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EnglishGrammar:Thesentence1ThesentenceSentencewordorder1.1InflectedanduninflectedlanguagesManymodernEuropeanlanguagesareinflected.Inflectedlanguagesusuallyhavethefollowingcharacteristics:1Nounshaveendingswhichchangedependingonwhethertheyare,forexample,thesubjectorobjectofaverb.2Therearecomplexagreementsbetweenarticles,adjectivesandnounstoemphasizethefactthatanounis,forexample,subjectorobject,masculineorfeminine,singularorplural.Themoreinflectedalanguageis(forexample,GermanorGreek),themorecomplexitssystemofendings("inflexions").3Verbs"conjugate",sothatitisimmediatelyobviousfromtheendingswhich"person"(first,second,third)isreferredtoandwhetherthe"person"issingularorplural.EnglishwasaninflectedlanguageuptotheMiddleAges,butthemodernlanguageretainsveryfewinflexions.Somesurvive,likethegenitivecaseine.g.lady"shandbagwhereladyrequires"stoshowsingularpossession,orlikethethirdpersoninthesimplepresenttense(Iwork-He/She/Itworks)wherethe-sendingidentifiesthethirdperson,orinthecomparativeandsuperlativeformsofmanyadjectives(nice,nicer,nicest).ThereareonlysixwordsintheEnglishlanguagewhichhavedifferentsubjectandobjectforms:I/me,he/him,she/her,we/us,they/themandwho/whom.ThislackofinflexionsinEnglishtemptssomepeopletoobserve(quitewrongly)thatthelanguagehas"hardlyanygrammar".ItwouldbemoreaccuratetosaythatEnglishnolongerhasagrammarlikethatofLatinorGerman,butithascertainlyevolvedagrammarofitsown,asthisbooktestifies.Ininflectedlanguageswedonotdependonthewordordertounderstandwhichnounisthesubjectofasentenceandwhichistheobject:theendingstellusimmediately.InEnglish,theorderofwordsisessentialtothemeaningofasentence.Wehavetodistinguishcarefullybetweenthesubject-groupandtheverb-group(orpredicate).Thepredicateiswhatissaidaboutthesubject,i.e.itisallthewordsinasentenceexceptthesubject:subjectgroupverbgroup(predicate)Thedogbittheman,Themanbitthedog.Astheseexamplesshow,achangeinwordorderbringswithitafundamentalchangeinmeaning,whichwouldnotbethecaseifthenounshadendings.ThismeansthatEnglishisfarlessflexibleinitswordorderthanmanyinflectedlanguages.1.2Thesentence:definitionsofkeytermsNodiscussionofthesentenceispossiblewithoutanunderstandingofthetermsfiniteverb,phrase,clauseandsentence.Afiniteverbmustnormallyhave:-asubject(whichmaybe"hidden"):e.g.Hemakes.Theyarrived.Weknow.Openthedoor.(i.e.Youopenthedoor.)-atense:e.g.Hehasfinished.Shewillwrite.Theysucceeded.So,forexample,hewrites,shewroteandhehaswrittenarefinite,butwritten,byitself,isnot.Madeisfiniteifusedinthepasttenseandifithasasubject(Hemadethisforme);butitisnotifitisusedasapastparticiplewithoutanauxiliary(madeinGermany).Theinfinitive(e.g.towrite)orthepresentandpastparticiples(e.g.writing,written)canneverbefinite.Modalverbs[>Chapter11]arealsofinite,eventhoughtheydonothavetenseformslikeotherverbs:e.g.hemust(wait),hemay(arrive),asareimperatives:e.g.Standup![>9.51-56].Aphraseisagroupofwordswhichcanbepartofasentence.Aphrasemaytaketheformof:-anounphrase:e.g.atubeoftoothpaste.-aprepositional(oradverbial)phrase:e.g.overthebridge.-averbphrase,e.g.asingleverb-form:built(instone),oracombinationofverbs:e.g.willtell,havedone.-aquestion-word+infinitive:e.g.whattodo,whentogo.Aclauseisagroupofwordsconsistingofasubject+finiteverb(+complement[>1.9]orobject[>1.4][>1.9]ifnecessary).Asentencewhichcontainsoneclauseiscalledasimplesentence:Stephenapologizedatonce.[>1.7]Oritmaycontainmorethanoneclause,inwhichcaseitiseitheracompoundsentence[>1.17]:Stephenrealizedhismistakeand(he)apologizedatonce.oracompoundsentence[>1.17]:Whenherealizedhismistake,Stephenapologizedatonce.Asentencecantakeanyoneoffourforms:-astatement:Theshopsclose/don"tcloseat7tonight.-aquestion:Dotheshopscloseat7tonight?-acommand:Shutthedoor!-anexclamation:Whataslowtrainthisis!
EnglishGrammar:ThesentenceAsentenceisacompleteunitofmeaning.Whenwespeak,oursentencesmaybeextremelyinvolvedorevenunfinished,yetwecanstillconveyourmeaningthroughintonation,gesture,facialexpression,etc.Whenwewrite,thesedevicesarenotavailable,sosentenceshavetobecarefullystructuredandpunctuated.Awrittensentencemustbeginwithacapitalletterandendwithafullstop(.),aquestionmark(?)oranexclamationmark(!).One-wordorabbreviatedutterancescanalsobecompleteunitsofmeaning,particularlyinspeechorwrittendialogue:e.g.Allright!,Good!,Wantanyhelp?.However,thesearenotrealsentencesbecausetheydonotcontainafiniteverb.1.3BasicwordorderinanEnglishsentenceAlthoughvariationsarepossible[>1.6],thebasicwordorderinasentencethatisnotaquestionoracommandisusually:subjectgroupverbgroup(predicate)subjectverbobjectadverbials[usuallyoptional>7.1]mannerplacetime[>7.19.1][>7.22]Iboughtahatyesterday.Thechildrenranhome.Thetaxi-drivershoutedatmeangrily.Weateourmealinsilence.Thecarstoppedsuddenly.Ayounggirlwalkedconfidentlyacrosswithlongtheroom.blackhair1.4Wordorder:definitionsofkeytermsAsubjectisnormallyanoun,pronounornounphrase;itusuallygoesbeforetheverb.Theverbmust"agree"withthesubject,sothesubjectdictatestheformoftheverb(e.g.Iwait,Johnwaits,Iam,youare,Ihave,theneweditionhas).This"agreement"betweensubjectandverbisoftencalledconcord.Anobjectisnormallyanoun,pronounornounphrase;itusuallygoesaftertheverbintheactive.Itcanbecomethesubjectofaverbinthepassive[>12.1-2]:subjectpredicateactive:Theydrovehimawayinapolicecar.passive:Hewasdrivenawayinapolicecar.Asentencedoesnotalwaysrequireanobject.Itcanjustbe:-subject+verb:Wealllaughed.-subject+verb+adverb:Welaughedloudly.Someverbsdonottakeanobject[>1.9-10]1.5MakingthepartsofasentencelongerWecanlengthenasubjectorobjectbyaddingaclauseoraphrase:-lengtheningthesubject:Themanranaway.Themanwhostolethemoneyranaway.-lengtheningtheobject:Iboughtaraincoat.Iboughtaraincoatwithawarmlining.1.6SomecommonvariationsonthebasicwordorderWenormallyavoidseparatingasubjectfromitsverbandaverbfromitsobject[e.g.withanadverb>1.3],thoughthereareexceptionseventothisbasicrule[>7.16].However,notethesecommonvariationsinthebasicsubject/verb/(object)/(adverbial)order:-questions[>Chapter13]:Didyoutakeyourcarinforaservice?Whendidyoutakeyourcarinforaservice?-reportingverbsindirectspeech[>15.3n.4]:"You"veeatenthelot!"criedFrank.-certainconditionalsentences[>14.8][>14.18.3]:Shouldyouseehim,pleasegivehimmyregards.-timereferencesrequiringspecialemphasis[>7.22][>7.24]:Lastnightwewenttothecinema.--lyadverbsofmanner/indefinitetime[>7.16.3][>7.24]:Thewholebuildingsuddenlybegantoshake.Suddenly,thewholebuildingbegantoshake.-adverbsofindefinitefrequency[>7.40]:Weoftenplayeddangerousgameswhenwewerechildren.
EnglishGrammar:Thesentence-adverbphrases[>7.19.2][>7.59.2]:Insidetheparcel(there)wasaletter.-adverbparticles(e.g.back)andhere,there[>7.59.1]:Backcametheanswer-no!Here/Thereisyourcoat.Here/Thereitis.-negativeadverbs[>7.59.3]:Never,inworldhistory,hastherebeensuchaconflict.-"fronting":Itemsinasentencecanbeputatthefrontforspecialemphasis:Afinemessyou"vemadeofthis!Thesimplesentence1.7ThesimplesentenceThesmallestsentence-unitisthesimplesentence.Asimplesentencenormallyhasonefiniteverb[>1.16].Ithasasubjectandapredicate:subjectgroupverbgroup(predicate)I"veeaten.Oneofouraircraftismissing.Theoldbuildingoppositeourschoolisbeingpulleddown.1.8FivesimplesentencepatternsTherearefivesimplesentencepatterns.Withineachofthefivegroupstherearedifferentsub-patterns.Thefivepatternsdifferfromeachotheraccordingtowhat(ifanything)followstheverb:1subject+verb:Myheadaches.2subject+verb+complement:Frankisclever/anarchitect.3subject+verb+directobject:Mysisterenjoyedtheplay.4subject+verb+indirectobject+directobject:ThefirmgaveSamawatch.5subject+verb+object+complement.TheymadeSamredundant/chairman.Theexampleslistedabovearereducedtoabareminimum.Tothisminimum,wecanaddadjectivesandadverbs:HisoldfirmgaveSamabeautifulgoldwatchonhisretirement.1.9Sentencepatterns:definitionsofkeytermsAnydiscussionofsentencepatternsdependsonaclearunderstandingofthetermsobject[>1.4](directorindirect),complement,transitiveverbandintransitiveverb.Adirectobjectreferstothepersonorthingaffectedbytheactionoftheverb.Itcomesimmediatelyafteratransitiveverb:Pleasedon"tannoyme.Veronicathrewtheballoverthewall.Anindirectobjectusuallyreferstothepersonwho"benefits"fromtheactionexpressedintheverb:someoneyougivesomethingto,orbuysomethingfor.Itcomesimmediatelyafteraverb:Throwmetheball.Buyyourfatherapresent.Acomplementfollowstheverbbeandverbsrelatedtobe,suchasseem[>10.23-26],whichcannotbefollowedbyanobject.Acomplement(e.g.adjective,noun,pronoun)completesthesenseofanutterancebytellingussomethingaboutthesubject.Forexample,thewordsfollowingistellussomethingaboutFrank:Frankisclever.Frankisanarchitect.Atransitiveverbisfollowedbyanobject.AsimpletestistoputWho(m)?orWhat?beforethequestion-formoftheverb.Ifwegetananswer,theverbistransitive[>App1]:Wh-question-formobjectImetJimthismorning.Who(m)didyoumeet?-Jim.I"mreadingabook.Whatareyoureading?-Abook.Mosttransitiveverbscanbeusedinthepassive.Sometransitiveverbsconsistofmorethanonepart:e.g.listento[>App28-30][>App32-33].Anintransitiveverbisnotfollowedbyanobjectandcanneverbeusedinthepassive[>App1].Someintransitiveverbsconsistofmorethanonepart:e.g.touchdown[>App36]:Myheadaches.Theplanetoucheddown.
EnglishGrammar:ThesentenceSomeverbs,likeenjoy,canonlybeusedtransitivelyandmustalwaysbefollowedbyanobject;others,likeache,arealwaysintransitive.Verbslikeopencanbeusedtransitivelyorintransitively[>App1.3]:-verb+object(transitive):Someoneopenedthedoor.-verbwithoutobject(intransitive):Thedooropened.1.10Pattern1:subject+verb1.10Pattern1:subject+verbMyhead+achesVerbsusedinthispatternareeitheralwaysintransitiveorverbswhichcanbetransitiveorintransitive,hereusedintransitively.1.10.1Intransitiveverbs[>App1.2]Examples:ache,appear,arrive,come,cough,disappear,fall,go.Quick!Thetrain"sarrived.It"sarrivedearly.Someintransitiveverbsareoftenfollowedbyanadverbparticle(comein,getup,runaway,sitdown,etc.)oradverbialphrase:-verb+particle[>7.3.4]:Hecamein.Hesatdown.Hestoodup.-verb+adverbialphrase[>7.3.3]:Acrowdofpeoplecameintotheroom.1.10.2Verbswhicharesometimesintransitive[>App1.3]Manyverbscanbeusedtransitivelywithanobject(answeringquestionslikeWhatdidyoudo?)andintransitivelywithoutanobject(answeringthequestionWhathappened?):break,burn,close,drop,fly,hurt,move,open,ring,shake,shut,understand:-withanobject:Irangthebell.Irangitrepeatedly.-withoutanobject:Thephonerang.Itrangrepeatedly.Otherexamples:Thefireburntfuriously.Youressayreadswell.Sometimestheobjectisimplied:Williamsmokes/eats/drinkstoomuch.1.11Pattern2:subject+verb+complement1.11Pattern2:subject+verb+complementFrank+is+clever/anarchitectTheverbinthispatternisalwaysbeoraverbrelatedtobe,suchasappear,become,look,seem,soundandtaste[>10.23-26].1.11.1Subject+"be"+complementThecomplementmaybe:-anadjective:Frankisclever.-anoun:Frankisanarchitect.-anadjective+noun:Frankisacleverarchitect.-apronoun:It"smine.-anadverbofplaceortime:Themeetingishere/at2.30.-aprepositionalphrase:Aliceislikeherfather.1.12Pattern3:subject+verb+directobject1.12Pattern3:subject+verb+directobjectMysister+answered+thephoneMostverbsinthelanguagecanbeusedinthispattern[>App1.1].Thedirectobjectmaytakeavarietyofforms,someofwhichare:-anoun[>2.1]:Weparkedthecarinthecarpark.-apronoun[>4.1]:Wefetchedherfromthestation.-areflexivepronoun[>4.24]:Weenjoyedourselvesattheparty.-aninfinitive[>16.13]:Iwanttogohomenow.-an-ingform[>16.42]:Ienjoysittinginthesun.1.12.1Verb+object+"to"or"for"+nounorpronoun[>1.9][>1.13.2-3]Thefollowingverbscanhaveadirectobjectfollowedbyto+nounorpronoun,or(wherethesensepermits)for+nounorpronoun.Theydonottakeanindirectobject:admit,announce,confess,confide,declare,demonstrate,describe,entrust,explain,introduce,mention,propose,prove,repeat,report,say,stateandsuggest:subjectverbobject(to+nounorpronoun)MartinintroducedhisgueststoJane.Thenounorpronounfollowingtoorforcannotbeputaftertheverb,sowecannotsay*explainmethis*as,forexample,wecansaygivemethiswheretheindirectobjectcanimmediatelyfollowtheverb[>1.13].Geraldexplainedthesituationtome.Not*explainedme*)Heexplainedittome.(Not*explainedme*)Sayittome.(Not*sayme*)
EnglishGrammar:ThesentenceIcan"tdescribethis.Wouldyoudescribeitformeplease?Thepassiveisformedasfollows[compare>1.13.2]:TheguestswereintroducedtoJane.Thesituationwasexplainedtome.To+nounorpronounnormallyprecedesathat-clauseoranindirectquestionwhentheobjectisverylong.Catherineexplainedtomewhatthesituationwas.1.13Pattern4:subject+verb+indirectobject+directobject1.13Pattern4:subject+verb+indirectobject+directobjectThey+gave+him+awatch1.13.1GeneralinformationaboutPattern4[compare>12.3n.4]Verbslikebring,buyandgivecanhavetwoobjects.Theindirectobjectalwaysfollowstheverbandusuallyreferstoaperson:ThefirmgaveSamagoldwatch.Samisanindirectobject.However,thedirectobjectcancomeaftertheverbifwewishtoemphasizeit.Whenthisisthecase,theindirectobjectisreplacedbyaprepositionalphrasebeginningwithtoorfor:ThefirmgaveawatchwithabeautifulinscriptiononittoSam.TheyboughtabeautifulgoldwatchforSam.Theindirectobjectdoesnothavetobeaperson:Igavethecarawash.Ifthedirectobjectisapronoun(veryoftenitorthem)itnormallycomesimmediatelyaftertheverb.Theindirectobjectisreplacedbyaprepositionalphrase:TheygaveittoSam.Theygaveittohim.However,ifbothdirectandindirectobjectsarepronouns,someverbs,suchasbring,buy,fetch,give,hand,pass,send,showandteachcanbeusedasfollows,particularlyineverydayspeech:Givemeit.Showmeit.Giveitme.Showitme.GivemeitismorecommonthanGiveitme.Thepatterngiveitmedoesnotoftenoccurwithverbsotherthangive.Theuseoftheobjectpronounthem(Givethemme)isveryrare.TheverbsinPattern4canfallintothreecategories:1.13.2Pattern4:Category1:Verbsthatcanbefollowedby"to"subject+verb+indirectobject+directobjectHeshowedmethephoto.subject+verb+directobject+to+nounorpronounHeshowedthephototome.Inthepassive,thesubjectcanbethepersontowhomsomethingis"given"orthethingwhichis"given",dependingonemphasis:Iwasshownthephoto.Thephotowasshowntome.Hereisaselectionofverbsthatcanbeusedinthisway:bring,give,grant,hand,leave(=bequeath),lend,offer,owe,pass,pay,play,post,promise,read,recommend,sell,send,serve,show,sing,take,teach,tell,throwandwrite.1.13.3Pattern4:Category2:verbsthatcanbefollowedby"for"subject+verb+indirectobject+directobjectHeboughtJaneapresent.subject+verb+directobject+for+nounorpronounHeboughtapresentforJane.Thesesentencescanbeputintothepassiveintwoways:Janewasboughtapresent.ApresentwasboughtforJane.Hereisaselectionofverbsthatcanbeusedinthispattern.Normallyonlybringandbuycanhaveapersonasasubjectinthepassive:bring,build,buy,call,catch,change,choose,cook,cut,do,fetch,find,fix,get,keep,leave,make,order,prepare,reach,reserve,save,sing.InCategories1and2,toorfor+nounorpronouncanbeusedwhenwewishtoemphasizethepersonwhobenefitsfromtheactionorwhentheindirectobjectislongerthanthedirectobject:Barbaramadeabeautifuldressforherdaughter.HeboughtagiftforhisniecewholivesinAustralia.Forcanbeambiguousanditsmeaningdependsoncontext.Theemphasiscanbeon"therecipient":Mothercookedalovelymealforme.(=formybenefit)oronthepersonactingontherecipient"sbehalf:I"llcookthedinnerforyou.(=onyourbehalf/insteadofyou)
EnglishGrammar:ThesentenceForcanbeambiguouswhenusedaftermostoftheverbslistedin1.13.3;forcanrefertothepersonactingontherecipient"sbehalfwhenusedaftermostoftheverbsin1.13.2.1.13.4Pattern4:Category3:verbsthatcanbeusedwithout"to"or"for"subject+verb+indirectobject+directobjectI"lltellyouthetruthsoon.subject+verb+indirectobjectonlyI"lltellyousoon.Thepassivecanbeformedintwoways:Youwillbetoldthetruthsoon.Thetruthwillbetoldtoyousoon.Thedirectobjectmayoftenbeomittedbutisimpliedafterask,bet,forgive,grant,owe,pay,promise,show,teach,tell,write:I"llwriteyou.Ibetyou.Igrantyou.I"llpromiseyou.etc.1.14Pattern5:subject+verb+object+complement1.14Pattern5:subject+verb+object+complementThey+appointed+him+chairmanVerbsusedinthispatternareofteninthepassive.Hereisaselectionofcommonones:appoint,baptize,call,consider,christen,crown,declare,elect,label,make,name,proclaim,pronounce,vote:Theyappointedhimchairman.Hewasappointedchairman.TheymadeSamredundant.Samwasmaderedundant.Thecomplementisusuallyanoun,thoughaftercall,consider,declare,make,pronounce,itcanbeanadjectiveoranoun:Theycalledhimfoolish/afool.Hereareafewverbsthatcombinewithanobject+adjectivalcomplement:drive(me)crazy/mad/wild;get(it)clean/dirty,dry/wet,open/shut;find(it)difficult/easy;hold(it)open/still;keep(it)cool/fresh/shut;leave(it)clean/dirty,open/shut;like(it)hot;make(it)easy/plain/safe;open(it)wide;paint(it)brown/red;prefer(it)fried;pull(it)shut/tight;push(it)open;want(it)raw;wipe(it)clean/dry:Loudmusicdrivesmecrazy.I"mdrivencrazybyloudmusic.1.15JoiningtwoormoresubjectsThesubjectsoftwosimplesentencescanbejoinedtomakeonesimplesentencewithconjunctionslike:and,but,both_and,either_or,neither_norandnotonly_butalso.Notetheagreementbetweensubjectandverbinthefollowing[compare>5.31]:ThebossisflyingtoParis.HissecretaryisflyingtoParis.ThebossandhissecretaryareflyingtoParis.Boththebossandhissecretary,areflyingtoParis.ThebossisflyingtoRome.HissecretaryisnotflyingtoRome.Theboss,butnothissecretary,isflyingtoRome.ThebossmaybeflyingtoBerlin.HissecretarymaybeflyingtoBerlin.(Oneofthetwomaybeflyingthere.)EitherthebossorhissecretaryisflyingtoBerlin.Thebossisn"tflyingtoYork.Hissecretaryisn"tflyingtoYork.NeitherthebossnorhissecretaryisflyingtoYork.1.16Joiningtwoormoreobjects,complementsorverbsTheobjectsoftwosimplesentencesmaybejoinedtomakeonesimplesentencewithconjunctionssuchasand,both_and:ImetJane.Imetherhusband.ImetJaneandherhusband.ImetbothJaneandherhusband.Ididn"tmeetJane.Ididn"tmeetherhusband.Ididn"tmeeteitherJaneorherhusband.ImetneitherJanenorherhusband.Adjectivecomplementscanbejoinedinthesameway:Itwascold.Itwaswet.Itwascoldandwet.Itwasn"tcold.Itwasn"twet.Itwasn"tcoldorwet.Itwasneithercoldnorwet.Twoormorefiniteverbscanbejoinedtomakeasimplesentence:Wesangallnight.Wedancedallnight.Wesanganddancedallnight.
EnglishGrammar:ThesentenceThecompoundsentence1.17ThecompoundsentenceWeoftenneedtojoinideas.Onewaywecandothisistolinksimplesentencestoformcompoundsentences.Thislinkingisachievedbyanyofthefollowing:-asemi-colon:Wefishedallday;wedidn"tcatchathing.-asemi-colon,followedbyaconnectingadverb[>App18]:Wefishedallday;however,wedidn"tcatchathing.-aco-ordinatingconjunction(e.g.and,but,so,yet)oftenprecededbyacomma:Wefishedallday,but(we)didn"tcatchathing.Inacompoundsentence,thereisnosinglemainclausewithsubordinateclausesdependingonit[>1.21]:alltheclausesareofequalimportanceandcanstandontheirown,thoughofcoursetheyfollowalogicalorderasrequiredbythecontext.Weoftenrefertoclausesinacompoundsentenceasco-ordinatemainclauses.1.18Wordorderandco-ordinatingconjunctionsThewordorderofthesimplesentenceisgenerallyretainedinthecompoundsentence:subjectverbobjectconjunctionsubjectverbcomplementJimmyfelloffhisbike,but(he)wasunhurt.Theco-ordinatingconjunctionswhichcanbeusedtoformcompoundsentencesare:and,andthen,but,for,nor,or,so,yet;either_or;neither_nor_;notonly_but_(also/aswell/too).Thesecanbeusedforthepurposesofaddition(and),contrast(but,yet),choice(or),reason(for),continuation(andthen)andconsequenceorresult(so).However,asingleconjunctionlikeandcanserveavarietyofpurposestoexpress:-addition:Weweretalkingandlaughing.(=inadditionto)-result:Hefellheavilyandbrokehisarm.(=so)-condition:WeedthegardenandI"llpayyou£5.(=if_then)-sequence:Hefinishedlunchandwentshopping.(=then)-contrast:Tom"s15andstillsuckshisthumb.(=despitethis)1.19JoiningsentencepatternstomakecompoundsentencesThefivesimplesentencepatterns[>1.8]canbejoinedbymeansofco-ordinatingconjunctions(P1=Pattern1,etc.):subjectverbmanner(P1)+(subject)verbcomplement(P2)Frankworkedhardand(he)becameanarchitect.subjectverbobject(P3)+subjectverbplace(P1)I"vegotacold,soI"mgoingtobed.subjectverbobjectcomplement(P5)+(subject)verbobject(P3Theymadehimchairman,but(they)didn"tincreasehissalarysubjectverbcomplement(P2)+subjectverbobjectobject(P4HerbirthdayisnextMonday,soImustbuyherapresent.1.20Theuseofco-ordinatingconjunctionsWhenthesubjectisthesameinallpartsofthesentence,itisusualnottorepeatit.Wedonotusuallyputacommainfrontofand,butwegenerallyuseoneinfrontofotherconjunctions:1.20.1Addition/sequence:"and";"both_and";"notonly_but_(too/aswell)";"notonly_but(also)_";"andthen"Hewashedthecar.Hepolishedit.Hewashedthecarandpolishedit.Henotonlywashedthecar,butpolishedit(too/aswell).Hewashedthecarandthenpolishedit.Whenthesubjectsaredifferent,theymustbothbeused:YoucanwaithereandI"llgetthecar.JimspeaksSpanish,buthiswifespeaksFrench.1.20.2Contrast:"but";"yet"Hewashedthecar.Hedidn"tpolishit.Hewashedthecar,butdidn"tpolishit.Shesoldherhouse.Shecan"thelpregrettingit.Shesoldherhouse,but/yet(she)can"thelpregrettingit.1.20.3Alternatives:"either_or_";"neither_nor_"HespeaksFrench.Orperhapsheunderstandsit.
EnglishGrammar:ThesentenceHeeitherspeaksFrench,orunderstandsit.(I"mnotsurewhich)Hedoesn"tspeakFrench.Hedoesn"tunderstandit.HeneitherspeaksFrench,norunderstandsit.1.20.4Result:"so"Hecouldn"tfindhispen.Hewroteinpencil.Hecouldn"tfindhispen,sohewroteinpencil.(Thesubjectisusuallyrepeatedafterso.)1.20.5Cause:"for"Werarelystayinhotels.Wecan"taffordit.Werarelystayinhotels,forwecan"taffordit.Forgivesthereasonforsomethingthathasalreadybeenstated.Unlikebecause[>1.48],itcannotbeginasentence.Thesubjectmustberepeatedafterfor.Thisuseofforismoreusualinthewrittenlanguage.1.20.6Linkingsimplesentencesbycommas,etc.Morethantwosimplesentencescanbejoinedbycommaswithonlyoneconjunctionwhichisusedbeforethefinalclause.Theuseofacommabeforeandisoptionalhere:Ifoundabucket,putitinthesink(,)andturnedthetapon.Itookoffmycoat,searchedallmypockets,butcouldn"tfindmykey.Sometimessubjectandverbcanbeomitted.Insuchcases,asentenceissimple,notcompound[>1.15-16]:Thehotelwascheapbutclean.Doesthepriceincludebreakfastonly,ordinneraswell?Asecondquestioncanbeavoidedbytheuseof_ornot:Doesthepriceincludebreakfast,ornot?(=ordoesn"tit?)Thecomplexsentence:introduction1.21ThecomplexsentenceManysentences,especiallyinwrittenlanguage,arecomplex.Theycanbeformedbylinkingsimplesentencestogether,buttheelementsinacomplexsentence(unlikethoseofacompoundsentence)arenotofequalimportance.Thereisalwaysoneindependent(or"main")clauseandoneormoredependent(or"subordinate")elements.Ifremovedfromasentence,amainclausecanoftenstandonitsown.Complexsentencescanbeformedintwoways:1byjoiningsubordinateclausestothemainclausewithconjunctions:Thealarmwasraised(mainclause)assoonasthefirewasdiscovered.(subordinateclause)Ifyou"renotgoodatfigures,(subordinateclause)itispointlesstoapplyforajobinabank.(mainclause)2byusinginfinitiveorparticipleconstructions[>1.57].Thesearenon-finiteandarephrasesratherthanclauses,buttheyformpartofcomplex(notsimple)sentencesbecausetheycanbere-expressedasclauseswhicharesubordinatetothemainclause:Togetintouniversityyouhavetopassanumberofexaminations.(=Ifyouwanttogetintouniversity_)Seeingthedooropen,thestrangerenteredthehouse.(=Whenhesawthedooropen_)Manydifferentconstructionscanbepresentinacomplexsentence:(a)Freetradeagreementsarealwaysthreatened(mainclause)(b)whenindividualcountriesprotecttheirownmarkets(subordinateclausedependenton(a))(c)byimposingdutiesonimportedgoods(participleconstructiondependenton(b))(d)toencouragetheirownindustries.(infinitiveconstructiondependenton(c))Thesubjectofthemainclausemustbereplacedbyapronouninasubordinateclauseifareferenceismadetoit:Theracingcarwentoutofcontrolbeforeithitthebarrier.Apronouncanoccurinasubordinateclausebeforethesubjectismentioned.Thisisnotpossiblewithco-ordinateclauses:Whenshegotonthetrain,MrsTomkinsrealizedshehadmadeadreadfulmistake.Co-ordinateandsubordinateclausescancombineinonesentence:Theracingcarwentoutofcontrolandhitthebarrierseveraltimesbeforeitcametoastoponagrassybank.Thefivesimplesentencepatterns[>1.8]canbecombinedinanendlessvarietyofways.Subordinateclausescanbeclassifiedunderthreeheadings:-nounclauses:Hetoldmethatthematchhadbeencancelled.-relative(oradjectival)clauses:Holidayresortswhichareverycrowdedarenotverypleasant.-adverbialclauses:HoweverhardItry,Ican"trememberpeople"snames.
EnglishGrammar:ThesentenceThecomplexsentence:nounclauses1.22HowtoidentifyanounclauseCompare:Hetoldmeaboutthecancellationofthematch.Hetoldmethatthematchhadbeencancelled.Cancellationisanoun;thatthematchhadbeencancelledisaclause(ithasafiniteverb).Theclauseisdoingthesameworkasthenoun,soitiscalledanounclause.Likeanynoun,anounclausecanbethesubjector(farmoreusually)objectofaverb;orthecomplementoftheverbbeorsomeoftheverbsrelatedtobe,suchasseemandappear:Iknowthatthematchwillbecancelled.(object)Thatthematchwillbecancelledisnowcertain.(subjectofbe)1.23NounclausesderivedfromstatementsNounclausesderivedfromstatementsareusuallythat-clauses(sometimeswhat-clauses),thoughtheconjunctionthatisoftenomitted.Lookatthefollowingstatement:Moneydoesn"tgrowontrees.Byputtingthatinfrontofastatement,weturnitintoasubordinatenounclausewhichcanbejoinedtoanotherclause.Assuch,itwilldothesameworkasanounandcanbeusedasfollows:1.23.1NounclauseasthesubjectofaverbMoneydoesn"tgrowontrees.Thisshouldbeobvious.Thatmoneydoesn"tgrowontreesshouldbeobvious.Wetendtoavoidthisconstruction,preferringtobeginwithIt,followedbybe,seem,etc.:Itisobvious(that)moneydoesn"tgrowontrees.Suchclausesarenotobjects,butare"inopposition"tothe"preparatorysubject"it[>4.13].Thatcannotbeomittedatthebeginningofasentence,butcanbeleftoutaftermanyadjectives[>App44]andafewnounssuchas(it"s)apity,ashame.1.23.2NounclauseastheobjectofaverbThatisoftenomittedbeforeanounclausewhichistheobjectofaverb,especiallyininformalstyle:Everybodyknows(that)moneydoesn"tgrowontrees.Aftermanyverbs(e.g.believe,know,think)theuseofthatisoptional.Aftersomeverbs(e.g.answer,imply)thatisgenerallyrequired.Thatisalsousualafter"reportingverbs",suchasassure,inform,whichrequireanindirectobject[>App45.2].Thatisusuallyobligatoryinlongersentences,especiallywhenthethat-clauseisseparatedfromtheverb:ThedealertoldmehowmuchhewaspreparedtopayformycarandthatIcouldhavethemoneywithoutdelay.Athat-clausecannotfollowapreposition:Heboastedabouthissuccess.=Heboastedthathewassuccessful.However,aprepositionisnotdroppedbeforeanounclausethatbeginswithaquestion-word[>1.24.2]:Heboastedabouthowsuccessfulhewas.1.23.3Nounclausesafter"thefactthat",etc.Byusingexpressionslikethefactthatandtheideathatwecanavoidtheawkwardnessofbeginningasentencewiththat:Thefactthathisproposalmakessenseshouldberecognized.TheideathateveryoneshouldberequiredtovotebylawissomethingIdon"tagreewith.Hisproposalmakessense.Thisshouldberecognized.Theseexpressionscanbeusedafterverbssuchastoface:Wemustfacethefactthatwemightloseourdeposit.Thefactthatalsofollowsprepositionsandprepositionalphrases[>App20.3]likebecauseof,inviewof,onaccountof,owingto,dueto,inspiteof,despiteandnotwithstanding(formal):Hisloveofliteraturewasduetothefactthathismotherreadpoetrytohimwhenhewasachild.Inspiteof/Despitethefactthathotelpriceshaverisensharply,thenumberoftouristsisasgreatasever.1.23.4NounclausesafteradjectivesdescribingfeelingsManyadjectivesdescribingpersonalfeelings(e.g.afraid,glad,happy,pleased,sorry)orcertainty(e.g.certain,sure)canbefollowedbythat(optional)[>App44]:I"mafraid(that)we"vesoldoutoftickets.1.23.5TransferrednegativesafterverbsofthinkingandfeelingAfterverbslikebelieve,imagine,suppose,think,wecantransferthenegativefromtheverbtothethat-clausewithoutreallychangingthemeaning[>16.14].So,forexample,thesepairsofsentenceshavealmostthesamemeaning:Idon"tbelieveshe"llarrivebefore7.Ibelieveshewon"tarrivebefore7.Idon"tsupposeyoucanhelpus.Isupposeyoucan"thelpus.
EnglishGrammar:Thesentence1.24NounclausesderivedfromquestionsNounclausescanbederivedfromYes/Noquestionsandquestion-wordquestions[>Chapter13].1.24.1NounclausesderivedfromYes/Noquestions[>15.17-18]HereisadirectYes/Noquestion:Hashesignedthecontract?Byputtingiforwhetherinfrontofitandbychangingthewordordertosubject-predicate,weturnitintoasubordinatenoun-clausethatcanbeused:-asasubject:Whetherhehassignedthecontract(ornot)doesn"tmatter.(ifisnotpossible)-asacomplementafterbe:Thequestioniswhetherhehassignedthecontract.(ifisnotpossible)-asanobjectafterverbs,especiallyinindirectquestions[>15.18n.5]:Iwanttoknowwhether/ifhehassignedthecontract(ornot).-asanobjectafterapreposition:I"mconcernedaboutwhetherhehassignedthecontract(ornot).(ifisnotpossible)Whetherisobligatoryiftheclausebeginsasentence;itisobligatoryafterbeandafterprepositions.Eitherwhetherorifcanbeusedafteraverbandafterafewadjectivesusedinthenegative,suchasnotsureandnotcertain[>App44].Ifthereisdoubtaboutthechoicebetweenwhetherandifassubordinatingconjunctions,itisalwayssafetousewhether.Notehow_ornotcanbeusedoptionally,particularlywithwhether1.24.2Nounclausesderivedfromquestion-wordquestions[>15.19-23]Hereisadirectquestion-wordquestion:Howsoonwillweknowtheresults?Question-wordquestions(beginningwithwho(m),what,which,when,where,whyandhowplusachangeinwordorder)canfunctionasnounclausesandcanbeused:-asasubject:Whenhediditisamystery.-afterbe:Thequestioniswhenhedidit.-afterreportingverbs:Iwonderwhenhedidit.[>16.24]-afterverb+prepositionoradjective+preposition:Itdependsonwhenhedidit.I"minterestedinwhenhedidit.Wecanusewhat(notthatwhich)insteadofthething(s)thattointroduceanounclause.Whatmaybeconsideredtobearelativepronoun[>1.27]here:Whatmattersmostisgoodhealth.(i.e.thethingthatmatters)ComparetheuseofWhatasaquestionword(whenitdoesnothavethemeaning"thething(s)that")indirectandindirectquestions:Whatmadehimdoit?Iwonderwhatmadehimdoit.Thecomplexsentence:relativepronounsandrelativeclauses1.25HowtoidentifyarelativeclauseCompare:Crowdedholidayresortsarenotverypleasant.Holidayresortswhicharecrowdedarenotverypleasant.Thewordcrowdedinthefirstsentenceisanadjective;whicharecrowdedisaclause(ithasafiniteverb:are).Theclauseisdoingexactlythesameworkastheadjective:itisdescribingtheholidayresorts(or"qualifying"thenounholidayresorts).Sowecancallitanadjectivalclause,or(moreusually)arelativeclausebecauseit"relates"tothenoun,inthiscase,bymeansofthewordwhich.Relativeclauses(likeadjectives)candescribepersons,thingsandevents.1.26TheuseandomissionofcommasinrelativeclausesTherearetwokindsofrelativeclausesinthewrittenlanguage:1Relativeclauseswithoutcommas(sometimescalleddefining,restrictive,oridentifying).Theyprovideessentialinformationaboutthesubjectorobject:Whatkindofgovernmentwouldbepopular?-Thegovernmentwhichpromisestocuttaxes.2Relativeclauseswithcommas(sometimescallednon-defining,non-restrictiveornon-identifying).Theyprovideadditionalinformationwhichcanbeomitted:Thegovernment,whichpromisestocuttaxes,willbepopular.Theinclusionoromissionofcommasmayseriouslyaffectthemeaningofasentence.Compare:
EnglishGrammar:ThesentenceThegovernmentwhichpromisestocuttaxeswillbepopular.Thegovernment,whichpromisestocuttaxes,willbepopular.Thefirstsentencereferstoanygovernmentwhichmaycometopowerinthefuture.Thesecondismakingastatementaboutthepopularityofthegovernmentthatisactuallyinpoweratthemoment.Whateveritdoes,thisgovernmentwillbepopular.Amongotherthings,itpromisestocuttaxes.Alternativepunctuation,suchasdashes,wouldfurtheremphasizetheintroductionofadditionalinformation:Thegovernment-whichpromisestocuttaxes-willbepopular.Orwecouldusebrackets:Thegovernment(whichpromisestocuttaxes)willbepopular.Inspeech,abreakintheintonationpatternindicatesthesemarkings,e.g.whenreadingaloud,ordeliveringanewsbulletin.Notallrelativeclausesneedberigidlyclassifiedasdefiningornon-defining.Theinclusionoromissionofcommasmaybeatthewriter"sdiscretionwhenitdoesnotresultinasignificantchangeinmeaning:Heaskedalotofquestions(,)whichwerenoneofhisbusiness(,)andgenerallymanagedtoannoyeverybody.1.27FormofrelativepronounsinrelativeclausesRelativepronounsassubject:People:Heisthemanwho(orthat)livesnextdoor.Things:Thisisthephotowhich(orthat)showsmyhouse.Possession:Heisthemanwhosecarwasstolen.Relativepronounsasobject:People:Heistheman(who/whom/that)Imet.People:Heistheman(-)Igavethemoneyto.Things:Thisisthephoto(which/that)Itook.Things:Thisisthepan(-)Iboiledthemilkin.Possession:Itwasanagreementthedetailsofwhichcouldnotbealtered.1.28RelativepronounsrelatingtopeopleRelativepronounswhichcanbeusedwithreferencetopeopleare:who,whom,andthatandthepossessivewhose.Don"tconfusetherelativepronounthatwiththesubordinatingconjunction[>1.23]1.29Relativepronounsubjectofrelativeclause:peopleWhoandthatcanbeusedinplaceofnounsubjectsorsubjectpronouns(I,you,he,etc.)[>4.3].Whentheyrefertothesubjecttheycannotnormallybeomitted.Weneveruseasubjectpronounandarelativepronountogethertorefertothesubject.Not*Heisthemanwhohelivesnextdoor*.Whoandthatremainunchangedwhethertheyrefertomasculine,feminine,singularorplural:masculine:Heisthemanwho/thatlivesnextdoor.feminine:Sheisthewomanwho/thatlivesnextdoor.pluralmasculine:Theyarethemenwho/thatlivenextdoor.pluralfeminine:Theyarethewomenwho/thatlivenextdoor.Wecanusethatinplaceofwho,butwegenerallypreferwhowhenthereferenceistoapersonorpersonsassubjectoftheverb.1.29.1Typicaldefiningrelativeclausewith"who"assubjectWhoorthatispossibleintherelativeclause:Adoctorexaminedtheastronauts.Theyreturnedfromspacetoday.Adoctorexaminedtheastronautswhoreturnedfromspacetoday.1.29.2Typicalnon-definingrelativeclausewith"who"assubjectWhomustbeusedinnon-definingclauses:thatisnotpossible:Theastronautsareexpectedtolandonthemoonshortly.Theyarereportedtobeverycheerful.Theastronauts,whoarereportedtobeverycheerful,areexpectedtolandonthemoonshortly.1.30RelativepronounsrelatingtothingsandanimalsRelativepronounswhichcanbeusedwithreferencetothingsandanimalsarewhichandthat[butcompare>4.8].1.31Relativepronounsubjectofrelativeclause:things/animalsWhichandthatcanbeusedinplaceofnounsubjectsthatrefertothingsoranimals,orinplaceofthesubjectpronounsitorthey.Whenwhich/thatrefertothesubject,theycannotnormallybeomitted.Weneveruseasubjectpronounandarelativepronountogethertorefertothesubject:Not*Thecatwhichitcaughtthemouse*.Whichandthatremainunchangedwhethertheyrefertothesingularortheplural:singular:Thisisthephotowhich/thatshowsmyhouse.Thisisthecatwhich/thatcaughtthemouse.plural:Thesearethephotoswhich/thatshowmyhouse.Thesearethecatswhich/thatcaughtthemice.
