何看待目前我的英语老师的教学方式？A非常喜欢B喜欢C不喜欢D非常不喜欢13、我认为自己的语法学习效果________A非常好B还行C差D很差14、据我了解，班上同学有_______知道语法规则却不会运用。A没有B少数C比较多D非常多15、对语法课我有何建议？48 AppendixIIInterviewwithTeachers1.您一般的上课方式是什么？（全英，半英文半中文，全中文）2.您上课花费时间最长的环节是哪个？3.您对三维语法框架有何了解？4.您在课堂教学中是否运用过三维语法框架？5.您认为在任务型初中英语语法中合理运用三维语法框架讲解语法的效果如何？49 AppendixIIIPost-Questionnaire(forEC)初中英语语法教学现状问卷亲爱的同学：你好！为了了解初中学生目前的英语语法学习现状（以本校初中生为例），为今后语法教学提供参考，故编制了本套调查问卷。本次问卷采用不记名方式，你的回答只反映你对相关问题的基本看法和认识，不涉及个人隐私也无对错之分，其结果也只供研究之用。大家在作答前，请仔细阅读每一道题，并根据实际情况如实作答(第一部分请在选项上画对勾。第二部分为单项选择，请把你认为正确的选项写在题号前)。谢谢大家的合作！第一部分：个人简况1.性别：①男②女2.和班里其他同学相比，你认为你的英语水平：①差②一般③很好3.你自身对于语法的态度：①非常喜欢②喜欢③不喜欢④非常不喜欢第二部分：1.我认为语法在英语学习中占重要地位，不可忽视。A非常同意B有点同意C不同意D既不同意也不反对2.我认为英语语法很难学懂。A非常同意B有点同意C不同意D既不同意也不反对3.我认为语法课既枯燥又低效。A非常同意B有点同意C不同意D既不同意也不反对4.我投入______时间精力学习语法。A非常多B多C少D非常少5.我认为语法教学是为了______A促进听、说、读、写技能发展B系统掌握语法知识C考试得高分D不清楚50 6.我遇到语法为题如何解决？A请教老师B和同学讨论C自己查询相关语法书籍或上网D其他（请填写）________7.我的老师通常用那种方法讲解语法？A直接讲B讲故事、看英文电影或者听歌曲C利用游戏D其他（请填写）______8.老师在课堂进行语法教学时，会让我们参与讨论吗？A经常B有时C很少D从不9.老师对语法知识进行集中讲解吗？A经常B有时C很少D从不10.老师会把语法知识放在语境中讲解吗？A经常B有时C很少D从不11.老师讲解语法是否要求反复操练？A经常B有时C很少D从不12.你何看待目前我的英语老师的教学方式？A非常喜欢B喜欢C不喜欢D非常不喜欢13.我认为自己的语法学习效果________A非常好B还行C差D很差14.据我了解，班上同学有_______知道语法规则却不会运用。A没有B少数C比较多D非常多15.对语法课我有何建议？51 AppendixIVPre-test陕西省西安市第八十五中学初三年级上学期期末考试(共计100分)一、单项填空(共25小题,每小题1分,满分25分)1.Haveyouheard____news?Thepriceof____petrolisgoingupagain!A.the;theB.the;不填C.不填;theD.不填;不填2.-MayIborrowyourbicycleforaday,David?-Oh,sorry!Mybicycleisnot,____anditisbeingmended.A.legalB.availableC.positiveD.constant3._hisgreatachievementsinscience,hestillworkedhardtodobetter.A.EvenifB.DespiteC.BecauseofD.Although4.Thepasser-byjumpedintothecoldwatertosavethe____.boy,whocriedforhelp,butitwastoolateandtheboywas____atlast.A.drowning;drownedB.drowned;drowningC.drowning;drowningD.drowned;drowned5.Onlywhenonegrowsoldenough____abletounderstandwhatlovereallymeans?A.hewasB.hewillbeC.willhebeD.washe6.Shewassoabsent-mindedwhiletypingthatshe____theentiresecondparagraph.A.gaveoutB.foundoutC.putoutD.leftout7.-Hi,Tom.AnyideawhereJaneis?-She____intheclassroom.Isawhertherejustnow.A.shallbeB.shouldhavebeenC.mustbeD.mighthavebeen8.____thedaywenton,theweathergotworse.A.WithB.SinceC.WhileD.As9.John’ssuccesshasnothingtodowithgoodluck.Itisyearsofhardwork____hasmadehimwhatheistoday.A.WhyB.whenC.whichD.that52 10.Eventhoughthescientist____theexperimentforthreemonths,itisn’tfinishedyet,sinceitistoochallenging,A.hasbeenconductingB.hasconductedC.hadconductedD.hadbeenconducting11.Theboyranintothehouse,____.A.hungerandthirstyB.hungryandthirstyC.hungrilyandthirstilyD.hungerandthirstiness12.MoYan,thefirstChinesewriter____theNobelPrizeforliterature,wasinterviewedbyareporterfromCCTVlastnight.A.winningB.winsC.towinD.won13.____roadyoutake,thedrivewon’tbemorethananhour.A.WhateverB.WhicheverC.HoweverD.Whenever14.____isreported,anewtownhasbeenbuiltontheruinsleftbythebigearthquake.A.ItB.AsC.WhichD.This15.LookatthetroubleIamin.IfonlyI____youradvice.A.followedB.wouldfollowC.hadfollowedD.shouldfollow16.IowewhatIamtomyparents.