EnglishGrammar:Thesentence1.31.1Typicaldefiningrelativeclausewith"which"assubjectWhichorthatarepossibleintherelativeclause:Thetilesfellofftheroof.Theycausedalotofdamage.Thetileswhichfellofftheroofcausedseriousdamage.1.31.2Typicalnon-definingrelativeclausewith"which"assubjectWhichmustbeusedinnon-definingclauses:thatisnotpossible:TheThamesisnowcleanenoughtoswimin.Itwaspollutedforoverahundredyears.TheThames,whichisnowcleanenoughtoswimin,waspollutedforoverahundredyears.1.32"Whose"asthesubjectofarelativeclause:people/thingsWhosecanbeusedinplaceofpossessiveadjectives(my,your,his,her,etc.)[>4.19].Itremainsunchangedwhetheritreferstomasculine,feminine,singularorplural:masculine:Heisthemanwhosecarwasstolen.feminine:Sheisthewomanwhosecarwasstolen.pluralmasculine:Theyarethemenwhosecarswerestolen.pluralfeminine:Theyarethewomenwhosecarswerestolen.Whosecanreplacethepossessiveadjectiveits:Thisisthehousewhosewindowswerebroken.However,thisuseofwhoseisoftenavoidedbynativespeakerswhoregardwhoseasthegenitiveofthepersonalwho.Insteadofthissentence,acarefulspeakermightsay:Thisisthehousewherethewindowswerebroken.Wherethecontextisformal,ofwhichshouldbeused,notwhose:Itwasanagreementthedetailsofwhichcouldnotbealtered.Or:_ofwhichthedetailscouldnotbealtered.1.32.1Typicaldefiningrelativeclausewith"whose"assubjectThemillionairehasmadeapublicappeal.Hissonranawayfromhomeaweekago.Themillionairewhosesonranawayfromhomeaweekagohasmadeapublicappeal.1.32.2Typicalnon-definingrelativeclausewith"whose"assubjectSallySmileshasresignedasdirector.Hercosmeticscompanyhasbeeninthenewsagreatdealrecently.SallySmiles,whosecosmeticscompanyhasbeeninthenewsagreatdealrecently,hasresignedasdirector.1.33Relativepronounobjectofrelativeclause:peopleWho(m)andthatcanbeusedinplaceofnounobjectsthatrefertopeople,orinplaceofobjectpronouns(me,you,him,etc.)[>4.3].Whentheyrefertoanobject,theyareusuallyomitted,butonlyindefiningclauses.Whenincluded,whomiscommonlyreducedtowhoineverydayspeech.Weneveruseanobjectpronounandarelativepronountogethertorefertotheobject:Not*Heistheman(that)Imethim*.Who(m)andthatremainunchangedwhethertheyrefertomasculine,feminine,singularorplural:masculine:Heisthemanwho(m)/thatImetonholiday.HeisthemanImetonholiday.feminine:Sheisthewomanwho(m)/thatImetonholiday.SheisthewomanImetonholiday.pluralmasculine:Theyarethemenwho(m)/thatImetonholiday.TheyarethemenImetonholiday.pluralfeminine:Theyarethewomenwho(m)/thatImetonholiday.TheyarethewomenImetonholiday.1.33.1Typicaldefiningrelativeclausewith("who(m)/that")asobjectWhenthereferenceistoapersonorpersonsastheobjectoftheverbweoftenusethat.Alternatively,weomittherelativepronountoavoidthechoicebetweenwhoandwhom:ThatenergeticmanworksfortheEEC.Wemethimonholiday.Thatenergeticman(who(m)/that)wemetonholidayworksfortheEEC.1.33.2Typicalnon-definingrelativeclausewith"who(m)"asobjectWho(m)mustbeusedinnon-definingclauses:thatisnotpossible:Theauthorof"Rebels"provedtobeawell-knownjournalist.Imethimatapartylastweek.Theauthorof"Rebels",who(m)Imetatapartylastweek,provedtobeawell-knownjournalist.1.34Relativepronounobjectofrelativeclause:things/animalsThatandwhich,referringtothingsandanimals,areinterchangeableintheobjectposition.However,botharecommonlyomitted,butonlyindefiningclauses.Weneveruseanobjectpronounandarelativepronountogethertorefertotheobject:Not*Thisisthephoto(which)Itookit*.Thatandwhichremainunchangedwhethertheyrefertosingularorplural:
EnglishGrammar:Thesentencesingular:Thisisthephotothat/whichItook.ThisisthephotoItook.Thisisthecatthat/whichIphotographed.ThisisthecatIphotographed.plural:Thesearethephotosthat/whichItook.ThesearethephotosItook.Thesearethecatsthat/whichIphotographed.ThesearethecatsIphotographed.1.34.1Typicaldefiningrelativeclausewith"that"or"which"asobjectTheshedhasbeguntorot.Webuiltitinthegardenlastyear.Theshed(that/which)webuiltinthegardenlastyearhasbeguntorot.1.34.2Typicalnon-definingrelativeclausewith"which"asobjectWhichmustbeusedinnon-definingclauses;thatisnotpossible:Theshedinourgardenhaslastedforalongtime.Myfatherbuiltitmanyyearsago.Theshedinourgarden,whichmyfatherbuiltmanyyearsago,haslastedforalongtime.1.35Relativepronounobjectofapreposition:peopleWhenwewishtorefertoaperson,onlywhom(notthat)canbeuseddirectlyafterapreposition.Inthisposition,whomcannotbeomittedandcannotbereducedtowhoorbereplacedbythat.Thisuseisformalandrareineverydayspeech:HeisthemantowhomIgavethemoney.Theprepositioncanbemovedtotheend-position.Ifthishappens,itisusualinspeechtoreducewhomtowho;itisalsopossibletoreplacewho(m)bythat:Sheisthewomanwhom(orwho,orthat)Igavethemoneyto.However,themostusualpracticeininformalstyle,whentheprepositionisintheend-position,istodroptherelativepronounaltogether,butonlyindefiningclauses:TheyarethepeopleIgavethemoneyto.There"shardlyanybodyhe"safraidof.1.35.1TypicaldefiningrelativeclausewithaprepositionThatpersonisthemanager.Icomplainedtohim.ThepersontowhomIcomplainedisthemanager.Thepersonwho(m)/thatIcomplainedtoisthemanager.ThepersonIcomplainedtoisthemanager.1.35.2Typicalnon-definingrelativeclausewithaprepositionWho(m)mustbeusedinnon-definingclauses:thatisnotpossible:Thehotelmanagerrefundedpartofourbill.Icomplainedtohimabouttheservice.Thehotelmanager,towhomIcomplained(orwho(m)Icomplainedto)abouttheservice,refundedpartofourbill.1.36Relativepronounobjectofapreposition:things/animalsWhenwewishtorefertothingsoranimals,onlywhich(notthat)canbeuseddirectlyafterapreposition.Whenusedinthisway,whichcannotbeomitted.Thisuseisformalandrareinspeech:ThisisthepaninwhichIboiledthemilk.Theprepositioncanbemovedtotheend-position.Ifthishappens,itispossibletoreplacewhichbythat:Thisisthepanthat(orwhich)Iboiledthemilkin.However,therelativeisusuallydroppedaltogetherwhentheprepositionisintheend-position,butonlyindefiningclauses:ThisisthepanIboiledthemilkin.ThesearethecatsIgavethemilkto.1.36.1TypicaldefiningrelativeclausewithaprepositionTheagencyisbankrupt.Weboughtourticketsfromit.Theagencyfromwhichweboughtourticketsisbankrupt.Theagencywhich/thatweboughtourticketsfromisbankrupt.Theagencyweboughtourticketsfromisbankrupt.1.36.2Typicalnon-definingrelativeclausewithaprepositionWhichmustbeusedinnon-definingclauses;thatisnotpossible:TheAcmeTravelAgencyhasopenedfournewbranches.Ourcompanyhasbeendealingwithitforseveralyears.TheAcmeTravelAgency,withwhichourcompanyhasbeendealing(orwhichourcompanyhasbeendealingwith)forseveralyears,hasopenedfournewbranches.1.37"Whose"+nounwithaprepositionWhose+nouncanbeusedastheobjectofapreposition.Theprepositionmaycomebeforewhoseorattheendoftheclause:
EnglishGrammar:ThesentenceHeisthemanfromwhosehousethepictureswerestolen.Heisthemanwhosehousethepictureswerestolenfrom.1.37.1Typicaldefiningrelativeclauseusing"whose"withaprepositionIn1980hecaughtaseriousillness.Hestillsuffersfromitseffects.In1980hecaughtaseriousillnessfromwhoseeffectshestillsuffers(ortheeffectsofwhichhestillsuffersfrom).1.37.2Typicalnon-definingrelativeclauseusing"whose"withaprepositionMrJasonMatthewsdiedlastnight.AvaluableRembrandtwasgiventothenationfromhiscollectionofpictures.MrJasonMatthews,fromwhosecollectionofpicturesavaluableRembrandtwasgiventothenation,diedlastnight.1.38Relativeclausesoftime,placeandreasonDefiningandnon-definingrelativeclausesoftime,placeandreasonarepossibleinwhichwhen,whereandwhyareusedinplaceofrelativepronouns.Theycanalsoreplacewordslikethetime,theplaceandthereason.Thoughwecansaythetimewhen,theplacewhereandthereasonwhy,wecannotsay*thewayhow*[>1.47.1].Notethatwhenfollowsonly"time"nouns,suchasday,occasion,season;wherefollowsonly"place"nouns,suchashouse,place,town,village;whynormallyfollowsthenounreason.Timedefining:1979wastheyear(inwhich)mysonwasborn.1979was(theyear)whenmysonwasborn.non-defining:Thesummerof1969,theyear(inwhich)menfirstsetfootonthemoon,willneveThesummerof1969,(theyear)whenmenfirstsetfootonthemoon,willneverbePlacedefining:ThisistheplaceinwhichIgrewup.ThisistheplacewhichIgrewupin.ThisistheplaceIgrewupin.Thisis(theplace)whereIgrewup.non-defining:TheTowerofLondon,inwhichsomanypeoplelosttheirlives,isnowatouristatTheTowerofLondon,(theplace)wheresomanypeoplelosttheirlives,isnowatReasondefining:That"sthereason(forwhich)hedislikesme.That"s(thereason)whyhedislikesme.non-defining:Mysuccessinbusiness,(thereason)forwhichhedislikesme,hasbeenduetoharMysuccessinbusiness,thereasonwhyhedislikesme,hasbeenduetohardwork.1.38.3("That")inplaceof"when","where","why"Thatispossible(butoptional)inplaceofwhen,whereandwhybutonlyindefiningclauses:Istillrememberthesummer(that)wehadthebigdrought.((That)canbereplacedbywhenorduringwhich.)Idon"tknowanyplace(that)youcangetabetterexchangerate.((That)canbereplacedbywhereoratwhich.)Thatwasn"tthereason(that)heliedtoyou.((That)canbereplacedbywhyorforwhich.)Forrelativesafterit[>4.14].1.39Relativeclausesabbreviatedby"apposition"Wecanplacetwonounphrasesside-by-side,separatingthephrasesbycommas,sothatthesecondaddsinformationtothefirst.Wecanthensaythatthenounphrasesare"inapposition"[>3.30].Thisismorecomoninjournalismthaninspeech.Arelativeclausecansometimesbereplacedbyanounphraseinthisway:MyneighbourMrWatkinsnevermissestheopportunitytotellmethelatestnews.(defining,withoutcommas)MrWatkins,aneighbourofmine,nevermissestheopportunitytotellmethelatestnews.(non-defining,withcommas)(=MrWatkins,whoisaneighbourofmine,_)1.40"That"after"all",etc.andsuperlativesThat(Not*which*)isnormallyusedafterwordslikeall,any,anything,everything,afewandtheonlyonewhentheydonotrefertopeople.Clausesofthiskindarealwaysdefining:Allthatremainsformetodoistosaygoodbye.Everythingthatcanbedonehasbeendone.I"lldoanything(that)Ican.Whoisusedafterall,anyandafewwhentheyrefertopeople:Godblessthisshipandallwhosailinher.[>5.24]Thatisalsocommonaftersuperlatives.Itisoptionalwhenitreferstotheobject[>6.28.1]:It"sthesilliestargument(that)I"veeverheard.butnotoptionalwhenitreferstothesubject:Bach"sthegreatestcomposerthat"s(orwho"s)everlived.1.41"Of"+relativereferringtonumber/quantity
EnglishGrammar:ThesentenceOfcanbeusedbeforewhomandwhichinnon-definingclausestorefertonumberorquantityafternumbersandwordslikethefollowing:afew,several,some,any,many,much(ofwhich),themajority,most;all,none;either/neither;thelargest/thesmallest;theoldest/theyoungest;anumber,half,aquarter:Bothplayers,neitherofwhomreachedthefinal,playedwell.Thetreasure,someofwhichhasbeenrecovered,hasbeensenttotheBritishMuseum.1.42"Which"inplaceofaclauseWhichcanbeusedtorefertoawholeclause,notjustoneword.Insuchcases,itcanbereplacedbyandthisorandthat:ShemarriedJoe,which(=andthis/that)surprisedeveryone.Which,inthesenseofthisorthat,canalsobeusedinexpressionssuchasinwhichcase,atwhichpoint,onwhichoccasion,whichcanreferbacktoacompleteclause:Imayhavetoworklate,inwhichcaseI"lltelephone.Thespeakerpausedtoexaminehisnotes,atwhichpointaloudcrashwasheard.Which,inthesenseofthisorthat,canreplaceawholesentenceand,ininformalstyle,canevenbeginasentence:Hewasfined£500.Whichweallthoughtservedhimright.1.43ReferenceinrelativeclausesArelativeclausefollowsthepersonorthingitreferstoascloselyaspossibletoavoidambiguity.Compare:Icutouttheadvertisementwhichyouwantedinyesterday"spaper.(anunambiguousreferencetotheadvertisement)Icutouttheadvertisementinyesterday"spaperwhichyouwanted.(whichcouldrefereithertotheadvertisementorthepaper)Asentencecancontainmorethanonerelative:It"stheonlybuilding(which)I"veeverseenwhichismadeentirelyofglass.(Thefirstwhichwouldnormallybeomitted.)Thecomplexsentence:adverbialclauses1.44HowtoidentifyanadverbialclauseCompare:Itryhard,butIcanneverrememberpeople"snames.HoweverhardItry,Icanneverrememberpeople"snames.Hardisanadverb;howeverhardItryisanadverbial(oradverb)clause:itistellingussomethingabout(or"modifying")canneverremember.AdverbscanoftenbeidentifiedbyaskingandansweringthequestionsWhen?,Where?,How?,Why?,etc.[>7.2]andadverbialclausescanbeidentifiedinthesameway:time:Tellhimassoonashearrives.(When?)place:Youcansitwhereyoulike.(Where?)manner:Hespokeasifhemeantbusiness.(How?)reason:Hewenttobedbecausehefeltill.(Why?)1.45Adverbialclausesoftime1.45.1ConjunctionsinadverbialclausesoftimeTheseclausesbroadlyanswerthequestionWhen?andcanbeintroducedbythefollowingconjunctions:when,after,as,aslongas,assoonas,before,bythetime(that),directly,duringthetime(that),immediately,themoment(that),now(that),once,since,until/till,whenever,andwhile.Wegenerallyuseacommawhentheadverbialclausecomesfirst:Youdidn"tlookverywellwhenyougotupthismorning.Aftershegotmarried,Madeleinechangedcompletely.IpulledamuscleasIwasliftingaheavysuitcase.Youcankeeptheserecordsaslongasyoulike.[>14.21]Onceyou"veseenonepenguin,you"veseenthemall.Hehasn"tstoppedcomplainingsincehegotbackfromhisholidays.[>1.48]Wealwayshavetowaittill/untilthelastcustomerhasleft.1.45.2Tensesinadverbialclausesoftime:"nofutureaftertemporals"Whenthetimeclausereferstothefuture,wenormallyusethesimplepresentafterafter,assoonas,before,bythetime,directly,immediately,themoment,till,untilandwhenwherewemightexpectasimplefuture;orweusethepresentperfectwherewemightexpectthefutureperfect.Thesetwotensesareofteninterchangeableaftertemporalconjunctions:TheOwenswillmovetoanewflatwhentheirbabyisborn(orhasbeenborn).Thepresentperfectisoftenusedafteronceandnowthat:Once(=when)wehavedecoratedthehouse,wecanmovein.Nowthatwehavedecoratedthehouse,(actioncompleted)wecanmovein.1.45.3"Will"after"when"Thoughwedonotnormallyusethefutureintimeclauses,willcanbeusedafterwheninnounclauses[>1.24.2]:Thehotelreceptionistwantstoknowwhenwewillbecheckingouttomorrowmorning.
EnglishGrammar:ThesentenceWhenmeaning"andthen"canbefollowedbypresentorfuture:IshallbeonholidaytilltheendofSeptember,whenIreturn(orwhenIshallreturn)toLondon.1.46AdverbialclausesofplaceTheseclausesanswerthequestionWhere?andcanbeintroducedbytheconjunctionswhere,wherever,anywhereandeverywhereAdverbialclausesofplacenormallycomeafterthemainclause:Youcan"tcampwhere/wherever/anywhereyoulikethesedays.Anywhere,everywhereandwherever(butnotusuallywhere)canbeginasentence,dependingontheemphasiswewishtomake:EverywhereJennygoesshe"smistakenforPrincessDiana.Wheregenerallyreferstoadefinitebutunspecifiedplace[>1.38]:ThechurchwasbuiltwheretherehadoncebeenaRomantemple.Wherever,anywhereandeverywheresuggest"anyplace":Withaspecialtrainticketyoucantravelwherever/anywhere/everywhereyoulikeinEuropeforjustover£100.1.47Adverbialclausesofmanner1.47.1"As"[>App25.25]and"intheway(that)"TheseclausesanswerthequestionHow?andcanbeintroducedbytheconjunctionas.Adverbialclausesofmannernormallycomeafterthemainclause:TypethisagainasIshowedyouamomentago.(i.e.inthewayIshowedyou)Thisfishisn"tcookedasIlikeit.(i.e.inthewayIlikeit)Howandthewaycanbeusedcolloquiallyinplaceofas:Thissteakiscookedjusthow/thewayIlikeit.Clausesofmannercanalsoexpresscomparisonwhentheyareintroducedbyexpressionslike(in)theway,(in)thewaythat,thewayinwhich,(in)thesameway,(in)thesamewayas:She"sbehaving(in)thesamewayhereldersisterusedto.1.47.2"Asif"and"asthough"after"be","seem",etc.Adverbialclausesofmannercanalsobeintroducedbytheconjunctionsasifandasthoughaftertheverbsbe,act,appear,behave,feel,look,seem,smell,sound,taste:Ifeelasif/asthoughI"mfloatingonair.NotealsoconstructionswithIt:Itsoundsasif/asthoughthesituationwillgetworse.Itfeelsasif/asthoughit"sgoingtorain.(i.e.Ifeelthatthisisgoingtohappen)Asif/asthoughcanbeusedafteranyverbsdescribingbehaviour:Lillianwastremblingasif/asthoughshehadseenaghost.Sheactedasifsheweremad.[>11.75.1n.2]1.48Adverbialclausesofreason1.48.1ConjunctionsinadverbialclausesofreasonTheseclausesbroadlyanswerthequestionWhy?andcanbeintroducedbythefollowingconjunctions:because,as,seeing(that)andsince:Asecause/Sincetherewasverylittlesupport,thestrikewasnotsuccessful.[>1.45.1]I"mafraidwedon"tstockrefillsforpenslikeyoursbecausethere"slittledemandforthem.1.48.2TherelativepositionofclausesofreasonandmainclausesAsageneralrule,whateverwewanttoemphasize(reasonormainclause)comesattheend.Weoftenbeginsentenceswithasorsincebecausethereasonstheyrefertomaybeknowntothepersonspokentoandthereforedonotneedtobeemphasized:As/Sinceyoucan"ttypetheletteryourself,you"llhavetoaskSusantodoitforyou.Becausegenerallyfollowsthemainclausetoemphasizeareasonwhichisprobablynotknowntothepersonspokento[>1.20.5]:Jim"stryingtofindaplaceofhisownbecausehewantstofeelindependent.Becausecanalwaysbeusedinplaceofas,sinceandfortogiveareasonorreasons,buttheseconjunctionscannotalwaysbeusedinplaceofbecause1.49Adverbialclausesofcondition[>Chapter14]Theseclausescanbeintroducedbyconjunctionssuchasassuming(that),if,oncondition(that),provided(that),providing(that),so/aslongasandunless.1.50AdverbialclausesofconcessionAdverbialclausesofconcessionintroduceanelementofcontrastintoasentenceandaresometimescalledcontrastclauses.Theyareintroducedbythefollowingconjunctions:although,considering(that),though,eventhough,evenif;muchas_,while,whereas,howevermuch/badly/good,etc.,nomatterhow,etc.,nomatterhowmuch,etc.Eventhoughisprobablymoreusualthanthough/althoughinspeech:Although/Though/EventhoughIfeltsorryforhim,Iwassecretlypleasedthathewashavingdifficulties.
EnglishGrammar:ThesentenceWeintendtogotoIndia,evenifairfaresgoupagainbetweennowandthesummer.MuchasI"dliketohelp,thereisn"talotIcando.WhileIdisapproveofwhatyousay,Iwoulddefendtothedeathyourrighttosayit.Howevercombineswithnumerousadjectivesandadverbs:Howeverfaritis,Iintendtodrivetheretonight.Nomattercancombinewithquestionwords(who,when,where,etc.)tointroduceclausesofconcession:Nomatterwhereyougo,youcan"tescapefromyourself.Compoundswith-evercanintroduceclausesofconcessioninthesamewayasNomatter:WhateverIsay,Iseemtosaythewrongthing.(Nomatterwhat_)Wecanusemayinformalstyleinplaceofthepresentafterallconjunctionsintroducingclausesofconcession:Howeverbrilliantyouare/maybe,youcan"tknoweverything.Whateveryouthink/maythink,I"mgoingaheadwithmyplans.Asandthoughtomean"regardlessofthedegreetowhich"canbeusedaftersomeadjectives,adverbsandverbstointroduceclausesofconcessioninformalstyle:Unlikelyasitsounds/maysound,whatI"mtellingyouistrue.(i.e.Thoughitsounds/maysoundunlikely_)Beautifulthoughthenecklacewas,wethoughtitwasover-pricedsowedidn"tbuyit.(i.e.Thoughthenecklacewasbeautiful_)Tryashemight,hecouldn"tsolvetheproblem.(i.e.Thoughhetriedhecouldn"t_)1.51Adverbialclausesofpurpose1.51.1ConjunctionsinadverbialclausesofpurposeTheseclausesanswerthequestionsWhatfor?andForwhatpurpose?andcanbeintroducedbythefollowingconjunctions:sothat,inorderthat,incase,lestandforfear(that)Soastoandinordertoalsoconveytheideaofpurpose,buttheyarevariationsontheto-infinitive,notconjunctions.Theydonotintroduceagroupofwordscontainingafiniteverb[>1.21n.2].Constructionswithto,soastoandinordertoaremuchsimplerthanthosewiththatandaregenerallypreferred[>16.12.1].1.51.2SequenceofverbformsinadverbialclausesofpurposeWhentheverbinthemainclauseisinthepresent,presentperfectorfuture,sothatandinorderthatcanbefollowedbymay,canorwill.Sothatismorecommonthaninorderthat:I"vearrivedearlysothat/inorderthatImay/can/willgetagoodviewoftheprocession.Sothatandinorderthatmayalsobefollowedbythepresent:Letusspendafewmomentsinsilencesothat/inorderthatwerememberthosewhodiedtopreserveourfreedom.Whentheverbinthemainclauseisinthesimplepast,thepastprogressive,orthepastperfect,sothatandinorderthatarefollowedbyshould,could,mightorwould:Iarrivedearlysothat/inorderthatIshould/could/might/wouldgetagoodviewoftheprocession.Notethenegativeaftersothatandinorderthat:Iarrivedearlysothat/inorderthatImightnotmissanything.(Shouldnotandwouldnotwouldbepossible,butnotcouldnot)Infinitiveconstructionswithnotto,soasnottoandinordernottoaremorenatural[>16.12.1]:Iarrivedearlysoasnottomissanything.Theymusthavewornglovesinordernottoleaveanyfingerprints.1.51.3"Incase","lest"and"forfear"Should,mightorthepresentmustbeusedafterincasewhenthereisafuturereference:We"veinstalledanextinguishernexttothecookerincasethereisever(thereshould/mighteverbe)afire.I"mtakingaraincoatwithmeincaseIneedit.Shouldisoptionalafter(therelativelyrare)lest:Wehaveamemorialserviceeveryyearlestwe(should)forgetourdebttothosewhodiedinbattle.(i.e.sothat/inorderthatwemightnotforget_)Thesubjunctive[>11.75.1n.2]couldalsobeusedafterlest:Iavoidedmentioningthesubjectlesthebeoffended.Iaskedthemtoringfirstlestwewereout.Forfearisusuallyfollowedbymight,butthesameideacanbeexpressedmoreeasilywithincase+past:Iboughtthecaratonceforfear(that)hemightchangehismind.Iboughtthecaratonceincasehechangedhismind.1.52Adverbialclausesofresult1.52.1ConjunctionsandsequenceofverbformsinclausesofresultTheseclausesdescribeconsequences.Theycanbeintroducedbythatafterso+adjectivetoanswer,e.g.How(quick)_?:Hisreactionsaresoquick(that)noonecanmatchhim.
EnglishGrammar:Thesentenceandbythatafterso+adverbtoanswer,e.g.How(quickly)_?:Hereactssoquickly(that)noonecanmatchhim.Theycanalsobeintroducedbythataftersuch(a)+noun(oradjective+noun)toanswerquestionslikeWhat"s(he)like?:Heissuchamarvellousjoker(that)youcan"thelplaughing.Theyaresuchwonderfulplayers(that)noonecanbeatthem.Whenthatisomittedinformally,acommaissometimesused:Hisreactionsaresoquick(,)noonecanmatchhim.Such+obligatorythatcanbeusedinformalEnglishasfollows:Hisreactionsaresuchthatnoonecanmatchhim.Resultclauseswithandwithoutthatcanalsobeusedafterso+much,many,few,little,etc.:Therewassomuchtolose(that)wecouldn"ttakeanyrisks.Theycanalsobeusedaftersuchalotof:Therewassuchalotofrain(that)wecouldn"tgoout.Soandsuch(heavilystressedinspeech)canbeusedwithoutthat,soathat-clausemaybestronglyimplied:Hewassoangry!(i.e.thattherewereconsequences)Thechildrenmadesuchamess!(i.e.thattherewereconsequences)IncolloquialEnglishthatissometimesheardinplaceofso:Itwasthatcold,(that)Icouldhardlygettosleep.Theroadswerethaticy!(i.e.thattherewereconsequences)1.52.2ClausesofpurposecomparedwithclausesofresultInapurposeclausewecanalwaysreplacesothatbyinorderthatwhichwecannotdoinaresultclause:Wearrivedearlysothat(orinorderthat)wecould/should/might/wouldgetgoodseats.(i.e.wearrivedearlyforthatpurpose)Wearrivedearly,so(that)wegotgoodseats.(i.e.wegotgoodseatsasaresultofarrivingearly)Or:Wearrivedsoearlythatwegotgoodseats.Afurtherdifferenceisthataresultclausealwaysfollowsthemainclause,whereasapurposeclausecanprecedethemainclause:SothatIshouldn"tworry,hephonedmeonarrival.Inthespokenlanguagetherearedifferencesinintonationbetweensothat(purpose)andsothat(result).1.53Adverbialclausesofcomparison[compare>4.7.3][>6.27.1]TheseclausesoftenanswerHow?followedbyorimplyinginrelationtoorcomparedwith(Howquickisheinrelationto/comparedwith_?)Theyinvolvetheuseofas+adjective+as(asquickas),as+adverb+as(asquicklyas),notsoas_as,-erthan,more_than,less_than,the_the.Whencontinuingwiththesameverbinthesametense,wecanomitthesecondverb,sotheclauseofcomparisonisimplied:Heisasquickinansweringashissister(is).Heanswersasquicklyashissister(does).Heisnotso/asquickinansweringashissister(is).Hissisterisquickerthanhe(is).Hemovesmoreslowlythathissister(does).Themoreyoupractisethebetteryouget.Thereareinstanceswhenwecandropbothsubjectandverb:WhenIspoketohimonthephonethismorning,hewasmoreagreeablethan(hewas)lastnight.Adverbialclausesofcomparisoncaninvolvetheuseofas(orso)much+noun+asandasmany+noun+as.Wordslikehalf,nearlyandnothinglikewilloftencombinewithasorso:Hedidn"tsellhalfas/somanyvideosashethoughthewould.Wordslikejust,twice/tentimeswillcombineonlywithas:You"vemadejustas(not*so*)manymistakesasIhave.1.54LimitingclausesAmainclausecanbequalifiedorlimitedbyclausesintroducedbyinthat,insofarasandinasmuchas:Thedemonstrationwasfairlypeacefulinthat/insofarastherewereonlyoneortwoclasheswiththepolice.Inasmuchascanbeusedlikeinsofarasbutisformalandrare.1.55AbbreviatedadverbialclausesMostkindsofclausescanbeabbreviatedbydeletingthesubjectandtheverbbeaftertheconjunction:time:While(shewas)atcollege,Deliawroteanovel.place:Where(itis)necessary,improvementswillbemade.manner:Heactedasif(hewas)certainofsuccess.condition:If(itis)possible,pleaseletmeknowbythisevening.concession:Though(hewas)exhausted,hewenttobedverylate.Clausesofreasoncannotbeabbreviatedinthisway.However,theycanoftenbereplacedbyparticipleconstructions.Suchconstructionsalsohavetheeffectofshorteningclauses[>1.58].Thecomplexsentence:participleconstructions
EnglishGrammar:Thesentence1.56Formofparticiples[compare>16.41]presentperfectpastactive:findinghavingfound-passive:beingfoundhavingbeenfoundfound1.57JoiningsentenceswithparticiplesSimplesentencescanbecombinedintoonesentencethatcontainsamainclause+aparticipleoraninfinitiveconstruction[>1.58][>16.12.1].Participleconstructionsaregenerallymoretypicalofformalstylethanofinformal,thoughtheycaneasilyoccurinboth:simplesentences:Hewalkedoutoftheroom.Heslammedthedoorbehindhim.compoundsentence:Hewalkedoutoftheroomandslammedthedoorbehindhim.participleconstruction:Hewalkedoutoftheroom,slammingthedoorbehindhim.simplesentences:Youwanttoorderavehicle.Youhavetopayadeposit.complexsentence:Ifyouwanttoorderavehicle,youhavetopayadeposit.infinitiveconstruction:Toorderavehicle,youhavetopayadeposit.participleconstruction:Whenorderingavehicle,youhavetopayadeposit.Participleconstructionscancomebeforeorafterthemainclause,dependingontheemphasiswewishtomake:MakingsureIhadtherightnumber,Iphonedagain.Or:Iphonedagain,makingsureIhadtherightnumber.Morethanoneparticipleconstructionispossibleinasentence:AfterlookinguptheirnumberinthephonebookandmakingsureIhadgotitright,Iphonedagain.1.58Presentparticiplesinplaceofclauses1.58.1Participleconstructionsinplaceofco-ordinateclausesTheco-ordinatingconjunctionandmustbedropped:Shelayawakeallnightandrecalledtheeventsoftheday.Shelayawakeallnight,recallingtheeventsoftheday.1.58.2PresentparticipleconstructionsinplaceofclausesoftimePresentparticiplescanbeusedafterthetimeconjunctionsafter,before,since,whenandwhile.Theycannotbeusedaftertheconjunctionsas,assoonas,directly,until,etc.:SinceIphonedyouthismorning,Ihavechangedmyplans.Sincephoningyouthismorning,Ihavechangedmyplans.Wecannotusethisconstructionwhensince=because[>1.48].Onandincanbeusedtomean"when"and"while":Onfindingthefrontdooropen,Ibecamesuspicious.(i.e.WhentthemomentwhenIfound_)In/Whiletryingtoopenthecan,Icutmyhand.(i.e.DuringthetimewhenIwastrying_)1.58.3PresentparticipleconstructionsinplaceofclausesofreasonAsIwasanxioustopleasehim,IboughthimanicepresentBeinganxioustopleasehim,Iboughthimanicepresent.1.58.4PresentparticipleconstructionsinplaceofconditionalsThepresentparticiplecanbeusedafterifandunless:Ifyouaretravellingnorth,youmustchangeatLeeds.Iftravellingnorth,youmustchangeatLeeds.Unlessyoupaybycreditcard,pleasepayincash.Unlesspayingbycreditcard,pleasepayincash.1.58.5PresentparticiplesinplaceofclausesofconcessionThepresentparticiplecanbeusedaftertheconjunctionsalthough,eventhough,thoughandwhile:Whileheadmittedthathehadreceivedthestolenjewellery,hedeniedhavingtakenpartintherobbery.Whileadmittingthathehadreceivedthestolenjewellery,hedeniedhavingtakenpartintherobbery.1.58.6PresentparticipleconstructionsinplaceofrelativeclausesThepresentparticiplecanbeusedinplaceofdefining[>1.26]clausesinthesimplepresentorpresentprogressiveafterrelativepronouns:ThetrainwhichisarrivingatPlatform8isthe17.50fromCrewe.ThetrainarrivingatPlatform8isthe17.50fromCrewe.1.59Perfectparticipleconstructions
EnglishGrammar:ThesentencePerfectparticipleconstructionscanbeusedinplaceofclausesinthepresentperfectandpastperfectandthesimplepast.Theactiondescribedintheperfectparticipleconstructionhasalwaystakenplacebeforetheactiondescribedinthemainclause:active:Wehaveinvitedhimheretospeak,sowe"dbettergotohislecture.Havinginvitedhimheretospeak,we"dbettergotohislecture.passive:Ihavebeenmaderedundant,soI"mgoingabroad.Havingbeenmaderedundant,I"mgoingabroad.1.60Participleconstructionswith"being"and"havingbeen"Thepresentparticipleformofbe(being)canbeusedinplaceofthefiniteformsis/are/was/were;theperfectparticipleform(havingbeen)canbeusedinplaceofthefiniteformshavebeenandhadbeen.Theseparticipleconstructionsarerareineverydayspeechandonlylikelytooccurinformalwriting:Heissoillhecan"tgobacktoworkyet.Beingsoill,hecan"tgobacktoworkyet.Hewassoillhecouldn"tgobacktoworkforamonth.Beingsoill,hecouldn"tgobacktoworkforamonth.Hehas(orhad)beenillforaverylongtime,soheneeds/neededmoretimetorecoverbeforehecan/couldgobacktowork.Havingbeenillforaverylongtime,heneeds/neededmoretimetorecoverbeforehecan/couldgobacktowork.Theseformsoccurinpassiveconstructions[>12.2].Participleconstructionswithitandthereoccurinformalstyle:Itbeingabankholiday,alltheshopswereshut.(i.e.Asitwas_)Therebeingnofurtherbusiness,Ideclarethemeetingclosed.(Asthereisnofurtherbusiness,Ideclarethemeetingclosed.)Participleconstructionsarecommonafterwith/without[>App25.36]:Thecrowdscheered.Theroyalpartydrovetothepalace.Withthecrowdscheering,theroyalpartydrovetothepalace.Theydebatedforhours.Nodecisionwastaken.Theydebatedforhourswithoutadecisionbeingtaken.1.61AvoidingambiguitywithpresentparticipleconstructionsTheparticiplemustrelatetothesubjectofbothverbs:Readingmynewspaper,Iheardthedoorbellring.(=IwasreadingmynewspaperandIheardthedoorbellring.)Nowcompare:*Readingmynewspaper,thedoorbellrang*.Thissentencesuggeststhatthedoorbellisthesubjectanditwasreadingmynewspaper.Readingisherecalledan"unrelatedparticiple"andthesentenceisunacceptable.However,thisruledoesnotapplytoanumberoffixedphrasesusing"unrelatedparticiples",e.g.broadly/generally/strictlyspeaking,considering_,judging,supposing_,takingeverythingintoaccount:Strictlyspeaking,yououghttosignthevisitors"bookbeforeenteringtheclub.(youarenotstrictlyspeaking)Judgingfrompastperformances,heisnotlikelytodoverywellinhisexams.(heisnotjudging)Whentheparticipleconstructionfollowstheobject,itmustberelatedtotheobject,andthenthesentenceisacceptable:Ifoundhimlyingonthefloor.(=Hewaslyingonthefloor.)1.62PastparticipleconstructionsinplaceofclausesPastparticipleconstructionsaremorelikelytooccurinformalandliterarystylethaninconversation:1.62.1PastparticipleconstructionsinplaceofthepassiveThepastparticiplecanbeusedwithoutanyconjunctioninfrontofit,inplaceofthepassive:Whenitwasviewedfromadistance,theislandofNepenthelookedlikeacloud.Viewedfromadistance,theislandofNepenthelookedlikeacloud.1.62.2PastparticipleconstructionsinplaceofadverbialclausesThepastparticiplecanalsobeusedwithaconjunctioninfrontofittoreplaceapassive:Althoughitwasbuiltbeforethewar,theengineisstillinperfectorder.Althoughbuiltbeforethewar,theengineisstillinperfectorder.Ifyouareacceptedforthispost,youwillbeinformedbyMay1st.Ifacceptedforthispost,youwillbeinformedbyMay1st.Unlessitischanged,thislawwillmakelifedifficultforfarmers.Unlesschanged,thislawwillmakelifedifficultforfarmers.After,before,since,onandincannotbefolloweddirectlybyapastparticiple:theyrequirebeing+pastparticiple:After/Whenwewereinformedtheflightwouldbedelayed,wemadeotherarrangements.After/Onbeinginformedtheflightwouldbedelayed,wemadeotherarrangements.1.62.3PastparticipleconstructionsinplaceofrelativeclausesPastparticipleconstructionscanbeusedinplaceofdefiningclauses[>1.26]deletingwhich+be:Thesystemwhichisusedinthisschoolisverysuccessful.Thesystemusedinthisschoolisverysuccessful.
EnglishGrammar:Thesentence1.63AvoidingambiguitywithpastparticipleconstructionsSamesubject,thereforeacceptable[compare>1.61]:Seatedinthepresidentialcar,thePresidentwavedtothecrowd.Unrelated,thereforeunacceptable:*Seatedinthepresidentialcar,thecrowdwavedtothePresident.*Pastparticiplerelatedtotheobject:Wepreferredthehousepaintedwhite.(Not*Paintedwhite,wepreferred_*)
EnglishGrammar:Nouns2NounsOne-wordnouns2.1WhatanounisandwhatitdoesAnountellsuswhatsomeoneorsomethingiscalled.Forexample,anouncanbethenameofaperson(John);ajobtitle(doctor);thenameofathing(radio);thenameofaplace(London);thenameofaquality(courage);orthenameofanaction(laughter/laughing).Nounsarethenameswegivetopeople,things,places,etc.inordertoidentifythem.Manynounsareusedafteradeterminer,e.g.a,the,this[>3.1]andoftencombinewithotherwordstoformanounphrase:e.g.theman,themannextdoor,thattallbuilding,theoldbroominthecupboard.NounsandnounphrasesanswerthequestionsWho?orWhat?andmaybe:-thesubjectofaverb[>1.4]:OuragentinCairosentatelexthismorning.-thedirectobjectofaverb[>1.9]:FranksentanurgenttelexfromCairothismorning.-theindirectobjectofaverb[>1.9]:Franksenthisbossatelex.-theobjectofapreposition[>8.1]:Ireadaboutitinthepaper.-thecomplementofbeorarelatedverblikeseem[>1.9]:JaneForbesisourguest.-used"inapposition"[>1.39][>3.30]:LauraMyers,aBBCreporter,askedforaninterview.-usedwhenwespeakdirectlytosomebody:Caroline,shutthatwindow,willyouplease?2.2NounendingsSomewordsfunctiononlyasnouns(desk);othersfunctionasnounsorverbs(work),whileothersfunctionasnounsoradjectives(cold):wecannotidentifysuchwordsasnounsfromtheirendingsorsuffixes.However,manynounswhicharerelatedtoverbsoradjectiveshavecharacteristicendings.Forexample,-er,addedtoaverblikeplay,givesusthenounplayer;-ity,addedtotheadjectiveactive,givesusthenounactivity.Therearenoeasyrulestotelluswhichendingstousetomakenouns.Adictionarycanprovidethiskindofinformation,but[>App2].2.3Noun/verbcontrastsSomewordscanbeeithernounsorverbs.Wecanoftentellthedifferencefromthewaytheyarestressedandpronounced.2.3.1Nounsandverbsdistinguishedbystresse.g.discount,entrance,export,import,object[>App3.1]Whenthestressisonthefirstsyllable,thewordisanoun;whenthestressisonthesecondsyllable,itisaverb.Themeaningsaregenerallyrelated:noun:WehavefinishedBook1.Wehavemadegood"progress.verb:Wearenowreadytopro"gresstoBook2.butcanbedifferent:noun:Myson"s"conductatschoolhasn"tbeenverygood.verb:Mahlerusedtocon"ducttheViennaPhilharmonic.2.3.2Nounsdistinguishedbypronunciation:/s//z/;/f//v/;/3//T/Whentheendingispronouncedwithno"voice",itisanoun;whenitispronounced"hard",itisaverb.Sometimesthisdifferenceisreflectedinthespelling:/s/and/z/:abuse/abuse,advice/advise,house/house,use/use/f/and/v/:belief/believe,proof/prove,shelf/shelve/3/and/T/:cloth/clothe,teeth/teetheExceptions:/s/onlyinpractice(noun)/practise(verb)andlicence(noun)/license(verb).Andnotewordslikeassociate,graduateandestimatewherethepronunciationofthenounisdifferentfromthatoftheverb:I"mnotauniversitygraduate/"gr‘dUEt/yet.Ihopetograduate/"gr‘djUeIt/nextsummer.2.3.3Nounsandverbswiththesamespellingandpronunciatione.g.answer,change,dream,end,hope,offer,trouble[>App3.2].Compoundnouns2.4CompoundnounsManynounsinEnglishareformedfromtwoparts(classroom)or,lesscommonly,threeormore(son-in-law,stick-in-the-mud).Sometimescompoundsarespeltwithahyphen,sometimesnot[>2.11].Theyareusuallypronouncedwiththestressonthefirstsyllable,butthereareexceptionsnotedbelow.