____money,theymanagedtosendmetouniversity.A.ThoughlackedB.LackingofC.ThoughlackingD.Lackedin17.____MarywasfreeonMondaymorning.A,ThathappenedB.ItishappenedthatC.ThathappenedtoD.Ithappenedthat18.-FmafraidI"vefailedthedrivingtest.-____.Maybethingsarenotsobadasyouthink.A.That’sOKB.IthinksoC.TakeiteasyD.It’sverykindofyou19.Itishightimethatwe____ourselvestoenvironmentalprotectionandecologicalimprovement.A.havedevotedB.devotedC.aredevotingD.haddevoted20.Itisrequiredthatthestudents____mobilephonesintheirschool,soseldom____53 themusingone.A.Don’tuse;willyouseeB.notuse;willyouseeC.Mustn’tuse;willyouseeD.notuse;youwillsee21.Though____toseeus,theprofessorgaveusawarmwelcome.A.surprisingB.wassurpriseC.SurprisedD.beingsurprised22.I’dappreciate____ifyoucouldhelpmewashthedishes.A.ThatB.whatC.itD.this23.____scoresoftimes,buthestillcouldn’tunderstandit.A.HavingexplainedB.HavingbeenexplainedC.ThoughitwasexplainedD.Itwasexplained24.-Areyoupleasedwithwhathehasdone?-Notabit.Itcouldn’tbe____.A.sobadB.muchbetterC.anyworseD.best25.Isthisquestionworth____again?A.discussingB.beingdiscussedC.todiscussD.tobediscussed二、完形填空(共20小题,每小题1.5满分30分)MylifestorySometimes,whenIlookatthepileofschoolbooksandmyreflectioninthemirror,Isigh.No,it’snot26unhappiness,justtherealizationthateverything’sgoingso27.ItseemedlikeyesterdayIwasstillalittlegirlin7Grade.28beingafreshmanlooks29enoughtotouch,ifIreachoutmyhand?Icanalmostfeeltheresponsibilities,theburdensof30,pressingagainstmyshoulders.Yes,I"mstilla31inmanyways.IdonotwanttogrowupandactuallyI’mfightingagainstit.ButIknowitisalosing32.AndasIhaverealizedthat,Icometothe33whereIhaveto34whatIwanttodowithmylife.WhatInevertoldanyonewasthatIwantthe35life:Iwanttogototheuniversityonlyten-minutewalkaway,tobe36myfamilyandfriends,togetajobin54 thiscity.Iwanttolivewithmyparents(Ican’trememberthe37timeIcalledthemmommyanddaddy)andbealittlegirl38.Yousee,beingordinaryisallvery39.1likebeingordinarymosttimes,butIlikebeingexceptional40.WhatIdonotwantistobecomeoneofthosepeoplewhose41havebeenwashedawaybytime.Idonotwantbesomeonewholiveseveryday42aboutthenextday’ssalary,someonewhosehighlightistohaveagoodtableforpoker,someonewhocansay43whenachildasksforalifestory.Asboringaslifestoriesare,isn"tit44tohavenothingtotell?Thisismylifestory45,andIhopeIhavemoretotellinthefuture.26.A.asusualB.asifC.becauseofD.ingeneral27.A.fastB.strangeC.difficultD.wrong28.A.ButB.SoC.ThoughD.When29.A.wonderfulB.likelyC.soonD.close30.A.historyB.familyC.competingothersD.growingup31.A.pupilB.loserC.childD.fighter32.A.battleB.dreamC.goalD.wonderland33.A.conclusionB.pointC.placeD.limit34.A.thinkB.decideC.knowD.tell35.A.ordinaryB.comfortableC.easyD.great36.A.aroundB.nearC.besideD.for37.A.onlyB.happyC.funD.last38.A.thenB.insteadC.foreverD.otherwise39.A.wellB.simpleC.rightD.natural40.A.indeedB.moreC.latelyD.least41.A.storesB.dreamsC.interestsD.news42.A.worryingB.caringC.settingD.complaining43.A.noB.nothingC.somethingD.such44.A.sadB.rightC.sillyD.funny45.A.infactB.afterallCsofarD.inall55 三、阅读理解(共20小题,每小题1分满分20分)阅读下列短文,从每题所给的四个选项(A、B、C和D)中,选出最佳选项。