EnglishGrammar:Nouns2.5Single-wordcompoundnounsTherearemanywordswhichwenolongerthinkofascompoundsatall,eventhoughtheyareclearlymadeupoftwowords:e.g.a"cupboard,a"raincoat,a"saucepan,the"seaside,a"typewriter.2.6Nounsformedwithadjective+noune.g.a"greenhouse,a"heavyweight,"longhand,a"redhead.Notethedifferenceinmeaningwhenthesewordsarerearrangedasadjective+noun:a"heavyweight(=aboxer).a"heavy"weight(=weightthatisheavy).2.7Nounsformedwithgerund+noune.g."drinkingwater,a"fryingpan,a"walkingstick.[>2.11n.3]Themeaningis"somethingwhichisusedfordoingsomething":e.g.afryingpan(hyphenoptional,=apanthatisusedforfrying).Compareother-ing+nouncombinationswhicharenotcompoundnounsandwherethe-ingformisaparticipleusedasanadjective.Thesecombinationsarenot"fixed",arenotspeltwithahyphen,andarestressedinbothparts:"boiling"water(=waterthatisboiling.[>6.2][>6.3.1][>6.14][>16.38][>16.39.3]2.8Nounsformedwithnoun+gerunde.g."horse-riding,"sight-seeing,"sunbathing.[>2.11n.3]Herethemeaningis"theactionof_":horse-riding(=theactionofridingahorse).2.9NounsformedwithadverbparticlesThesecompoundnounsarecombinationsofverbsandadverbparticles:e.g."breakdown,"income,"make-up[>App31][>App35].2.10Nounsformedwithnoun+nounWhentwonounsareusedtogethertoformacompoundnoun,thefirstnoun(nounmodifier)usuallyfunctionslikeanadjectiveandisnearlyalwaysinthesingular.Thisisthelargestcategoryofcompoundnounsanditcanbeconsideredunderseveralheadings:2.10.1Compoundnounsinplaceofphraseswith"of"e.g.a"carkey,a"chairleg,a"doorknob,a"typewriterkey.Whenwewanttosaythatone(non-living)thingispartofanother,wecanuseof:thekeyofthecar[>2.47].However,thiscansoundratheremphatic,soweoftenuseacompoundnouninstead(e.g.acarkey)forthingswhicharecloselyassociated.2.10.2CompoundnounswhichrefertoplaceThefirstwordreferstoaplaceandthesecondwordtosomethingthatisinthatplace.Bothwordsarecloselyassociatedandarestressedbutnothyphenated:e.g.the"bank"safe,a"personalcom"puter,a"kitchen"sink.Alsonoteplacenames:"London"Airport,"Moscow"Stadium,etc.2.10.3CompoundnounswhichrefertostreetsandroadsWherethewordstreetoccurs,thestressisonthefirstsyllable:e.g."BakerStreet,"OxfordStreet.Wherethewordroadoccurs,bothpartsarestressed:e.g."Canterbury"Road,the"Oxford"road.Compoundplacenamesarenothyphenated.2.10.4Compoundnounswhichtellusaboutpurpose[compare>2.7]e.g.a"bookcase,a"can-opener,a"meetingpoint,a"sheepdog.Thesecondwordsuggestsauserelatingtothefirst(hyphennormallyoptional).Acan-openeris"adeviceforopeningcans".2.10.5Compoundnounswhichtellusaboutmaterialsandsubstancese.g.a"cotton"blouse,a"gold"watch,a"plastic"raincoat.Thefirstwordreferstoasubstanceormaterial;thesecondtosomethingmadeofthatsubstanceormaterial[>6.13].2.10.6Compoundnounswhich"classifytypes"e.g.a"horrorfilm,a"headlamp,a"seatbelt.ThefirstwordanswersthequestionWhatkindof_?Thesecombinationscanbeextendedtopeopleandthethingstheydo,asin:a"bookseller,a"factoryworker,a"taxi-driver.Notethedifferencebetweenan"Englishteacher(i.e.onewhoteachesEnglish)andanEnglish"teacheri.e.onewhoisEnglish).Othercompoundsrefertopiecesofapparatusandwhatoperatesthem,asin:a"gasboiler,a"pressurecooker,a"vacuumcleaner.
EnglishGrammar:NounsNotethemanycombinationswithshop:a"flowershop,a"shoeshopetc.Forcombinationslike"butcher"s(shop)[>2.51][>3.20.4].2.10.7Compoundnounswhichreferto"containers"e.g.a"biscuittin,a"coffee-cup,a"teapot,a"sugarbowl.Theseconditemisdesignedtocontainthefirst[>2.18.2]2.10.8CompoundnounswhichrelatetotimeAnumberofcombinationsrelatespecificallytothetimeatwhichanactivitytakesplaceortoitsduration:e.g."afternoon"tea,"morning"coffee,the"Sunday"lunch,a"two-hour"dwalk.Alsonoteothernounsrelatingtotime:an"evening"dress,a"night"nurse.2.10.9Compoundnounsformedwith"self","man","woman"and"person"self-(stressonsomepartofthesecondword):e.g.self-"consciousness,self-con"trol,self-den"ial,self-res"pect.man/woman(stressonfirstword):e.g.an"airman,a"fireman,a"gentleman/woman,a"man-eater,a"man-hour,a"horseman/woman,a"policeman/woman,a"workman.Somepeoplereplacemanbypersoninafewnounswhenthereferenceistoeithersex:achairperson,asalesperson[>2.40.4].2.10.10Propernounswithtwoormorepartse.g.a"Ford"car,an"IBMcom"puter,"Longman"books,"Shell"Oil,a"NorthSea"oilrig,a/the"Tate"GalleryExhi"bition.2.11AnoteonhyphensTherearenopreciserules,sothefollowingarebriefguidelines:1Whentwoshortnounsarejoinedtogether,theyformonewordwithoutahyphen(ateacup).Wedonotjointwoshortnounsifthisleadstoproblemsofrecognition:busstop(Not*busstop*).2Hyphensareoftenusedforverb+particlecombinations(make-up)[>App31][>App35]andself-combinations(self-respect).3Whenacompoundisacceptedasasingleword(e.g.ithasanentryinadictionary)thetendencyistowriteitasoneword(sunbathing).Inothercases,theuseofthehyphenisatthediscretionofthewriter(writingpaperorwriting-paper),butthetendencyistoavoidhyphenswherepossible.Countableanduncountablenouns2.12Typesofnouns3.9.4][>3.31].Propernounsinclude,forexample:Personalnames(withorwithouttitles):Andrew,AndrewSmith,MrAndrewSmith,PresidentKennedy.Formsofaddress:Mum,Dad,Auntie,UncleFred.Geographicalnames:Asia,Berkshire,India,Wisconsin.Placenames:MadisonAvenue,RegentStreet.Months,daysoftheweek,festivalsandseasons[>App24][>App48]:e.g.April,Monday,Easter,Christmas.SeasonsareusuallyspeltwithasmallletterbutsomForothernames[>3.22][>3.27][>3.31]FirstnamescommonlyusedinotherlanguagesoftenhavetheirEnglishequivalents(e.g.CharlesforCarlos,Karl,etc.)Well-knownforeignplacenamesarenormallyanglicized:e.g.CologneforK”ln,PragueforPraha,RomeforRoma,ViennaforWien.2.13.2CommonnounsAnynounthatisnotthenameofaparticularperson,place,thingorideaisacommonnoun.Wecanusea/an,theorthezeroarticleinfrontofcommonnouns[>Chapter3].2.14HowtoidentifycountableanduncountablenounsAllcommonnounsfallintooneoftwosub-classes:theymaybeeithercountablenouns(sometimesknownasunitorcountnouns)oruncountablenouns(sometimesknownasmassornon-countnouns).ThedistinctionbetweencountableanduncountablenounsisfundamentalinEnglish,foronlybydistinguishingbetweenthetwocanweunderstandwhentousesingularor
EnglishGrammar:Nounspluralformsandwhentousetheindefinite,definiteandzeroarticles:a/an,theandy[>3.2-3],ortheappropriatequantifier:afew,much,many,etc.[>3.1][>5.1].Unfortunately,wecannotalwaysrelyoncommonsense(usingtheideaofcountingasaguide)totelluswhenanouniscountableoruncountable.Forexample,thenouninformationisuncountableinEnglish,butitsequivalentinanotherlanguagemayrefertoanitemoritemsofinformationandwillthereforebecountable[>2.17].Experienceisuncountable,butwecanrefertoanexperiencetomeananeventwhichcontributestoexperience:Theywantsomeonewithexperienceforthisjob.Ihadastrangeexperiencetheotherday.Manynounswhicharenormallyuncountablecanbeusedascountablesincertaincontexts[>2.16.3].Thissuggeststhatstrictclassificationsofnounsascountableoruncountableareinmanycasesunreliable.Itwouldbebettertothinkintermsofcountableanduncountableusesofnouns.Fordetailedinformationaboutindividualnouns,consultagooddictionary.2.14.1CountablenounsIfanouniscountable:-wecanusea/aninfrontofit:abook,anenvelope.-ithasapluralandcanbeusedinthequestionHowmany?:Howmanystamps/envelopes?-Fourstamps/envelopes.-wecanusenumbers:onestamp,twostamps.2.14.2UncountablenounsIfanounisuncountable:-wedonotnormallyusea/aninfrontofit:Sugarisexpensive.-itdoesnotnormallyhaveapluralanditcanbeusedinthequestionHowmuch?:Howmuchmeat/oil?-Alotofmeatlittleoil.-wecannotnormallyuseanumber(one,two)infrontofit.2.15ConcreteandabstractnounsManycountablenounsareconcrete(havinganindividualphysicalexistence),forexample:Persons,animals,plants:agirl,ahorse,ageranium.Objects:abottle,adesk,atypewriter.Groups:anarmy,acrowd,aherd.Unitsofmeasurement:afranc,akilo,alitre,ametre.Partsofamass:abit,apacket,apiece,aslice.Concreteuncountablenouns(sometimeshavingphysicalbutnot"individual"existence)includewordslike:Materials,liquids,gases:cotton,milk,air."Grains"and"powder":barley,rice,dust,flour.Activities:camping,drinking,eating,sailing.Languages:Arabic,Italian,Japanese,Turkish.Afewcountablenounsareabstract:e.g.ahope,anidea,anuisance,aremark,asituation.Anumberofabstractnounscanbeusedonlyascountables:e.g.adenial,aproposal,ascheme,astatement.Manyuncountablenounsareabstract:e.g.anger,equality,honesty.2.16NounswhichcanbeeithercountableoruncountableSomenounsmaybecountableoruncountabledependingontheiruse.2.16.1Nounswecanthinkofas"singleitems"or"substances"e.g.achicken/chicken,anegg/egg,aribbon/ribbon.Whenweusetheseascountables,werefertothemassingleitems;whenweusethemasuncountables,werefertothemassubstances.countable(asingleitem)uncountable(substance/material)Heateawholechicken!Wouldyoulikesomechicken?Ihadaboiledeggforbreakfast.There"seggonyourface.Itieditupwitharibbon.Iboughtametreofribbon.2.16.2Nounswhichrefertoobjectsormateriale.g.aglass/glass,anice/ice,aniron/iron,apaper/paper.Whenweusesuchnounsascountables,werefertoe.g.athingwhichismadeofthematerialorwhichwethinkofasbeingmadeofthematerial;whenweusethemasuncountables,wereferonlytothematerial.countable("thing")uncountable("material")Ibrokeaglassthismorning.Glassismadefromsand.
EnglishGrammar:NounsWouldyoulikeanice?Icefloats.I"vegotanewiron.Steelisanalloyofiron.Whatdothepaperssay?Paperismadefromwood.2.16.3NormallyuncountablenounsusedascountablesManynounswhicharenormallyuncountablecanbeusedascountablesifwerefertoparticularvarieties.Whenthisoccurs,thenounisoftenprecededbyanadjective(anicewine)orthereissomekindofspecification(awineofhighquality):Thisregionproducesanexcellentwine.(i.e.akindofwinewhich_)Kalamataproducessomeofthebestoliveoilintheworld;it"sanoilofveryhighquality.(i.e.akindofoilwhich_)TheNorthSeaproducesalightoilwhichishighlyprizedintheoilindustry.Normallyuncountablenounsusedexceptionallyascountablescanalsooccurintheplural:Thisregionproducessomeawfulwinesaswellasgoodones.Igooutinallweathers.Notealsomanywordsfordrinks,whichareuncountablewhenwethinkofthemassubstances:Beer/coffee/teaisexpensivethesedays.However,wecansometimesusea/antomeane.g.aglassof,etc.[>2.18]ornumbersinfrontofthesewords,orwecanmakethemplural,forexamplewhenweareorderinginarestaurant:A(orOne)beer,please.Twoteasandfourcoffees,please.2.16.4Nounswhichcanrefertosomethingspecificorgenerale.g.aneducation/education,alight/light,anoise/noise.Ascountables,thesenounsrefertosomethingspecific(Hehashadagoodeducation.Ineedalightbymybed).Asuncountables,thereferenceisgeneral(Standardsofeducationarefalling.Lighttravelsfasterthansound).countable("specific")uncountable("general")Agoodeducationisexpensive.Educationshouldbefree.Trynottomakeanoise.Noiseisakindofpollution.Somecountablenounslikethiscanbeplural(alight/lights,anoise/noises).Othernouns(education,knowledge)cannotbeplural;ascountablestheyoftenhavesomekindofqualification(aclassicaleducation,agoodknowledgeofEnglish).2.16.5Nounsendingin"-ing"e.g.adrawing/drawing,apainting/painting,areading/reading.-ingformsaregenerallyuncountable[>16.39.1],butafewcanrefertoaspecificthingorevent.countable("specific")uncountable("general")ArethesedrawingsbyGoya?I"mnogoodatdrawing.HehasapaintingbyHockney.Paintingismyhobby.Shegaveareadingofherpoems.Readingistaughtearly.afew-ingforms(athrashing,awedding)areonlycountable.2.16.6SelecteduncountablenounsandtheircountableequivalentsSomeuncountablescannotbeusedascountablestorefertoasingleitemorexample.Aquitedifferentwordmustbeused:uncountableequivalentcountablebreadaloafclothingagarmentlaughteralaughluggageacase,abagpoetryapoemmoneyacoin,anotework[>2.31][>2.33]ajobNounsforanimalsarecountable:nounsformeatareuncountable:acow/beef,adeer/venison,apig/pork,asheep/mutton.2.17NounsnotnormallycountableinEnglishAnumberofnounswhicharecountableinotherlanguages(andarethereforeusedinthesingularandpluralinthoselanguages)areusuallyuncountableinEnglish(andthereforenotnormallyusedwitha/anorintheplural).Afewcommonexamplesare:baggage,furniture,information,macaroni,machinery,spaghetti[>App4]:Webought(some)newfurnitureforourlivingroomrecently.I"dlikesomeinformationplease.2.18Partitives:nounswhichrefertopartofawholeWecanrefertoasingleitem(aloafofbread),apartofawhole(asliceofbread)oracollectionofitems(apacketofbiscuits)by
EnglishGrammar:Nounsmeansofpartitives.Partitivesareusefulwhenwewanttorefertospecificpiecesofanuncountablesubstance,ortoalimitednumberofcountableitems.Theycanbesingular(apieceofpaper;aboxofmatches)orplural(twopiecesofpaper;twoboxesofmatches)andarefollowedbyofwhenusedbeforeanoun.Themostusefulare:2.18.1GeneralpartitivesWordssuchaspieceand(lessformal)bitcanbeusedwithalargenumberofuncountables(concreteorabstract):singular:apieceof/bitofchalk/cloth/information/meat/plastic.plural:piecesof/bitsofchalk/cloth/information/meat/plastic.2.18.2SpecificpartitivesHereisabriefsummary,but[>App5]formoreexamples:Singleitemsoramounts:aballofstring;abarofchocolate;acubeofice;alumpofsugar;asheetofpaper;asliceofbread.Afewofthesecanbere-expressedascompounds:e.g.asugarlump,icecubes."Containers"usedaspartitives:abagofflour;aboxofmatches;acupofcoffee;ajarofjam;apacketofbiscuits;apotoftea;atubeoftoothpaste.Mostofthesecanbere-expressedascompounds:e.g.ajam-jar,amatchbox,ateapot,todescribethecontaineritself.Thusateapotdescribesthecontainer(whichmaybefullorempty),whileapotofteadescribesapotwithteainit[>2.10.7].Smallquantities:adropofwater;apinchofsalt.Measures:akiloofsugar;ametreofcloth."agameof":agameoffootball.Abstractconcepts:aperiodofcalm;aspellofwork.Typesandspecies:amakeofcar;asortofcake."apairof":apairofgloves;apairofjeans.[>App5.8]2.19Collectivenounsfollowedby"of"Thesedescribegroups(or"collections")ofpeopleorthings:People:anarmyofsoldiers;aboardofdirectors.Animals,birds,insects:aflockofbirds/sheep;aswarmofbees.Plantsandfruit:abunchofflowers;acropofapples.Things:asetofcutlery;asuitofclothes.Formoreexamples[>App6].Forothercollectivenouns[>2.28].Number(singularandplural)2.20Singularandpluralformsofnounsregularspellingsingularplural-saftermostnouns:catcatstubtubs-esafternounsendingin-o:potatopotatoes[>2.25]-s:classclasses-x:boxboxes-ch:watchwatches-sh:bushbushesconsonant+-ybecomes-ies:countrycountriesNotethatvowel+,-yadds-s:-ay:daydays-ey:keykeys-oy:boyboys-uy:guyguysPropernounsendingin-yadd-sintheplural:FrytheFrys[>2.36]KennedytheKennedysirregularspellingSomeendingsin-f/fetake-ves:wifewives[>2.23]Internalvowelchange:manmen[>2.26]Nounswithpluralsin-en:oxoxen[>2.26]Nochange:sheepsheep[>2.27]Foreignplurals,e.g.analysisanalyses[>2.34]2.21PronunciationofnounswithregularpluralsTherulesforpronunciationarethesameasthoseforthe3rdpersonsimplepresentofregularverbs[>9.7]./s/after/f/:chiefs,coughs,proofs[>2.23]/k/:cakes,forks,knocks/p/:drops,taps,tapes/t/:pets,pockets,skirts/3/:depths,months,myths[>2.22]
EnglishGrammar:Nouns/z/after/b/:tubs,tubes,verbs/d/:friends,hands,roads/g/:bags,dogs,legs/l/:bells,tables,walls/m/:arms,dreams,names/n/:lessons,pens,spoons/N/:songs,stings,tonguesvowel+/r/:chairs,doors,workersvowelsounds:eyes,ways,windowsNotethateisnotpronouncedinthecategoriesabovewhenthepluralendsin-es:e.g.cakes,clothes,stones,tapes,tubes.Nounsendinginthefollowingtakeanextrasyllablepronounced/Iz//z/:mazes,noises,noses/S/:bushes,crashes,dishes/dZ/:bridges,oranges,pages/tS/:matches,patches,speeches/s/:buses,classes,masses/ks/:axes,boxes,taxes2.22Nounswithregularspelling/irregularpronunciationTheendingofthefollowingnounsispronounced/z/intheplural:baths,mouths,oaths,paths,truths,wreaths,youths.Thepluralofhouse(houses)ispronounced/hauzIz/2.23NounswithirregularpronunciationandspellingThefollowingthirteennounswithspellingsendingin-for-fe(pronounced/f/)inthesingular,areallspeltwith-vesintheplural(pronounced/vz/):calf/calves,elf/elves,half/halves,knife/knives,leaf/leaves,life/lives,loaf/loaves,self/selves,sheaf/sheaves,shelf/shelves,thief/thieves,wife/wives,wolf/wolves.Thefollowingnounshaveregularandirregularpluralpronunciationandspellings:dwarf/dwarfsordwarves,hoof/hoofsorhooves,scarf/scarfsorscarves,wharf/wharfsorwharvesButnotethefollowingnounswhichhaveregularspelling,butbothregularandirregularpronunciationintheplural(/fs/or/vs/):handkerchief/handkerchiefs,roof/roofs.2.24Nounswithpluralendingin-"sThereareafewinstanceswhere"siscommonlyusedtoformaplural:-afterletters:Watchyourp"sandq"s.Afterthefollowing,thepluralisnormallyformedwiththeadditionofs,but"salsooccurs:-years:the1890sor1890"s,the1980sor1980"s.-abbreviations:VIPsorVIP"s(VeryImportantPersons),MPsorMP"s(MembersofParliament).Note2.25Thepluralofnounsendingin-oManycommonlyusednouns(echo,hero,potato,tomato)endingin-oarespelt-oesintheplural.Thefollowingarespeltwith-oesoros:buffalo,cargo,commando,grotto,halo,mosquito,tornado,volcano.Alltheseendingsarepronounced/EUz/Thefollowinghavepluralsspeltwith-os:-nounsendinginvowel+-oordoubleo:bamboos,folios,kangaroos,oratorios,radios,studios,videos,zoos.-abbreviations:kilos(forkilograms);photos(forphotographs).-Italianmusicalterms:e.g.concertos,pianos,solos,sopranos.-propernouns:Eskimos,Filipinos.2.26Irregularspelling:internalvowelchangeThefollowingnounsformtheirpluralsbychangingtheinternalvowel(s)(thisisasurvivalfromoldEnglish):foot/feet,goose/geese,louse/lice,man/men,mouse/mice,tooth/teeth,woman/women.Compoundnounsformedwith-manor-womanasasuffixformtheirpluralswith-menor-women:policeman/policemen,policewoman/policewomen.Both-manand-meninsuchcompounds(butnot-woman/women)areoftenpronounced/mEn/Othersurvivalsfromthepastareafewnounswhichformtheirpluralswith-en:brother/brethren,child/children,ox/oxen.Brethrenisusedinreligiouscontexts;otherwisebrothersisthenormalpluralofbrotherPennycanhavearegularpluralpennieswhenwearereferringtoseparatecoins(tenpennies)oracollectiveplural,pence,whenwearereferringtoatotalamount(tenpence).2.27NounswiththesamesingularandpluralformsSomenounsdonotchangeinform.Theseinclude:
EnglishGrammar:Nouns-namesofcertainanimals,birdsandfish:deer,grouse,mackerel,plaice,salmon,sheep,trout.ThissheepisfromAustralia.ThesesheeparefromAustralia.-craftandaircraft/hovercraft/spacecraft:Thecraftwassunk.Allthecraftweresunk.(Butcompare:Artsandcraftsarepartofthecurriculum.)-certainnounsdescribingnationalities:e.g.aChinese,aSwiss,aVietnamese[>App49].HeisaVietnamese.TheVietnamesearenotedfortheircookery.Notethatsomenamesoffish,etc.canformaregularplural:Herringswere(orHerringwere)onceveryplentiful.Fishisthenormalpluraloffish(singular),butfishescanalsobeused,especiallytorefertospeciesoffish.Mygoldfishhasdied.(one)Mygoldfishhavedied.(morethanone)You"llseemanykindsoffish(es)inthefishmarket.2.28Collectivenoun+singularorpluralverb2.28.1CollectivenounswhichhavepluralformsSomecollectivenounssuchasaudience,class,club,committee,company,congregation,council,crew,crowd,family,gang,government,group,jury,mob,staff,teamandunioncanbeusedwithsingularorpluralverbs.Theyaresingularandcancombinewiththerelativepronounswhich/thatandbereplacedbyitwhenwethinkoftheminanimpersonalfashion,i.e.asawholegroup:Thepresentgovernment,whichhasn"tbeeninpowerlong,istryingtocontrolinflation.Itisn"thavingmuchsuccess.Theyarepluralandcancombinewithwhoandbereplacedbytheyorthemwhenwethinkoftheminamorepersonalway,i.e.astheindividualsthatmakeupthegroup:Thegovernment,whoarelookingforaquickvictory,arecallingforageneralelectionsoon.Theyexpecttobere-elected.Alotofpeoplearegivingthemtheirsupport.Thesecollectivenounscanalsohaveregularpluralforms:Governmentsinallcountriesaretryingtocontrolinflation.Forpluralnounsinacollectivesense(e.g.theworkers)[>3.19.4].Somepropernouns(e.g.footballteams)canbeusedascollectives:Arsenalis/areplayingawayonSaturday.2.28.2CollectivenounswhichdonothavepluralformsThefollowingcollectivenounshavenoregularpluralbutcanbefollowedbyasingularorpluralverb:thearistocracy,thegentry,theproletariat,themajority,theminority,thepublic,theyouthoftoday:Givethepublicwhatitwants/theywant.Offspringhasnopluralformbutcanbefollowedbyasingularverbtorefertooneorapluralverbtorefertomorethanone:Heroffspringislikeherineveryrespect.(onechild)Heroffspringarelikeherineveryrespect.(morethanonechild)Theyouthoftoday(=allyoungpeople)shouldnotbeconfusedwitha/theyouth(=a/theyoungman),whichhasaregularpluralyouths:Theyouthoftodayis/arebetteroffthanweusedtobe.Thewitnesssaidhesawayouth/fiveyouthsoutsidetheshop.Youth(=atimeoflife)isusedwithsingularverbs:Youthisthetimeforaction;ageisthetimeforrepose.2.29Collectivenoun+pluralverbThefollowingcollectivenounsmustbefollowedbyapluralverb;theydonothavepluralforms:cattle,theclergy,themilitary,people,thepolice,swine,vermin:Somepeopleareneversatisfied.Thepolice/themilitaryhavesurroundedthebuilding.Peopleshouldnotbeconfusedwitha/thepeople,meaning"nation"or"tribe",whichiscountable:TheBritishareasea-faringpeople.TheEnglish-speakingpeoplesshareacommonlanguage.Forthe+adjective+pluralverb(e.g.theblind)[>6.12.2].2.30Nounswithapluralform+singularverbThefollowingnouns,thoughpluralinform,arealwaysfollowedbyaverbinthesingular:-thenounnews,asin:ThenewsonTVisalwaysdepressing.-games,suchasbilliards,bowls,darts,dominoes:Billiardsisbecomingmoreandmorepopular.-namesofcitiessuchasAthens,Brussels,Naples:Athenshasgrownrapidlyinthepastdecade.2.31Nounswithapluralform+singularorpluralverbThefollowingnounsendingin-icstakeasingularverb:athletics,gymnastics,linguistics,mathematicsandphysics:Mathematicsisacompulsorysubjectatschool.However,somewordsendingin-ics,suchasacoustics,economics,ethics,phoneticsandstatisticstakeasingularorpluralverb.
EnglishGrammar:NounsWhenthereferenceistoanacademicsubject(e.g.acoustics=thescientificstudyofsound)thentheverbmustbesingular:Acousticsisabranchofphysics.Whenthereferenceisspecific,(e.g.acoustics=soundquality)thentheverbmustbeplural:TheacousticsintheFestivalHallareextremelygood.Plural-formnounsdescribingillnesses[>3.15]haveasingularverb:Germanmeaslesisadangerousdiseaseforpregnantwomen.However,apluralverbissometimespossible:Mumpsare(oris)fairlyrareinadults.Someplural-formnounscanberegardedasasingleunit(+verbinthesingular)orcollective(+verbintheplural).Examplesare:barracks,bellows,crossroads,gallows,gasworks,headquarters,kennels,series,speciesandworks(=factory).-singleunit:Thisspeciesofroseisveryrare.-morethanone:Therearethousandsofspeciesofbutterflies.Thewordmeans(=awaytoanend)isfollowedbyasingularorpluralverb,dependingonthewordusedbeforeit:Allmeanshavebeenusedtogethimtochangehismind.Onemeansisstilltobetried.2.32Nounswithapluralform+pluralverbNounswithapluralformonly(+pluralverb)are:-nounswhichcancombinewithapairof[>App5.8]:Mytrousersaretorn.Usedwithapairof,thesewordsmusthaveasingularverb:Apairofglassescostsquitealotthesedays.Wecannotnormallyusenumbersinfrontofthesewords,butwecansaytwo,etc.pairsof:Twopairsofyourtrousersarestillatthecleaner"s.Someofthesenounscanhaveasingularformwhenusedincompounds:e.g.pyjamatop,trouserleg:WheredidIputmypyjamatop?-afewwordswhichoccuronlyinthepluralandarefollowedbyapluralverb.Someoftheseare:Antipodes,belongings,brains(=intellect),clothes,congratulations,earnings,goods,greens(=greenvegetables),lodgings,looks(=goodlooks),means(=moneyormaterialpossessions),oats,odds(inbetting),outskirts,particulars,quarters(=accommodation),remains,riches,stairs,suds,surroundings,thanks,tropics:Allmybelongingsareinthisbag.2.33NounswithdifferentsingularandpluralmeaningsSomenounshavedifferentmeaningsinthesingularandplural.Typicalexamples:air/airs,ash/ashes,content/contents,custom/customs,damage/damages,drawer/drawers,fund/funds,glass/glasses,look/looks,manner/manners,minute/minutes,pain/pains,scale/scales,saving/savings,spectacle/spectacles,step/steps,work/works.Sometimesthemeaningsarefarapart(air/airs),sometimestheyarequiteclose(fund/funds).Onesmallstepforman;onegiantleapformankind.Youcanonlyreachthatcupboardwithapairofsteps.Ofcourse,thecountablenounsintheabovelisthavetheirownplurals:dirtylooks,fiveminutes,sharppains,twosteps,etc.2.34NounswithforeignpluralsThereisanaturaltendencytomakeallnounsconformtotheregularrulesforthepronunciationandspellingofEnglishplurals.Themorecommonlyanounisused,themorelikelythisistohappen.SomenativeEnglishspeakersavoidforeignpluralsineverydayspeechandusethemonlyinscientificandtechnicalcontexts.2.34.1Nounsofforeignoriginwithanglicizedplurals,e.g.album/albums,apparatus/apparatuses,genius/geniuses.2.34.2Nounswithbothforeignandanglicizedplurals,e.g.-us:cactus/cacti/cactuses;-a:antenna/antennae/antennas;-ex/ix:index/indices/indexes,appendix/appendices/appendixes;-um:medium/media/mediums;-on:automaton/automata/automatons;-eu/-eau:adieu/adieux/adieus,plateau/pleateaus/pleateaux(/z/).Alternativepluralscanhavedifferentmeanings:e.g.antennaeisabiologicalterm;antennascandescribee.g.radioaerials.2.34.3Nounswithforeignpluralsonly,e.g.-us:alumnus/alumni;-a:alumna/alumnae;-um:stratum/strata;-is:analysis/analyses;-on:criterion/criteria.Media+singularorpluralverbisusedtorefertothepress,TV,etc.;dataisusedwithasingularorpluralverb;agendaisaforeignpluralusedinthesingularinEnglishwitharegularplural,agendas
EnglishGrammar:Nouns2.35Compoundnounsandtheirplurals2.35.1PluralmainlyinthelastelementThetendencyisto:-putapluralending(-s,-es,etc.)onthesecondnouninnoun+nouncombinations:boyfriends,flowershops,matchboxes,etc.andingerund+nouncombinations:fryingpans.-putapluralendingonthenoun:onlookers,lookers-on,passers-by.-putapluralendingonthelastwordwhennonounispresent:breakdowns,forget-me-nots,grown-ups,lay-offs,etc.2.35.2Pluralinthefirstelementinsomecompoundsattorneygeneral/attorneysgeneral,court-martial/courts-martial,man-of-war/men-of-war,mother-in-law/mothers-in-law(butin-lawsingeneralreferences:Ourin-lawsarestayingwithus);notarypublic/notariespublic,spoonful/spoonsful(orspoonfuls).2.35.3PluralinthefirstandlastelementWhenthefirstelementismanorwoman,thenbothelementschange:manstudent/menstudents;womanstudent/womenstudents,butnotecompoundswithlady;ladyfriend/ladyfriends.Othercompoundswithmanandwomanformtheirpluralsonlyinthesecondword:man-eaters,manholes,woman-haters,etc.[>2.10.9].2.36ThepluralofpropernounsPluralsurnamesoccurwhenwerefertofamilies:+-s:TheAtkinsons/TheFrysarecomingtodinner.+-es:They"reforevertryingtokeepupwiththeJoneses.Otherexampleswithpropernounsare:TherearethreeJanesandtwoHarrysinourfamily.We"vehadtwoverycoldJanuarysinarow.[>2.20]Wedonotadd-(e)stothespellingwherethiswouldsuggestafalsepronunciation:threeKingLouis,theDumas,fatherandson.2.37Numbersandtheirplurals[>App47]2.37.1Dozen(s),hundred(s),etc.Theworddozenandnumbersdonotadd-swhentheyareusedinfrontofpluralnouns:twodozeneggs,threehundredmen,tenthousandpounds,etc.Theyadd-sbeforeof(i.e.whenthenumberisnotspecified):Hundredsofpeoplearegoingtothedemonstration.Thousandsofpoundshavebeenspentonthenewhospital.Isaiditwasasecretbutshe"stolddozensofpeople.2.37.2"Awholeamount"Whenthereferenceisto"awholeamount"apluralsubjectisfollowedbyasingularverb,withreferenceto:Duration:Threeweeksisalongtimetowaitforananswer.Money:Twohundredpoundsisalottospendonadress.Distance:Fortymilesisalongwaytowalkinaday.2.38Twonounsjoinedby"and"Nounsthatcommonlygotogethersuchasbaconandeggs,breadandbutter,cheeseandwine,fishandchips,lemonandoil,tripeandonions,sausage(s)andmashareusedwithverbsinthesingularwhenwethinkofthemasasingleunit.Nouncombinationsofthiskindhaveafixedorderofwords:FishandchipsisapopularmealinBritain.Ifwethinkoftheitemsas"separate",weuseapluralverb:Fishandchipsmakeagoodmeal.Gender2.39Generalinformationaboutgenderpeople:man,actor:hewoman,actress:sheguest,student,teacher:heorsheanimals:bull,cow:itthings:chair,table:itInmanyEuropeanlanguagesthenamesofthings,suchasbook,chair,radio,tablehavegender:thatistheyareclassifiedgrammaticallyasmasculine,feminineorneuter,althoughveryoftengenderdoesn"trelatetosex.GrammaticalgenderbarelyconcernsnounsinEnglish.Itmainlyconcernspersonalpronouns,whereadistinctionisdrawnbetweene.g.he,sheandit;possessiveadjectives,his,herandits[>4.1];andrelativepronouns,whereadistinctionisdrawnbetweenwhoandwhich[>1.27].Thedeterminers[>3.1]weusedonotvaryaccordingtogenderinfrontofnouns.Wecanrefertoaman,awoman,abox,theman,thewoman,thebox;manymen,manywomen,manyboxes.
EnglishGrammar:Nouns2.40IdentifyingmasculineandfemininethroughnounsAfewnounsareautomaticallyreplacedbymasculineorfemininepronouns,orbyit.Someoftheseareasfollows:2.40.1Contrastingnounsdescribingpeople(replaceablebye.g."he/she")bachelor/spinster,boy/girl,brother/sister,father/mother,gentleman/lady,grandfather/grandmother,grandson/granddaughter,husband/wife,king/queen,man/woman,monk/nun,Mr/Mrs,nephew/niece,sir/madam,son/daughter,uncle/aunt.2.40.2Contrastingnounsdescribinganimals(normallyreplaceableby"it")bull/cow,cock(orrooster)/hen,dog/bitch,gander/goose,pig/sow,ram/ewe,stallion/mare.2.40.3"-ess"endingsandotherformsindicatingsex/genderAcommonwayofindicatingsexorgenderistochangetheendingofthemasculinenounwiththesuffix-ess:actor/actress,god/goddess,heir/heiress,host/hostess,prince/princess,steward/stewardess,waiter/waitress.Thisdistinctionisbecomingrarersothatwordslikeauthor,instructorandmanagerarenowcommonlyusedforbothsexes.Somewords,suchaspoetess,arefallingintodisusebecausetheyareconsidereddisparagingbybothsexes.Inafewcases,-essendingsareusedforfemaleanimals,e.g.leopard/leopardess,lion/lioness,tiger/tigress.Orhe-/she-(stressed)isusedasaprefixine.g.he-goat/she-goat,orwolf/she-wolf.Similarreferencescanbemadewithotherendings,etc.aswell:bridegroom/bride,hero/heroine,lad/lass,landlord/landlady,male/female,masseur/masseuse,usher/usherette,widower/widow.2.40.4Identifyingmasculineandfeminineby"man","woman",etc.Certainnounsendingin-manrefertomales:e.g.dustman,policeman,postman,salesman.Others,endingin-woman,refertowomen:e.g.policewoman,postwoman,saleswoman.Afew,suchaschairman,canbeusedformenandwomen[>2.10.9].Wetendtoassumethatwordslikemodelandnurserefertowomenandwordslikejudgeandwrestlerrefertomen.Ifthisisnotthecaseandwewishtomakeapointofit,wecanrefertoamalemodeloramalenurse,ortoawomanjudgeorawomanwrestler.2.41IdentifyingmasculineorfemininethroughpronounsWithmanynounswedon"tknowwhetherthepersonreferredtoismaleorfemaleuntilwehearthepronoun:Myaccountantsaysheismovinghisoffice.Mydoctorsayssheispleasedwithmyprogress.Thisappliestonounssuchas:adult,artist,comrade,cook,cousin,darling,dear,doctor,enemy,foreigner,friend,guest,journalist,lawyer,librarian,musician,neighbour,orphan,owner,parent,passenger,person,pupil,relation,relative,scientist,singer,speaker,spouse,stranger,student,teacher,tourist,traveller,visitor,writer.Sometimeswecanemphasizethischoicebyusingbothpronouns:Ifastudentwantsmoreinformation,heorsheshouldapplyinwriting.However,thisisbecominglessacceptable.Thetendencyistoavoidthiskindofconstructionbyusingplurals[compare>4.40]:Studentswhowantmoreinformationshouldapplyinwriting.Thegenitive2.42FormofthegenitiveAdd"stosingularpersonalnouns:child+"s:child"sAdd"stosingularpersonalnounsendingin-s:actress+"s:actress"sAdd"stothepluralofirregularpersonalnouns:children+"s:children"sAdd"tothepluralofpersonalnounsendingin-s:girls+":girls"Add"stosomenamesendingin-s:James+"s:James"s2.43ThesurvivalofthegenitiveinmodernEnglishTheonly"case-form"fornounsthatexistinEnglishisthegenitive(e.g.man"s),sometimescalledthepossessivecaseorthepossessiveform.The-esgenitiveendingofsomeclassesofnounsinoldEnglishhassurvivedinthemodernlanguageas"s(apostrophes)forsomenounsinthesingularands"(sapostrophe)forsomenounsintheplural,butwithlimiteduses.2.44Whenweadd"sands"Wenormallyuse"sands"onlyforpeopleandsomelivingcreatures[>2.48].Thepossessiveappearsbeforethenounitrefersto.However,itcanbeusedwithoutanounaswell[>2.51]:I"llgoinFrank"scarandyoucangoinAlan"s.Thesimplestruletorememberis:"add"stoanypersonalnoununlessitisintheformofapluralendingin-s-inwhichcase,justaddanapostrophe(")".Inpractice,thismeans:2.44.1Singularandpluralcommonnounsandnamesnotendingin-s-add"stosingularnounsandtonamesnotendingin-s:achild"sdream;thedog"skennel;Frank"snewjob.Iftwonamesarejoinedbyand,add"stothesecond:JohnandMary"sbankbalance;ScottandAmundsen"srace.