AMostChinesepeopledon’tunderstandwhysomewesternersdon’teatmeat.InChina,toeatmeatisasignofwealth.Ifawesternerdoesn’ttakeabiteoftheirPekingduck,thereissomethingwrong.ButmanypeopleinEuropeandAmericachoosenottoeatmeatorfish-theyareknownasvegetarians.IntheUSalonethereare12millionvegetariansand19,000morepeoplestopeatingmeateveryweek.Peopleoftenbecomevegetariansinordertoloseweightoreatmorehealthily.AlotofresearchhasshownthatvegetariandietsarehealthierthantheaveragewesterndietFriedchickenmaybedelicioustoeat,butallthatextrafatcandamageyourheart.Therearemanyotherreasonsfor“turningveggie”.Itcouldbethatyoucannotaffordtobuymeat.Ormaybeyoujustdon’tlikethetasteofit.Alargenumberofvegetarianschoosetogiveupmeatbecausetheybelieveitiscrueltokillanimalsforfood.Theybelievemanyanimalsarenotallowedtoliveincomfortand,whentheyarekilled,itiscarriedoutinaverypainfulway.Whilesomevegetariansarehappynottoeatanimals,otherstakeitonestepfurtherandrefusetoeatanyanimalproduct.Theyareknownasvegansandwillnoteatcheese,yogurtandeggs,ordrinkmilk.Neitherwilltheywearclothesorshoesmadefromanimalskin,suchasleather.Theysaythatifitiswrongtokillananimalforfood,itisworsetokillitforclothing.Buttherearesomegroupsthatgoevenfurther.Fruitariansbelieveitiswrongtokillanylivingplantoranimal.Besidesrefosingtoeatmeat,theywillonlyeatfruitandvegetablesthathavenotbeenkilledwhenharvested.Thismeanstheycannottakeanapplefromatree:theymustwaituntiltheapplefallstotheground.Onlythencanitbeconsidereddead.46Alotof____choosetogiveupmeatbecausetheybelieveitiscrueltokillanimalsforfood.56 A.vegansB.vegetariansC.fruitariansD.researchers47Accordingtothetext,“vegetarians”refertopeoplewho____.A.choosenottoeatmeatorfishB.choosetoeatmeatorfishC.choosenottoeatproteinD.choosetoeatvegetables48Accordingtothetext,whichoneofthefollowingisnotmentioned?A.OnlyinChina,therearesomanypeopleeatingmeat,B.TherearemanyvegetariansinEurope.C.Vegetariandietsarehealthierthantheaveragewesterndiet.D.Therearemanyreasonsforpeopleturningvegetarians,49Themainideaofthepassage:____.A.MeatisharmfultohealthB.VegetariandietsarepopularC.FoodandhealthD.MeatandhealthBHaveyoueversuddenlyfeltthatsomeoneyouknewwasintroubleandwashe?Haveyoueverdreamedsomethingthatcametruelater?MaybeyouhaveESP.ESPstandsforExtrasensoryPerception.Itmaybecalledasixthsense.Itseemstoletpeopleknowabouteventsbeforetheyhappen,oreventsthathappeningsomedistanceaway.Here’sanexample.Awomanwasironingclothes.Suddenlyshescreamed,“Myfatherisdead!Isawhimsittinginthechair!”Justthen,atelegramcame.Thewoman’sfatherdiedofaheartattack.Hediedsittinginachair.Therearethousandsofstorieslikethisoneonrecord.Scientistsarestudyingthemtofindoutwhat’sbehindthesestrangementalmessages.Here’sanotherexampleoneofhundredsofdreamsthathavecometrue.Amandreamedhewaswalkingalongaroadwhenahorseandcarriagecameby.57 Thedriversaid,“There’sroomforonemore.”Themanfeltthedriverseemeddead,soheranaway.Thenextday,whenthemanwasgettingonacrowdedbus,thebusdriversaid,“There’sroomforonemore.”Thenthemansawthatthedriver’sfacewasthesamefacehehadseeninthedream.Hewouldn’tgetonthebus.Asthebusdroveoff,itcrashedandburstintoMaster’sThesisofQingdaoUniversityflames.Everyonewaskilled!Somepeoplesaystorieslikethesearecoincidences.Others,includingsomescientists,saythatESPisreal.FromstudiesofESP,wemaysomedaylearnmoreaboutthehumanmind.50.Accordingtothepassage,theauthorbelievesthatthesixthsenseis____.A.inexistenceB.imaginativeC.notrealD.Impossible51.BystudyingESP,scientistsmaygetto____.A.learnhowpeopletellliesB.knowmoreabouthumandreamsC.knowmoreabouthumanmindD.learnhowstrangethingshappen52.Inthelastparagraphtheunderlinedword“coincidences”probablymeans____.A.thingsthatmaynothappenB.thingsthathappeninadreamC.thingsthatmusthappenD.thingsthathappenbyaccident53.Thisarticleismainlyabout____.A.thehumandreamB.thesixthsenseC.thehumanmindD.acrowdedbusCOursurroundingsarebeingpollutedfasterthannatureandman’spresenteffortscannotpreventit.Timeisbringingusmorepeople,andmorepeoplewillbringusmoreindustry,morecars,largercities,andthegrowinguseofman-madematerials.58 Whatcanexplainandsolvethisproblem?Thefactisthatpollutioniscausedbymanbyhisdesireforamodernwayoflife.Wemake“increasingindustrialization”ourchiefaim.Soweareoftenreadytooffereverything:cleanair,purewater,goodfood,ourhealthandthefutureofourchildren.Thereisaconstantflowofpeoplefromthecountrysideintothecities,eagerforthebenefitsofourmodernsociety.Butasourtechnologicalachievementshavegrowninthelasttwentyyears,pollutionhasbecomeaseriousproblem.Isn’tittimewestoppedtoaskourselveswherewearegoingandwhy?Itmakesonethinkofthestoryabouttheairlinepilotwhotoldhispassengersovertheloudspeaker,“I’vesomegoodnewsandsomebadnews.Thegoodnewsisthatwe’remakingrapidprogressat530milesperhour.Thebadnewsisthatwe’relostanddon’tknowwherewe’regoing.”Thesadfactisthatthisbecomesatruestorywhenspokenofourmodernsociety.54.Mancannotpreventtheworldfrombeingpollutedmainlybecause____.A.thepopulationoftheworldisdecreasingfastB.peopleusetoomanyman-madematerialsC.wehavemoreandmoreindustryD.weareproducingmorecars,trucksandbuses55.Peoplecrowdintothecitiesbecause____.A.theywantverymuchtofindwell-paidjobsB.theyareanxioustoenjoytheachievementsofoursocietyC.theyhavebecometiredoftheirhomelandD.theyhaveastrongwishtobecomeindustrialworkers56.Accordingtothepassage,whatdoesmanvaluemost?A.Industry.B.Health.C.Cleanair.D.Thefutureofthechildren.57.Thestoryabouttheairlinepilottellsusthat____.A.manknowswherethesocietyisgoingB.peopledonotwelcometherapiddevelopmentofmodernsocietyC.mancandolittleabouttheproblemofpollution59 