EnglishGrammar:Nouns-add"stosingularnounsendingin-s:anactress"scareer;awaitress"sjob.-add"stoirregularpluralnouns:children"sgames;themen"sclub;sheep"swool.-addanapostrophe(")afterthesofregularplurals:boys"school;girls"school;CheltenhamLadies"College.2.44.2"swithcompoundnounsWithcompoundnounsthe"scomesafterthelastword:Mysister-in-law"sfatherisapilot.Therulealsoappliestotitles,asin:HenrytheEighth"smarriages;theSecretaryofState"svisit.Twogenitivesarealsopossible,asin:Mybrother"sneighbour"ssisterisanurse.2.44.3Theuseoftheapostropheafternamesendingin-sWeadd"stonamesendingin-s:Charles"saddress;Doris"sparty.However,wecansometimesuse"or"s:StJames"(orStJames"s)Park;MrJones"(orJones"s)car;StThomas"(orStThomas"s)Hospital.Nomatterhowwewritethegenitiveinsuchcases,wenormallypronounceitas/Iz/.Withsome(especiallyfamous)namesendingin-swenormallyaddanapostropheafterthe-s(pronounced/s/or/Iz/:Keats"works;Yeats"poetry.Wecanshowpossessioninthepluralformsofnamesendingin-sbyaddinganapostropheattheend:theJoneses"houses,etc.WithancientGreeknamesweaddanapostropheafterthe-s,butthereisnochangeinpronunciation,Archimedes"beingpronouncedthesameasArchimedes:Archimedes"Principle.Initialscanbefollowedby"swhenthereferenceissingular:anMP"ssalary(=aMemberofParliament"ssalary),ors"whenthereferenceisplural:MPs"salaries[>2.24].2.45Thepronunciationof"sands"Thepronunciationof"sands"dependsonthesoundthatprecedesthemandfollowsthesamerulesasforpluralnouns[>2.21]:e.g./s/:Geoff"shat;Jack"sjob;amonth"ssalary;Pat"shandbag/z/:Ben"sopinion;Bill"splace;Bob"shouse;theworker"sclub/Iz/:anactress"scareer;theboss"soffice;MrsPage"sjam2.46Theuseof"s/s"forpurposesotherthanpossessionWhilethegenitiveisgenerallyassociatedwithpossession(usuallyansweringthequestionWhose_?),apostrophesservesotherpurposesaswell,forexample:Regularuse:Father"schair(=theoneheusuallysitson)Relationship:Angela"sson(i.e.Angelahasason)+favourite:FishandchipsisJohn"sfavouritedish.Actions:Scott"sjourney(i.e.thejourneyScottmade)Purpose:Agirls"school(=aschoolforgirls)Characteristics:John"sstammer(i.e.Johnhasastammer)Others:Buildingoilrigsisaman"swork(=suitablefor)Mozartisacomposer"scomposer.(=appreciatedby)2.47Theuseof"sands"comparedwiththeuseof"of"The"sconstructionisnotpossibleine.g.thekeyofthedoororthelegofthetablebecausewedonotnormallyuse"swithnon-livingthings[>2.10.1][>2.44].When-sindicatesownership,every"sconstructioncanhaveanofequivalent,butnoteveryof-constructioncanhavean"sequivalent.So:aman"svoicecanbeexpressedasthevoiceofamanKeats"poetrycanbeexpressedasthepoetryofKeatsAndinsteadofthelegofthetable,wecansaythetable-leg2.48Theuseof"sands"withlivingthingsWemayuse"sors"after:Personalnames:Gus"sRestaurant;Jones"scar.Personalnouns:thedoctor"ssurgery;man"sfuture.Indefinitepronouns:anyone"sguess;someone"sresponsibility.Collectivenouns:thearmy"sadvance;thecommittee"sdecision."Higheranimals":thehorse"sstable;thehorses"stables.Some"loweranimals":anant"snest;abee"ssting.Whenwerefertomaterialwhichisproducedormadebyalivinganimal,"sisgenerallyrequired(stressonfirstword):a"bird"snest,"cow"smilk,"lamb"swool,etc.Wherethesourceofamaterialisananimalthathasbeenslaughtered,"sisnotgenerallyused(variedstress):"beef"broth,"cowhide,a"hamsandwich,"sheepskin,etc.2.49Theuseof"sands"withnon-livingthings
EnglishGrammar:NounsWemayuse"s/s"ortheof-constructionwiththefollowing:Geographicalreference:America"spolicy;HongKong"sfuture.Institutionalreference:theEuropeanEconomicCommunity"sexports."sors"arenormallyusedwiththefollowing:Placenoun+superlative:NewYork"stallestskyscraper.Churchesandcathedrals:StPaul"sChurch;StStephen"sCathedral.Timereferences:aday"swork;anhour"sdelay;amonth"ssalary;today"sTV;ayear"sabs"Money"sworth":twentydollars"worthofgasoline.Fixedexpressions:(keepsomeone)atarm"slength;(be)atdeath"sdoor;theearth"ssurfaceforgoodness"sake;(to)one"sheart"scontent;journey"send;theshipAn"sissometimesusedwithreferencetocars,planesandships:thecar"sexhaust,theplane"sengines,theship"spropeller.Wecanonlylearnfromexperiencewhentouse"swithnon-livingthings.Whenindoubt,itisbesttousetheof-construction.2.50Theuseofthe"of-construction"toconnecttwonounsWenormallyusetheof-construction(not"s/s")whenreferringto:Things(whereacompoundnoun[>2.10.1]isnotavailable):thebookofthefilm;theshadeofatree.Partsofthings:thebottom/top/side/insideofthebox.Abstractreference:thecostofliving;thepriceofsuccess.Theof-constructioncanbeusedtosuggestbe/behave/looklikeine.g.anangelofachild;thatfoolofaticket-inspector.Wealsousethisconstructionwhenthenounintheof-phraseismodifiedbyanadditionalphraseorclause:Can"tyoulookatthebookoftheboybehindyou?Thiswasgiventomebythecolleagueofafriendofmine.Theof-constructioncanbeusedwithpluralnounstoavoidambiguity.Theadviceofthespecialistsmaybepreferabletothespecialists"advice(morethanonespecialist),whichcouldbeconfusedwiththespecialist"sadvice(onlyonespecialist).Anoun+ofcansometimesbeusedinplaceofaninfinitive:It"sforbiddentoremovebooksfromthisreferencelibrary.Theremovalofbooksfromthisreferencelibraryisforbidden.2.51Omissionofthenounafter"sands"The"s/s"constructioncanbeusedonitsownwhenwereferto:-anounthatisimplied:Weneedaladder.Wecanborrowourneighbour"s.-wheresomeonelives:I"mstayingatmyaunt"s.I"maguestattheWatsons".-shopsandbusinesses:e.g.thebutcher"s,thehairdresser"s:Wouldyoumindgoingtothechemist"sforme?-medicalpractitioners:e.g.thedentist"s,thedoctor"s:I"vegotanappointmentatthedentist"sat11.15.Whenwerefertowell-knownstores(e.g.Macys,Harrods),anapostrophebeforethesisoptional,butisusuallyomitted:Youcan"tgotoLondonwithoutvisitingHarrods/Harrod"s.Whenwerefertowell-knownrestaurantsbythenameoftheownerorfounder(e.g.Langan"s,Scott"s)"sisincluded.Churchesandcolleges(oftennamedaftersaints)arefrequentlyreferredtointhesameway,alwayswith"s:TheyweremarriedinStBartholomew"s.2.52ThedoublegenitiveThe"sconstructioncanbeusedaftertheof-constructionin:e.g.afriendofmyfather"s;aplayofShakespeare"s(=oneofmyfather"sfriends;oneofShakespeare"splays).Thiscanhappenbecauseweusuallyputonlyonedeterminerinfrontofanoun[>3.4],so,forexample,wewouldnotusethisandmytogetherinfrontofe.g.son.Instead,wehavetosaythissonofmine.Andnoteotherpossessivepronouns:afriendofyours;acousinofhers,etc.Wecanusea,this,that,these,those,some,any,no,etc.infrontofthenoun,butnotthe:Isn"tFrankByersafriendofyours?He"safriendofmineismorecommonthanHeismyfriend,whichimpliesheismyspecialoronlyfriend.He"snofriendofminecanmean"Idon"tknowhim"or"He"smyenemy".Theuseofdemonstratives[>4.32-36]oftensuggestscriticism:Thatsillyuncleofyourshastoldmethesamejokefivetimes.
EnglishGrammar:Articles3ArticlesGeneralinformationabout"a/an","the"andthezeroarticle3.1Determiners:whattheyareandwhattheydoWeuseanumberofwordsinfrontofcommonnouns(oradjective+commonnoun)whichwecalldeterminersbecausetheyaffect(or"determine")themeaningofthenoun.Determinersmakeitclear,forexample,whichparticularthing(s)wearereferringtoorhowmuchofasubstancewearetalkingabout.Singularcountablenounsmustnormallyhaveadeterminerinfrontofthem.Therearetwoclasses:1Wordswhichhelpustoclassifyoridentify:-indefinitearticle:Iboughtanewshirtyesterday.(butit"snotnecessarytosaywhich)-definitearticle:TheshirtIamwearingisnew.(i.e.Iamtellingyouwhich)-demonstratives[>4.32]:Iboughtthis/thatshirtyesterday.(i.e.theoneIamshowingyou)-possessives[>4.19]:Doyoulikemynewshirt?(i.e.theonethatbelongstome)2Wordswhichenableustoindicatequantity:-numbers[>App47]:Iboughttwonewshirtsyesterday.(i.e.that"showmanyIbought)-quantifiers[>5.1]:Ididn"tbuymanynewshirtsyesterday.(i.e.notagreatnumber)Therewasn"tmuchmaterialintheshop.(i.e.notagreatquantity)Propernouns[>2.13]donotgenerallyrequireidentification,butforplacenames,etc.[>3.22][>3.31]:JohnisflyingtoHelsinkionTuesday.3.2Indefinite("a/an"),definite("the"),orzero(y)?InmostEuropeanlanguagestherearerulesaboutwhentouse(ornottouse)indefiniteanddefinitearticles.Theserulesgenerallydependonthegenderofthenounandonwhetheritissingularorplural.InEnglish,genderdoesnotaffectourchoice[>2.39],butwhetherawordissingularorpluralmaydoso.WeoftenusenoarticleatallinEnglish.Thisnon-useofthearticleissoimportantthatwegiveitaname,thezeroarticle[>3.24].Theproblemsofchoicecanbesummarizedasfollows:-whethertousea/anorthe.-whethertousea/anornothing(zero).-whethertousetheornothing(zero).Inadditionwehavetodecide:-whethertousezeroorsome.-whethertousetheorsome.Becausearticlesdon"thavegenderorspecialpluralformsinEnglish,theiruseseemseasytolearnersatfirst.However,choiceiscomplicatedbythreefactors:-whetheranouniscountableoruncountable.-whetherwearemakinggeneralstatements.-whetherwearereferringtosomethingthelistenerorreadercanpositivelyidentifyornot.3.3"A/an","the"orzerobeforecountablesanduncountablesThedistinctionbetweencountableanduncountablenouns[>2.14]mustbeclearlyunderstoodbecauseitaffectsourchoiceofarticle.Therulesfortheuseofa/an,theandzero+countableoruncountablecanbesummarizedasfollows:a/anisusedonlyinfrontofasingularcountable:ahat5.18].Theindefinitearticle:"a/an"3.5Formanduseof"a/an",zeroarticleand"some"a/anandzeroforclassification/identification[>3.9]singularpluralsingularpluralabookbooksIt"sabook.They"rebooks.aneggeggsIt"sanegg.They"reeggs.a/anandsomereferringtoquantity[>3.10]abooksomebooksI"vegotabook.I"vegotsomebooks.aneggsomeeggsI"vegotanegg.I"vegotsomeeggs.3.6HowwerefertosingularandpluralToclassifyoridentifysomething,wecansay:It"sabook.(a/an+singularnoun)Thepluralofthisis:They"rebooks.(zero+pluralnoun)Torefertoquantity,wecansay:I"vegotabook.(a/an+singularnoun)Intheplural,whentheexactnumberisnotimportant,wecanusequantifierslikesome,afew,alotof[>5.2].Some/any[>5.10]arethecommonestoftheseandcanbesaidtobethepluralofa/anwhenwearereferringtounspecifiednumber:I"vegotsomebooks.(some+pluralnoun)3.7Thepronunciationof"a"and"an"A(pronounced/E/influentspeech)isusedbeforeconsonantsounds(notjustconsonantletters);an/En/isusedbeforevowelsounds(notjustwordsbeginningwiththevowelletters,a,e,i,o,u).Thiscanbeseenwhenweuseaoranwiththealphabet(e.g.ThisisaU.ThisisanH.):(Thisis)aB,C,D,G,J,K,P,Q,T,U,V,W,Y,Z.(Thisis)anA,E,F,H,I,L,M,N,O,R,S,X.ahousebutanHaradiobutanRaliarbutanLasoundbutanSamanbutanMaxylophonebutanXanumbrellabutauniformanunusualcasebutaunionayear,auniversity,aEuropean,butaneye,anearahallbutanhour(hnotpronounced,ahotdinnerbutanhonourseebelow)Afewwordsbeginningwithhmaybeprecededbyaoranatthediscretionofthespeaker:e.g.ahotel,ahistorianoranhotel,anhistorian.Ifsuchwordsareusedwithan,thenhisnotpronouncedorispronouncedsoftly.Hisnotpronouncedatallinafewwords:e.g.anheir,anhonestman,anhonour,anhour.Somecommonabbreviations(dependingontheirfirstletter)areprecededbya:aB.A.(aBachelorofArts),orbyan:anI.Q.(anIntelligenceQuotient).
EnglishGrammar:ArticlesThepronunciation/eI/insteadof/E/foraisoftenusedwhenwearespeakingwithspecialemphasis,withorwithoutapause:Hestillreferstohisrecord-playeras"a/eI/gramophone".Manynativespeakersdisapproveofthestrongpronunciationofa,commonlyheardinthelanguageofe.g.broadcasters,becauseitsoundsunnatural.3.8Basicusesof"a/an"Thereisnodifferenceinmeaningbetweenaandan.Whenusinga/anwemustalwaysbearinmindtwobasicfacts:1A/anhasanindefinitemeaning,(i.e.theperson,animalorthingreferredtomaybenotknowntothelistenerorreader,soa/anhasthesenseofanyorIcan"t/won"ttellyouwhich,oritdoesn"tmatterwhich).2A/ancancombineonlywithasingularcountablenoun.Thesetwofactsunderlieallusesofa/an.Someofthemostimportantoftheseusesarediscussedinthesectionsthatfollow.3.9Classification:"a/an"tomean"anexampleofthatclass"3.9.1Classification:generalstatementsanddescriptivelabelsWhenwesayaroseisaflower,wemeanthataroseisanexampleofaclassofitemswecallflowers;adaffodilisanotherexample;adaisyisanotherexample,andsoon.Weusea/aninthiswaywhenwewishtoclassifypeople,animalsorthings.Wecanclassifythemintwoways:1Bymeansofgeneralstatements:Anarchitectisapersonwhodesignsbuildings.Acleverpoliticianneverpromisestoomuch.2Bymeansoflabels(a/an+nounaftertheverbbe):AndrewBrightisanarchitect.3.9.2ClassificationbymeansofgeneralstatementsGeneralstatementswitha/anoftentaketheformofdefinitions:Acatisadomesticanimal.Definitionsofthiskindarepossiblebecausewecaneasilythinkofonecatatatime.Ifwemakegeneralstatementswithcats,wearereferringtothewholespecies,notoneexample,butthemeaningisthesame[>3.19.1][>3.26.1]:Catsaredomesticanimals.Manyuncountablenounscanbeusedaftera/anwhenwearereferringto"anexampleofthatclass"[>2.16.3]:Thisisaverygoodcoffee.IsitBrazilian?3.9.3Classificationbymeansofdescriptivelabels[compare>3.19.1]Weoftenwishtoclassifypeopleintermsoftheworktheydo,wheretheycomefrom,etc.InEnglish(unlikemanyotherEuropeanlanguages)weneedtousea/anwhenweare,asitwere,attachinglabelstopeoplewithregardto:e.g.Origins:He"saFrenchman/anAmerican.[>App49]Occupation:She"sadoctor./He"sanelectrician.Religion:She"saCatholic./He"sanAnglican.Politics:He"saSocialist/aRepublican.Thepluralswouldbe:They"reFrenchmen/doctors,etc.Adjectivalequivalents(wheretheyexist)canbeusedinplaceofnounsforalltheaboveexamplesexceptoccupation:He"sEuropean/French/Catholic/Socialist.But:Whatdoeshedo?-He"sataxi-driver.Weneeda/anwithanykindof"labelling":e.g.-withnouns:You"reanangel/asaint/awonder.-withadjective+noun:You"reagoodgirl/arealangel.Things,animals,etc.canalsobeclassifiedwitha/an:Objects:It"sa(kindof/sortof/typeof)bottle-opener.Insects:It"sa(kindof/sortof/typeof)beetle.Plants:It"sa(kindof/sortof/typeof)rose.Akindof,etc.ismorespecificwhenusedwithreferencetothings,etc.thanwhenitisusedforpeople:I"makindof(sortof/typeof)engineer.(=That"sthenearestIcancometodescribingmyjob.)It"sakindof(sortof/typeof)beetle.(=It"samemberofaparticularclassofbeetle.)3.9.4Theusesof"a/an"toclassifypeople,etc.[>2.13.1]A/ancanbeusedfreelytoreferto"anexampleofthatclass".WecanuseHe"s/It"sa+namefor"tangibleexamples":He"saForsyte;It"saPicasso;It"saDickensnovel.Otherexamplesare:aBrechtplay;aLauraAshleydress;aShakespearesonnet;aSmithandWessonrevolver;aTitian;aWrenchurch.[compare>3.27.4]3.9.5Theuseof"a/an"toreferto"acertainperson"
EnglishGrammar:ArticlesA/ancanbeusedbeforetitles(Mr,Mrs,Miss,etc.)withthesenseof"acertainpersonwhomIdon"tknow":AMrWingatephonedandleftamessageforyou.AMrsTadleyiswaitingtoseeyou.Thephraseacertain,torefertopeoplewhoseidentityisnotyetknown,iscommoninfablesandfolkstories:ManyyearsagoacertainmerchantarrivedinBaghdad.3.10Quantity:theuseof"a/an"tomean"onlyone"3.10.1Theuseof"a/an"withreferencetoquantityThemostcommonuseofa/anisthesenseof"onlyone"whenwearenotspecifyinganyparticularpersonorthing:I"dlikeanapple.(i.e.onlyone;itdoesn"tmatterwhich)Whenweexpressthisintheplural,weusesomeorany[>5.10]:I"dlikesomeapples./Idon"twantanyapples.[compare>3.28.8]Fora/an+uncountabletoreferto"onlyone"[>2.16.3][>3.9.2].3.10.2Theuseof"a/an"whensomethingismentionedforthefirsttimeA/anisusedbeforeacountablenounmentionedforthefirsttime:thespeakerassumesthelistenerdoesnotknowwhatisreferredto:Ilookedupandsawaplane.(Mentionedforthefirsttime-youdon"tknowwhichplaneImean.)Theplaneflewlowoverthetrees.(YounowknowexactlywhichplaneImeanandtheplaneis,inthatsense,identified.)[>3.20.1]ThisrulegoverningthechoicebetweendefiniteandindefinitearticleiscommoninEuropeanlanguages.3.11Thedifferencebetween"a/an"and"one"Oneanda/ancannotnormallybeusedinterchangeably.Weuseonewhenwearecounting(oneapple,asopposedtotwoorthree):Itwasonecoffeeweordered,nottwo.Butwecouldnotuseonetomean"anyone"(notspecified):Aknifeisnogood.Youneedascrewdrivertodothejobproperly.Oneisoftenusedwithday,morning,etc.instory-telling:Oneday,manyyearslater,Ifoundoutwhathadreallyhappened.A/anandonecanbeusedinterchangeablywhenwereferto:Wholenumbers:a(orone)hundred,thousand,million[>App47]Fractions:a(orone)quarter,third,half,etc.Money:a(orone)pound/dollar,etc.Wesay"Onepound50"Weight/measure:a(orone)pound/kilo,foot/metre,etc.A/anandoneareinterchangeableinsomeexpressions(witha/oneblow),butnotinothers(afew).Foroneasapronoun[>4.9-11].3.12Theuseof"a/an"withreferencetomeasurementA/anisusedwhenwerefertooneunitofmeasurementintermsofanother.Ifwewanttoemphasize"each",weuseperinsteadofa/an:Priceinrelationtoweight:80pa/perkilo.Distanceinrelationtospeed:40kman/perhour.Distance/fuelconsumption:30milesa/pergallon.Frequency/time:twicea/perday.3.13Theuseof"a/an"after"what"and"such"A/anisusedwithcountablenounsafterWhatinexclamations:Whatasurprise!Whataninterestingstory!A/anisusedaftersuchwhenwewishtoemphasizedegree[>7.51.1]:Thatchildissuchapest!Mybossissuchanidiot!Whatalot_!(Not*Howmuch/many_!*)isusedinexclamations:Whatalotofflowers!Whatalotoftrouble!3.14Theuseof"a/an"withpairsofnounsManynounsare"paired",thatistheyareconsideredtoaccompanyeachothernaturally,anda/anisusedbeforethefirstnounofapair:acupandsaucer,ahatandcoat,aknifeandfork:It"scoldoutside.Takeahatandcoatwithyou.Iftwowordsareusedwhicharenotconsideredtobea"naturalpair",theindefinitearticlemustbeusedbeforeeachnoun:Whenyougoonholiday,takearaincoatandacamera.3.15Theuseof"a/an",etc.withreferencetoillnessesTheuseoftheindefiniteandzeroarticleswithillnessescanbedefinedinfourcategories:1Expressionswheretheuseoftheindefinitearticleiscompulsory:
EnglishGrammar:Articlese.g.acold,aheadache,asorethroat:I"vegotaheadache/acold.2Expressionswheretheuseoftheindefinitearticleisoptional:e.g.catch(a)cold,have(a)backache/stomach-ache/toothache,(an)earache:I"vehad(a)toothacheallnight.3Withillnesseswhicharepluralinform(e.g.measles,mumps,shingles)noarticleisused[compare>2.31]:Mychildrenareinbedwithmumps.4Withillnesseswhicharedefinedas"uncountable"(e.g.flu,gout,hepatitis,etc.)noarticleisused:Iwasinbedwithflufortendays.Thewillalsocombinewithe.g.flu,measlesandmumps:He"sgottheflu/themeasles/themumps.Thedefinitearticle:"the"3.16Formof"the"Thenevervariesinformwhetheritreferstopeopleorthings,singularorplural:singular:theman:He"sthemanIwastellingyouabout.thewoman:She"sthewomanIwastellingyouabout.thebook:That"sthebookIwastellingyouabout.plural:themen:They"rethemenIwastellingyouabout.thewomen:They"rethewomenIwastellingyouabout.thebooks:They"rethebooksIwastellingyouabout.3.17Thepronunciationof"the"Theispronounced/TE/beforeconsonantsounds:theday,thekey,thehouse,theway.Theispronounced/Ti8/beforevowelsounds(i.e.wordsnormallyprecededbyan):theend,thehour,theinside,theoutside,theear,theeye,theumbrella.Whenwewishtodrawattentiontothenounthatfollows,weusethepronunciation/Ti8/="theoneandonly"or"themainone":DoyoumeantheRichardBurton,theactor?Ifyougetintodifficulties,Monicaisthepersontoask.MykonoshasbecometheplaceforholidaysintheAegean.Somecommonabbreviationsareprecededbythe,pronounced/TE/:theBBC(theBritishBroadcastingCorporation)or/Ti8/theEEC(theEuropeanEconomicCommunity).CompareB.A.[>3.7]:wetendtousefullstopswithtitles,butnotwithinstitutions,etc.3.18Basicusesof"the"Whenusingthe,wemustalwaysbearinmindtwobasicfacts:1Thenormallyhasadefinitereference(i.ethepersonorthingreferredtoisassumedtobeknowntothespeakerorreader).2Thecancombinewithsingularcountable,pluralcountable,anduncountablenouns(whicharealwayssingular).Thesetwofactsunderlieallusesofthe.Someofthemostimportantoftheseusesarediscussedinthesectionsthatfollow.3.19Theuseof"the"forclassifying3.19.1Threewaysofmakinggeneralstatements:"the",zero,"a/an"1Withthe+singular:Thecobraisdangerous.(acertainclassofsnakesasdistinctfromotherclasses,suchasthegrasssnake)2Withzero+plural:Cobrasaredangerous.(thewholeclass:allthecreatureswiththecharacteristicsofsnakescalledcobras)3Witha/an+singular:Acobraisaverypoisonoussnake.(acobraasanexampleofaclassofreptileknownassnake)3.19.2Thegroupasawhole:"the"+nationalityadjective[>App49]Somenationalityadjectives,particularlythoseendingin-ch,-shand-eseareusedafterthewhenwewishtoreferto"thegroupasawhole":e.g.TheBritish=TheBritishpeopleingeneral.However,wecannotsay*manyBritish*or*thosetwoBritish,etc.Pluralnationalitynounscanbeusedwiththeorthezeroarticletorefertothegroupasawhole:theAmericansorAmericans;orwithnumbersorquantifierslikesomeandmanytorefertoindividuals:twoAmericans,someAmericans:TheBritishandtheAmericanshavebeenalliesforalongtime.TheJapaneseadmirethetraditionsoftheChinese.Fortheuseofthe+adjective(theyoung,theold,etc.)[>6.12.2].3.19.3Thegroupasawhole:"the"+pluralnames[compare>3.22]The+pluralnamecanreferto"thegroupasawhole":Families:ThePricesistershaveopenedaboutique."Races":TheEuropeansarealongwayfrompoliticalunity.Politics:TheLiberalswantelectoralreform.
EnglishGrammar:ArticlesTitlesbeginningwiththearegiventoparticulargroupstoemphasizetheiridentity:e.g.theBeatles,theJesuits.3.19.4Specifiedgroups:"the"+collectivenounorpluralcountableWecanmakegeneralstatementsaboutspecifiedgroupswiththe+collectivenouns,suchasthepolice,thepublic[>2.28.2][>2.29]:Thisnewincreaseinfareswon"tpleasethepublic.Manypluralcountablescanbeusedinacollectivesenseinthesamewaywhenparticulargroupsarepickedoutfromtherestofthehumancommunity:e.g.thebosses,theunions[compare>2.28.1]:Gettingtheunionsandthebossestoagreeisn"teasy.3.20Theuseof"the"forspecifyingWhenweusethe,thelistenerorreadercanalreadyidentifywhatwearereferringto,thereforetheshowsthatthenounhasbeenspecifiedbythecontext/situationorgrammatically.Forexample:3.20.1Specifyingbymeansofback-reference[compare>3.10.2]Somethingthathasbeenmentionedisreferredtoagain:SingletonisaquietvillagenearChichester.Thevillagehasapopulationofafewhundredpeople.3.20.2Specifyingbymeansof"the"+noun+"of"[compare>3.26.2]Thetopicsreferredto(e.g.freedom,life)arespecified:Thefreedomoftheindividualisworthfightingfor.ThelifeofNapoleonwasverystormy.3.20.3SpecifyingbymeansofclausesandphrasesWecanspecifyaperson,thing,etc.grammaticallybymeansofthe_+clauseorthe+phrase:TheSmithyou"relookingfornolongerliveshere.Thelettersontheshelfareforyou.3.20.4SpecifyingwithinalimitedcontextThecanbeusedincontextswhicharelimitedenoughforthelistenerorreadertoidentifywhoorwhatisreferredto.Referencecanbemadeto:-people:Who"satthedoor?-It"sthepostman.-places:Where"sJenny?-She"sgonetothebutcher"s.-She"satthesupermarket/inthegarden.Mostreferencesofthiskindrefertoasingleidentifiableplace.However,inbigtownsandcities,itisamatteroflinguisticconventiontosayHe"sgonetothecinema/thedoctor"s,etc.withoutreferringtoanyspecificone.Thisconventionextendstolocationslikethecountry,themountains,theseaside.Locationswhichare"oneofakind"alwaysrequirethe:e.g.theearth,thesea,thesky,thesun,themoon,thesolarsystem,thegalaxy,theuniverse[compare>3.22][>3.31].-things:Passmethesalt,please.-partsofawhole.Whenweknowwhatisbeingreferredto("thewhole")wecanusethetonameitsparts.Assumingthelistenerorreaderknowsthatwearetalkingabout:e.g.-ahumanbeing,wecanrefertothebody,thebrain,thehead,theheart,thelungs,themind,thestomach,theveins.-aroom,wecanrefertotheceiling,thedoor,thefloor.-anobject,wecanrefertotheback/thefront,thecentre,theinside/theoutside,thetop/thebottom.-atown,wecanrefertotheshops,thestreet.-anappliance,wecanrefertotheon/offswitch.3.21Theuseof"the"intimeexpressions[>App48]3.21.1Theuseof"the"intimesequencese.g.thebeginning,themiddle,theend;thefirst/last;thenext;thefollowingday;thepresent,thepast,thefuture:Inthepast,peoplehadfewerexpectations.3.21.2Theuseof"the"withpartsoftheday[compare>8.13]e.g.inthemorning,intheafternoon,intheevening,etc.:Wespentthedayathome.Intheevening,wewentout.Notethatthoughmanytimereferencesrequirethe,manydonot:e.g.nextweek,onTuesday,lastyear.3.21.3Theuseof"the"withtheseasons[>App24](The)spring/summer/autumn/winter.Theisoptional:Wegetagoodcropofapplesin(the)autumn.3.21.4Theuseof"the"indates[>App47.4]Ordinalnumbersusuallyrequirethewhentheyarespoken,butnotwhentheyarewritten.
EnglishGrammar:ArticlesCompare:I"llseeyouonMay24th.(spokenasMaythe24th)(e.g.onaletter):24(th)May(spokenasthe24thofMay)3.21.5Theuseof"the"infixedtimeexpressionsallthewhile,atthemoment,forthetimebeing,intheend,etc.:I"mafraidMrJaycan"tspeaktoyouatthemoment.3.22Theuseof"the"withuniqueitemsotherthanplacenamesWeoftenusethewith"uniqueitems"(i.e.wherethereisonlyoneofakind).Afewexamples[>3.31]:Institutionsandorganizations:theBoyScouts,theUnitedNations.Compareitemswithzero:Congress,Parliament.Historicalevents,etc.:theFrenchRevolution,theVictorianage.Ships:theCanberra,theDiscovery,theTitanic.Documentsandofficialtitles:theGreatCharter,theQueen.Politicalparties:theConservativeParty,theLabourParty.Publicbodies:theArmy,theGovernment,thePolice.Thepress(Theispartofthetitle):TheEconomist,TheNewYorker,TheSpectator,TheTimes.Note:thepress,theradio,thetelevision.Compare:What"son(the)television?What"sonTV?Itemswithzero:Life,Newsweek,Punch,Time.Titles(books,films,etc.:Theispartofthetitle):TheOdyssey,TheGraduate.Itemswithzero:Exiles,Jaws.Beliefs:theangels,theFuries,thegods,thesaints.CompareGod,Muhammed,etc.(propernouns)[>2.13][>3.27].Climate,etc.:theclimate,thetemperature,theweather.Species:thedinosaurs,thehumanrace,thereptiles.(Compare:Mandevelopedearlierthanpeoplethink.)3.23Otherreferenceswith"the"Examplesofitemswiththe:-withsuperlatives[>6.28]:It"stheworstplayI"veeverseen.-withmusicalinstruments:Tomplaysthepiano/theflute/theviolin.Theisoftenomittedinreferencestojazzandrock:Thisisa1979recordingwithEllisononbassguitar.-fixedphraseswiththe_the[>6.27.3]:thesoonerthebetter.-fixedexpressions:dotheshopping,makethebeds.Thezeroarticle3.24Thezeroarticle:summaryof"form"andusepluralcountables:oGirlsdobetterthanoboysatschool.Somepeoplewantochipswitheverything.uncountables(alwayssingular):oButtermakesyoufat.oHonestyisthebestpolicy.propernouns:oJohnlivesinoLondonTheuseofnounsontheirownwithoutanarticleissofundamentalinEnglishthatweshouldnotregardthismerelyas"theomissionofthearticle",i.e.assomethingnegative.Weshouldthinkofthenon-useofthearticleassomethingpositiveandgiveitaname:thezeroarticle,whichisusuallygiventhesymbolo.Abbreviationswithzero,oftenacronyms(i.e.wordsmadefromthefirstlettersofotherwords),include:Organizations:NATO(NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization).Chemicalsymbols:HO(water).Acronymswhichform"realwords":BASIC(Beginners"All-purposeSymbolicInstructionCode);radar(RadioDetectionAndRanging).3.25BasicusesofthezeroarticleWeusethezeroarticlebeforethreetypesofnouns:1Pluralcountablenouns:e.g.beans.2Uncountablenouns(alwayssingular):e.g.water.3Propernouns[>2.13]:e.g.John.
EnglishGrammar:ArticlesThecanoccurinfrontofpluralcountablesand(singular)uncountablesinnormalusetorefertospecificitems[>3.20]:ThepensIgaveyouwerefreesamples.Thewaterwedranklastnighthadalotofchlorineinit.Thecanevenoccurinfrontofnames[>3.20.3]:TheChicagoofthe1920swasaterrifyingplace.Compare:Chicagoisawell-runcitytoday.Fora/an+uncountable[>2.16.3].ArticlesarefrequentlynotusedingeneralstatementsinEnglishwheretheywouldberequiredinotherEuropeanlanguages.Examplesaregiveninthesectionsthatfollow.3.26Theclassasawhole:zeroarticle+countable/uncountableAfewexamplesofgeneralstatementsare[compare>3.19.1]:3.26.1Zeroarticle+pluralcountablenounsPeople:Womenarefightingfortheirrights.Places:MuseumsareclosedonMondays.Food:Beanscontainalotoffibre.Occupations:Doctorsalwayssupporteachother.Nationalities:Italiansmakedeliciousice-cream.[>3.19.2]Animals:Catsdonotlikecoldweather.Insects:Antsarefoundinallpartsoftheworld.Plants:Treesdon"tgrowintheAntarctic.Products:Watcheshavebecomeveryaccurate.Thesecanbemodifiedbyadjectivesandotherphrases:e.g.womenallovertheworld,localmuseums,broadbeans,quartzwatches.3.26.2Zeroarticle+uncountablenouns(alwayssingular)Food:Refinedfoodslikesugarshouldbeavoided.Drink:Watermustbepureifitistobedrunk.Substances:Oilisessentialforthemanufactureofplastic.Collections:Moneymakestheworldgoround.Colours:Redismyfavouritecolour.Activities(-ing):Smokingisbadforthehealth.Otheractivities:Businesshasbeenimprovingsteadilythisyear.Sports,games:Footballisplayedallovertheworld.Abstract:Lifeisshort;artislong.Politics:Capitalismisaby-productoffreeenterprise.Philosophy:Determinismdeniestheexistenceoffreewill.Languages:Englishisaworldlanguage.Thesecanbemodifiedbyadjectivesandotherphrases:e.g.purifiedwater,oilfromtheNorthSea,heavysmoking.3.27Uniqueitems:zeroarticle+propernouns3.27.1Zeroarticle+namesofpeopleFirstnames:Elizabethwasmymother"sname.Surnames:ThesetoolsaremadebyJacksonandSon.Fullnames:ElizabethBrownworksforthiscompany.Initials:J.Somersisthepseudonymofafamousauthor.Namescanbemodifiedbyadjectives:youngElizabeth,oldFrankRobinson,FrankRobinsonJr(=Junior,AmE),TinyTim.3.27.2Zeroarticle+titlesMr,Mrs,Miss,Ms,Dr(fullstopsmaybeusedoptionallyaftertheabbreviationsMr,MrsandDr).MrandMrsarealwaysfollowedbyasurnameorfirstname+surname(notjustafirstname!):MrandMrsJacksonareheretoseeyou.MrandMrscannotnormallybeusedontheirownasaformofaddress.Missisalsofollowedbyasurname(MissJackson)butisusedasaformofaddressbyschoolchildren(PleaseMiss!).Itissometimesheardasaformofaddressbyadults,thoughthisisnotuniversallyacceptable:CanIhelpyou,Miss?Ms/mEz/,arecentinnovation,israrelyheardinspeech,butiscommonnowadaysinthewrittenlanguagetoapplytobothmarriedandunmarriedwomen.Drisusuallyfollowedbyasurnameandisabbreviatedinwriting(ThisisDrBrown),butcanalsobeusedonitsownasaformofaddress(writteninfull):It"smyliver,Doctor.Someothertitlesthatcanbeusedwithsurnamesorontheirownare:Captain,Colonel,Major,Professor:MayIintroduceyoutoCaptain/Colonel/MajorRogers?Yes,Captain/Colonel/Major!HeadmasterandMatronarenotusedwithanameafterthem:Thankyou,Headmaster;Yes,Matron.
EnglishGrammar:ArticlesMadamandSirareoftenusedinBrEasaformofaddress(e.g.byshop-assistantsinCanIhelpyou,Madam/Sir?).SiriscommoninAmEwhenwearespeakingtostrangers.Informalletter-writingweuseDearSirandDearMadamassalutationstoaddresspeoplewhosenameswedonotknow.Giventitles(e.g.Sir+firstname+surnameorLord+surname)arepeculiartoBrE;LordMowbray,QueenElizabeth,Sir(unstressed)JohnFalstaff(SirJohn,butnot*SirFalstaff*).Andnotealso:ChancellorAdenauer,PopeJohn,PresidentLincoln,etc.Theonlytitlesappliedtorelationswhichcanbeusedwithnamesorontheirownasformsofaddressareuncleandaunt(orauntie):HerecomesUncleCharlie/AuntAlice.(Note:firstnamesonly.)Thankyou,Uncle/Aunt/Auntie.Someothertitlesthatareusedontheirownasformsofaddressare:Mother,Mum(BrE),Mom(AmE),Mummy(BrE),Mommy(AmE),Father,Dad(BrE),Pop(AmE),Pa,Daddy,Granddad,Grandpa,Grandma,Baby.Wordslikecousin,sister,brotherarenolongerusedasformsofaddresswithreferencetorelations.MotherandSistercanbeusedfornunsandBrotherformonks.Sistercansometimesbeusedfornurses,likeNurse.Mother+surnameoccursasanickname(MotherReilly)andFatherisusedasaformofaddressforRomanCatholicpriests(FatherO"Brien).Peopleoftenreferto(butdonotusuallyaddress)grandparentsasGrandpaJenkinsorGrandmaJenkinstodistinguishthemfromanothersetofgrandparentswithadifferentsurname.Adjectivescanbeusedinfrontofmanytitles:kindAuntLucy,oldMrsReilly,madUncleBill.Insomecontexts,theadjectivecanbecapitalizedsothatitispartofthename:OldMrsReilly.Noarticleisrequiredinfamiliarreference(Goodold/PooroldGeorge),butotheradjectivesneedthedefinitearticle(theillustriousDrSchweitzer,thenotoriousMrHyde).Theisoptionalandoftenomittedwhenthetitleisacomplement:Wilsonbecame(the)PresidentoftheUSA.Theisomittedwhenasisusedorimplied:WilsonwaselectedPresidentoftheUSA.3.27.3Zeroarticlefordays,months,seasonsandholidaysMondaysarealwaysdifficult.Mondayisalwaysadifficultday.Juneismyfavouritemonth.Springisalovelyseason.Christmasisthetimeforfamilyreunions.Fornext,last[>3.21.2][>8.12];forall[>5.22.2].3.27.4Zeroarticleforartistsandtheirwork[compare>3.9.4]Thenamesofartistscanrepresenttheirworkasawhole:e.g.Brahms,Keats,Leonardo,Lorca,Rembrandt:Bachgivesmealotofpleasure.(i.e.Bach"smusic)Chaucerisveryentertaining.(i.e.Chaucer"swriting)Adjectivalcombinations:earlyBeethoven,lateSchubert,etc.3.27.5ZeroarticleforacademicsubjectsandrelatedtopicsArt,Biology,Chemistry,Geography,History,Physics,etc.:AccordingtoHenryFord,"Historyisbunk".Englishisadifficultlanguagetolearnwell.Adjectivalcombinations:e.g.RenaissanceArt,AmericanHistory.3.28Othercombinationswiththezeroarticle3.28.1Zeroarticlefortimesofthedayandnight[>8.11-13][>App48]Combinationsarecommonwithat,by,afterandbefore:atdawn/daybreak,atsunrise/sunset/noon/midnight/dusk/night,byday/night,beforemorning,at/by/before/after4o"clock:Wegotupatdawntoclimbtothesummit.3.28.2Zeroarticleformealsbreakfast,lunch,tea,dinner,supper:Dinnerisserved.Michael"satlunch.Let"shavebreakfast.Thezeroarticleisusedafterhave[>App42.1.1],butnotetheuseofthewhereamealisspecified[>3.20]:The"breakfastIorderedstillhasn"tarrived.andtheuseofawhenclassifying:Thatwasaverynicedinner.3.28.3Zeroarticlefornounslike"school","hospital",etc.Thefollowingnounsareusedwiththezeroarticlewhenwerefertotheir"primarypurpose",thatistheactivityassociatedwiththem:e.g.He"sinbed(forthepurposeofsleeping):bed,church,class,college,court,hospital,market,prison,school,sea,town,university,work.[>10.9.7][>10.13.4]Theyfrequentlycombinewithbein/at,havebeen/goneto:Hewassenttoprisonforfouryears.Thechildrenwenttoschoolearlythismorning.Butnotetheuseofthewhentheitem,etc.isspecified:Yourbagisunderthebed.There"sameetingattheschoolat6.Wordssuchascathedral,factory,mosque,office,etc.arealwaysusedwithaorthe.