D.thewriterisworriedaboutthefutureofoursocietyDItisamatterofcommonobservationthatalthoughincomeskeepgoingupovertheyears,peopleneverseemtobecomemuchbetteroff!Pricesarerisingcontinuously.Thisiscalledinflation(通货膨胀).Themoneysupplyisbecominginflatedsothateachunitofitbecomeslessvaluable.Peoplehavegotusedinrecentyearstohigherandhigherratesofinflation.Whatcouldbeboughttenyearsagoforonedollarnowcostswellovertwodollars.Itseemsthatthisrateofinflationistendingtoriseratherthantofall.Ifintherealworldourmoneyincomesgoupatthesamerateaspricesonemightthinkthatinflationdoesnotmatter.Butitdoes.Whenmoneyislosingvalueitlacksoneofthequalitiesofgoodmoney-stability(稳定)ofvalue.Itisnolongeracceptableasastoreofvalue;anditbecomesanunsuitablestandardofdeferred(延期)payments.Nobodywantstoholdawastingpossession,sopeopletrytogetridofmoneyasquicklyaspossible.Inflationthereforestimulatespeoplespending,andpreventspeoplefromsaving.58.Fromthepassage,wecanknowinflation____.A.seldomhappensB.isverycommonatpresentC.isamustD.hasbecomelessinrecentyears59.Accordingtothepassage,ifincomesandpricesrisetogether____.A.thebusinesswillbecomebetterB.moneywillholditsvalueC.inflationwon"tbeaproblemD.inflationwillremaintobeaproblem60.Whenmoneylosesitsvalue____.A.it"snolongerstableB.thepriceofthegoodswillgodownC.foodswilllosetheirvalue60 D.incomewillkeeprising61.Inaperiodofinflation,peoplearelikelyto____.A.putmuchmoneyonthestockmarketB.stopspendingmoneyC.holdontomoneyasadependablepossessionD.spendmoneyassoonaspossibleEThosewhoplantofilmahostage(人质)scenemightwanttomakeitobvioustoeveryonearoundthemthatit’sasimulationandnottherealdeal.ThatmaybethelessonthatanindependentfilmcrewlearnedinLarimerCounty,Colo,afterpolicemenrushedtothemduringashootforamovie.MembersofthecrewwereatacampgroundnearLakeCarter,shootingascenewheretheleadactortakesagirlhostageandbeatsuponagoodmanwhotriestocomebetweensoastohelpthegirl.“Ithappenedverysuddenlyafterthat.Weheard,Freeze!Police!”saidDirectorEileenAgosta.Theywereinthemiddleofthescenewhensomepolicemenranover,shoutingorderstogetontheground,pointingrifles(步枪)atthecrew,actorChrisBordensaid.Membersofthecrewwerecuffed(上手铐)andheldonthegrounduntilthesituationwassortedout.Bordensaidhebelievestheonlyreasonthepolicedidn"tshoothimwasbecausetheysawacameraman.MrJustinSmith,apoliceofficer,saidtheyreceivedacallfromsomeoneatthelakeandthenracedtothepark,blockingroadsandcamequietlyuptothescene.“Thepolicedidn’trushintothesituationandmakeapotentiallybadsituationworse,”saidScottspokesmanofthecounty.“Itwascompleteignoranceonmypart,”saidAgosta.“Ihonestlythoughtyoucouldtellwhatweweredoing?Iwouldn"thavechosenastateparkat3:30(p.m.)onSaturdayifIwasgoingtohurtsomebody.”Authoritiessaidthescenetheysawwasrealisticenough-awomanhandcuffed61 toacar,amanbeatinganothermanwithapistol(手枪),peopleinjuredandbloodiedandsomeonewithasmallvideocamerafilmingtheevent.“Itiscertainlynotbeyondbelieftheredaysthatindividualsdovideotapecrimesastheycommitthem.”saidSmith.“Havingavideocameratheredidnotnecessarilymeantherewasnotacrime.Theyshouldhaveinformedusaboutthefilmingandthefactthattheywouldbeusingafalsehandgunduringtheshoot.”62.Theunderlinedword“simulation”mostprobablymeans____.A.amisunderstandingcreatedduringthecourseofcommunication.B.theactivityofproducingconditionswhicharesimilartorealonesC.anexampleofdealingwithcruelcriminalsinawisewayD.thesceneoftakingahostagebyoneorseveralcruelcriminals63.Theincidentinthepassagetookplace____.A.onacoldmorningB.earlyintheeveningC.onaweekdayD.attheweekend64.Whatdoyouthinkofthepolice’sactionintheincident?A.Theymadethewholesituationworse.B.Theyweretoblameforthemisunderstanding.C.Theyactedsenselesslyinthewholeaffair.D.Theywerequickbutactedcalmly.65.Whichofthefollowingtellstherightorderofwhathappened?a.Somepolicemenarrivedatthescene.b.Membersofthefilmcrewwerehandcuffed.c.Acrewofactorswereshootingafilm.d.Thepolicereceivedatelephonecall,e.Thepolicesortedoutthesituation.A.c,d,a,b,eB.d,c,a,e,bC.a,b,d,c,eD.a,e,b,d,c62 四、作文(满分25分)为引进外资,进一步加快你家乡改革开放。你向一位外商介绍你家乡。1.你家乡是一新开发的经济特区。它是一座具有三十万人口的临海小城。2.解放前是一个小渔村,以渔业为主,没有工业,只有几所小学。3.改革开放以来,许多外商到这里投资,经济增长很快,建立了许多大工厂、一个港口。港口与国内外许多城市连接。4.教育有很大的发展,建立了该城第一所大学。已有三千人从该校毕业。我相信,家乡在不久的将来将更加现代化。参考词汇:投资:invest经济开发区:aneconomic-zone港口:port63 AppendixVPost-test陕西省西安市第八十五中学语法测验题（满分100分）(每小题2分,共计100分)一、名词性从句(1)Wehaven’tdiscussed____yetwearegoingtoplaceourfurniture.A.thatB.whichC.whatD.where(2)-Haveyoufinishedthebook?-No,I"vereaduptothechildren____discoverthesecretscave.A.WhichB.whatC.thatD.where(3)Iwanttobelikedandlovedfor____Iaminside.A.whoB.whereC.whatD.how(4)PartofthereasonCharlesDickenslovedhisownnovel,DavidCopperfield,was____itwasratherinteresting.A.whatB.thatC.whyD.whether(5)____somepeopleregardasadrawbackisseenasaplusbymanyothers.A.WhetherB.WhatC.ThatD.How(6)Weshouldrespectfoodandthinkaboutthepeoplewhodon"thave____wehavehereandtreatfoodnicely.A.thatB.whichC.whatD.whether(7)Cindyshutthedoorheavilyandburstintotears.Nooneintheofficeknew____shewassoangry.A.whereB.whetherC.thatD.why(8)-IprefershuttingmyselfinandlisteningtomusicallsayonSundays-That’s____Idon’tagree.Youshouldhaveamoreactivelife.A.whereB,howC.whenD.what(9)Petercanshowyou____toturnanideaintoanact.A.howB.whoC.whatD.where(10)Beforethesalesstart,Imakealistof____mykidswillneedforthecomingseason.64 A.whyB.whatC.howD.which(11)Thesephotographswillshowyou____.A.whatdoesourvillagelooklikeB.whatourvillagelookslikeC.howdoesourvillagelooklikeD.howourvillagelookslike(12)Noonecanbesure____inamillionyears.A.whatmanwilllooklikeB.whatwillmanlooklikeC.manwilllooklikewhatD.whatwilllookmanlike(13)Wehaven’theardfromJaneforalongtime.Whatdoyousuppose____toher?A.washappeningB.hashappenedC.tohappenD.havinghappened(14)Goandgetyourcoat,it’s____youputit.A.thereB.whereC.therewhereD.wherethere(15)____hesaidatmeetingastonishedeveryonepresent.A.WhatB.ThatC.ThatfactD.Thematte二、定语从句(16)Don’ttalkaboutsuchthingsof____youarenotsure.A.whichB.whatC.asD.those(17)Isthisfactory____youvisitedtheotherday?A.thatB.whereC.whichD.theone(18)Thewolveshidthemselvesintheplaces____couldn’tbefound.A.thatB.whereC.inwhichD.inthat(19)Thefreezingpointisthetemperature____waterchangesintoice.A.atwhichB.onthatC.inwhichD.ofwhat(20)Thisbookwillshowyou____canbeusedinothercontexts.A.howyouhaveobservedB.whatyouhaveobservedC.thatyouhaveobservedD.howthatyouhaveobserved(21)Thereasonis____heisunabletooperatethemachine.A.becauseB.whyC.thatD.whether(22)Thattree,____branchesarealmostbare,isveryold.65 