EnglishGrammar:Articles3.28.4Zeroarticlefortransportbyair,bybicycle,bybike,byboat,bybus,bycar,bycoach,byland,byplane,bysea,byship,bytrain,bytube,onfoot:WetravelledalloverEuropebybus.By+nounisusedinfixedexpressionsofthiskind,butnotwherethemeansoftransportisspecified:Icamehereonthelocalbus.Youwon"tgofaronthatoldbike.3.28.5Zeroarticleinfixedphrasese.g.arminarm,cometolight,facetoface,fromtoptobottom,handinhand,keepinmind,makefriends,makefunof.3.28.6Zeroarticlefor"pairs"joinedby"and"[compare>2.38][>3.14][>6.12.2]e.g.dayandnight,fatherandson,husbandandwife,lightanddark,youngandold,penandink,sunandmoon:Thisbusinesshasbeenrunbyfatherandsonfor20years.3.28.7Zeroarticleafter"what"and"such"[>3.13]ThenounisstressedafterWhat;suchisstressedbeforethenoun:-+pluralcountable:Whatfoolstheyare!WehadsuchproblemsgettingthroughCustoms!-+(singular)uncountable:Whatfreedomyoungpeopleenjoynowadays!Youngpeopleenjoysuchfreedomnowadays!3.28.8Zeroarticleforunspecifiedquantity[>3.6][>5.3][>5.10]Sometimeswedonotusesomeoranytorefertoindefinitenumberoramount:Ihavepresentsforthechildren.Ihavenewsforyou.Aretherepresentsformetoo?Istherenewsformetoo?3.29Deliberateomissionof"a/an"and"the"Therearemanyinstancesineverydaylifewhenwedeliberatelyomitbothdefiniteandindefinitearticlestosavespace,timeandmoney.Forexample:Newspaperheadlines:HOTELFIREDISASTERNounsinTheuseofthezeroarticleisverycommoninjournalism:apposition:e.g.FilmstarBrittEkland:WarheroDouglasBader;Miracleheart-swapmanKe"Smallads":1stflfltinmodblkcloseWestEnd,dblerecep(=AfirstfloorflatinamodernblockclosetotheWestEndwithadoublereceptionroom_)Notes:Causesof2ndWorldWar:massivere-armament,invasionCzechoslovakia,etc.(=ThecausesoftheSecondWorldWar:massivere-armament,theinvasionofCzechoslovakia,(Shopping)lists:Cleaner"s:collectskirtSupermarket:meat,eggs,sugar,melonInstructions:Cutalongdottedline(=Cutalongthedottedline.)Notices:Liftoutoforder(=Theliftisoutoforder).Labels:Besidee.g.apictureofabicycle,anarrowpointingtothe"frame",withthelaSomedictionaryfilling:materialusedtofillcavityintoothdefinitions:(=filling:amaterialusedtofillacavityintothe"frame",withthelabelFR3.30"A/an","the",zeroarticle+nounsinappositionWhentwonounsornounphrasesareusedinapposition[>1.39],theuseoftheindefinite,definiteandzeroarticlesbeforethesecondnounornounphrasesometimesaffectsthemeaning:D.H.Lawrence,anauthorfromNottingham,wroteabookcalled"SonsandLovers".(ThisimpliesthatthereadermaynothaveheardofD.H.Lawrence.)D.H.Lawrence,theauthorof"SonsandLovers",diedin1930.(ThisimpliesthatmanypeoplehaveheardofD.H.Lawrence,or,ifnot,of"SonsandLovers".)D.H.Lawrence,authorof"SonsandLovers",diedin1930.(ThisimpliesthateveryonehasheardofD.H.Lawrence.)3.31Zeroarticleor"the"withplacenamesMostplacenamesareusedwithzero,butthereissomevariation.Inparticular,theisusedwhenacountablenounlikeoneofthefollowingappearsinthetitle:bay,canal,channel,gulf,kingdom,ocean,republic,river,sea,strait,union.Theisoftenomittedonmaps.zeroContinents:Africa,Asia,EuropeGeographicalareas:CentralAsia,InnerLondon,LowerEgypt,OuterMongolia,UpperAustriaHistoricalreferences:AncientGreece,MedievalEurope,pre-war/post-warGermany,RomanBritaintLakes:LakeConstance,LakeErie,LakeGenevaOceans/seas/rivers:-Mountains:Everest,MontBlanc
EnglishGrammar:ArticlesMontainranges:-Islands:ChristmasIsland,Delos,EasterIslandGroupsofislands:-Deserts:-Countries:Mostcountries:Finland,Germany,Turkey,etc.States/counties:Moststates/counties:Bavaria,Ohio,SurreyCities:Mostcities:Denver,London,LyonsUniversities:CambridgeUniversityStreets,etc.:Moststreets:LondonRoad,MadisonAvenue,OxfordStreet,PiccadillyCircusParks:CentralPark,HydeParkAddresses:49AlbertPlace,3WestStreet,2GordonSquareBuildings:BuckinghamPalace,WestminsterAbbeyOtherlocations:Theissometimespartofthetitle,sometimesnot:BridgesLondonBridgeCinemas-HospitalsGuy"s(Hospital)HotelsBrown"sHotel"Places"DeathValley,Heaven,HadesPubs-RestaurantsLeoni"s(Restaurant)ShopsSelfridges,MarksandSpencersStationsVictoria(Station),WaterlooStationTheatresHerMajesty"s(Theatre),Sadler"sWells(Theatre)
EnglishGrammar:Pronouns4PronounsGeneralinformationaboutpronouns,possessivesanddeterminers4.1Formofpersonal/reflexivepronounsandpossessivespersonalpronouns:possessives:reflexivepronouns:subjectobjectadjectivespronounssingular:Imemyminemyselfyouyouyouryoursyourselfhehimhishishimselfsheherherhersherselfititits-itselfoneone(one"s)-oneselfplural:weusouroursourselvesyouyouyouryoursyourselvestheythemtheirtheirsthemselves-demonstrativeadjectivesandpronouns:this/that/these/those[>4.32].-indefinitepronouns:some,anyandtheircompounds[>4.37].-relativepronouns:who,whom,that,which[>1.27].-possessiveadjectives(my,etc.[>4.19])functionasdeterminersratherthanpronouns,buttheyaretreatedtogetherwithpossessivepronouns(mine,etc.)becausetheyarerelatedinformandmeaning.4.2Thedifferencebetweenpronounsanddeterminers4.2.1PronounsApronounisawordthatcanbeusedinplaceofanounoranounphrase,astheworditselftellsus:pro-noun.Wedonotnormallyputanounafterapronounexceptinspecialcombinationssuchasyoustudents,she-bear,etc.Weusepronounslikehe,she,itandtheywhenwealreadyknowwhoorwhatisreferredto.Thissavesusfromhavingtorepeatthenameorthenounwheneverweneedtorefertoit:Johnarrivedlatelastnight.Hehadhadatiringjourney.IwrotetoKayandtoldherwhathadhappened.However,wenormallyuseI/me,youandwe/usfordirectreferencetoourselvesortheperson(s)addressedandnotinplaceofnouns.4.2.2Determiners[>3.1]comparedwithpronounsDeterminersarealwaysfollowedbyanoun.Wordssuchassome[>5.10]andthis[>4.32]followedbyanounfunctionasdeterminers.Whentheystandontheirown,theyfunctionaspronouns:Iwantsomemilk.(some+noun,functioningasdeterminer)Iwantsome.(someonitsown,functioningaspronoun)Iwantthisbook.(this+noun,functioningasdeterminer)Iwantthis.(thisonitsown,functioningaspronoun)Personalpronouns4.3Formofpersonalpronounssubject[>1.4]:Iyouhesheitoneweyoutheyobject[>1.9]:meyouhimheritoneusyouthem4.4Notesontheformofpersonalpronouns1Thoughthesewordsarecalledpersonalpronouns,theydonotreferonlytopeople.Forexample:Yourbreakfastisready.Itisonthetable.Wecallthem"personalpronouns"becausetheyrefertogrammatical"persons"(1st,2nd,3rd)andcanbegroupedlikethis:1stperson:I,we2ndperson:you3rdperson:he,she,it,one,they2MostEuropeanlanguageshavetwoformsofyou,aninformaloneforfamily,closefriends,children,etc.andaformaloneforstrangers,superiors,etc.InEnglish,wedonotmakethisdistinction:theoneword,you,isusedforeverybody.Therearen"tdifferentsingularandpluralformsofyou(exceptforyourself,yourselves).3Notethatthesingularsubjectpronounshe,sheandithavethesamepluralform:they;andthesingularobjectpronounshim,herandithavethesamepluralform:them.4Thechoiceofpronoundependsonthenounthatisbeingreplaced[>2.39-40][>4.2.1].Pronouns(exceptforyou)agreewiththenounstheyreplaceinnumber(showinguswhethertheyarereferringtosingularorplural).Someagreeingender(showinguswhethertheyarereferringtomasculine,feminineorneuter):Johnishere.He(replacingJohn)can"tstaylong.Thewindowsaredirty.Imustwashthem(replacingwindows).IfyouseeJoannapleasegiveher(replacingJoanna)thismessage.
EnglishGrammar:Pronouns5Wedonotnormallyuseanounandapronountogether:Myfriendinvitedmetodinner.(Not*Myfriend,he_*)Iparkedmycaroutside.(Not*Mycar,Iparkedit_*)4.5SubjectpronounsSubjectpronounsnearlyalwayscomebeforeaverbinstatements.Theyareusedwhenthepersonorthingreferredtocanbeidentifiedbybothspeakerandhearer:Johndidn"tfindusinsoheleftamessage.InEnglish,thesubjectofasentencemustbeexpressed.Ifitisnotdirectlyexpressed,itspresenceisstronglyimplied[>4.5.8].ThiscanbecontrastedwithsomeotherEuropeanlanguages,wheretheuseofsubjectpronounscanbeoptional.4.5.1Thefirstpersonsingular:"I"Thespeakerorwriteruseswhenreferringtohimselforherself.Thisistheonlypersonalpronounwhichisalwaysspeltwithacapitalletter.NotethatIiswrittenasacapitalletterwhetherit"satthebeginningofasentenceornot:Ithink,thereforeIam.JohntoldmeIneedn"twait.Inpoliteusageitisusualtoavoidmentioningyourselffirst:JaneandIhavealreadyeaten.(inpreferencetoIandJane)4.5.2Thesecondpersonsingularandplural:"you"Weusethiswhenweaddressanotherperson,ortwoormorepeople:Areyouready,Jill?Or:Areyou(both/all)ready?Foryouinthesenseof"anyoneingeneral"[>4.9].4.5.3Thethirdpersonsingularmasculine:"he"[compare>4.8]Hestandsforamalepersonwhohasalreadybeenmentioned:Don"texpectDavidtoacceptyourinvitation.He"sfartoobusy.Heisusedincertainproverbialexpressionstomean"anyone":Hewhohesitatesislost.4.5.4Thethirdpersonsingularfeminine:"she"[compare>4.8]Shestandsforafemalepersonwhohasalreadybeenmentioned:AskJenniferifshe"llbehomeintimefordinner.4.5.5Thethirdpersonsingularneuter:"it"[compare>4.8]Itcanrefertoathing,aquality,anevent,aplace,etc.:Thatvaseisvaluable.It"smorethan200yearsold.Loyaltymustbeearned.Itcan"tbebought.Iloveswimming.Itkeepsmefit.LastnightIranoutofpetrol.Itreallytaughtmealesson.YoushouldvisitBath.It"snotfarfromBristol.Wecanuseittoidentifypeople:There"saknockatthedoor.Whoisit?-It"sthepostman.Who"sthat?-It"sournewnext-doorneighbour,MrsSmith.Comparethisrequestforinformation(notidentification):Who"sMrsSmith?-She"sournewnext-doorneighbour.Wealsouseitwhenwedon"tknownthesexofababyorchild:It"salovelybaby.Isitaboyoragirl?Werefertoananimalasitwhenthesexisnotknownornotworthidentifying:I"mfedupwiththatdogofyours.Itneverstopsbarking.4.5.6Thefirstpersonplural:"we"(twoormorepeople)Wecanincludethelistenerornot:Let"sgo,shallwe?(includingthelistener)We"restayinghere.Whataboutyou?(notincludingthelistener)Weisoftenusedtomean"anyone/everyone",e.g.innewspapers:Weshouldapplaudthegovernment"seffortstocreatemorejobs.Weisusedinthesamewayingeneralstatements:Weallfeartheunknown.4.5.7Thethirdpersonplural:"they"(twoormorepeople,things,etc.)Theycanstandforpersons,animalsorthingsalreadymentioned:JohnandSusanphoned.They"recomingroundthisevening.Lookatthosecows!Theyneverstopeating.Ourcurtainslookdirty.Theyneedagoodwash.Theycanbeusedingeneralstatementstomean"people":
EnglishGrammar:PronounsTheysay(orPeoplesay)oilpriceswillbegoingupsoon.Theyisalsocommonlyusedtoreferto"theauthorities":They"reputtingupoilpricesagainsoon.Theyisalsousedtomean"someoneelse,notme":IfyouaskatReception,theywilltellyouwhereitis.Fortheyinplaceofanyone,etc.[>4.40].Fortheuseofwe,youandtheywithbothandall[>5.19-20].4.5.8OmissionofsubjectinabbreviatedstatementsIneverydayspeech,wesometimesomitsubjectpronouns:Foundthisinthegarden.Knowwhoitbelongsto?(=Ifoundthisinthegarden.Doyouknowwhoitbelongsto?)4.6ObjectpronounsObjectpronounsreplacenounsinobjectpositions.Theycanbe:-directobjects[>1.9]:HaveyoumetMarilyn?I"venevermether.-indirectobjects[>1.9]:IfyouseeJim,givehimmyregards.-objectsofprepositions[>8.1]:Ireallyfeelsorryforthem.Inpoliteusageitisusualtoavoidmentioningyourselffirst:TheyweremetbyJohnandme.(inpreferencetomeandJohn)Weoftenusebothandallwithyoutoavoidambiguity(sinceyoucanrefertobothorall)[>5.19-20]:Goodlucktoyouboth/all.Usisoftenusedveryinformallyinplaceofme,particularlyaftertheimperativesofverbslikegiveandpass:Giveusahandwiththistrunk,willyou?Ineverydayspeech,itisnormalforunstressedhim,herandthemtobepronounced"im,"erand"em:Give"imthemoney.Give"erakiss.Give"emallyou"vegot.4.7Subjectorobjectpronoun?Hereareafewexceptionstotherulesforusingsubjectandobjectpronounsoutlinedin4.5and4.6:4.7.1Objectpronounsafter"be"Objectpronounsarenormallyusedinpreferencetosubjectpronounsafterbeineverydayspeech:Whoisit?-It"sme/him/her/us/them.4.7.2Objectpronouns(especially"me")assubjects[>13.29.3][>13.42n.2]Subjectpronouns(I,she,etc.)arenotnormallyusedbythemselvesorinshortanswerswithnot.Objectpronounsareusedinstead:Whowantsarideonmybike?-Me!/Notme!Anobjectpronouncanalsooccurasthesubjectofaparticularkindofexclamatoryquestionforstressoremphasis:Youcantellhim.-Metellhim?Notlikely!Meoccursveryinformallyin"cleftsentences"[>4.14]:Don"tblameHarry.Itwasmewhoopenedtheletter.wherecarefulusagewouldrequire:ItwasIwho_(Or:Iwastheonewho_)4.7.3Objectorsubjectpronounsaftercomparativeswith"as"and"than"Objectpronounsarecommonlyusedinstatementslikethefollowingwhenasandthanfunctionasprepositions:She"sasoldasme/ashim.You"retallerthanme/thanher.However,subjectpronounsareusedifasorthanfunctionasconjunctions,i.e.whentheyarefollowedbyaclause[>1.53][>6.27.1]:She"sasoldasIam/heis.You"retallerthanIam/sheis.4.7.4ObjectpronounsinexclamationsObjectpronounsoftenoccurinexclamationslikethefollowing:He"sgottorepaythemoney.-Poorhim!(=Isn"theunlucky!)She"sbeenpromoted.-Luckyher!(=Isn"tshelucky!)4.8Genderinrelationtoanimals,thingsandcountriesAnimalsareusuallyreferredtowithitasiftheywerethings[>4.5.5].Weonlyusehe,she,who,etc.whenthereisareasonfordoingso.Forexample,animalsmaybe"personalized"aspets,asfarmanimals,orinfolktales,andreferredtoasmaleorfemale:WhatkindofdogisSpot?-He"samongrel.Other"loweranimals"andinsectsareonlyreferredtoashe,she,etc.whenwedescribetheirbiologicalroles:Thecuckoolayshereggsinotherbirds"nests.or,sometimes,whenweregardtheiractivitieswithinterest:Lookatthatfrog!Lookatthewayhejumps!Ships,cars,motorbikesandothermachinesaresometimesreferredtoasiftheywerefemininewhenthereferenceisaffectionate:Mycar"snotfast,butshedoes50milestothegallon.Countriescanalsobe"personified"asfeminine:e.g.In1941Americaassumedherroleasaworldpower.
EnglishGrammar:Pronouns"One"4.9Generalstatementswith"one"and"you"One,usedasanindefinitepronounmeaning"everyone/anyone"[>4.37],issometimesused(formally)ingeneralstatements:Worldtradeisimproving,butonecannotexpectmiracles.Ineverydayspeech,theinformalyouispreferred:CanyoubuyrefrigeratorsinLapland?(=Cananyone_?)OnemaybeusedtoreplaceI,butthistendstosoundpompous:Onelikestohaveone"sbreakfastinbednowandagain.Onecanbelinkedwithone"s,justasyoucanbelinkedwithyourHowever,constructionswithone,one"sandoneselfareoftenawkwardbecauseoftherepetitionofone:Oneshoulddoone"sbestatalltimes.(For:Youshoulddoyourbestatalltimes.)Oneshouldn"tbetoohardononeself.(For:Youshouldn"tbetoohardonyourself.)InAmEone"s/oneselfcanbereplacedbyhis/her,himself/herself:Oneshouldgivehimself/herselfaholidayfromtimetotime.Fortheuseofthepassiveinplaceofone[>12.4.3].4.10"One"asa"propword"afteradeterminer[compare>4.16][>5.30]Oneandonesarefrequentlyusedassubstitutionwordsafteradeterminer(thatone,etc.).One(s)issometimescalledapropwordbecauseit"supports"themeaningofthenounitreplaces.Oneisusedtoreplaceacountablenouninthesingularandonestoreplaceapluralcountable.Oneandonescanrefertopeopleorthingsandweusethemwhenwewishtoavoidrepeatinganoun:Things:Haveyouseenthisdictionary?(singularcountable)-Isthattheonethatwaspublishedrecently?People:HaveyoumetourGermanneighbours?(pluralcountable)-Aretheytheoneswhomovedhererecently?Wecannotuseonewhenreferringtoanuncountablenoun:Don"tusepowderedmilk.Usethisfresh(milk).(Not*one*)Oneandonesaspropwordsaremostcommonlyusedwhenweareidentifyingpeopleandthings,particularlyafterWhich?this/that,andadjectives[compare>6.6].OneandonesareoptionalafterWhich?,afterthis/thatandaftersuperlatives.Onescanbeusedafterthese/those,thoughitisusuallyavoided:Which(one)wouldyoulike?-This(one)orthat(one)?Which(ones)wouldyoulike?-These(ones)orthose(ones)?Which(one/ones)doyouwant?-Thecheapest(one/ones).Wenormallyuseone/onesafterthepositiveformofadjectives:Which(one/ones)doyouwant?-Thelargeone/ones.Aftercolouradjectives,oneandonesmaybeomittedinanswers:Which(one/ones)doyouwant?-I"llhavethered(one/ones).Instatements,requests,etc.oneandonesmustbeusedafterthis/that/these/those+adjective:I"lltryonafewoftheseshirts.Pleasepassmethatwhiteone.Oneandonescanbeusedinspecificreferencesafterthedefinitearticle(theone/theones),demonstratives(thisone)orwithdefiningphrases(theone/oneswithpinkribbons)toidentifyortoindicatethelocationofpeopleandthings:Whichwomandoyoumean?-Theoneinthegreendress.Whichboysrangthedoorbell?-Theonesinthestreet.Whichshirt(s)doyouwant?-Theone(s)inthewindow.4.11Referencetotwo:"theone_theother"Wecanrefertotwopeopleorthings(ortotwogroups)throughthefollowingcombinations:(the)one_theother;thefirst_thesecond;ormoreformally,theformer_thelatter:Youshouldn"tgetBotticelliandBoccherinimixedup.(The)one>Thefirst>isapainterandisacomposer.Theformer>Theformerandthelattercanhaveapluralverb:Beansandpeasaregoodvalue.Theformer/Thelatterarecheap."It"
EnglishGrammar:Pronouns4.12"It"asan"emptysubject"Weoftenuseitinsentencesreferringtotime,theweather,temperatureordistance.Whenusedinthisway,itissometimescalledanemptysubjectbecauseitcarriesnorealinformation.ItispresentbecauseeveryEnglishsentencehastocontainasubjectandaverb[>4.5]:Time:It"s8o"clock.It"sTuesday.It"sMay25th.It"stime_[>11.43]:It"stime(forus)toleave.Weather:It"shot.It"sraining.Itrainsalothere.Temperature:It"s37_centigrade/Celsius.Distance:It"s20milesto/fromLondon.Thetides:It"shightideat11.44.Environment:It"snoisy/smokyinhere.Presentsituation:Isn"titawful!Isn"titashame!Withsince:It"sthreeyearssincewelastmet.Withsays:ItsaysheretherewasabigfireinHove.Withtake[>16.21]:Ittakes(us)halfanhourtogettowork.Andnotemanyexpressionswithit,e.g.itdoesn"tmatter;it"snouse(itassubject);I"vehadit;Thatdoesit!(itasobject).4.13"It"asa"preparatorysubject"Sometimessentencesbeginningwithitcontinuewithaninfinitive,agerundoranounclause[>1.23.1][>16.27.2][>16.47].Itispossibletobeginsuchsentenceswithaninfinitiveorgerund,butwegenerallypreferit:It"spleasanttolieinthesun.(Tolieinthesunispleasant.)It"spleasantlyinginthesun.(Lyinginthesunispleasant.)It"sashamethatTomisn"there.(ThatTomisn"thereisashame.)Itdoesn"tmatterwhenwearrive.(Whenwearrivedoesn"tmatter.)Thetruesubjectintheabovesentenceswithitistheinfinitive,gerundornounclauseanditispreparatorytothesubject:Itasapreparatorysubjectoftencombineswith:adjectives:e.g.difficult,easy,important,vital[>App44]:It"seasy(forme)tomakemistakes.nouns:e.g.fun,apity,apleasure,ashame[>1.23.1][>16.34]:It"sapleasure(forus)tobehere.verbs:e.g.appear,happen,lookseem[>1.47.2][>10.25]:Itappearsthatheforgottosigntheletter.Itnowlookscertainthatthefirewascausedbyacigaretteend.4.14Theuseof"it"in"cleftsentences"WecanbeginsentenceswithItisorItwas+subject+thatorwho(m),ifwewishtoemphasizethewordorphrasethatfollows.Sentencesformedinthiswayarecalledcleftsentencesbecauseasimplesentenceissplitup(cleft)intotwoclausesusingtheit-construction:FredaphonedJacklastnight.(simplesentence,noemphasis)ItwasFredawhophonedJacklastnight.(andnotRita)ItwasJackwho(m)Fredaphonedlastnight.(andnotRichard)ItwaslastnightthatFredaphoned.(andnotthismorning)4.15"It"asa"preparatoryobject"[compare>1.14]It+adjectivecanbeusedafterverbslikefind[>16.22]toprepareusfortheinfinitiveorthethat-clausethatfollows:+infinitive:Timfindsitdifficulttoconcentrate.+that-clause:JanthinksitfunnythatI"vetakeupyoga.Itcanalsobeusedafterverbslikeenjoy,hate,like,love:Idon"tlikeitwhenyoushoutatme.4.16Specific"it/they",etc.andnon-specific"one/some",etc.4.16.1Obligatorysubjects:"it","they","one","some"(forthings)Itandtheyareusedassubjectsifthereferenceisspecific:specific:DidtheletterI"vebeenexpectingcome?-Yes,itcamethismorning.(the+singularnoun=it)DidthelettersI"vebeenexpectingcome?-Yes,theycamethismorning.(the+pluralnoun=they)Oneandsome,functioningontheirownaspronouns,canbeusedassubjectsifthereferenceisnon-specific:non-specific:Didalettercomeforme?-Yes,onecame/somecameforyouthismorning.
EnglishGrammar:Pronouns(a/an+singularnoun=one)Didanyletterscomeforme?-Yes,somecame/onecameforyouthismorning.(any/some+pluralnoun=someinapositiveanswerornoneinanegativeanswer)4.16.2Obligatoryobjects:"it","them","one","some","any"(forthings)Anobjectisobligatoryaftertransitiveverbs,suchasenjoyormake,andverbswhicharebeingusedtransitively,suchasplay[>App1].It,themoranounmustbeusedasobjectswhenthereferenceisspecific[>4.16.1]:Whatdoyouthinkofthiscake?-Ilikeit/Idon"tlikeit.(Not*Ilike/don"tlike*)Whatdoyouthinkofthesecakes?-Ilikethem/Idon"tlikethem.(Not*Ilike/don"tlike*)Onemustbeusedasanobjectwhenitstandsfora/an+countablenoun(i.e.thereferenceisnon-specific)[>4.16.1]:Haveabiscuit.-I"vehadone/Idon"twantonethankyou.Wouldyoulikeadrink?-I"dloveonethankyou.Someandany[>5.10]mustbeusedasobjectswhenthereisanon-specificreferencetouncountablenounsandpluralcountables:Haveyougotanysugar?Canyoulendmesomeplease?-Sorry,Ihaven"tgotany(tospare).Haveyougotanydrawing-pins?CanIborrowsomeplease?-I"mafraidIhaven"tgotany(tospare).4.17"So",not"it"withcertainverbs[compare>1.23.5]Afterverbssuchasbelieve,expect,fear,guess(especiallyAmE:Iguessso),hope,imagine,presume,say,suppose,tellsomeone,think(alsoafterI"mafraidandItseems/appears),itisusualtofollowwithso(neverit)inaffirmativeresponses,sothatwedonotrepeatawholeclause:IsittruethatGeoffhashadaheartattack?-Iamafraidso/Ibelieveso/Ithinkso.ItseemssoInnegativeresponses,notcanbeuseddirectlyafterbeafraid,believe,expect,fear,guess(especiallyAmE:Iguessnot),hope,imagine,presume,suppose,think(andItseems/appears):HasAnnegotintouniversity?-Iamafraidnot/Ibelievenot/Ithinknot.Itseemsnot.Alternativeresponsesusingnot_soarepossiblewithbelieve,expect,imagine,say,supposeandthink:Idon"tbelieveso/_imagineso/_supposeso/_thinkso.Socanalsoprecedethesubjectinshortresponses:-withverbslikebelieve,gather,hear,notice,see,understand:Thestockmarketshare-indexhasrisensharply.-SoIbelieve/gather/hear/notice/see/understand.-withverbslikesay,tell,seem,appear:Soyousaid.Sohetoldme.Soitseems.Soitappears.-beforeorafter(I)should/would+verbslikeexpect,hope,say,think(implying"thisiswhatoughttohappen"):SoIshould(orwould)hope!Or:Ishould(orwould)hopeso!4.18"So"or"it"aftercertainverbsSoanditarenormallyinterchangeableafterdo,whendosubstitutesforanotherverbwhichhasalreadybeenusedandwhenitreflectsanactionthathasbeendeliberatelyperformed:Pleaselaythetable.-I"vejustdoneso./I"vejustdoneit.Afterverbslikeguess,know,remember,itcanbeusedoromitted:JackandJillweresecretlymarried.-Yes,Iknow.Ihadguessed.(=Iknowit.Ihadguessedit.)Possessiveadjectives/possessivepronouns4.19Formofpossessiveadjectivesandpossessivepronounsadjectives:myyourhisherits(one"s)ouryourtheirpronouns:mineyourshishers--oursyourstheirs4.20Notesonform(possessiveadjectives/pronouns)1Withtheexceptionofone"s,theapostrophes("s)isunacceptablewithpossessiveadjectivesandpronouns.Weshouldnotconfuseits(possessive)withit"s=itis[>10.6]orithas[>10.29].2Therearenofamiliar/non-familiarformsforthesecondpersonsingularandplural[>4.4n.2]:yourandyoursareusedinallcases.3One"scanbeusedasanimpersonalpossessiveadjective,butnotasapronoun:One"sfirstdutyistoone"sfamily.[>4.9]
EnglishGrammar:Pronouns4.21PossessiveadjectivesandpossessivepronounscomparedPossessiveadjectivesandpronounsshowpossession,i.e.thatsomeoneorsomethingbelongstosomebody.TheyanswerthequestionWhose?Thepossessiveadjectivesmy,your,etc.aredeterminers[>3.1][>4.2.2]andmustalwaysbeusedinfrontofanoun.Theirformisregulatedbythepossessor,notbythethingpossessed.Hisreferstopossessionbyamale:John"sdaughter(=hisdaughter).Herreferstopossessionbyafemale:Jane"sson(=herson).Itsreferstopossessionbyananimalorthing:thecat"smilk(=itsmilk);thejacketofthisbook(=itsjacket).My,yourandtheirrefertopossessionbymalesorfemales:"Myhouseisthere,"Sallysaid./Johnsaid."Hereisyourtea,Sally/John,"mothersaid.Theboys"coatsarehereandtheircapsarethere.Thegirls"coatsarehereandtheirberetsarethere.Theircanalsorefertopossessionbyanimalsorthings,asin:Dogsshouldhavetheirownkennelsoutsidethehouse.Carswiththeirenginesatthebackareverynoisy.Thepossessivepronounsmine,yours,etc.areneverusedinfrontofnounsandarestressedinspeech.Theyreferequallytopersonsandthings,singularorplural.Itsisneverusedasapronoun.Thesearemychildren.Thesechildrenaremine.Thesearemythings.Thesethingsaremine.Ican"tfindmypen.Canyoulendmeyours?Possessivepronounscancomeatthebeginningofasentence:Thisismycup.Yoursistheonethat"schipped.Myfather/Mymotherisalawyer.-Mineisadoctor.For"s/s"possessionwithoutanoun[>2.44][>2.51].Noun+ofitcansometimesbeusedinplaceofits+noun[compare>2.50]:Howmuchisthatbook?I"veforgottenthepriceofit/itsprice.Fortheuseofof+possessivepronoun[>2.52].4.22Theuseof"myown"Extraemphasiscanbegiventotheideaofpossessionbytheadditionofowntoallpossessiveadjectives(notpronouns).Theresultingcombinationscanfunctionaspossessiveadjectives(myownroom)orpossessivepronouns(itismyown).Insteadof(my)own+nounweoftenusea/an+nounof(my)own:I"dlovetohavemyownroom/aroomofmyown.Ourcathasitsowncorner/acornerofitsowninthisroom.Furtheremphasiscanbegivenwithvery:I"dlovetohavemyveryownroom/aroomofmyveryown.Wecansayone"sownroomoraroomofone"sown,butwedonotuseoneasapropword[>4.10]after(my)own:Don"tusemycomb.Useyourown.(Not*yourownone*)4.23Theuseof"the"inplaceofpossessiveadjectivesTheisneverusedwithpossessiveadjectivesandpronouns:Thisismycar.Thiscarismine.(nothe)[>3.4]However,sometimestheisusedwherewemightexpectapossessiveadjective,e.g.withpartsofthebodyafterprepositions:Hepunchedmeintheface.Abeestungheronthenose.Thisusecanbeextendedtohairandclothes(i.e.thingswhichare"attached"tothebody):MissPringlepulledClarindabythehair/bythesleeve.Possessiveadjectives(not*the*)mustbeusedinmostothercases:Sheshookherhead/cleanedherteeth.I"vehurtmyfinger.Ininformalcontexts,thecanbeusedinsteadof(usually)my/your/ourchildren,family,kids,asin:How"sthefamily?/Wherearethechildren?Bute.g.Meetthewifeisfamiliarbutnotuniversallyacceptable.Reflexivepronouns4.24Formofreflexivepronounssingular:myselfyourselfhimself,herself,itself,oneselfplural:ourselvesyourselvesthemselvesReflexivepronounsarereallycompoundsformedfrompossessiveadjectives+-self:e.g.myself,yourself;orfromobjectpronouns+-self:e.g.himself4.25ObligatoryuseofreflexivepronounsaftercertainverbsThereareonlyaveryfewverbsinEnglishwhichmustalwaysbefollowedbyareflexivepronoun:e.g.absent,avail,pride:
EnglishGrammar:PronounsThesoldierabsentedhimselfwithoutleaveforthreeweeks.Otherverbsareverycommonlyfollowedbyreflexives:e.g.amuse,blame,cut,dry,enjoy,hurt,introduce:Icutmyselfshavingthismorning.Wereallyenjoyedourselvesatthefunfair.Ofcourse,theseverbscanbefollowedbyordinaryobjects:I"vecutmylip.Weenjoyedthefunfair.Theimportantthingtorememberisthatverbsofthiskindareneverfollowedbyobjectpronouns(me,him,her,etc.)whenthesubjectandobjectrefertothesameperson:I"vecutmyself.(Not*me*)Notethattheseverbsarealltransitive[>1.9].Thismeanstheymusthaveanobjectandthisiscommonlyareflexivepronoun.Theoneexceptionistheintransitiveverbbehave,whichcanbefollowed(butneednotbe)byareflexivepronoun:Pleasebehave(yourself)!Thechildrenbehaved(themselves).4.26OptionaluseofreflexivepronounsaftercertainverbsOtherverbswhichcanpointtheactionbacktothesubject(e.g.dress,hide,shave,wash)canbeintransitive,sowedon"tneedreflexivepronouns,thoughitwouldnotbe"wrong"tousethem.Whentheseverbsareintransitive,itisassumedthatthesubjectisdoingtheactiontohimself.Imustdress/wash.(asopposedtodress/washmyself)Weoftenuse(andstress)reflexivepronounsaftersuchverbswhenreferringtochildren,theveryold,invalids,etc.toindicatethatanactionisperformedwithconsciouseffort:Polly"snearlylearnthowtodressherselfnow.4.27VerbswhicharenotnormallyreflexiveVerbssuchasgetup,sitdown,standup,wakeupandcombinationswithget(getcold/hot/tired,dressed,married),oftenreflexiveinotherEuropeanlanguages,arenotnormallysoinEnglish:Igotupwithdifficulty.Reflexiveswouldbeusedforspecialemphasisonly:Willyougetyourselfdressed?We"relate.4.28ReflexivepronounsasobjectsofordinaryverbsReflexivepronounscanbeusedaftermanyordinaryverbsifwewishtopointbacktothesubject:IgotsuchashockwhenIsawmyselfinthemirror.Reflexivescanbeusedasindirectobjects:Thebossgavehimselfarise.(=gavearisetohimself)Notethereareanumberofshortconversationalexpressionswithreflexivepronouns:e.g.Helpyourself!,Makeyourselfathome!,Don"tupsetyourself!;andalsoafewfixedexpressions:e.g.hear(yourself)speak,make(yourself)heard:Icouldn"tmakemyselfheardabovethenoise.Thereisadifferenceinmeaningbetweenthemselvesandeachotherafterverbssuchasaccuse,blame,help,lookat[compare>5.28]:Thetwobankclerksblamedthemselvesforthemistake.(=Theybothtooktheblame.)Thetwobankclerksblamedeachotherforthemistake.(=Theoneblamedtheother.)4.29ReflexivepronounsasobjectsofprepositionsReflexivepronounscanoccurafterprepositionswhichoftenfollowverbs,nounsoradjectives:Lookafteryourself!Lucy"slookingverypleasedwithherself.orincombinationwithadverbparticles:thereflexivecomesbetweentheverbandtheparticle[>8.28]:Wegaveourselvesup.Wepulledourselvesout(ofthewater).Myselfissometimesused(unnecessarily)insteadofmeorI:TheysentinvitationstoGeoffandmyself.(meispreferable)Kateandmyselfthink_(KateandI_ispreferable)Reflexivesalsooccurinafewidiomaticexpressions,suchas:Strictlybetweenourselves,doyouthinkshe"ssane?Initself,hisillnessisnothingtoworryabout.Inallothercasesweuseobjectpronounsafterprepositionswhenthereferenceistoplaceorafterwith:Ihaven"tgotanymoneyonme.(Not*myself*)Therewasabusinfrontofus.(Not*ourselves*)Didyoubringanymoneywithyou?By+reflexivemeans"unaided"or"alone":Susiemadethisdoll"sdressallbyherself.(=unaided)
EnglishGrammar:PronounsHelivesbyhimself.(=alone)Reflexivescanbeusedforemphasisaftere.g.butandthan:Youcanblamenoonebutyourself.(=exceptyourself)Harrywouldliketomarryagirlyoungerthanhimself.Aftersomeprepositionswecanuseeitherformofpronoun:Ithinkthisnewmagazineisaimedatpeoplelikeus/ourselves.Who"spreparedtoworkovertimebesidesme/myself?4.30ReflexivepronounsusedforemphasisReflexivepronounscanbeusedfreely(butoptionally)afternounsandpronounsforemphasistomean"thatperson/thingandonlythatperson/thing"(Imyself;youyourself;Tomhimself,etc.):Youyourselfheardtheexplosionquiteclearly.Theengineitselfisallright,butthelightsarebadlydamaged.Thereflexivecanalsocomeattheendofasentenceorclause:Youheardtheexplosionyourself.andparticularlywherethereisacomparisonorcontrast:Tom"sallrighthimself,buthiswifeisbadlyhurt.Whenusedforspecialemphasis,reflexivesarestressedinspeech,especiallywherethereisapossibilityofambiguity:MrBatesrangthe"bosshim"self.(andnottheboss"ssecretary)Reflexivepronounsareusedin(oftenrude)rejoinders,suchas:Canyoufetchmybags,please?-Fetchthemyourself!AndnotethespecialuseofDoityourself(oftenabbreviatedtoD.I.Y.)torefertodecorating,repairs,etc.wedoourselves(e.g.tosavemoney)insteadofemployingothers:IreadaboutitinaDoItYourselfmagazine.4.31Reflexivepronounsafter"be"andverbsrelatedto"be"Afterbeandrelatedverbssuchasfeel,look,seem,reflexivescanbeusedtodescribefeelings,emotionsandstates:Idon"tknowwhat"sthematterwithme.I"mnotmyselftoday.Occasionally,weuseapossessiveadjective+adjective+self(noun):Megdoesn"tlookherusualcheerfulselftoday.Frankdidn"tsoundhishappyselfonthephonethismorning.Demonstrativeadjectivesandpronouns4.32Formofdemonstrativeadjectivesandpronouns"Near"referencesmatchinghere:singular:thisboygirltreebookmoneyplural:theseboysgirlstreesbooks-"Distant"referencesmatchingthere:singular:thatboygirltreebookmoneyplural:thoseboysgirlstreesbooks-4.33"This/that"and"these/those":nearnessanddistance"Nearness"maybephysical.Thisandthesemayrefertosomethingyouareactuallyholdingorthatisclosetoyou,orthatyouconsidertobeclosetoyou,ortosomethingthatispresentinasituation.Wecanassociatethisandthesewithhere:ThepictureIamreferringtoisthisonehere.ThephotographsImeantarethesehere.Thisandthesecanrefertonearnessintime(now):Goandtellhimnow,thisinstant!"Distance"maybephysical.Thatandthosecanrefertosomethingthatisnotclosetoyou,orthatyoudonotconsidertobeclosetoyou.Wecanassociatethatandthosewiththere:ThepictureIamreferringtoisthatonethere.ThephotographsImeantarethosethere.Thatandthosecanrefertodistanceintime(then):Operationsweredifficultinthe18thcentury.Inthosedaystherewerenoanaesthetics.4.34Demonstrativeadjectives/pronounscomparedDemonstrativescanbeadjectives:thatis,theycanbedeterminers[>3.1]andgobeforeanounorone/ones[>4.10];ortheycanbepronounsusedinplaceofanounornounphrase[>4.2.1]:adjective+noun:Idon"tlikethiscoat.adjective+one:Idon"tlikethisone.pronoun:Idon"tlikethis.Demonstrativesusedaspronounsnormallyrefertothings,notpeople:
EnglishGrammar:PronounsIfoundthiswallet.Ifoundthis.(pronoun)Iknowthisgirl.(thiscannotstandonitsownhere)DemonstrativepronounsafterWhat?refertothings:What"sthis/that?Whatarethese/those?ThisandthataspronounsafterWho?refertopeople:Who"sthis?Who"sthat?Theseandthosereferringtopeoplearefollowedbya(plural)noun.CompareWhatarethese/those?(i.e.things)with:Whoarethese/thosepeople/men/women/children?Butthose,closelyfollowedbywho,canbeusedonitsown:Those(ofyou)whowishtogonowmaydosoquietly.4.35Commonusesof"this/that"and"these/those"This/that/these/thoseusedasadjectivesoraspronounshavemanydifferentuses.Forexamples[>App7].4.36SubjectpronounsreplacingdemonstrativesDemonstrativesarereplacedbyitortheyinshortresponseswhenthethingorthingsreferredtohavebeenidentified[compare>13.19n.7]:Isthis/thatyours?Yes,itis.(Not*Yes,this/thatis*)Arethese/thoseyours?Yes,theyare.Not*Yes,these/thoseare*)He/shecanreplacethis/thatwhenthereferenceistopeople:This/ThatisMrs/MrJones.She"s/He"sinchargehere.Indefinitepronouns4.37FormofindefinitepronounsCompoundsofsome,any,noandevery:some-any-no-everysomeoneanyonenooneeveryonesomebodyanybodynobodyeverybodysomethinganythingnothingeverything4.38Notesontheformofindefinitepronouns1Thereisnonoticeabledifferenceinmeaningandusebetween-oneformsand-bodyforms.Theyrefertomale(s)andfemale(s).2Thesecompounds(exceptnoone)arenormallywrittenasoneword.3Thesecompounds(exceptthoseformedwith-thinghaveagenitiveform[>2.48]:Grammarisn"teveryone"sideaoffun.4Comparecompoundadverbswhichareformedwith-where:somewhere,anywhere,nowhereandeverywhere[>7.18].4.39Usesof"some/any/no/every"compoundsSome/any/no/everycompounds(except-wherecompounds)functionaspronouns.Theyarecalledindefinitebecausewedonotalwaysknowwhoorwhatwearereferringto.Thesecompoundsfollowtherulesgivenfortheuseofsome,anyandno[>5.10-11].Briefly,somecompoundsareusedin:-theaffirmative:Imetsomeoneyouknowlastnight.-questionsexpecting"yes":Wastheresomethingyouwanted?-offersandrequests:Wouldyoulikesomethingtodrink?Anycompoundsareused:-innegativestatements:Thereisn"tanyonewhocanhelpyou.-inquestionswhenwearedoubtfulabouttheanswer:Isthereanyoneherewho"sadoctor?-withhardly,etc.:I"vehadhardlyanythingtoeattoday.Nocompoundsareusedwhentheverbisaffirmative[>13.9]:There"snoonehereatthemoment.(=Thereisn"tanyone_)4.40PersonalpronounreferencewithindefinitepronounsThemainproblem(alsofornativespeakers)istoknowwhichpersonalpronounstouseto"replace"theindefinitepronounsreferringtopeople(someone/anyone/noone/everyone).ThisisbecauseEnglishhasnosingularpersonalpronounsforbothmaleandfemale.Ifwewanttousepersonalpronouns(inplaceofthegaps)inasentencelike:Everyoneknowswhat_hastodo,doesn"t_?thetraditionalruleistousemasculinepronouns,unlessthecontextisdefinitelyfemale(e.g.agirls"school):Everyoneknowswhathehastodo,doesn"the?However,inpractice,thepluralpronouns,they,them,etc.(whichrefertobothsexes)areusedinsteadwithoutapluralmeaning:Everyoneknowswhattheyhavetodo,don"tthey?Thishastheadvantageofavoidingclumsycombinationslikeheorsheanddoesnotannoymixedgroupsofpeople.However,itisnotconsideredacceptablebysomenativespeakers[compare>2.41][>5.31].
EnglishGrammar:Pronouns4.41Indefinitepronouns+adjectivesand/ortheinfinitiveIndefinitepronounscancombinewith:-positiveadjectives:Thisissomethingspecial.Thisisn"tanythingimportant.-comparativeadjectives:I"dlikesomethingcheaper.-theinfinitive:Haven"tyougotanythingtodo?-for(me)+infinitive:Isthereanythingformetositon?(Notethatadjectivescomeafterindefinitepronouns.)4.42Indefinitepronouns+"else"Likequestion-words(What,Who,etc.[>13.31n.8]),indefinitepronounsreadilycombinewithelse(everyoneelse,someoneelse,anythingelse,etc.);elsecanmean"additional/more"or"different":-"more":Weneedonemorehelper.Canyoufindanyoneelse?-"different":Takethisbackandexchangeitforsomethingelse.Anything(else)andnothing(else)canbefollowedbybut:Nothing(else)butamajordisasterwillgetustorealizethatwecan"tgoondestroyingtherainforestsoftheworld.Elsethanisalsoheard,butthisisusuallyreplacedbyotherthan,especiallywithreferencetopeople:Someoneotherthanyourbrothershouldbeappointedmanager.Indefinitepronounsreferringtopeoplecancombinewithelse"s:Thisisn"tmine.It"ssomeoneelse"s.It"ssomeoneelse"scoat.
EnglishGrammar:Quantity5QuantityGeneralintroductiontoquantity5.1Quantifiers:whattheyareandwhattheydoQuantifiersarewordsorphraseslikefew,little,plenty(of),whichoftenmodifynounsandshowhowmanythingsorhowmuchofsomethingwearetalkingabout.Somequantifierscombinewithcountablenouns;somewithuncountableandsomewithbothkinds[>2.14].1QuantifierscombiningwithcountablenounsanswerHowmany?:Howmanyeggsarethereinthefridge?-Thereareafew.2QuantifierscombiningwithuncountablenounsanswerHowmuch?:Howmuchmilkisthereinthefridge?-Thereisalittle.3QuantifierscombiningwithuncountableorwithcountableanswerHowmany?orHowmuch?:Howmanyeggsarethereinthefridge?-Thereareplenty.Howmuchmilkisthereinthefridge?-Thereisplenty.Quantifierscanfunctionasdeterminers[>3.1]or(withtheexceptionofeveryandno)aspronouns[>4.2.2];someofthemcanfunctionasadverbs:Idon"tlikecoffeeverymuch.[>7.41]5.2Quantifier+nouncombinationsQuantifierscombinewithdifferenttypesofnouns:1Quantifier+pluralcountablenoun:notmanybooksanynumbermorethanone(2,3,etc.),both,acoupleof,dozens/hundredsof,(a)few,fewer,thefewest,a/themajorityof,(not)many,aminorityof,anumberof,several:WehavefewerstudentsspecializinginmathsthaninEnglish.2Quantifier+uncountablenoun:notmuchsugara(small)amountof,abitof,adropof(liquid),agreat/gooddealof,(a)little,less[but>5.16],theleast,(not)much:I"dlikeabitofbreadwiththischeese.3Quantifier+pluralcountablenoun:alotofbooksor+(singular)uncountablenoun:alotofsugarsome(ofthe),any(ofthe),all(the),hardlyany,enough,halfofthe/halfthe,alotof,lotsof,more,most,mostofthe,no,noneofthe,theother,partofthe,plentyof,therestofthe:Therearen"tanycarsontheroadatthemoment.Thereisn"tanytrafficontheroadatthemoment.4Quantifier+singularcountablenoun:eachbookall(of)the,another,any(ofthe),each,either,every,half(of)the,mostofthe,neither,no,noneofthe,one,theonly,theother,some(ofthe),thewhole(ofthe):It"seach/everymanforhimselfinthisbusiness.5.3DegreesofindefinitequantityReferencestoquantitycanbedefinite:thatis,wecansayexactlyhowmanyorhowmuch:Weneedsixeggsandhalfakiloofbutter.However,mostquantifiersareindefinite;thatis,theydonottellusexactlyhowmanyorhowmuch.Some,any[>5.10]andzero[>3.24][>3.28.8]refertoindefinitenumberoramount:Arethere(any)applesinthebag?Thereare(some)applesinthebag.(Wearenottoldhowmany.)Isthere(any)milkinthefridge?Thereis(some)milkinthefridge.(Wearenottoldhowmuch.)No+nounindicatesacompleteabsenceofthethingmentioned:Therearenoapples.Thereisnomilk.Mostquantitywordsgiveusmoreinformationthansomeandany,tellingusthecomparativedegreeofthenumberoramount:e.g.pluralcountablenounsuncountablenounsApproximatelyhowmany:Approximatelyhowmuch:Therearetoomanyeggs.Thereistoomuchmilk.plentyofeggs.plentyofmilk.alotof/lotsofeggs.alotof/lotsofmilk.(not)enougheggs.(not)enoughmilk.afeweggs.alittlemilk.veryfeweggs.verylittlemilk.
EnglishGrammar:Quantitynotmanyeggs.notmuchmilk.hardlyanyeggs.hardlyanymilk.noeggs.nomilk.5.4Distributives:wholeamountsandseparateitemsWordslikeall,both,each,every,eitherandneitheraresometimescalleddistributives.Theyrefertowholeamounts(all/boththechildren,all/boththebooks,allthecheese);ortoseparateitems(eachchild,eitherofthebooks)[>5.18-31].5.5Theuseof"of"afterquantifiersSomequantityphrasesusedasdeterminersalwaystakeof:We"vehadalotofanswers.(alotofanswers=determiner+noun)Butwhentheyareusedaspronouns,ofisdropped:We"vehadalot.(alotasapronoun)5.5.1GeneralreferenceswithquantifiersQuantifierswhichalwaystakeofbeforenouns/pronounsinclude:acoupleof>dozensof/hundredsof>themajority/aminorityof>people/books(pluralcountable)anumberof>alarge/smallamountof>abitof>cheese(uncountable)alotof>lotsof>Bbooks/cheese(pluralcountableoruncountable)plentyof>Thesereferencesaregeneral,i.e.wearenotsayingwhichparticularpeople,etc.Otherquantifiers(any,(a)few,more,most,some,etc.)godirectlybeforethenoun(noof)ingeneralreferences:Therearehardlyanyeggs/afeweggsinthefridge.Thereissomebutter/nobutterinthedish.5.5.2SpecificreferenceswithquantifiersIfweneedtobespecific(i.e.pointtoparticularitems)wecanfollowaquantifierwithof+adeterminer(the,this,my)[>3.1].Havesomeofthis/alittleofmywine.(e.g.thewineinthisbottle)I"lllendyousomeofthese/afewofmybooks.(specifiedbooks)Inthesamewaywecanmakespecificreferenceswithquantifierswhicharealwaysfollowedbyof[>5.5.1]byusingdeterminersafterthem.Compare:Alotofstudentsmissedmylectureyesterday.(generalreference)Alotofthestudentswhomissedmylectureyesterdaywanttoborrowmynotes.(specificreference)Notethefollowingquantifierswhicharealwaysspecificandwhichmustthereforebefollowedbyof+determiner:Noneofthe/thismilkcanbeused.Partof/Therestofthisfoodwillbeforsupper.Puttherestofthosebiscuitsinthetin.Notetheomissionanduseofofin:Howmuchisleft?-None(ofit).Partofit.Therestofit.Howmanyareleft?-None(ofthem).Partof/Therestofthem.5.6Theuseof"more"and"less"afterquantifiers5.6.1Quantifier+"more"Morecanbeusedafterthesequantifierswithpluralcountablenouns:some/any,acouple,dozens/hundreds,afew,hardlyany,alot,lots,many,no,numbers;plenty,several,weights,measures.Morecanbeusedafterthesequantifierswithuncountablenouns:some/any,abit,agood/greatdeal,hardlyany,alittle,alot,lots,much,no,plenty,weights.Quantifier+morecombinationscanbeusedasfollows:-directlyinfrontofnouns:I"dlikesomemorechips/milk.-beforeof+determiner:Doyouwantsomemoreofthesechips?-aspronouns:Idon"twantanymorethankyou.5.6.2Quantifier+"less"[seealso>5.16.1]Lesscanbeusedafterthesequantifierswithuncountablenouns:any,abit,agood/greatdeal,alittle,alot,lots,much,asfollows:-directlyinfrontofnouns:Muchlesssoupplease.-beforeof+determiner:I"dlikemuchlessofthatsoup.
EnglishGrammar:Quantity-aspronouns:Iwantmuchlessplease.5.7Theuseof"_left"and"_over"afterquantifiersLeft(=notconsumedorremaining)andover(=morethaniswanted)combinewithmanyquantifierswhethertheyareusedasdeterminersorpronouns:Arethereanysweetsleft?-Ihaven"tgotanyleft,I"mafraid.Wepreparedtoomuchfoodforthepartyandwehadalotover.Ithoughtwemightn"thaveenoughpies,butthere"soneover.5.8Theuseof"not"beforequantifiersNot(Not*no*)canbeuseddirectlyinfrontof:e.g.all,another(one),enough,every,afew,half,theleast,alittle,many,more,much,one,theonlyone,asfollows[compare>5.13][>13.13]:-tobeginstatements:Notmuchishappeninginourofficeatthemoment.-toemphasizetheoppositeinfrontofe.g.afewandalittle:She"shadnotafewproposalsofmarriageinhertime.(=alot)-inshortnegativeanswers:Howmuchdidtheyofferyou?-Notenough!-(inafewcases)toexpresssurprise:Iboughtanewhat.-Notanotherone!Particularquantifiers5.9Numbers[>App47]Exactindicationsofquantitycanbeconveyedbymeansofnumbers.5.9.1Cardinalnumbers[compare>2.37.1][>3.11]Cardinalnumberscanbeusedasquantifiers(twoapples)orpronouns(Iboughttwo).Thenumberonewillcombinewithanynounusedasasingularcountablenoun:We"vegotonemicroandtwoelectrictypewritersinouroffice.Allothernumberscombinewithpluralcountablenouns:Twocabbages,threepoundsoftomatoesandtwelveoranges.Notealsoordinalsfollowedbycardinals(thefirstthree,thesecondtwo,etc.)and:thenext/lasttwo,etc.:Thefirstthreerunnerswonmedals.5.9.2CountingAnumberofadverbialexpressionscanbeusedtodescribequantitiesandgroups:e.g.oneatatime;onebyone;twobytwo;bythedozen;bythehundred;intens;infivehundreds:Howwouldyoulikeyourmoney?-Infivesplease.5.9.3Fractions[>App47.3.2]Wecansay:e.g.+(a/one-half),+(a/onequarter,oronefourth,AmE)and9(a/onethird).Otherwise,wemakeuseofcardinalandordinalnumberswhenreferringtoafractiononitsown:96(ninesixteenths),ortoawholenumber+fraction:2p(twoandtwothirds):2+(Twoandaquarter)plus3+(threeandahalf)equals5+(fiveandthreequarters).Weusea(Not*one*)withfractionsforweightsandmeasures[>3.11]:Iboughthalfapoundofteaandaquarterofapoundofcoffee.Thiscouldalsobeexpressedas:ahalfpoundoftea,aquarterpoundofcoffee.5.9.4Decimals[>App47.3.3]Fractionsexpressedasdecimalsarereferredtoasfollows:0.5(noughtpointfiveorpointfive);2.05(twopointnoughtfiveortwopointohfive);2.5(twopointfive):Thefronttyrepressureshouldbe1.8(onepointeight)andtherearpressure1.9(onepointnine).5.9.5MultiplyinganddividingquantityThefollowingcanbeusedtorefertoquantity:double(thequantityoramount);twiceasmuch(ortwicethequantityoramount);halfasmuch(orhalfthequantityoramount),etc.:Weneeddouble/twice/threetimesthequantity/amount.5.9.6ApproximatenumberandquantityNumberscanbemodifiedby:e.g.about,almost,exactly,fewerthan,atleast,lessthan,morethan,nearly,over,under:Therewereoverseventypeopleattheparty.(=morethan)Youcan"tvoteifyou"reundereighteen.(=lessthan)5.10Theuseof"some"and"any"
EnglishGrammar:QuantitySomeandanyarethemostfrequentlyusedquantitywordsinthelanguage.TheyneveranswerHowmany?andHowmuch?:Howmanydoyouwant?-e.g.Justafew.(Not*some*)Howmuchdoyouwant?-e.g.Justalittle.(Not*some*)Wegenerallyusesomeandanywhenitisnotimportanttostateexactlyhowgreatorhowsmallthequantityis.Theyoftenfunctionasiftheywerethepluralofa/an[>3.6][>4.16]:Therearesomelettersforyou.(unspecifiednumber)Howmany(lettersarethere)?-Seven.(numberspecified)There"ssomebreadinthebread-bin.(unspecifiedamount)Howmuch(breadisthere)?-Halfaloaf.(amountspecified)Itissometimespossibletoomitsomeorany[>3.28.8][>5.3]:Mywifeboughtmemedicineandpastillesformycough.Some(=indefinitequantityoramount)isnormallyused-intheaffirmative:Therearesomeeggsinthefridge.(i.e.anunstatednumber)Thereissomemilkinthefridge.(i.e.anunstatedquantity)-inquestionswhenweexpect(orhopetoget)theanswer"Yes":Haveyougotsomepaper-clipsinthatbox?(i.e.IknoworIthinkyou"vegotsomeandexpectyoutosay"Yes".)-inoffers,requests,invitationsandsuggestionswhenweexpecttheanswer"Yes"orexpectimpliedagreement.Thefollowingareintheformofquestions,thoughwearenotseekinginformation[>11.35-36]:Wouldyoulikesome(more)coffee?(expecting"Yes")MayIhavesome(more)coffee?(expecting"Yes")-tomean"certain,butnotall":Somepeoplebelieveanythingtheyreadinthepapers.Not_somecanbeusedincertaincontextstomean"notall":Ididn"tunderstandsomeofthelectures/someoftheinformation.Some,+countableoruncountablenoun,isnormallyunstressedinfluentspeechandispronounced/sEm/Therearesome/sEm/lettersforyou.Asapronoun,someispronounced/s /butnotusuallystressed:Wouldyoulikeanysugar?-I"vehadsome/s /thankyou.Some,meaning"certainbutnotall"(seenoteabove),isusuallystressedandispronounced/s /.Itcanbestressedatthebeginningofastatementtoemphasizeacontrast:"Some/s /peoplehavenomanners.Itcanbestressedtorefertoanunspecifiedperson/thing:"Some/s /boylefthisshirtinthecloakroom.[>5.12.1]Any(=indefinitequantityoramount)isnormallyused-innegativestatementscontainingnotorn"t:Wehaven"tgotanyshirtsinyoursize.Thereisn"tanymilkinthefridge.-inquestionswhenwearenotsureabouttheanswerorexpect"No":Haveyougotanypaper-clipsinthebox?(i.e.Idon"tknowifyou"vegotanyandwouldn"tbesurprisedifyousaid"No".)-insentencescontaininganegativewordotherthannot,suchashardly,never,seldomorwithout,orwhenthereisanysuggestionofdoubt,e.g.withiforwhether[>13.8]:There"shardlyanypetrolinthetank.WegottoPariswithoutanyproblems.Idon"tknowif/whetherthere"sanynewsfromHarry.-withatalland(moreformally)whateverforspecialemphasis:Ihaven"tgotanyideaatall/whateveraboutwhathappened.5.11Theuseof"not_any","no"and"none"5.11.1"Not_any"and"no"Analternativewayofforminganegativeiswithno[compare>13.9]:not_any:Therearen"tanybusesaftermidnight.no:Therearenobusesaftermidnight.Aclausecancontainonlyonenegativeword,sothatnotande.g.noornevercannotbeusedtogether[>7.39][>13.10]:Icouldgetnoinformation.(Not*Icouldn"t*)Whenusedinpreferencetonot_any,noisslightlymoreformalandmakesanegativeideamoreemphatic.Negativeswithnot_anyareusedinnormalconversation,butwemustalwaysuseno(Never*notany*)ifwewishtobeginasentencewithanegative:NodepartmentstoresopenonSundays.Nocancombinewithasingularnoun:There"snoletterforyou.(=Thereisn"taletterforyou.)I"mnoexpert,butIthinkthispaintingisafake.Noatthebeginningofastatementstronglyemphasizesanegativeidea[compare>13.9].
EnglishGrammar:Quantity5.11.2"No"and"none"[>5.5.2]Nomeaningnot_anyisadeterminerandcanonlybeusedbeforeanoun;nonestandsonitsownasapronoun:Thereisn"tanybread.There"snobread.There"snone.Therearen"tanysweets.Therearenosweets.Therearenone.Likeno,noneismoreemphaticthannot_any.Whennoornoneareused,notcannotbeusedaswell[>7.39][>13.10]:Icouldn"tgetanyinformationaboutflightstotheUSA.IcouldgetnoinformationaboutflightstotheUSA.Doyouhaveanynewdiaries?-We"vegotnoneatthemoment.5.12Specialusesof"some","any"and"no"5.12.1"Some"Apartfromitscommonuseasaquantifier,somecanbeusedtorefertoanunspecifiedpersonorthing,etc.Whenusedinthiswayitisgenerallystressed[>5.10]andcanmean:-"several":Ihaven"tseenTomforsomeyears.-"approximately":Thereweresome400demonstrators.-"extraordinary":That"ssomeradioyou"vebought!(informal)-"anunknown":Theremustbesomebookwhichcouldhelp.-"nokindof":That"ssomeconsolation,Imustsay!(ironic)Withabstractnounssomecanbeusedtomean"anamountof":We"vegivensomethoughttoyourideaandfinditinteresting.5.12.2"Any"Apartfromitscommonuseasaquantifier,anycanbeusedtorefertoanunspecifiedpersonorthingandcanoccurinaffirmativestatements.Whenusedinthiswayitisstressedandcanmean:-"usual":Thisisn"tjustanycake.(it"sspecial)-"theminimum/maximum":He"llneedanyhelphecanget.-"Idon"tcarewhich":Givemeaplate.Anyplate/onewilldo.5.12.3"Any"and"no"+adjectiveoradverbAnyandno,usedasadverbstomean"atall",willcombinewithadjectivesandadverbsinthecomparative:Isheanybetterthismorning?-No,he"snobetter.Anyandno,usedasadverbs,combinewithafewpositiveadjectives,e.g.good(anygood)anddifferent(anydifferent):Isthatbookanygood?-It"snogoodatall.5.13Commonusesof"much"and"many"[also>6.24][>7.4]Wenormallyusemuch(+uncountable)andmany(+pluralcountable):-innegativestatements:Ihaven"tmuchtime.Therearen"tmanypandasinChina.-inquestions:(ForquestionswithHowmuch/many?[>13.40.1])Istheremuchmilkinthatcarton?Haveyouhadmanyinquiries?Ineverydayspeechweusuallyavoidusingmuchandmanyinaffirmativestatements.Weuseotherquantifiers,especiallyalotof[>5.14].Muchandmanyoccurinformalaffirmativestatements:Muchhasbeendonetoimproveconditionsofwork.Manyteachersdislikemarkingpilesofexercisebooks.Combinationslikeasmuchasandasmanyasareusedintheaffirmativeornegative:Youcan/can"thaveasmuchas(asmanyas)youlike.Whenmuchandmanyaremodifiedbymuchandfar(much/fartoomuch,fartoomany)theytendtobeusedintheaffirmative:Yoursongetsmuch/fartoomuchpocketmoney.Therearefartoomanyaccidentsatthisjunction.Manyintimeexpressionsoccursintheaffirmativeornegative:Ihavelivedhere/haven"tlivedhere(for)manyyears.Notmuchandnotmanycommonlyoccurinshortanswers:Haveyoubroughtmuchluggage?-No,notmuch.Haveyouwrittenmanyletters?-No,notmany.Notmuchandnotmanycanbesubjectsorpartofthesubject:Notmuchisreallyknownaboutdinosaurs.NotmanypeopleknowaboutDelia"spast.Muchoccursinanumberofexpressions(e.g.there"snotmuchpointin_;it"sabitmuch;he"snotmuchofa_):There"snotmuchpointintellingthesamestoryagain.Notsomuchoccursincomparisons:It"snotsomuchabedroom,moreastudio.Dennisisnotsomuchanuisanceasamenace.It"snotsomuchthathedislikeshisparents,asthat/butthathewantstosetuponhisown.
EnglishGrammar:QuantityMany(likefew[>5.15.1])canbemodifiedbythe,my,your,etc.:Oneofthemanypeopleheknowscanhelphimtogetajob.5.14"Alotof"comparedwithsimilarquantifiersMuchandmanydonotnormallyoccurintheaffirmativeineverydayspeech[>5.13].Instead,weusealotofand(informally)lotsof:I"vegotalotof/lotsoftime.I"vegotalotof/lotsofbooks.Alotof,lotsofandplentyof(+pluralcountableorsingularuncountable)arenormallyusedintheaffirmative.Theyalsooccurinquestions,especiallywhenweexpecttheanswer"Yes":Imetalotof/lotsofinterestingpeopleonholiday.Don"tworry.We"vegotplentyoftimebeforethetrainleaves.Weretherealotof/lotsofquestionsafterthelecture?Alotofandlotsofoccurinthenegativeaswell,especiallywhenweareemphasizinganegativeordenying,buttheuseofplentyofinnegativestatementsislesscommon:Ihaven"tgotalotofpatiencewithhypochondriacs!Alotof(notlotsoforplentyof)canbemodifiedbyquite/ratherJimmy"scausedquitealotoftroubleathisnewschool.Thenewlawhasaffectedratheralotofpeople.Plentyof,alotofandlotsofcanbeusedwithsingularorpluralverbsdependingonthenounthatfollowsthem:Therehasbeenalotof/lotsof/plentyofgossipabouther.(uncountablenoun,sosingularverb)Therehavebeenalotof/lotsof/plentyofinquiries.(pluralcountable,sopluralverb)Severalcanonlybeusedwithpluralcountablesintheaffirmative:We"vealreadyhadseveraloffersforourflat.Itcanalsocombinewithdozen,hundred,thousand,million,etc.:Severalhundredpeopletookpartinthedemonstration.Alotof/lotsofareoftenconsideredunsuitableinformalstyle.Instead,weusemuch/many[>5.13]orotherquantifiers,suchas:-agreatdealoforagreatamountof+uncountablenoun:Agreatdealof/Agreatamountofmoneyisspentonresearch.-alargenumberoforagreatnumberof+pluralcountablenoun:Alargenumberof/AgreatnumberofourstudentsareAmerican.Somenativespeakersuseamountofwithcountablenounsaswell:Alarge/greatamountofourinvestmentsareinproperty.5.15"(A)few"and"(a)little"5.15.1"Few"and"afew"Fewandafewareusedwithpluralcountables.Fewisnegative,suggesting"hardlyanyatall",andisoftenusedaftervery:MonahashadveryfewopportunitiestopractiseherEnglish.Ineverydayspeechweprefernot_manyorhardlyany:Monahasn"thadmanyopportunitiestopractiseherEnglish.MonahashadhardlyanyopportunitiestopractiseherEnglish.Fewcanalsoconveytheideaof"notasmanyaswereexpected":Alotofguestswereexpected,butfewcame.Afewispositive,suggesting"some,a(small)number":Thepolicewouldliketoaskhimafewquestions.Afewcanmean"averysmallnumber",oreven"quitealot".Thesizeofthenumberdependsonthespeaker"sviewpoint:Idon"tknowhowmuchhe"sgot,butitmustbeafewmillion.Afewcanbeusedtomean"morethannone,morethanexpected":Havewerunoutofsardines?-No,thereareafewtinsleft.Afewcanalsocombinewithotherwords:e.g.just:Howmanydoyouwant?Justafewplease.(i.e.alimitednumber,notmany)only:Thereareonlyafewseatsleft.(i.e.veryfew,hardlyany)quite:Howmanydoyouwant?Quiteafewplease.(i.e.quitealot)agood:Wehadagoodfewlettersthismorning.(i.e.quitealot)dozen,100,1000:Thefilmdirectoremployedafewhundredpeopleasextras.(i.e.severalhundred)the,my,etc.:Thefewpeoplewhosawthefilmenjoyedit.Herfewpossessionsweresoldafterherdeath.(i.e.thesmallnumberof)
EnglishGrammar:Quantity5.15.2"Little"and"alittle"Littleandalittleareusedwith(singular)uncountables.Little(likefew)isnegative,suggesting"hardlyanyatall"andisoftenusedaftervery:Hehasverylittlehopeofwinningthisrace.Ineverydayspeechweprefernot_muchorhardlyany:Hehasn"tmuchhopeofwinningthisrace.Hehashardlyanyhopeofwinningthisrace.Littlecanalsoconveytheideaof"notasmuchaswasexpected":Weclimbedalldaybutmadelittleprogress.Littleoccursinidiomatic"negative"phrasessuchaslittlepoint,littlesense,littleuse,etc.:There"slittlepointintryingtomendit.Alittleand,inveryinformalcontexts,abit(of)arepositive,suggesting"some,a(small)quantity":I"dlikealittle(orabitof)timetothinkaboutitplease.Thesizeoftheamountdependsontheviewpointofthespeaker:MrsLaceyleftalittlemoneyinherwill-about$1,000,000!Alittlecanalsomean"morethannone,morethanexpected":Havewegotanyflour?-Yes,there"salittleinthepacket.Alittlecancombinewithotherwords:e.g.just:Howmuchdoyouwant?-Justalittleplease.(i.e.alimitedquantity,notmuch)only:There"sonlyalittlesoupleft.(i.e.verylittle,hardlyany)Fewandlittlecanbemodifiedbye.g.extremely,relatively:Therearerelativelyfewjobsforastronauts.Afewandalittlecanmodifyotherquantifiers,asinafewmore,andalittleless[compare>6.27.5][>7.45-46].5.16"Fewer/thefewest"and"less/theleast"Thesearethecomparativeandsuperlativeformsoffewandlittle.Intheory,fewer/thefewestshouldbeusedonlywithpluralcountables(fewer/thefewestvideos)andless/theleastonlywithuncountables(less/theleastoil):Fewervideosweresoldthisyearthanlast.Lessoilwasproducedthisyearthanlast.Inpractice,however,theinformalusebynativespeakersoflessandtheleastwithpluralcountablesorcollectivewordslikepeopleiscommonlyheard(lesspeople,lessnewspapers,etc.)butisnotgenerallyapproved:Lessandlesspeoplecanaffordtogoabroadfortheirholidays.PoliticalprogrammesonTVattracttheleastviewers.Less(notfewer)isusedbeforethanforpricesandperiodsoftime:Itcostslessthan£5.I"llseeyouinlessthanthreeweeks.5.16.1Themodificationof"fewer"and"less"Fewerismodifiedbyeven,far,many,agooddeal/manyandalot:Therearefarfewer/alotfeweraccidentsinmodernfactories.Lessiscommonlymodifiedbyeven,far,agooddeal,alittle,alot,many(manyless-see5.16)andmuch:I"vegotmuch/alot/farlessfreetimethanIusedtohave.5.17"Enough"Enough,meaning"adequateinquantityornumber",canbeusedinfrontofpluralcountablenounsand(singular)uncountablenounsinallkindsofutterances:statements,questionsornegatives:Havewegotenoughbookstoreadwhileweareonholiday?Havewegotenoughfoodinthehousetolastthenextfewdays?Comparetheuseofenough,meaning"ofanadequatedegree",afteradjectivesandadverbs[>7.47-48]:Isthereenoughhotwaterformetotakeabath?(quantity)Isthewaterhotenoughformetotakeabath?(degree)Enoughofwillcombinewithasingularcountable:Youreducationisenoughofaproblemforme.Enoughcanbemodifiedbyabout,almost,hardly,lessthan,morethan,nearly,not,notnearly,quite,notquiteandscarcely:Thereishardlyenoughcake./Therearehardlyenoughbiscuits.Inspecialcontexts,littleandfewcanmodifyenough:Ican"tlendyouanymoney.Ihavelittleenoughasitis.Ican"tgiveyouanystamps.Ihavefewenoughasitis.(i.e.lessthanenoughmoney/fewerthanenoughstamps)Enough(=sufficient)isassociatedwithplenty(=morethanenough),especiallyinquestionsandanswers:Haveyougotenoughcreamonyourstrawberries?-Yes,I"vegotplentythankyou.
EnglishGrammar:QuantityDistributives5.18"Both","all"and"half"+nouns[>5.4]5.18.1"Both","all"and"half"+pluralcountablenouns-examplesandnotesBothbooksareexpensive.Allbooksareexpensive.-Boththe/my/thesebooksareexpensive.Allthe/my/thesebooksareexpensive.Halfthe/my/thesBothofthe/my/thesebooksareexpensive.Allofthe/my/thesebooksareexpensive.Halfofthe/my/t1Both,allandhalfcanbeusedequallywith:-people:both(the)women/all(the)women/halfthewomen.-things:both(the)forks/all(the)forks/halftheforks.2Bothreferstotwopeople,things,etc.only:e.g.bothbooks/boththebooks/bothofthebooks(interchangeable).Thereferenceistospecificitems(e.g.thebooksonthissubject).Bothmeans"notonlyone,butalsotheother"andreferstotwothingstogether.Bycomparison,thetwo(thetwothingsaredifferent)referstothetwoconsideredseparately.3Half+pluralcountablerefersto"morethantwo":e.g.halftheeggs/halfoftheeggs(interchangeable).Half(of)cannotbeusedwithoutadeterminer(the,this,my,etc.)beforepluralcountables[compare>5.18.3n.1].4Allrefersto"thewholenumberof"people,things,etc.:e.g.allthebooks/allofthebooks(interchangeable).Withthe,thereferenceistospecificitems:(e.g.thebooksonthissubject).However,allbooksisgeneral,referringtoe.g.all(the)booksintheworld.Itisnotinterchangeablewithallthebooks/allofthebooks.5Allwithorwithoutthe,however,referstospecificitemswhenitisfollowedbyanumberbeforeapluralcountable:All(the)thirtypassengersontheboatweresaved.5.18.2"All"and"half"+uncountablenouns-examplesandnoteAllbreadgetsstalequickly.-Allthebreadwasstale.Halfthebreadwasstale.Allofthebreadwasstale.Halfofthebreadwasstale.Thefirststatementwithallisgeneral;thesecondandthirdareinterchangeableandrefertoaspecificamountofbread.Thetwostatementswithhalfareinterchangeableandrefertoaspecificamountofbread.Thewordbothcannotbeusedwithuncountablenounsbecauseitreferstotwounits.5.18.3"All"and"half"+singularcountablenouns-examplesandnotesAllthecountrywasagainstit.Halfthecountrywasagainstit.Allofthecountrywasagainstit.Halfofthecountrywasagainstit.1Whenwearereferringtoaspecificthing,wemustusetheoroftheafterallandhalf[>5.22].However,allandhalfcanbeuseddirectlyinfrontofmanypropernouns:AllLondon/HalfNewYorkwasbuzzingwithgossip.2Halfacanbefollowedbysingularcountablesasinhalfaloaf,halfaminute,halfanorange,etc.torefertoonethingdividedintohalves.5.19"Both"and"all":wordorderwithverbs5.19.1"Both"and"all"afterauxiliaryverbsBothandallaspronounsarenormallyusedafterauxiliaryverbs(be,have[>10.1]andmodalauxiliarieslikecan,could[>11.1]):Thegirlsarebothready.(=Bothgirls/Boththegirls/Bothofthegirlsareready.)Thegirlsarebothwaiting.(=Bothgirls/Boththegirls/Bothofthegirlsarewaiting.)Thegirlshaveallleft.(=Allthegirls/Allofthegirlshaveleft.)Thegirlscan/must,etc.allgohomenow.(=Allthegirls/Allofthegirlscan/mustgohomenow.)Both/allcomebeforeauxiliaryandmodalverbsinshortanswers:Areyouready?-Yes,webothare.Yes,weallare.Haveyoufinished?-Yes,webothhave.Yes,weallhave.Doyoulikeit?-Yes,webothdo.Yes,wealldo.Canyouseeit?-Yes,webothcan.Yes,weallcan.5.19.2"Both"and"all"beforefullverbsBothandallaspronounsmustbeusedbeforefullverbs:
EnglishGrammar:QuantityThegirlsbothleftearly.(=Bothgirls/Boththegirlsothofthegirlsleftearly.)Thegirlsallleftearly.(=Allthegirls/Allofthegirlsleftearly.)Andnoteboth/allbeforehaveasafullverb[>10.27][>10.32]:Weallhaveourbooks.Webothhadahaircut.5.20"Both","all"and"half":wordorderwithpronouns5.20.1"Both"and"all":pronounsubjectBothandallmustbefollowedbyofbeforepronounslikeus,them:Bothofus/themleftearly.(=We/Theybothleftearly.)Allofus/themleftearly.(=We/Theyallleftearly.)Allofitwentbad.(=Itallwentbad.)5.20.2"Both"and"all":pronounobjectwithverbsandprepositionsIloveboth/allofyou.orIloveyouboth/all.Hegavesometoboth/allofus.orHegavesometousboth/all.You"veeatenallofit.orYou"veeatenitall.5.20.3"Half"asadistributiveandasanadverbHalf(of)thebottlesareempty.(i.e.halfofthemarenotempty)However,thereisadifferentmeaningwhenhalfisanadverb:Thebottlesarehalfempty.(i.e.nobottleiscompletelyempty)5.21The"negative"of"all"and"both"Wecanusenotalltomean"somebutnotall":Notallthegirlsleftearly.(=Onlysomeofthemleftearly.)Comparetheabovewiththefollowingnegative:Allthegirlsdidn"tleaveearly.Thisnegativestatementisambiguousbecauseitcanmean"someofthemleftearly"or"noneofthemleftearly".Toavoidambiguityweshouldusenoneoftomakethenegativeofallandneitheroftomakethenegativeofboth:Allthegirlsleftearly.>Noneofthegirlsleftearly.Boththegirlsleftearly.>Neitherofthegirlsleftearly.5.22"All(the)"comparedwith"(the)whole"5.22.1"Allthe"and"thewhole"withnounsWeusuallypreferthewholetoallthewithsingularconcretenouns.Thewholeisnotnormallyusedwithpluralsanduncountables:Heatethewholeloaf(=alltheloaf)byhimself.Allandthewholecombinewithanumberof(oftenabstract)nouns.Forexample,wecanuseallorthewholein:allmybusiness/mywholebusiness,allmylife/mywholelife,allthetime/thewholetime,etc.,butnormallyonlyallin:e.g.allmyhair,allthemoney;andnormallyonlythewholein:e.g.thewholesituation,thewholestory,thewholetruth.Wholecanfollowa,asinawholecollection,awholeloaf,awholeweek/hour.5.22.2Timereferenceswith"all"and"thewhole"Allcombineswithwordslike(the)day,(the)night,(the)week,(the)year,(the)summer(butnotwithhourorcentury)intimereferences(alloftheispossible,butlesscommon):Iwaitedall(the)weekforhimtoanswer.Thewholeisstrongerthanallintimereferencesandcanalsobeusedwithhourandcentury:Iwaitedthewholeweekforhimtoanswer.Oftheispossibleafterthewhole,butisusuallyabsent.Thewholefollowedbyofthefunctionsasanounandismorecommoninreferencesnotconcernedwithtime:e.g.thewhole(ofthe)book,thewhole(ofthe)building.5.22.3"All"and"whole"+pluralcountablenounsAllandwhole+pluralcountablehavedifferentmeaningsin:e.g.AllforestsinNorthAfricaweredestroyedduringRomantimes.(=everysingleoneofthem)WholeforestsinNorthAfricaweredestroyedduringRomantimes.(=entireareasofforest)5.23"All"comparedwith"every"Allreferstoacollectionofthingsseenasone,ortoanamount.I"vereadallthesebooks.(=thiswholecollection)She"susedallthebutter.(=thewholeamount)
EnglishGrammar:QuantityEveryemphasizessingleunitswithinagroupandisusedonlywithsingularcountables.I"vereadeverybookinthelibrary.(=everysingleone)Allcanbeusedbeforeanounoronitsown[>5.18][>5.24]:everycanneverstandonitsown(everyday,everyman,etc.).Everyisoftenfoundintimereferences:everyday,everyweek,etc.andcanbefollowedbyordinalandcardinalnumbersandother:everythirdday,everysixweeks,everyotherday,etc.:Iworkeveryotherday:Monday,WednesdayandFriday.Allandeveryarenotnormallyinterchangeableintimereferences:Monicaspentalldaywithus.(=onewholeday)Monicaspenteverydaywithuswhileshewashereonholiday.(allthedaysofherholiday,thoughtofseparately)5.24"All"comparedwith"everyone/everybody/anyone/anybody"All,meaning"everybody",isuncommoninmodernEnglish:Everyone/EverybodywantedMarilyn"sautograph.(Not*All*)InolderEnglish,all(=everybody)canoccur:AllbutEmilyhadguessedthetruth.Allcanoccurinformalcontextstomean"allthepeople",butitgenerallyneedstobequalifiedbye.g.arelativeclause[>1.40]:All(those)whowishtoapplymustdosoinwriting.Allcouldbereplacedbyanyone/anybody:Anyone/Anybodywhowishestoapplymustdosoinwriting.Anyone/anybodyistheequivalentofwhoeverhereandispreferabletoeveryone/everybody.All,usedonitsowntomean"allthepeople",occursinafewfixedexpressions:Agoodtimewashadbyall.Thelawappliesequallytoall.5.25"All"comparedwith"everything"Allandeverything+singularverbcanbeusedinterchangeably,thoughallismoreformalandusuallyrequiresqualification:All/EverythingIhavebelongstoyou.All,usedtomean"everything",occursinafewfixedphrases:Winnertakesall.All,butnoteverything,canbeusedtomean"theonlything":Allhewantsismorepayforlesswork.5.26"Every"comparedwith"each"5.26.1"Every"and"each"withreferenceto"morethantwo"Everyandeachrefertoparticularpeopleorthings.Theycanpointtomorethantwo.Eachismoreindividualandsuggests"onebyone"or"separately".Weuseittorefertoadefiniteandusuallylimitednumber:Eachchildintheschoolwasquestioned.Everychildislessindividualandisusedinmuchthesamewayasallchildren[>5.18.1]torefertoalargeindefinitenumber:EverychildenjoysChristmas.(=AllchildrenenjoyChristmas.)Thisdifferenceisnotalwaysimportantandthetwowordsareoftenusedinterchangeably,asin:Every/EachtimeIwashthecaritrains.Eachcannotbemodified:everycanbemodifiedbyalmost,nearly,andpracticallyandcanbefollowedbysingle:Almosteverybuildingwasdamagedintheearthquake.IanswereverysingleletterIreceive.Wecanusenotinfrontofevery,butnotinfrontofeach:Noteveryhouseontheislandhaselectricity.Every,butnoteach,canbeusedinfrontofafewuncountablessuchasassistance,encouragement,etc.thoughthisisunusual:MyparentsgavemeeveryencouragementwhenIwasachild.5.26.2"Each"referringtobothmembersofapairEach,butnotevery,canrefertoboththemembersofapair:Astheyhadbothworkedsohard,theyeachreceivedabonus.Bothusuallymeans"twoitemsconsideredtogether":eachconsiderstwothingsseparately:Ispoketobothofthetwinsthismorning.(i.e.together)Ispoketoeachofthetwinsthismorning.(i.e.separately)5.26.3"Each":wordorderEach,butnotevery,haswordordervariationssimilartoall/both[>5.19-20].Each,combiningwithapluralsubject,takesapluralverb:Theyhaveeachtakentheirownshare.(afteranauxiliary)Theyeachhavetheirownshare.(beforeafullverb)Eachtakesasingularverbwhenitbeginsasubject-phrase:Eachofusisresponsibleforhis/ouractions.[>4.40]Eachcanalsooccurattheendofastatement:
EnglishGrammar:QuantityGivethedelivery-men$5each.5.27"Another"comparedwith"(the)other(s)"Anothercanhavetwomeanings:-"additional"/"similar":Doyouneedanothercup?-No,Ihaveenough.-"different":Givemeanothercup.Thisone"scracked.Anotherandothersareindefinite;the(ormy,your,etc.)otherandtheothersaredefinite.Another,asadeterminer,alwaysgoeswithasingularnoununlessitisfollowedbyacardinalnumberorbyfew:Ineedanotherthreedrivinglessonsbeforemytest.IneedanotherfewdaysbeforeIcanmakeupmymind.Theothercanbefollowedbyasingularorpluralnoun:Thisseatisfree;theotherseatistaken.Theseseatsarefree;theotherseatsaretaken.Anotherisfollowedbyasingularnoun;otherbyapluralnoun:Theremustbeanotherwayofsolvingtheproblem;thatcan"tbetheonlyway.Theremustbeotherwaysofsolvingtheproblem.Theother+oneoranounreferstoaspecificalternative:Idon"tlikethisshirt.CanItrytheotheroneplease?Compare:CanItryanother(one)?(=anyotherone,non-specific)Theothers,theotherandothers(likeanother)canstandontheirownaspronounstorefertospecificalternatives:I"lltaketheseshirtsbutleavetheother(s).Theother(s)isoftenusedincontrasttoone:Onehasbuttonsandtheotherhasn"t.Othersisoftenusedincontrasttosome:Somepeopleenjoyexercise,othersdon"t.Othercanalsomean"additional"in:e.g.Janeandsomeothergirlswentshopping.Theother(day)canmean"afew(days)ago"intimereferences:Karenphonedtheotherdaytoapologizeforherbehaviour.Thisisnottobeconfusedwiththenext,meaning"thefollowing":Karenphonedthenextdaytoapologizeforherbehaviour.orwithanothertomean"adifferent":Wearen"tfreetomorrow.Canwearrangeanotherday?5.28"Eachother"and"oneanother"[compare>4.28]Sometimesadistinctionisdrawnbetweeneachother(usedtorefertotwopeople)andoneanother(usedtorefertomorethantwo).Ineverydayspeech,bothphrasesarenormallyinterchangeable:KarenandDavearedeeplyinlovewitheachother/oneanother.Bothphrasescanbeusedwithan"s:Thosetwoarealwayscopyingeachother"s/oneanother"shomework.5.29"Either"comparedwith"neither"Eitherandneitherrefertotwopeople,things,etc.(singularnouns)only.Eithermeans"oneortheother"andneithermeans"notoneandnottheother".Constructionswithneitheraregenerallymoreemphaticthanthosewithnot_either:Doyouwantanappointmentat9orat10?-Eithertimeisdifficult.Neithertimeisconvenient.5.29.1"Either"and"neither"+"of"Whenfollowedbyof,eitherandneitherrefertoeachoftwoitems:WhichpotshallIuse?-Either(ofthem).Itdoesn"tmatterwhich.WhichpotshallIuse?-Neither(ofthem).Usethisfryingpan.5.29.2"Either+or";"neither+nor"[>1.15][>5.31]Youcanhaveeitherthisoneorthatone.Neitherthishousenorthehousenextdoorhascentralheating.5.29.3"Either"and"both"comparedEitherreferstotwothingsconsideredseparately.Compare:Youcan"thaveeitherofthem.(=youcan"thaveoneortheother)Youcan"thavebothofthem.(=youcanhaveonlyoneofthem)5.30Theuseof"one(of)"afterdistributives[compare>4.10]Wemayuseoneofafteranother,any,each,either,everyandneitherbeforenounsorpronouns.Oneisoptional,exceptinthecaseofevery:
EnglishGrammar:QuantityEachguidebookintheserieshasbeencarefullywritten.Everyguidebookintheserieshasbeencarefullywritten.Eachoftheseguidebookshasbeencarefullywritten.Eachoneoftheseguidebookshasbeencarefullywritten.Everyoneoftheseguidebookshasbeencarefullywritten.Wecanusesingleandeveryforspecialemphasis:Everysingleappleinthebagwasbad.Everysingleoneoftheapplesinthebagwasbad.Ifwewishtouseanother,eachandeitheraspronouns,wecanusethemwithorwithoutone:Ididn"tliketheredskirt,soIaskedtoseeanother(one).Lookatthesenames.Each(one)shouldhaveatickbesideit.Neitherisgenerallyusedwithoutone:I"vetestedboththoseTVs.Neitherworksverywell.Everyandtheonlycannotstandontheirownaspronouns:theymustalwaysbefollowedbyanounorone(alsoonesaftertheonly):Weneedsomemoreeggs.Youateeveryonelastnight.Youcan"tborrowmypen.It"stheonlyoneI"vegot.ThesekeysaretheonlyonesI"vegot.5.31Singularandpluralverbswithquantifiers[compare>4.40]Sometimesthereferenceisclearlysingularorpluralandasingularorpluralverbisneeded:Mostofushaveexperiencedsorrowinourlives.Mostofoursteelisimported.Butafterneither(=noteither)andnone(=notone),whenthereferenceisplural,wecanuseapluralverbineverydayspeech,orasingularverbwhenwewishtosound"correct"orformal:Neitherofusis/arehappyaboutthesituation.Noneofmyfriendshas/havebeeninvitedtotheparty.Intheaboveexamples,usandfriendsattractpluralverbs.Witheither_orandneither_northeverbgenerallyagreeswiththenearestnoun[>1.15][>5.29.2]:Neithermybrothernormysisterisred-haired.Neithermybrothernormysistersarered-haired.Neithermybrothersnormysisteris/arered-haired.