A.whoseB.ofwhichC.inwhichD.onwhich(23)Ihaveboughtthesamedress____sheiswearing.A.asB.thatC.whichD.what(24)Hefailedintheexamination,____madehisfatherveryangry.A.whichB.itC.thatD.what(25)We’retalkingaboutthepianoandthepianist____wereintheconcertweattendedlastnight.A.whichB.whomC.whoD.that(26)Thegirl____anEnglishsonginthenextroomisTom’ssister.A.whoissingingB.issingingC.sangD.wassinging(27)Those____notonlyfrombooksbutalsothroughpracticewillsucceed.A.learnB.whoC.thatlearnsD.wholearn(28)Anyone____thisopinionmayspeakout.A.whoagainstB.thatagainstC.whoisagainstD.whoareagainst(29)Didn’tyouseetheman____?A.InoddedjustnowB.whomInoddedjustnowC.InoddedtohimjustnowD.Inoddedtojustnow(30)Canyoulendmethenovel____theotherday?A.thatyoutalkedB.youtalkedaboutitC.whichyoutalkedwithD.youtalkedabout(31)Isthereanything____toyou?A.thatisbelongedB,thatbelongsC.thatbelongD.whichbelongs(32)Mr.Zhanggavethetextbooktoallthepupilsexcept____whohadalreadytakenthem.A.theonesB.onesC.someD.theothers(33)Thetrain____shewastravelingwaslate.A.whichB.WhereC.onwhichD.inthat(34)Hehaslostthekeytothedrawer____thepapersarekept.A.whereB.inwhichC.underwhichD.which(35)Antarctic____weknowverylittleiscoveredwiththickicealltheyearround.66 A.whichB.whereC.thatD.aboutwhich三、宾语从句(36)Idon’tknow____ornot.A.whetherheisathomeB.ifheisathomeC.thatheisathomeD.whetherisheathome(37)Thisdependson____theweatherisfine.A.whichB.whetherC.ifD.that(38)Theteacheraskedthenewstudent____classhewasin.A.whichB.WhereC.ifD.that(39)Thereisnotmuchdifferencebetweenthetwo.Ireallydon’tknow____.A.whatshouldIchooseB.whichIshouldchooseC.whichshouldIchooseD.whatIshouldchoose(40)Areyouinterestedin____?A.howdidhedoitB.hedidithowC.howhediditD.hehowdidit(41)Idon’tknow____.Canyoutellme?A.howthetwoplayersareoldB.howoldarethetwoplayersC.thetwoplayersarehowoldD.howoldthetwoplayersare(42)SheaskedTom____withhiscar?A.whatthematterwasB.whatthematterwasC.whatwasthematterD.whatisthematter(43)It’s7:30.Ican’tbelieveyou____cookingdinneryet,Sally.A.Haven’tstartedB.Didn’tC.Don’tstartD.Hadn’tstarted(44)TheteachertoldusyesterdaythatDecember25____ChristmasDay.A.isB.wasC.hasbeenD.willbe(45)Theteachersaidthattheearth____roundthesun.A.goesB.goC.wentD.willgo(46)We’dliketotellyouthatyou____theexam.A.havepassedB.hadpassedC.passD.willpass67 (47)Ourfathersaidthathe____anewcomputernextweek.A.willbuyB.haveboughtC.wouldbuyD.buys(48)Ihearthathe____toBeijingyesterday.A.goesB.willgoC.wentD.havegone(49)SomeoneisringingthedoorbellGoandsee____.A.whoisheB.whoheisC.whoisitD.whoitis(50)Ifind____importantthatwepracticeEnglisheveryday.A.itB.thisC.thatD.what68 攻读硕士学位期间发表的学术论文惠梦瑶.浅谈多元文化以及多元文化视野下的英语教学[J]《课程教育研究》2015第10期，青海师范大学.69