EnglishGrammar:Adjectives6AdjectivesFormationofadjectives6.1WhatanadjectiveisandwhatitdoesAnadjectivedescribestheperson,thing,etc.whichanounrefersto.Weuseadjectivestosaywhataperson,etc.islikeorseemslike.Forexample,adjectivescangiveusinformationabout:Quality:abeautifuldress;aniceday.Size:abigcar;asmallcoin;atallman.Age:anewhandbag;ayoungman.Temperature:acoolevening;ahotday.Shape:aroundtable;asquarebox.Colour:blueeyes,greyhair;awhitehorse.Origin:aJapanesecamera;aSwisswatch.Anadjectivecanalsodescribetheidea(s)containedinawholegroupofwords,asin:ProfessorRoberts"lectureonmagnetismwasfascinating.Tomaintainthatwecansurviveanuclearwarisabsurd.ManyadjectivescananswerthequestionWhat_like?and,dependingoncontext,cangivegeneralorpreciseinformation:What"sTomlike(tolookat)?-He"sdark/short/tall.What"sPamlike(asaperson)?-She"sclever/kind/witty.What"sthecarlike?-It"snew/old/red/rusty.What"sthecarliketodrive?-It"sdifficult/fast/slow.6.2Thesuffixesandprefixesofone-wordadjectivesSomewordsfunctiononlyasadjectives(tall).Othersfunctionasadjectivesornouns(cold).Manyadjectiveswhicharerelatedtoverbsornounshaveacharacteristicending(orsuffix).Forexample,-ableaddedtoaverblikeenjoygivesustheadjectiveenjoyable;-fuladdedtoanounliketruthgivesustheadjectivetruthful.Forfurtherexamples[>App8.1].Presentparticiple-ingformsoftenfunctionasadjectives(runningwater[>2.7][>16.38][>16.39.3]).Manyofthese-ingformshave-edadjectivalpastparticipleequivalents(interesting/interested)[>6.15].Someirregularpastparticiplesfunctionasadjectives(broken)[>6.14].Prefixesaddedtoadjectivesgenerallyhaveanegativeeffect.Forexample,dis-addedtoagreeablegivesusdisagreeable;un-addedtointerestinggivesusuninteresting.Forfurtherexamples[>App8.2].Notevery"positive"adjectivecanbeturnedintoanegativeonebytheadditionofaprefix.Sometimeswehavetousenot(nottaxable).Similarly,notevery"negative"adjective(especiallythoseformedwithpastparticiples)hasapositiveequivalent(discontinued,mistaken).6.3TheformationofcompoundadjectivesCompoundadjectivesareoftenwrittenwithhyphens[>2.11].Someofthecommonesttypesare:6.3.1Compoundadjectivesformedwithparticiples,etc.-compoundsformedwithpastparticiples:e.g.acandle-littable;ahorse-drawncart;aself-employedauthor;atree-linedavenue.-compoundsformedwithpresentparticiples:e.g.along-playingrecord;along-sufferingparent;atime-consumingjob.--edwordsthatlooklikeparticiplesalthoughtheyareformedfromnouns:e.g.cross-eyed,flat-chested,hard-hearted,open-minded,quick-witted,slow-footed.6.3.2Compoundadjectivesofmeasurement,etc.Cardinalnumberscombinewithnouns(usuallysingular)toformcompoundadjectivesrelatingtotime,measurement,etc.:e.g.Age:athree-year-oldbuilding;atwenty-year-oldman.Area/volume:athree-acreplot;atwo-litrecar.Duration:afour-hourmeeting;atwo-dayconference.Length/depth:atwelve-inchruler;asix-foothole.Price:a$50dress;a£90,000house.Time/distance:aten-minutewalk;athree-hourjourney.Weight:aten-stoneman;afive-kilobagofflour.Ordinalnumberscanbeusedincompounds:e.g.afirst-ratefilm;asecond-handcar;athird-floorflat;anineteenth-centurynovel.6.3.3CompoundadjectivesformedwithprefixesandsuffixesCompoundscanbeformedfromavarietyofprefixesandsuffixes:e.g.class-conscious,tax-free,loose-fitting,waterproof,fire-resistant,car-sick,tight-lipped,vacuum-sealed,airtight.Manycompoundscanbeformedwithwellandbadly:-behaved,-built,-done,-paid,etc.Similarly,illandpoorlycombinewithsomepastparticiples:-advised,-educated,-informed,-paid,etc.Typesofadjectivesandtheiruses
EnglishGrammar:Adjectives6.4FormanduseofadjectivesAnadjectivenevervariesinformnomatterwhetheritreferstopeopleorthings,etc.inthesingularorplural:singular:atallman:Bobistall.Heistall.Heisatallman.atallwoman:Maggieistall.Sheistall.Sheisatallwoman.atallhorse:Thathorseistall.Itistall.Itisatallhorse.atalltree:Thattreeistall.Itistall.Itisatalltree.plural:tallmen:BobandJimaretall.Theyaretall.Theyaretallmen.tallwomen:MaryandAnnaretall.Theyaretall.Theyaretallwomen.tallpeople:BobandAnnaretall.Theyaretall.Theyaretallpeople.tallhorses:Thosehorsesaretall.Theyaretall.Theyaretallhorses.talltrees:Thosetreesaretall.Theyaretall.Theyaretalltrees.6.5Gradableandnon-gradableadjectivesAdjectivescanbedividedintotwoclasses:alargeclassofwordswhichcanbegraded(gradableadjectives)andasmallclassthatcannotbegraded(non-gradableadjectives).Anadjectiveisgradablewhen:-wecanimaginedegreesinthequalityreferredtoandsocanuseitwithwordslikevery,too,andenough:verygood,toogood,lessgood,notgoodenough,etc.[>7.50].-wecanformacomparativeandsuperlativefromit[>6.22][>6.24-25]:(big),bigger,biggest;(good),better,best,etc.Anadjectiveisnon-gradablewhen:-wecannotmodifyit(i.e.wecannotuseitwithvery,too,etc.)-wecannotmakeacomparativeorsuperlativefromit:e.g.daily,dead,medical,unique,etc.[>7.42].6.6SomeproblemsforthelearnerintheuseofadjectivesLearnersmayexperienceinterferencefromtheirownlanguageinrelationtothefollowingcharacteristicsofadjectivesinEnglish:-theydonotvaryinformto"agree"withnouns[>6.4]:atallman/woman/tree,tallmen/women/trees.-theygenerallyprecedenounswhenusedattributively[>6.7]:acooldrink,alongday,aprettydress.-whenusedattributively,theynearlyalwayscombinewithanounorwithone/ones[>4.10].SowemustuseanouninexpressionslikeYoupoorthing!Youluckygirl![compare>4.7.4].ayoungman,aone-eyedman[compare>6.12.2].-theverbsbe,seem,etc.combinewithadjectiveslikeafraid,cold,hot,hungry,lucky,right,sleepy,thirsty,unlucky,wrong,whereinsomeEuropeanlanguagessuchwordsareusedasnounsafterhave,oranideacanbeexpressedbyaverb.So,inEnglish,dependingoncontext,Sheiscoldmayrelatetotemperature(i.e.notwarm)orattitude(i.e.notfriendly).Nordoadjectiveslikecold,hot,etc.combinewithmaketorefertotheweather:It(i.e.theweather)iscold/hot/windy.-foradjectivesandadverbsoftenconfused(fast,etc.)[>App14].6.7AttributiveandpredicativeadjectivesThetermsattributiveandpredicativerefertothepositionofanadjectiveinaphraseorsentence.Wesaythatanadjectiveisattributiveorisusedattributivelywhenitcomesbeforeanoun(andisthereforepartofthenounphrase[>2.1]):anoldticket,ayoungshop-assistant,heisanoldman.Wesaythatanadjectiveispredicativeorthatitisusedpredicativelywhenitcomesdirectlyafterbe,seem,etc.Itcanbeusedonitsownasthecomplement[>1.9][>1.11.1][>6.17]:Thisticketisold.Yourmotherseemsangry.Forpredicativeadjectivesafterverbsotherthanbe,seem,etc:turnyellow[>10.26.1].Mostadjectivescanbeusedeitherattributivelyorpredicatively.Afewcanbeusedinonewayandnotintheother.Afewadjectivessuchasold,lateandheavycantakeonadifferentmeaningwhenusedattributively.Compare:AgathaWithersisveryoldnow.(i.e.inyears-predicative)He"sanoldfriend.(i.e.I"veknownhimalongtime-attributive)Yoursuitcaseisveryheavy.(i.e.inweight-predicative)Patersonisaheavysmoker.(i.e.hesmokesalot-attributive)You"relateagain.(i.e.notontime-predicative)Mylateunclewasaminer.(i.e.he"sdeadnow-attributive)Adjectivesusedattributivelyinthiswaytendtocombinewithalimitedselectionofnouns:e.g.aheavydrinker/sleeper,butnote.g.worker.Thereareotherrestrictionsaswell:e.g.old(anoldfriend),heavy(aheavysmoker)andlate(mylateuncle)cannotbeusedpredicativelyinthesesenses.However,old(inyears)andheavy(weight)canbeusedattributivelyorpredicatively.Late(notontime)isusedattributivelyinlimitedcontexts:
EnglishGrammar:AdjectivesLatearrivalswillnotbeallowedtoentertheauditorium.Forproblemsconnectedwithadjectiveswhichcanbeconfusedwithadverbs,e.g.fast,hard/hardly,late/lately[>App14][>App15].6.8Adjectivesusedpredicatively6.8.1PredicativeadjectivesdescribinghealthThefollowingareusedpredicatively[>6.7]inconnexionwithhealth:faint,ill,poorly,unwellandwell:What"sthematterwithhim?-He"sill/unwell.Hefeelsfaint.Howareyou?-I"mverywellthankyou.I"mfinethanks.Finerelatingtohealthispredicative;usedattributivelyitmeans"excellent"(e.g.She"safinewoman.).Theadjectivessickandhealthycanbeusedintheattributivepositionwhereillandwellnormallycannot:What"sthematterwithMrCourt?-He"sasickman.Biggleswasveryill,buthe"snowahealthyman.(Butnotethat"He"sanillman"isincreasinglyheard.)Well,tomean"ingoodhealth",isanadjectiveandshouldnotbeconfusedwithwell,theadverbialcounterpartofgood[>6.17][>7.5n.4].Faintcanbeusedattributivelywhennotreferringtohealthine.g.afaintchance;afainthope;afaintsound,ascanillinfixedphrasessuchas:anillomen;anillwind.6.8.2Predicativeadjectivesbeginningwith"a-"Adjectiveslikethefollowingareusedonlypredicatively:afloat,afraid,alight,alike,alive,alone,ashamed,asleep,awake:Thechildrenwereasleepat7,butnowthey"reawake.Wecanexpresssimilarideaswithattributiveadjectives:Thevesselisafloat_>Thefloatingvessel_Thechildrenareafraid_>Thefrightenedchildren_Thebuildingsarealight_>Theburningbuildings_Everythingthatisalive_>Alllivingthings_Thatlobsterisalive_>It"salivelobster_Thechildrenareasleep_>Thesleepingchildren_WhenIamawake_>Inmywakinghours_Attributiveadjectivescanonlyreplacepredicativeonesinsuitablecontexts.Forexample,livingcannotreplacealivein:Allthehostagesontheplanearealiveandwell.(Not*allthelivinghostages*inthiscontext)Shamefulisnottheattributivecounterpartofashamed:Itwasashamefulact.(describingtheact)Heoughttobeashamed.(describingtheperson)Similarly,lonelyisnottheexactequivalentofalone:Youcanbealonewithoutbeinglonely.Alone(predicative)means"withoutothers";lonely(attributive:alonelywoman,orpredicative:sheislonely)generallymeans"feelingsadbecauseyouareonyourown".Someoftheseadjectivesaremodifiedinspecialwaysandnotbyvery:safelyafloat,allalight,allalone,fast/soundasleep,fully/wideawake[compare>6.9][>7.51].However,thefollowingcanbemodifiedbyverymuch:afraid,awake,alive,aloneandashamed;afraidandashamedcanalsobemodifieddirectlybyvery[compare>7.51]:Isthatlobsteralive?-Yes,becareful!It"sverymuchalive!Ibehavedbadlyyesterdayandstillfeelveryashamedofmyself.6.8.3Predicativeadjectivesdescribingfeelings,reactions,etc.Someadjectivesdescribingfeelings,etc.(content,glad,pleased,sorry,upset)andafewothers,e.g.farandnear(exceptine.g.theFarEast/theNearEast)arenormallyusedonlypredicatively:Iamverygladtomeetyou.[>16.26]Yourhotelisquitenearhere.Itisn"tfarfromhere.Wecanexpressthesameideaswithattributiveadjectives:Sheisahappy(orcontented)woman.(=Sheisglad/content.)6.8.4Predicativeadjectivesfollowedbyprepositions[>App27]Manyadjectivesusedpredicativelymaybefollowedbyprepositions:Acapablepersonisonewhomanageswell.(attributive)Heiscapableofmanagingwell.(adjective+preposition:predicative)6.9Adjectivesusedattributivelytomean"complete",etc.Afewadjectivescanbehavelikeadverbsofdegreeorintensifiers[>7.41][>7.50],moreorlessinthesenseof"complete",andcanbeusedonlyintheattributiveposition,e.g.mere,outandout,sheer,utter:Kencan"tbepromoted.He"samereboy/anoutandoutrogue.Whatyousayissheer/utternonsense.(Veryitselfisusedasanadjectiveinfixedexpressionsliketheveryend;theverylimit;theverythingIwant/need.)Otheradjectiveswhichcanhavethesenseofverywhenusedattributivelyare:close(aclosefriend);complete/perfect/total(acomplete,perfect,totalfool);pure(purenonsense);andstrong(astrongsupporter).Mostofthesecanbeattributiveorpredicativein
EnglishGrammar:Adjectivestheirnormalmeanings:Puredrinkingwaterisbest.Thiswaterispure.Some-ingadjectivescanqualifyotheradjectives.Theyhaveanintensifyingeffectequivalenttoveryin(often)fixedphraseslikeboilinghot;freezingcold;hoppingmad;soakingwet.Adjectiveswhichrestrictthereferenceofthenounarealwaysattributive:certain(awomanofacertainage);chief(mychiefcomplaint);main(mymainconcern);only(theonlyexplanation);particular(myparticularaim);principal(theprincipalreason);sole(mysoleinterest)andveryitself(theverymanIwantedtosee).Theseadjectivescannotbeusedpredicatively,exceptforcertainandparticular,whichthenchangeinmeaning:Youshouldbecertainofyourfactsbeforeyourushintoprint.Somepeoplearen"tveryparticularaboutthefoodtheyeat.6.10Adjectivesafternounsinofficialtitles,etc.Theadjectivefollowsthenouninanumberof"titles":e.g.AttorneyGeneral,GovernorGeneral,HeirApparent,PoetLaureate,PostmasterGeneral,PresidentElect(orelect),SergeantMajor.Andnote:AsiaMinor,andanumberoffixedphrases,suchasbodypolitic,Goodnessgracious!,hopeeternal,pennydreadful,sumtotal,timeimmemorial.6.11Adjectiveswhichcancomebeforeorafternouns6.11.1AdjectivesbeforeorafternounswithnochangeinmeaningAlimitednumberofadjectives,mostlyendingin-ableand-ible,cancomebeforeorafternouns,usuallywithnochangeofmeaning.Someoftheseare:available,eligible,imaginable,taxable:Idoubtwhetherwecancompleteourcontractinthetimeavailable/intheavailabletime.6.11.2AdjectivesbeforeorafternounswithachangeinmeaningAfewadjectiveschangeinmeaningdependingonwhethertheyareusedbeforeorafteranoun.Someoftheseare:concerned,elect,involved,present,proper,responsible:Theconcerned(=worried)doctorrangforanambulance.Thedoctorconcerned(=responsible)isonholiday.Thiselect(=speciallychosen)bodymeetsonceayear.Thispresidentelect(=whohasbeenelected)takesoverinMay.Itwasaveryinvolved(=complicated)explanation.Theboyinvolved(=connectedwiththis)hasleft.Presentemployees(=thosecurrentlyemployed)number3,000.Employeespresent(=thoseherenow)shouldvoteontheissue.Itwasaproper(=correct)question.Thequestionproper(=itself)hasnotbeenanswered.Janetisaresponsiblegirl.(=Shehasasenseofduty.)Thegirlresponsible(=whocanbeblamed)wasexpelled.6.12Adjectiveswhichcanbeusedasiftheywerenouns6.12.1AdjectivesusedasnounsAfewadjectivescanbeusedasiftheywerenouns(e.g.aftera/an)andcansometimeshaveaplural.Thelistenermentallysuppliesthe"missing"noun:I"vegotmymedicalonThursday.(=medicalexamination)Don"tbesuchasilly!(=asillyfool)There"ssomethingthematterwiththeelectricsinmycar.(=theelectricalsystem)Otherwordswhicharebothadjectivesandnounsare:e.g.ablack/blacks;ared/reds;awhite/whites.6.12.2"The"+adjective:e.g."theyoung"[>App9]Adjectiveslikethefollowingareusedafterthe,neveraftera/an,torepresentagroupasawhole:e.g.theblind;thedeaf;theliving/thedead;therich/thepoor;theyoung/theold;theunemployed.Sothedeafmeans"agroupofpeoplewhoarealldeaf":Andrewwassenttoaspecialschoolforthedeaf.Theseadjectivesarefollowedbyapluralverb:Youcanalwaysjudgeasocietybythewaytheoldarecaredfor.Wecanneverusetheseadjectivesontheirowntorefertoasingleindividual(Not*heisayoung*).Ifwewishtorefertosingleindividuals,wemustuseanadjective+noun[>6.6]:He"sayoungmanwithalotofambition.Someoftheseadjectivesmaybemodified:e.g.theextremelypoor;theidlerich;thesuper-rich;theyoungatheart.Sometimesaftere.g.both,thecanbedropped[>3.28.6]:Bothyoungandoldenjoyedthemselvesattheparty.Thereferencecanbegeneralorabstractin:e.g.thesupernatural;theunexpected;theunheardof;theunknown.Sotheunknownmeans"thatthingorthosethingswhicharenotknown":Scott"smarchtotheSouthPolewasajourneyintotheunknown.Thesearefollowedbyasingularverb:
EnglishGrammar:AdjectivesTheunknownisalwayssomethingtobefeared.Fortheformer_thelatter[>4.11].Fornationalityadjectivesusedwithoutnouns[>3.19.2][>App49].6.13NounsthatbehavelikeadjectivesNamesofmaterials,substances,etc.(leather,nylon,plastic)[>2.10.5][>6.20.1]resembleadjectives.Sodosomenounsindicatinguseorpurpose,e.g.kitchenchairs.Examplesofsuchnounsare:It"sacottondress.(=it"scotton/madeofcotton)It"sasummerdress.(=adresstobeworninsummer)Wordslikecottonorsummerbehavelikeadjectivesinthisoneway:theydonothavecomparativeorsuperlativeforms;theycannotbemodifiedbyvery,etc.Theyremainessentiallynouns,oftenmodifyingasecondnoun[>2.10].Mostofthesenounmodifierscanbeusedwithoutchange.Butnotewoodenandwoollen:It"sawoodenspoon./It"smadeofwood.It"sawoollendress./It"smadeofwool.Herewoodenandwoollenareadjectives,notnouns.Someothernamesformaterialshaveadjectivalforms:gold,golden;lead,leaden;silk,silken,silky;stone,stony;buttheadjectivalformgenerallyhasametaphoricalmeaning("like_"):So,forexample,agoldwatchisa"watchmadeofgold",butagoldensunsetisasunsetwhichis"likegold".Compareasilveryvoice;leadensteps;silky(orsilken)hair;(a)stonysilence.6.14PresentandpastparticiplesusedasadjectivesMostpresentparticiplescanbeusedasadjectives:e.g.breakingglass,frighteningstories[>2.7][>6.2][>6.3.1][>16.38][>16.39.3].Manypastparticiplesofverbscanbeusedasadjectives:e.g.abrokenwindow(=awindowwhichhasbeenbroken);afrozenlake(=alakewhichisfrozen);alockeddoor(=adoorwhichislocked),etc.Regularpastparticiplesfollowthenormalpronunciationrules[>9.14.1].However,notethatsomeadjectivesendingin-edarenotpastparticiples,andheretheendingisnormallypronounced/Id/,asin:anagedparent;acrookedpath;alearnedprofessor;anakedman;araggedurchin;awickedwitch.6.15Adjectivalparticiplesendingin"-ed"and"-ing"[>App10]Commonpairsof-ed/-ingadjectivesare:amazed/amazing;annoyed/annoying;bored/boring;excited/exciting;interested/interesting;pleased/pleasing;tired/tiring.Similarpairs:delighted/delightful;impressed/impressive;upset/upsetting.Adjectivesendingin-edoftencombinewithpersonalsubjectsandthoseendingin-ingoftencombinewithimpersonalones[>16.32.1]:Thisstoryexcitesme.>Iamexcitedbyit.>Itisexciting.Most-ingadjectivescanalsobeappliedtopeople.Compare:Gloriawasquiteenchantingtobewith.(i.e.Thatwastheeffectshehadonotherpeople.)Gloriawasquiteenchanted.(i.e.Thatwastheeffectsomeoneorsomethinghadonher.)Afew-edadjectivescanbeappliedtothings:Theoldtinminewasquiteexhausted.(=usedup)6.16AdjectivesusedinmeasurementsWordssuchasdeep,long,wide,etc.canfunctionasadjectivesoradverbsafterthequestionwordHow(>13.40.2]:Howdeepisthatpool?(adjective)Howdeepdidyoudive?(adverb)Inresponsestosuchquestions,theadjective(oradverb)followsthenoun.Itcansometimesbeomitted:It"sfivemetres(deep)./Iwentfivemetresdeep.Andcompare:Howoldareyou?-I"mfiveyearsold.orI"mfive.Howoldisyourcar?-It"sfiveyearsold.(Not*It"sfive.*)Measurementnounsarepluralwhentheyarefollowedbyadjectivesoradverbs(sixmetreshigh);theyaresingularwhentheyprecedethenoun(asixmetrewall)[>6.3.2].Butnotethisexception:Jimissixfoot/feettall.(singularorplural)He"sasix-footman.(singularonly)6.17Adjectivesascomplementsaftere.g.verbsofperceptionWeuseadjectives,notadverbs,afterverbsofperception,particularlythoserelatingtothesenses,suchaslook,taste[>9.3][>10.23-25][>App38]e.g.appearstrange;feelrough;lookgood;lookwell;seemimpossible;smellsweet;soundnice;tastebad:Thatpielooksgood,butittastesawful.Adayinthecountrysoundsnice,butthinkofthetraffic!Scratchmybackthereplease.Ah!Thatfeelsbetter.Thewordsusedaftertheseverbsareadjectivesbecausetheyaredescribingthesubjectoftheverb,notmodifyingtheverbitself.Theyfunctionasadjectivalcomplements[>1.9][>1.11].Compare:Youlookwell.(Well="ingoodhealth"isanadjective.)Youplaywell.(Wellisanadverbmodifyingplay.)
EnglishGrammar:AdjectivesAdjectivescanbeusedascomplementsofthesubjectafterotherverbsinexpressionssuchas:breakloose;die/marryyoung;keep/sitstill;livecloseto;remainopen;ringtrue/false:Manyfamouspoetshavediedyoung.It"simpossibleforyoungchildrentositstill.Themurderwasnotsolvedandthecaseremainsopen.Adjectivesareoftenusedascomplementsafterverbssuchaslieorstand,particularlyindescriptivewriting[>7.59.2]:Thecrowdstood(orwas)silentattheendoftheceremony.6.18AdverbsthatcanfunctionasadjectivesAfewadverbsandadverbparticles[>7.3.4]canfunctionasattributiveadjectives,especiallyinfixedphrases:e.g.theabovestatement;anawaymatch;thedowntrain/theuptrain;thedownstairslavatory/theupstairsbathroom;ahomewin;theinsidecover;insideinformation;anoutsideline;thethenchairman.6.19AdjectiveseasilyconfusedManycommonadjectivesareeasilyconfused.Fordetails[>App11].6.20Adjectives:wordorderWhenweusemorethanoneadjectivetodescribeanoun,wehavetotakecarewiththewordorder.Hard-and-fastrulescannotbegiven,sincemuchdependsontheemphasisaspeakerwishestomake.Ageneralguideisasfollows:adjectives:usualordernounqualitysize/age/shapecolouroriginpastparticiplebeautifuloldbrownFrenchhandmadecupboardkitchencupboardteakcupboardNotethatgeneralqualitiesgobeforeparticularqualities.Themoreparticularthequality,theclosertheadjectiveistothenoun.Let"sbeginwiththenounandworkbackwards:6.20.1ThenounThenounmaybe[>2.10][>6.13]:-one-word:acupboard.-two-word:akitchencupboard,ateakcupboard.-three-word:ateakkitchencupboard.Wheretherearethreewords,material(teak)precedespurposeoruse(kitchen):acottonshirt,asummershirt,acottonsummershirt.Compoundnounsareneverseparatedbyadjectives.6.20.2AdjectivalpastparticipleThisisusuallyclosesttothenoun:ahandmadeteakcupboard;ahandmadekitchencupboard;ahandmadeteakkitchencupboard.6.20.3OriginAnationalitywordindicatingorigin[>App49]oranadjectivereferringtoahistoricalperiod(.e.gVictorian)usuallyprecedesanadjectivalpastparticiple:aChinesehandmadeshirt;aChinesehandmadecottonshirt.Thisisnotinvariable:handmadeChineseshirtisalsopossible.Ifapresentparticipleadjectiveisused(i.e.the-ingform),thenitprecedesorigin:quick-sellingChinesehandmadeshirts.6.20.4Size/age/shape/temperature/flavour,etc.Sizegenerallyprecedesageandshape,etc.:alargeoldtable;alargeroundtable;alargeoldroundtable;ahugeice-coldstrawberrymilkshake.6.20.5Quality(i.e.subjectiveassessment)Adjectivesexpressingourgeneralopinionofthequalityofpeopleorthingscomefirst:e.g.beautiful,big,clean,dirty,nice:abeautifultallbuilding;acheapIndianrestaurant.Ifthereismorethanone"generalquality"adjective,thenthemostgeneralusuallycomesfirst:abeautifulspaciousairyroom.6.20.6Modificationwith"(great)big"and"little"Theadjectivesbigorgreatbiggenerallyprecedequalityadjectives,whilelittlegenerallycomesafter:greatbigboots;a(great)bigtallpoliceman;anicelittlerestaurant;afriendlylittlewaiter.
EnglishGrammar:Adjectives6.21Theuseofcommasand"and"toseparateadjectives6.21.1Separatingadjectivesusedattributively[>6.7]Whenwehavetwoormoreadjectivesinfrontofanounweonlyneedcommastoseparatethosewhichareequallyimportant(i.e.wheretheorderofthefirsttwocouldeasilybereversed):abeautiful,brightcleanroom.Thatis,weputacommaafterthequalityadjective.Weneveruseacommaaftertheadjectivethatcomesimmediatelybeforethenoun:Thehotelporterledmetoabeautiful,brightcleanroom.Joyisengagedtoadaring,veryattractiveyoungAirForcepilot.Injournalism,writersfrequentlytrytogivecondenseddescriptionsbystringingadjectivestogether,asin:e.g.Ageing,recently-widowedpopulardramatist,MiltonFairbanks,announcedrecentlythat"Athletes"wastobehislastplay.Somefixedpairsofadjectivesareoftenlinkedbyand:oldandmustywine;alongandwindingroad;hardandfastrulesPairsofcolouradjectivesareoftenhyphenated:ablue-and-whiteflag6.21.2Separatingadjectivesusedpredicatively[>6.7]Iftherearetwoadjectives,weseparatethemwithand:Myshoesareoldandworn.Iftherearemorethantwoadjectives,wemayseparatethembycommas,exceptforthelasttwowhichareseparatedbyand:Myshoesaredirty,wet,oldandworn.Wedonotusuallyputacommaaftertheadjectiveinfrontofand[compare>1.20].Thecomparisonofadjectives6.22Shorteradjectives:formofregularcomparisonOnlygradable[>6.5]adjectivescompare.Mostcommonadjectivesareshortwords(usuallyofonesyllableandnotmorethantwosyllables).Theyformtheircomparativesandsuperlativesasshown.adjectivecomparativesuperlative1cleancleanercleanest2bigbiggerbiggest3nicenicernicest4tidytidiertidiest5narrow[>6.26n.1]narrowernarrowest6.23Notesonthecomparisonofshorteradjectives6.23.1Spellingofcomparativeandsuperlativeforms1Mostone-syllableadjectivesformtheircomparativesandsuperlativeslikeclean:-erand-estareaddedtotheirbasicforms.Otherexampleslikecleanare:cold,cool,great,hard,high,low,neat,new,short,small,thick,weak2Manyone-syllableadjectivesendwithasingleconsonantafterasinglevowel-letter.Thisconsonantdoublesinthecomparativeandsuperlative,asinthecaseofbig.Otherexampleslikebigare:fat,fatter,fattest;sad,sadder,saddest;thin,thinner,thinnest;wet,wetter,wettest.Compareadjectiveslikefull,small,tall,etc.whichendwithadoubleconsonantandformtheircomparativesandsuperlativeslikeclean:tall,taller,tallest.3Manyone-syllableadjectivesendin-e,likenice.Theseadd-rand-sttothebasicform,pronouncede.g./naIsE,naIsEst/.Otherexampleslikeniceare:fine,large,late,safe,strange.Andnotefree/freer.4Someadjectives,liketidy,endin-ywithaconsonantletterbeforeit.Theseadjectivesareusuallytwo-syllable.Inthecomparativeandsuperlative-yisreplacedbyi(tidy,tidier,tidiest).Otherexamplesliketidyare:busy,dirty,dry,early,easy,empty,funny,heavy,ready,sleepy.(Butnoteshy,shyer,shyest.)Afewadjectiveshaveavowelbeforea-yending,likegay,grey,fey,andthesesimplytaketheendings-erand-est.5Someothertwo-syllableadjectivescanformtheircomparativesandsuperlativesregularly.Otherexampleslikenarroware:clever,common,gentle,simple[>6.26n.1].6.23.2PronunciationofcomparativeandsuperlativeformsIncomparativesandsuperlativescontainingthelettersng,/g/ispronouncedafter/N/:e.g.younger,longer,strongest.Inotherwordscontainingng,/g/isnotpronounced:e.g.singer/"sINE/6.24Someirregularcomparativeandsuperlativeformsadjectivecomparativesuperlativegoodbetterbestbadworseworstfar7.5n.4]App12.3]5.13]comparativesuperlativemuch>moremostmany>littlelessleast
EnglishGrammar:Adjectives6.25Longeradjectives:formofregularcomparisonMostlongeradjectives(i.e.oftwoormoresyllables)combinewiththequantifiersmore/lesstoformtheircomparativesandmost/leasttoformtheirsuperlatives.Lesscanbeusedwithone-syllableadjectives(lessbig)butmore,mostandleastarenotnormallyusedinthisway.Moreisoccasionallyusedwithone-syllableadjectives(e.g.It"smoretruetosaythatBritishEnglishisinfluencedbyAmerican,ratherthantheotherwayround.)More/lesscanneverbeusedinfrontofacomparative(e.g.happier);norcanmost/leastbeusedinfrontofasuperlative(e.g.happiest).adjectivecomparativesuperlative1pleasant6.23.1n.5].Theoppositeofsuchwords,whenformedwiththeprefixun-,canalsoformtheircomparativesandsuperlativesintwoways:e.g.uncommon,unhappy,unpleasant:unhappierormoreunhappy,unhappiestormostunhappy.Wherethereisuncertainty,itissafesttousemoreandmostwithtwo-syllablesadjectives.2Thecomparativesandsuperlativesofothertwo-syllableadjectivesmustalwaysbewithmore/lessandmost/least.Theseincludealladjectivesendingin-fulor-less(careful,careless,useful,useless).Otherexamplesofadjectiveswhichformcomparisonsinthiswayare:(un)certain,(in)correct,(in)famous,foolish,(in)frequent,modern,(ab)normal.Adjectiveswithmorethantwosyllablescomparewithmore/mostandless/least:beautiful,(un)comfortable,dangerous,expensive,(un)important,(un)natural,(un)necessary.Thisappliestomostcompoundadjectivesaswell,suchas:quick-witted,waterproof.Butnotecompoundswithgood,wellandbad:good-looking=better-looking,(ormoregood-looking);well-built=better-built(butmorewell-builtissometimesheard);bad-tempered=worse-tempered(ormorebad-tempered).3Adjectivesendingin-edand-ingsuchasamused/amusing,annoyed/annoying[>6.15]requiremore/lessandmost/leasttoformtheircomparativesandsuperlatives.4Notetheformlesserwhich,thoughformedfromless,isnotatruecomparativebecauseitcannotbefollowedbythan.Lessermeansnotsogreatinfixedphrasessuchas:toalesserdegree/extent;thelesseroftwoevils.6.27TheuseofthecomparativeformofadjectivesWeusethecomparativewhenwearecomparingonepersonorthing,etc.withanother.Comparisonmaybebetween:-singleitems:JaneistallerthanAlice.-asingleitemandagroup:Janeistallerthanothergirls.-twogroups:Thegirlsinclass3aretallerthanthegirlsinclass1.6.27.1Theuseof"than"inthecomparativeAcomparativecanstandonitsownifthereferenceisclear:Thegreycoatislonger.Thisimpliesthatthehearerunderstandsthatthegreycoatisbeingcomparedwithanothercoatorsomethingsimilar.Iftwothingsofexactlythesamekindarebeingcompared,wecanusethebeforeacomparativeinformalstyle:Whichis(the)longer?(ofthetwocoats)Thegreycoatis(the)longer.(ofthetwocoats)However,ifweneedtomentioneachitem,thenwemustusethanafterthecomparative.Whenthanisfollowedbyanounorpronoun,itfunctionsasifitwereapreposition[>4.7.3];whenitisfollowedbyaclause[>1.53],itfunctionsasifitwereaconjunction,butnotetheambiguityof:Iknowhimbetterthanyou.Thiscouldmean:Iknowhimbetterthanyouknowhim.(thanisaconjunction)Iknowhimbetterthan(Iknow)you.(thancouldbeapreposition)Wecanavoidambiguitybyusinge.g._thanyoudoExampleswithcomparative+than:Myroomisbetter/cleaner/worsethantheonenextdoor.Drivingiscertainlylesstiringthanwalking.Ascheduledflightismoreexpensivethanacharterflight.It"spleasanter/morepleasanttodaythanitwasyesterday.
EnglishGrammar:AdjectivesIfeellesstiredtodaythanIfeltyesterday.Comparisonwiththan+adjectivealsooccursinfixedphrases,suchas(taller)thanaverage;(more/lessexpensive)thanusual.6.27.2Comparativeswith"-erand-er"Twocomparatives(adjectivesoradverbs),joinedbyand,canconveytheideaofgeneralincreaseordecrease:Debbieisgrowingfast.She"sgettingtallerandtaller.Computersarebecomingmoreandmorecomplicated.Holidayflightsaregettinglessandlessexpensive.Moreandmoreandlessandlessdonotnormallycombinewithone-syllableadjectives.6.27.3"the"+comparative+"the"Thisconstructioncanbeusedwithadjectivesoradverbstoshowcauseandeffect:whenonechangeismade,anotherfollows:Themoremoneyyoumake,themoreyouspend.Themoreexpensivepetrolbecomes,thelesspeopledrive.6.27.4"More"and"most"incomparisonsofrelativequantityMoreisusedwithcountablesanduncountables[>5.2n.3]:Morefoodiswastedthaniseateninthiscanteen.Morealsocombineswithnumbers[>5.6.1]:Howmanymorestampsdoyouwant?-Fourmoreplease.Mostcanmean"thelargestnumberof","thegreatestamountof":Mostdoctorsdon"tsmoke.Mostwineisimported.(Not*themost*)Comparethemostinthesuperlative:Whichcountryintheworldproducesthemostwine?6.27.5Modificationofcomparatives[>7.41-46]Wecanusetheintensifiersandadverbsofdegreelikevery,tooandquitetomodifyadjectives:verytall,toocold,quitehot,etc.However,wecannotusetheseintensifierswiththecomparative.Wemustuseabit(informal),(very)much,far,even,hardlyany,alot,lots,alittle,no,rather,somewhat(formal),etc.:It"smuch/far/alot/alittlecoldertodaythanitwasyesterday.Housesaremuch/far/alotmoreexpensivethesedays.Therehavebeenmanymore/manyfewerburglariesthisyear.Evenandallthecanoftenbeusedinterchangeablyforemphasisinfrontofmore,especiallywith-ed/-ingadjectivalparticiples:Thistermhisbehaviourhasbecomeevenmoreannoying.WhenItoldherthenews,shebecameallthemoredepressed.6.28TheuseofthesuperlativeformofadjectivesWeusethesuperlativewhenwearecomparingonepersonorthingwithmorethanoneotherinthesamegroup.Thedefinitearticletheisusedbeforeasuperlativeinaphraseorsentence:Thisisthecleanest/tidiestroominthehouse.Thisisthebest/worstroominthehotel.Whoisthetallest:John,MaryorSue?-Sueisthetallest.Firstclassisthemostexpensivewaytotravel.Informally,wesometimesusethesuperlativeinsteadofacomparativewhenwearecomparingtwopeopleorthings:Who"sthemostreliable,FrankorAlan?Similarly,theissometimesdropped,especiallyafterWhich?:Whichisbest?Theredoneorthegreenone?andwhenthesuperlativeisinfrontofato-infinitive:Ithinkit"ssafesttoovertakenow.6.28.1TheuseofaqualifyingphraseorarelativeAqualifyingphraseisnotnecessaryafterasuperlativeifthereferenceisclear:Johnisthetallest.ThisimpliesthatthehearerunderstandsthatJohnisbeingcomparedwithtwoormorepeopleinthesamegroup.Ifthecomparisonisnotclear,thenwemustuseaqualifyingphraseafterthesuperlative.Phrasesofthiskindusuallybeginwithinor(lessfrequently)of:Johniseasilythetallestboyinourclass.Yesterdaywasthehottestdayoftheyear.Otherfixedprepositionalphrasesarepossible:It"stheoldesttrickonearth/underthesun.Alternatively,wecanusearelativeclause[>1.40]afterasuperlative.Thisisoftenaccompaniedbyapresentperfectwith_everheard,met,read,seen,etc.[>9.25.1]"WarandPeace"isthelongestbook(that)Ihaveeverread.Penfoldisthemostconceitedman(that/whom)Ihaveevermet.6.28.2ModificationofsuperlativesSuperlativescanbemodifiedbyadverbsofdegreelikealmost,altogether,byfar,far,much,nearly,practically,quite,thevery:Thisisquite/(by)farthemostexpensivebicycleintheshop.Thisismuchtheworststretchofmotorwayinthecountry.
EnglishGrammar:AdjectivesNotethepositionofveryafterthe[>7.51.1]:IwanttogivemychildrentheverybesteducationIcanafford.6.29ComparativesandsuperlativesconfusedandmisusedManycommoncomparativesareeasilyconfused[>App12].6.30Comparison,similarityandcontrast6.30.1"as_as"toindicatethesamedegreeAs_ascancombinewithone-syllableandlongeradjectivestoshowthattwopeople,things,etc.aresimilar:Janeisastallas/asintelligentasPeter.Anumberofeverydayexpressionswithas+adjective+asarecommonlyinuse[>App13]:e.g.asclearascrystal;ascoldasice;asgoodasgold;aslightasafeather;asoldasthehills;aswhiteassnow.Thefirstasisoftendropped:HowhasJimmybehavedhimself?-He"sbeen(as)goodasgold.Someoftheseexpressionscanoccurascompoundadjectives:e.g.grass-green(for"asgreenasgrass"=colouror"inexperienced").Likethan[>6.27.1],ascanfunctionasapreposition[>4.7.3]orasaconjunction[>1.53].Fordifferencesbetweenlikeandas[>App25.25].6.30.2"notas_as";"notso_as"toindicatelowerdegreeWecanuseeitherasorsoafternottocomparetwopeople,things,etc.:Soamesisnotas/notsosuitableforthejobasme/asIam.Butnote:He"snotsosuitableinmyview.ThisuseofsoisinformalandcanreplaceveryNotsucha/an(+adjective)+nounisalsopossible:He"snotsuchahardworkerashisbrother.6.30.3"Morethan","lessthan"and"worsethan"+adjectiveMorethan,lessthanandworsethancanbeusedinfrontofanumberofadjectivesinthefollowingway:Iwasmorethanpleasedwithmypayrise.Iwasoverthemoon!Thisfoot-pumpisworsethanuseless.(i.e.toadegreewhichpleasedanduselesscannotconvey)6.30.4"Thesameas";"differentfrom"Notethatasfollowsthesame:He"sangrybecausemymarksarethesameashis.(Not*thesamelike*or*thesamewith*)Comparetheuseofwithafterthesamein:e.g.Butterfliescomefromcaterpillars.It"sthesamewithmoths.(i.e.mothsdothesamething)Thesame(withsingularorplural)canalsobeusedwithoutas:Thiscup"scracked.What"sthatonelike?-It"sthesame.Thosetwodressesarethesame.(plural)Differentisnormallyfollowedbyfrom,especiallyinBrE:Wehavethesamemakeofcar,butyoursisdifferentfrommine.Iknowwelookalike,butwe"requitedifferentfromeachother.Toandthan(especiallyinAmE)arealsoheardafterdifferentHowever,thancannotreplacefrominuncomplicatedcomparisons:Rosesaredifferentfrom/differenttoviolets.Thaniscommonlyusedafterdifferenttointroduceaclause:We"redoingsomethingquitedifferentforourholidaythisyearthan(what)wedidlastyear/fromwhatwedidlastyear.6.30.5DegreesofsimilarityDegreesofsimilaritycanbeexpressedbymeansofalmost,exactly,just,nearly+as+adjective[>7.41]:Jeffreyisnearlyastallashisfathernow.or+like+noun:Sandraisjustlikehermother.Almost,exactly,just,nearlyand(not)quitewillcombinewiththesame:Thosetwoboysareexactlythesame.Completely,entirelyandquitewillcombinewithdifferent:Thosetwoboysarecompletelydifferent.
EnglishGrammar:Adverbs7AdverbsGeneralinformationaboutadverbs7.1WhatanadverbisandwhatitdoesThewordadverb(ad-verb)suggeststheideaofaddingtothemeaningofaverb.Thisiswhatmanyadverbsdo.Theycantellussomethingabouttheactioninasentencebymodifyingaverb,i.e.bytellingushow,when,where,etc.somethinghappensorisdone:Paganiniplayedtheviolinbeautifully.(Howdidheplay?)However,adverbscanalsomodify:-adjectives:verygood;awfullyhungry.-otheradverbs:verysoon;awfullyquickly.-prepositionalphrases:You"reentirelyinthewrong.-completesentences:Strangelyenough,Iwonfirstprize.-nouns:Themanoverthereisadoctor.Adverbscanbesinglewords(slowly)orphrases(inthegarden)andthetermadverbialisoftenusedtodescribebothtypes.Adverbsarenotalwaysessentialtothestructureofasentence,buttheyoftenaffectthemeaning.Compare:Dorishasleft.Dorishasjustleft.Ihavefinishedwork.Ihavenearlyfinishedwork.Sometimesadverbsareessentialtocompleteasentence:1aftersomeintransitiveverbssuchaslie,live,sit,etc.:Liedown.[>8.29]Sitoverthere.IliveinRome.2aftersometransitiveverbs(e.g.lay,place,put)+object:Heputhiscarinthegarage.Forthegeneralpositionofadverbsinasentence[>1.3].7.2KindsofadverbsManyadverbscanbethoughtofasansweringquestions,suchasHow?[>7.7];Where?[>7.17];When?[>7.20];Howoften?[>7.37];Towhatextent?[>7.41].Others"strengthen"adjectives,otheradverbsorverbs[>7.50];focusattention[>7.54];revealourattitudes,orhelpustopresentinformationinacoherentfashion[>7.57-58].7.3Howtoidentifyanadverb7.3.1One-wordadverbsendingin"-ly"Agreatmanyadverbs,particularlythoseofmanner,areformedfromadjectivesbytheadditionof-ly:e.g.patient,patiently.Someadverbsoffrequencyarealsoformedinthisway:e.g.usual,usually,asareafewadverbsofdegree:e.g.near,nearly.Manyviewpointadverbsendin-ly:e.g.fortunately.7.3.2One-wordadverbsnotendingin"-ly"Manyadverbscannotbeidentifiedbytheirendings.Theseincludeadverbsofmannerwhichhavethesameformasadjectives,e.g.fast[>App14];adverbsofplace(there);oftime(then);offrequency(often);viewpointadverbs(perhaps)andconnectives(however).7.3.3AdverbialphrasesAdverbialphrasesofmanner,placeandtimeareoftenformedwithapreposition+noun:inahurry,inthegarden,atthestation.Otherexamplesofadverbialphrases;againandagain(frequency);hardlyatall(degree);verymuchindeed(intensifying);asamatteroffact(viewpoint);inthatcase(connective).7.3.4AdverbparticlesCertainwords,suchasin,off,up,functioneitherasprepositionsorasadverbparticles[>8.4].Whensuchwordsarefollowedbyanobject,theyfunctionasprepositions;whenthereisnoobject,theyareadverbparticles:preposition:Thechildrenareinthehouse.adverb:Thechildrenhavejustgonein.Thecomparisonofadverbs7.4FormofcomparisonofadverbsOnlygradableadverbs[compare>6.5]canhavecomparativeandsuperlativeforms.Comparisonisnotpossiblewithadverbssuchasdaily,extremely,only,really,then,there,uniquely,becausetheyarenotgradable.Gradableadverbsformcomparativesandsuperlativesasfollows:adverbcomparativesuperlative1Sameformasadjective:fastfasterfastest
EnglishGrammar:Adverbs2-lyadverbsofmanner:easilymoreeasilymosteasily3Someadverbsoffrequency:rarelymorerarelymostrarely4Exceptions:badlyworseworstfarfartherfarthest-furtherfurthestlatelaterlastlittlelessleastmuchmoremostwellbetterbest7.5Notesonthecomparisonofadverbs[>6.22-26]1Manyadverbslikeearly,fast,etc.[>App14]formtheircomparativesandsuperlativesinthesamewayasshorteradjectives(e.g.earlier,earliest).2Asmostadverbsofmannerhavetwoormoresyllables,theyformtheircomparativesandsuperlativeswithmore/lessandmost/leastOtherexamples:more/less/most/leastbriefly,clearly,quickly3Someadverbsoffrequencyformtheircomparativeandsuperlativewithmore/less,most/least(e.g.moreseldom,mostseldom);oftenhastwocomparativeforms:moreoftenand(lesscommon)oftener4Comparelatest/last:bothwordscanbeadjectives:Iboughtthelatest(i.e.mostrecent)editionoftoday"spaper.Iboughtthelast(i.e.final)editionoftoday"spaper.Butnormallyonlylastisusedasanadverb:Thatwasadifficultquestion,soIanswereditlast.orbeforethemainverb:Itlastrainedeightmonthsago.(=Thelasttimeitrainedwas_)Bothfartherandfurthercanbeusedtorefertodistance:Idrovetenmilesfarther/furtherthannecessary.Further,butnotfarther,canbeusedtomean"inaddition":Welearnt,further,thathewasn"taqualifieddoctor.Notetheirregularadverbwell(relatedtotheadjectivegood)whichmeans"inapleasingorsatisfactoryway":JaneSomerswriteswell.[>6.8.1][>6.17]7.6HowwemakecomparisonsusingadverbsAdverbialcomparisonscanbemadewiththefollowing[compare>6.27-30]:as_as:Sylviasingsassweetlyashersister.notas/so_as:Ican"tswimaswellasyou(can).Shecan"tjump(quite)sohighasBilly(can)._than:TherainclearedmorequicklythanIexpected.the_the:ThefasterItype,themoremistakesImake._and_:Itrainedmoreandmoreheavily.comparative:DavedrivesfasterthananyoneIknow.superlative:IworkfastestwhenI"munderpressure.Timtriesthehardestofalltheboysinhisclass.Weoftenusethecomparative+thanever,thananyone,thananythingin:e.g.Magnusconcentratedharderthanever/thananyone.Thisispreferabletothesuperlativein:e.g.Magnusconcentratedthehardest.Adverbsofmanner7.7Spellingandformofadverbsendingin"-ly"adjectiveadverb1Add-lytoanadjective:badbadlycarefulcarefully2-ybecomes-ily:consonant+y:happyhappilyCompare:vowel+y:(day-noun)daily3Delete-eandadd-lyforendingsin-le:noblenobly4Adjectivesendingin-ictake-ally:fantasticfantastically7.8Notesonthespellingandformof"-ly"adverbs1Mostadverbsofmannerareformedbyadding-lytoadjectives:e.g.mad/madly,plain/plainly,sudden/suddenly.Thisappliestoadjectivesendingin-lsothatthelisdoubled:beautiful/beautifully,musical/musically.Butnote:full/fully.2-yafteraconsonantbecomes-ily:e.g.busy/busily,funny/funnily.Sometimestwoformationsarepossible:e.g.dry/drily/dryly,butine.g.sly/slyly,-ylyistheacceptableform.3Delete-eandadd-lyifanadjectiveendsin-le:e.g.able/ably,nimble/nimbly,possible/possibly,whole/wholly.Otheradjectives
EnglishGrammar:Adverbsendingin-eretainthe-ewhenadding-ly:extreme/extremely,tame/tamely.Exceptions:due/dulyandtrue/truly.4Adjectivesendingin-ictake-ally:e.g.basic/basically,systematic/systematically.Commonexception:public/publicly.Some-lyadverbs(relatingtomanner/frequency)havethesameformasadjectives:e.g.daily,weekly,monthly,quarterly,yearly:Ireceivequarterlybills.Ipaymybillsquarterly.Earlycanbeusedasanadjectiveoranadverb,butunlikee.g.week/weeklyisnotformedfromanotherword:Ihopetocatchanearlytrain.Iwanttoarriveearly.7.9Suffixesotherthan"-ly"usedtoformadverbsofmannerAfewothersuffixescanbeaddedtoadjectives(andtosomenounsandadverbs)toformadverbsofmanner(orinsomecasesdirection):(Indian)-fashion;(American)-style;backwards,forwards,northwards,upwards;crossways,lengthways,sideways,clockwise,lengthwise.Thesuffix-wiseisoftenusedtomakenewadverbsmeaning"relatingto(thenoun)":moneywise,taxwise(Howdoyoumanagetaxwise?).7.10Adverbsofmannerwithdynamicandstativeverbs[>9.3]Mostadverbsofmannernaturallyrefertoactionverbs(laughloudly,performbadly,drivecarefully,etc.).Asmallernumberofadverbscanalsorefertostativeverbs(e.g.understandperfectly,knowwell):Ihearverybadly.7.11PrepositionalphrasesusedadverbiallyWhenthereisno-lyadverbforwhatwewanttosay,wehavetouseanadverbialphrasebeginningwithaprepositiontoreferto"means"or"method":Icameherebybus.Sheansweredmeinaloudwhisper.Sometimeswecanchoosebetweenaphraseandan-lyadverb:Heleftinahurry/hurriedly.[>App26]7.12"-ly"adjectivesandequivalentadverbialformsHereisaselectionofadjectiveswhichendin-ly:brotherly/sisterly,cowardly,elderly,friendly/unfriendly,heavenly,likely/unlikely,lively,lovely,manly/womanly,motherly/fatherly,sickly,sillyandugly.Weusemostoftheseadjectivestodescribepeople"squalities.Wecannotusethemasadverbs,soweformphraseswithway,mannerorfashion:adjective:Susanisafriendlygirl.adverb:Shealwaysgreetsmeinafriendlyway/manner/fashion.7.13Adjectives/adverbs:sameform,samemeaning[>App14][>App15.1]Somewordscanbeusedasadjectivesorasadverbsofmannerwithoutadding-ly:fast,hard,etc.:Afast(adjective)trainisonethatgoesfast.(adverb)Iworkhard(adverb)becauseIenjoyhard(adjective)work.7.14Adverbswithtwoforms[>App15]Someadverbshavetwoformswhichmayhave:-thesamemeaning:e.g.cheap:Iboughtthiscarcheap/cheaply.-differentmeanings:e.g.hard:Iworkhardandplayhard.Ididhardlyanyworktoday.7.15AdverbsdifferinginmeaningfromcorrespondingadjectivesSomeadverbsdifferinmeaningfromtheircorrespondingadjectives:e.g.express/expressly,ready/readily:Ifit"surgent,youshouldsenditbyexpressmail.(fast)Youweretoldexpresslytobehereby7.(clearly/deliberately)Someadverbs,suchascoldly,coolly,hotlyandwarmly,canrefertofeelingsandbehaviourandcanbeusedwithverbssuchasact,behave,react,speak.Compareadjective/adverbusesin:e.g.It"scoldtoday.Thewholequeuestaredatmecoldly.It"sawarm/coolday.Emilygreetedmewarmly/coolly.It"sahotday.Edwardhotlydeniedtheaccusation.7.16Positionofadverbsofmanner7.16.1Adverbsofmanner:aftertheobjectoraftertheverbThemostusualpositionofadverbsofmannerisaftertheobjectoraftertheverb[>1.3]:e.g.-aftertheobject:Suewatchedthemonkeyscuriously.Lookatthisphotocarefully.-aftertheverb:ItsnowedheavilylastJanuary.-afteranadverbparticle:Hetookthepicturedowncarefully.
EnglishGrammar:AdverbsTheimportantthingisnottoputtheadverbbetweentheverbanditsobject.(Not*HespeakswellEnglish*).Buteventhisispossibleiftheobjectisverylong:Wecouldseeveryclearlyastrangelightaheadofus.7.16.2Adverbsofmanner:betweensubjectandverbOne-wordadverbsofmannercansometimesgobetweenthesubjectandtheverb.(Thisrarelyappliestoadverbialphrases.)Ifwewishtoemphasizethesubjectoftheverb,wecansay:Gillianangrilyslammedthedoorbehindher.(i.e.Gillianwasangrywhensheslammedthedoor.)However,wellandbadly,whenusedtoevaluateanaction,canonlygoattheendofasentenceorclause:MrGradgrindpayshisstaffverywell/badly.[compare>7.10]Withsomeadverbsofmanner,suchasbravely,cleverly,cruelly,foolishly,generously,kindly,secretly,simply,achangeofpositionresultsinadifferenceinemphasis.Comparethefollowing:Hefoolishlylockedhimselfout.(=itwasfoolish(ofhim)to_)[>16.27.2]Hebehavedfoolishlyattheparty.(=inafoolishmanner)Withothers,suchasbadly,naturally,achangeofpositionresultsinachangeinmeaningandfunction:Youtypedthisletterverybadly.(adverbofmanner)Webadlyneedanewtypewriter.(intensifier,>7.53.1)Youshouldalwaysspeaknaturally.(adverbofmanner)Naturally,I"llaccepttheinvitation.(viewpointadverb,>7.57)7.16.3Adverbsofmanner:beginningasentenceInnarrativewriting(butnotnormallyinspeech)sentencescanbeginwithadverbsofmanner,suchasgently,quietly,slowly,suddenly.Wedothisfordramaticeffect,ortocreatesuspense.Suchadverbsarefollowedbyacomma:O"Connorheldhisbreathandstoodquitestill.Quietly,hemovedforwardstogetabetterview.Adverbsofplace7.17Themeaningof"place"Theideaofplacecovers:-location:LarryisinJamaica.-direction(to,awayfrom):LarryflewtoJamaica.Adistinctioncanbedrawnbetweenlocationanddirection:1LocationadverbialsanswerthequestionWhere?andgowith"positionverbs"suchasbe,live,stay,work.Theycanbeginasentence:InJamaicaLarrystayedattheGrandHotel.2DirectionadverbialsanswerthequestionsWhereto?andWherefrom?.Theyoftengowith"movementverbs"likegoandcannotusuallybeginasentence:LarrywentbyplanetoJamaica.7.18HowtoidentifyadverbsofplaceAdverbsofplacemaybe:-wordslike:abroad,ahead,anywhere/everywhere/nowhere/somewhere,ashore,away/back,backwards/forwards,here/there,left/right,north/south,upstairs/downstairs.-wordslikethefollowing,whichcanalsofunctionasprepositions[>8.4.1]:above,behind,below,beneath,underneath.-twowordscombiningtoemphasizeplace,suchas:downbelow,down/upthere,farahead,faraway,overhere,overthere.Prepositionalphrasesoftenfunctionasadverbialsofplace:e.g.atmymother"s;fromNewYork;inhospital;ontheleft[>7.3.3][>7.30].7.19PositionofadverbsofplaceAdverbsofplacenevergobetweensubjectandverb.7.19.1Adverbsofplace:aftermannerbutbeforetimeWhenthereismorethanonekindofadverbinasentence,theusualpositionofadverbsofplaceisaftermanner,butbeforetime(followingaverborverb+object[>1.3]):mannerplacetimeBarbarareadquietlyinthelibraryallafternoon.However,adverbsofdirectioncanoftencomeaftermovementverbs(come,drive,go)andbeforeotheradverbials:IwenttoLondon(direction)bytrain(manner)nextday(time).Ifthereismorethanoneadverbofplace,then"smallerplaces"arementionedbefore"biggerplaces"inascendingorder:Shelives|inasmallhouse|inavillage|outsideReading|inBerkshire,|England.7.19.2Adverbsofplace:beginningasentenceIfwewishtoemphasizelocation(e.g.forcontrast),wemaybeginwithanadverboflocation,especiallyindescriptivewriting:Indoorsitwasniceandwarm.Outsideitwassnowingheavily.Toavoidambiguity,theinitialpositionisusualwhenthereismorethanoneadverbialofplace:
EnglishGrammar:AdverbsOnmanylargefarms,farmworkersliveintiedcottages.Forinversionafterinitialplaceadverbials[>7.59.1-2].Adverbsoftime7.20HowtoidentifyadverbsoftimeAdverbsandadverbialphrasesoftimecanrefertodefinitetime[>7.21],answeringquestionslikeWhen(exactly)?:I"llseeyoutomorrow/onMonday.Theyrefertoduration[>7.30],answeringSincewhen?/Forhowlong?:Ihaven"tseenhersinceMonday/forayear.Otheradverbialsrefertoindefinitetime[>7.23],i.e.theydonotanswertimequestionsprecisely:Hedoesn"tliveherenow/anymore.Sometimeadverbscanalsoactasnouns:TomorrowisTuesday,isn"tit?7.21AdverbsofdefinitetimeAdverbsofdefinitetimeanswerthequestionWhen?andaregenerallyusedwithpasttenses,orrefertothefuture:IstartedmyjoblastMonday.I"llringtomorrow.Twomaincategoriescanbedefined:1"Pointsoftime"suchastoday,tomorrow,yesterday[>App48].Thesecanbemodifiedbythewordsearly,earlier,lateandlater:e.g.earliertoday;late/laterthisyear.2Prepositionalphraseswhichfunctionasadverbialsoftime[>8.11-14].Theyoftenbeginwithat,inoron:e.g.atfiveo"clock[>App47.5];atChristmas;inJuly;onNovember20th.Someofthesecanbemodified:earlyinJuly;punctuallyat5.7.22PositionofadverbsofdefinitetimeThemostusualpositionisattheveryendofasentence[>1.3]:WecheckedinatthehotelonMonday/yesterday,etc.Definitetimereferencescanalsobemadeatthebeginning:ThismorningIhadatelephonecallfromSheila.Ifthereismorethanonetimereference,weusuallyprogressfromtheparticulartothegeneral,i.e.time+day+date+year:Gilbertwasbornat11.58onMondayNovember18th1986.7.23AdverbsofindefinitetimeSomecommonadverbsofindefinitetimeare:afterwards,already[>7.26][>7.28],anotherday,anothertime,atlast,atonce,early,eventually,formerly,immediately,just[>7.29],late,lately(=recently),now,nowadays,once,oneday,presently,recently,someday,soon,still[>7.25],subsequently,suddenly,then,thesedays,ultimatelyandyet[>7.27-28].7.24PositionofadverbsofindefinitetimeThefollowingusuallycomeattheendofasentence,althoughtheycanalsocomebeforetheverband(usuallytofocusinterestorforcontrast)atthebeginningofasentence:afterwards,eventually,formerly,immediately,lately,once,presently,recently,soon,subsequently,suddenly,then,ultimately:IwenttoBerlinrecently.IrecentlywenttoBerlin.Recently,IwenttoBerlin.Itwasveryinteresting_Whentheverbisbe,theseadverbsusuallycomeafterit:IwasrecentlyinBerlin.Earlyandlatecomeattheendofasentenceorclause:Wearrivedattheairporttooearly/lateforourflight.Anotherday/time,oneday(referringtopastorfuture),someday(referringtofuture),cancomeatthebeginningortheend:SomedayI"lltellyou.I"lltellyousomeday.Someadverbsofindefinitetimecanbemodifiedwithonly(onlyjust,onlyrecently)orwithvery(veryearly,veryrecently).7.25Positionanduseof"still"Still,referringtotime,emphasizescontinuity.Itismainlyusedinquestionsandaffirmatives,oftenwithprogressivetenses[>9.20.1].Itspositionisthesameasforadverbsofindefinitefrequency[>7.40]:MrsMasonisstillinhospital.I"mstillwaitingformynewpassport.TomstillworksfortheBritishCouncil.Forspecialemphasis,itcancomebeforeanauxiliary[>7.40.6]:Marthastill"isinhospital,youknow.
EnglishGrammar:AdverbsUsedafterthesubjectinnegativesentences,stillcanexpressdissatisfactionorsurprise:Istillhaven"theardfromher.(CompareIhaven"theardfromheryet,whichisneutral.)7.26Positionanduseof"already"Alreadyisnotnormallyusedinnegativesentences.Itspositionisthesameasforadverbsofindefinitefrequency[>7.40],thoughitcanalsocomeattheend:Thismachineisalreadyoutofdate.Itisoutofdatealready.I"vealreadyseenthereport.I"veseenitalready.Tomalreadyknowsthetruth.Heknowsitalready.Forspecialemphasisitcancomebeforeanauxiliary[>7.40.6]:You"dbetterlockup.-Ialready"have(lockedup).Intheendposition,alreadycanemphasize"soonerthanexpected":Don"ttellmeyou"veeatenitalready!7.27Positionanduseof"yet"Yetgenerallycomesattheendinquestionsandnegatives:Havethenewpetrolpricescomeintoforceyet?Haven"tthenewpetrolpricescomeintoforceyet?Thenewpetrolpriceshaven"tcomeintoforceyet.Innegatives,yetcancomebeforethemainverb:Thenewpetrolpriceshaven"tyetcomeintoforce.Yetisoftenusedafternotinshortnegativeanswers:Hastheconcertfinished?-No,notyet.Beforeaninfinitive,yethasalmostthesamemeaningasstill:Who"llbeappointed?-It"syet/stilltobedecided.7.28"Yet"and"already"comparedBoththeseadverbsarecommonlyusedwithperfecttenses[>9.26.2],thoughinAmEtheycommonlyoccurwiththepast:Haveyouseen"Tosca"yet?-I"vealreadyseenit.(BrE)Didyousee"Tosca"yet?-Ialreadysawit.(AmE)Weuseyetinquestionswhenwewantinformation:Haveyoureceivedyourinvitationyet?(i.e.Idon"tknow.)Wesometimesusealreadywhenwewantconfirmation:Haveyoualreadyreceivedyourinvitation?(i.e.Pleaseconfirm.)7.29Positionanduseof"just"Just(referringtotime)hasthesamepositionasforadverbsofindefinitefrequency[>7.40]andisused:-withperfecttensestomean"duringaveryshortperiodbeforenoworbeforethen"[>9.26.2][>9.29.1]:I"vejustfinishedreadingthepaper.Wouldyoulikeit?IsawMrsMasonyesterday.Shehadjustcomeoutofhospital.-withthepast,especiallyinAmE,tomean"averyshorttimeago":IjustsawSelina.Shewasgoingtothetheatre.-torefertotheimmediatefuture,withprogressivetensesorwill:Wait.I"mjustcoming.I"lljustputmycoaton.Justhasothermeanings,e.g."thatandnothingelse":HowdoIworkthis?-Youjustturnonthatswitch.7.30AdverbialsofdurationDuration(periodsoftime)canbeexpressedbyadverbs(e.g.ago,all(day)long,(not)anymore,(not)anylonger,nolonger,nomore),andbyprepositionalphrasesfunctioningasadverbials(beginningwithe.g.by,during,for,from_to/till,since,throughout).7.31"Since"and"ago"[>9.25.2][>9.29.1][>9.33.1][>10.13.5][>9.18]SincecombineswithpointsoftimetoanswerthequestionSincewhen?Itisoftenassociatedwiththepresentperfecttomarkthebeginningofaperiodlastingtillnow,orwiththepastperfecttomarkthebeginningofaperiodlastingtillthen:Ihaven"tseenTimsinceJanuary/sincelastholidays.ImetJohnlastweek.Ihadn"tseenhimsince1984.Sincecanbeusedasanadverbonitsown:IsawyourmotherlastJanuary,butIhaven"tseenhersince.Periodoftime+ago(answeringHowlongago?orWhen?)marksthestartofaperiodgoingbackfromnow:IstartedworkingatLawson"ssevenmonthsago.Notethatsinceisplacedbeforethepointintimeitrefersto;agoisplacedaftertheperioditrefersto.
EnglishGrammar:Adverbs7.32"For"[>App25.20]For(+periodoftime,answeringHowlong?)marksthedurationofaperiodoftimeinthepastorinthefuture,oruptothepresent:TheKenwayslivedhereforfiveyears.(Theynolongerlivehere.)TheKenwayshavelivedhereforfiveyears.(Theyarestillhere.)Forcombineswithe.g.ages,hours,days,weeks,months,years,etc.toemphasizeorexaggerateduration:Ihaven"tseenPatriciaformonths.Howisshe?Inaffirmativesentenceswitha"continuityverb"likebe,live,work[>9.33.1]forisoftenomittedwhentheverbispresentperfectorpast:Patriciahasbeen(orhaslived,hasworked)here(for)ayear.Sometimesforcanbeomittedinfuturereference:I"llbe(orstay,work)inNewYork(for)sixmonths.Forcannotbeomittedinnegativesentencesorwhenitcomesatthebeginningofasentenceorclause:Ihaven"tseenhimforsixyears.Forsixyears,helivedabroad.7.33"From_to/till/until"From_to/till/untilrefertoadefinedperiod:ThetouristseasonrunsfromJuneto/tillOctober.Fromcanbeomittedinformallywithtillbutnotusuallywithto:I"matmyoffice(from)ninetillfive.(_fromninetofive)Weworkedontheproject(from)MarchtillJune.7.34"By","till/until"and"not_till/until"Till(oruntil)andbymean"anytimebeforeandnotlaterthan".Whenweuse"continuityverbs"[>9.33.1]whichindicateaperiodoftime(e.g.stay,wait)wecanonlyusetill/until(Not*by*):I"llstayheretill/untilMonday.Iwon"tstayheretill/untilMonday.Willyoustayheretill/untilMonday?Whenweuseverbswhichapointoftime(e.g.finish,leave),wecanonlyusetill/untilinthenegative:Iwon"tleavetill/untilMonday.(=onMonday,notbefore)Wecanonlyusebywithpointoftimeverbs,sowecansay:I"llhaveleftbyMonday.(=anytimebeforeandnotlaterthan)Iwon"thaveleftbyMonday.(=I"llstillbehereonMonday)7.35"During","in"and"throughout"During,alwaysfollowedbyanoun,canrefertoawholeperiod:Itwasveryhotduringthesummer.ortopointsduringthecourseofaperiod:He"sphonedfourtimesduringthelasthalfhour.In(=withinaperiod)canreplaceduringintheaboveexamples.Vaguenesscanbeemphasizedbytheuseofsometime+during:Iposteditsometimeduring(Not*in*)theweek.Duringcannotbereplacedbyinwhenwerefertoaneventoractivityratherthantoaperiodoftime:Ididn"tlearnmuchduringmyteacher-training.Throughoutcanreplaceinorduringifwewishtoemphasize"fromthebeginningtotheendofawholeperiod":TherewerethunderstormsthroughoutJuly.Duringorthroughout(Not*in*)cancombinewithe.g.thewhole,theentiretoemphasizethatsomethinghappenedoveraperiod:Duringthewhole/theentirewintersheneversawasoul.7.36"All(day)long","(not)anymore"All_longemphasizesdurationandiscommonlyusedwithwordslikedayandnight.Longgivesextraemphasisandisoptional:Itrainedallnight(long).Not_anymore,not_anylongerandnolongerareusedtoshowthatanactionwithdurationhasstoppedormuststop.Theycomeattheendofasentenceorclause:Hurryup!Ican"twaitanylonger/anymore.Nolongercancomebeforeafullverborattheendofasentence,thoughtheendpositionissometimesslightlymoreformal:I"msorry,ProfessorCarringtonnolongerliveshere.Adverbsoffrequency7.37HowtoidentifyadverbsoffrequencyTheseadverbsfallintotwocategories:definitefrequencyandindefinitefrequency.BothkindsofadverbsanswerHowoften?
EnglishGrammar:Adverbs7.38AdverbsofdefinitefrequencyandtheirpositionTheseincludewordsandphraseslikethefollowing:-once,twice;three/severaltimes(aday/week/month/year,etc.).-hourly/daily/weekly/fortnightly/monthly/yearly/annually.-every+e.g.day/week/month/year;+morning/afternoon/evening/night;andincombinationslikeeveryotherday,every3years,everyfewdays,everythird(etc.)day.-on+Mondays,Fridays,weekdays,etc.Theseadverbialsusuallycomeattheendofasentence:There"sacollectionfromthisletterboxtwicedaily.Someofthemcanalsobeginasentence,justlikeadverbsoftime.Thismaybenecessarytoavoidambiguity:Onceamonthwevisitourdaughterwho"satLeedsUniversity.avoidstheambiguityof:Wevisitourdaughterwho"satLeedsUniversityonceamonth.The-lyadverbs(hourly,daily,etc.)arenotnormallyusedtobeginsentences.7.39AdverbsofindefinitefrequencyTheseadverbsgivegeneralanswerstoHowoften?.Herearesomeofthemostcommon,arrangedona"scaleoffrequency":-always(i.e."allofthetime").-almostalways,nearlyalways.-generally,normally,regularly,usually.-frequently,often.-sometimes,occasionally.-almostnever,hardlyever,rarely,scarcelyever,seldom.-not_ever,never(i.e."noneofthetime").Negativefrequencyadverbs(almostnever,etc.above)cannotbeusedwithnot[>13.10]:IhardlyeverseeBrianthesedays.(Not*Idon"thardlyever*)Thefollowingcanbeintensifiedwithvery:frequently,occasionally,often,rarely,regularlyandseldom.Butnotethatveryoccasionallymeans"notveryoften":Weonlyhavedinnerpartiesveryoccasionallythesedays.Thefollowingcanbemodifiedbyfairlyandquite:frequently,oftenandregularly.Otheradverbialsthatsuggestindefinitefrequencyare:againandagain;attimes;everysooften;(every)nowandagain;fromtimetotime;(every)nowandthen;andordinary-lyadverbssuchasconstantly,continually,continuously,repeatedly.Not_anymore,not_anylonger,etc.referbothtodurationandfrequency,indicatingactivitiesthatusedtooccurfrequently,buthavenowstopped[>7.36].7.40Positionofadverbsofindefinitefrequency7.40.1Adverbsoffrequency:affirmatives/questions:mid-positionThenormalpositionofmostadverbsofindefinitefrequencyis"afteranauxiliaryorbeforeafullverb".Thismeans:-afterbewhenitistheonlyverbinasentence[but>7.40.6]:Iwasneververygoodatmaths.-afterthefirstauxiliaryverbwhenthereismorethanoneverb:Youcanalwayscontactmeon0325642.-beforethemainverbwhenthereisonlyoneverb:Geraldoftenmadeunwisedecisions.Theseadverbsusuallycomebeforeusedto,havetoandoughtto:Weneverusedtoimportsomanygoods.Theycanalsocomebeforeato-infinitive,thoughthisisformal:Yououghtalwaystocheckyourfactswhenyouwriteessays.Inquestions,theseadverbsusuallycomeafterthesubject:Doyouusuallyhavecreaminyourcoffee?7.40.2Adverbsoffrequency:negativesentences:mid-positionNotmustcomebeforealwaysanditcommonlycomesbeforegenerally,normally,often,regularlyandusually:Publictransportisn"talwaysveryreliable.Wedon"tusuallygetupbeforenineonSundays.Thefollowingisalsopossiblewithslightlydifferentemphasis:Weusuallydon"tgetupbefore9onSundays.Notmustcomeaftersometimesandfrequently:Debbieissometimesnotresponsibleforwhatshedoes.Somefrequencyadverbialssuchasalmostalways,nearlyalwaysandoccasionallyarenotusedinthenegative.7.40.3Adverbsoffrequency:endposition"Affirmativeadverbs"canbeusedattheendofasentence:
EnglishGrammar:AdverbsIgetpaidonFridaysusually.Wecanuseoftenattheendinquestionsandnegatives:Doyoucomehereoften?Idon"tcomehereoften.Alwaysmayoccurattheend,butinthesenseof"forever":I"llloveyoualways.The"negativeadverbs"rarelyandseldomcansometimesoccurattheend,especiallywhenmodifiedbyonlyorvery:Nowadays,wedrivedowntothecoastonlyrarely.7.40.4Adverbsoffrequency:beginningasentenceWherespecialemphasisorcontrastisrequired,thefollowingcanbeginasentence:frequently,generally,normally,occasionally,ordinarily,sometimesandusually:SometimeswegetalotofraininAugust.Oftenisgenerallyprecededbyquiteorverywhenitisusedforemphasisatthebeginningofasentence:Quite/VeryoftenthephoneringswhenI"minthebath.Alwaysandnevercanbeusedatthebeginninginimperatives:Alwayspayyourdebts.Neverborrowmoney.[>9.52n.6]Whennegativeadverbs(never,seldom,etc.)areusedtobeginsentences,theyaffectthewordorderthatfollows[>7.59.3].7.40.5Adverbsoffrequency:"ever"and"never"Ever,meaning"atanytime",isusedinquestions:Haveyoueverthoughtofapplyingforajobabroad?Wecanuseeverafterany-andno-indefinitepronouns[>4.37]:Doesanyoneevervisitthem?NothingeverbothersHoward.Evercanoccurinaffirmativeif-sentences:Ifyoueverneedanyhelp,youknowwheretofindme.andafterhardly,scarcelyandbarely[>7.39].Neverisusedinnegativesentencesandfrequentlyreplacesnotwhenwewishtostrengthenanegative[>13.8].Compare:Idon"tsmoke.Ineversmoke.Thenegativenot_evermaybeusedinpreferencetoneverforextraemphasisine.g.promises,warnings,etc.:Ipromiseyou,hewon"tevertroubleyouagain!7.40.6AdverbsoffrequencybeforeauxiliariesAdverbsofindefinitefrequencycanbeusedbeforeauxiliaries(be,have,do,can,must,etc.)whenwewanttoplacespecialemphasisontheverb,whichisusuallyheavilystressedinspeech:It"sjustlikePhilip.Healways"islatewhenwehaveanimportantmeeting.Younever"canrelyonhim.Weoftenusethiswordorderinshortresponses,especiallytoagreewithorcontradictsomethingthathasjustbeensaid:Philipislateagain.-Yes,healways"is.Notethisusewhendo,doesanddidreplaceafullverb:Yoursonneverhelpsyou.-No,henever"does.or:Buthealways"does!Aresponseofthiskindcanbepartofasinglestatement:Joanpromisedtokeepherroomtidy,butsheneverdid.Thesamekindofemphasiscanbemadewithmorethanoneverb:Georgenevershouldhavejoinedthearmy.Adverbsofdegree7.41HowtoidentifyadverbsofdegreeAdverbsofdegreebroadlyanswerthequestion"Towhatextent?"Someofthemostcommonare:almost,altogether,barely,abit,enough,fairly,hardly,nearly,quite,rather,somewhat,too.Mostofthesegobeforethewordstheymodify:e.g.-adjectives:quitegood.-adverbs:quitequickly.-verbs:Iquitelikeit.-nouns(inafewinstances):quiteanexperience.However,notalladverbsofdegreecanformallthesecombinations.Adverbsofdegreechangethemeaningofasentence,oftenbyweakeningtheeffectofthewordtheymodify.Inspeech,theinformationtheyprovidecanvaryaccordingtostress:Thefilmwasquitegood.(risingtone:=Ienjoyeditonthewhole)Thefilmwasquitegood.(fallingtone:=Ididn"tparticularlyenjoyit)Foradverbsofdegreewhichwillcombinewiththecomparativeandsuperlativeofadjectivesandadverbs[>6.27.5][>6.28.2].Somequantifiers,suchasalittle,alot,much,etc.canbeusedasadverbsofdegree[>7.45-46].Compare:Idon"tlikecoffeeverymuch.(degree)Idon"tdrinkmuchcoffee.(quantity)Fractionsandpercentagesalsofunctionasadverbstoshowdegree:Businessissobadthatthedepartmentstoresarehalfempty.
EnglishGrammar:AdverbsWehavea60%chanceofwinningthenextelection.Someadverbsofdegree(almost,nearly,etc.)donotposeproblemsinusage;others(fairly,rather,etc.)aremorecomplicated.Detailsfollow.7.42"Quite"Themeaningofquitedependsonthekindofworditmodifies.Withadjectivesandadverbswhicharegradable[>6.5]quitemeans"lessthanthehighestdegree",oritcanmean"betterthanexpected".Thisuseofquite(=lessthan,etc.)isnotverycommoninAmE.Thelecturewasquitegood.Helecturedquitewell.(=lessthan)However,withungradablewords(dead,perfect(ly),unique(ly))and"strong"gradablewords(amazing(ly),astounding(ly)),quitemeans"absolutely"or"completely":Thenewsisquiteamazing.Sheplaysquiteamazingly.Notquite,roughlymeaning"notcompletely",isnormallyusedwithungradablewordsonly(notquitedead,notquiteperfect,etc.):Youranswerisnotquiteright.Quiteisnotusedwiththecomparativebutcanmodifyafewverbs:Iquiteenjoymountainholidays.(i.e.toacertainextent)Iquiteforgottopostyourletter.(i.e.completely)Andnote:He"squitebetter.(=Hehascompletelyrecovered.)QuiteisoftenusedinBrEinunderstatements.Thus,ifaspeakersays,He"squiteclever,hemightmean,"He"sveryintelligent".Whereaslightlydifferentemphasisisrequired,quitecanbereplacedbynotatall+anegativeword:He"snotatallstupid.[compare>5.8]7.42.1"Quite/a/an","quitesome"and"quitethe"Quitea/an+countablenounsuggests"noteworthy":MadeleineisquiteanexpertonRomancoins.Quitesome+uncountablenounsuggests"considerable":It"squitesometimesincewewrotetoeachother.Quitea/an(oraquite)+adjective+nounispositiveinitseffect:Itisquiteaninterestingfilm/aquiteinterestingfilm.Quitethe(=e.g."certainly")cancombinewith:-superlatives:It"squitetheworstplayIhaveeverseen.-nouns:Widelapelsarequitethefashionthisspring.7.43"Fairly"Fairlysuggests"lessthanthehighestdegree"andoftencombineswithadjectives/adverbsthatsuggestagoodstateofaffairs(e.g.good,nice,well).Itisless"complimentary"thanquite:Thelecturewasfairlygood.Helecturedfairlywell.Fairlydoesnotcombinewithcomparatives.Comparedwithquiteandrather,itcombineswithverbsinrestrictedcontexts:Youfairlydrivememadwithyournagging.(=verynearly)Afairlycombineswithadjective+noun:He"safairlygoodspeaker.(lesscomplimentarythanquitea/an)7.44"Rather"Rathercanbestrongerthanquiteandfairlyandsuggests"inclinedtobe".Itcancombinewithadjectiveswhichsuggestagoodstateofaffairsorabadone:-inclinedtobegood:good,nice,clever,well.-inclinedtobebad:bad,nasty,stupid,ill.Rathercombineswith:-adjectives:Thisjacket"sgettingratherold.-adverbs:Ididratherbadlyinthecompetition.-someverbs:Iratherlikerawfish.-comparatives:Cliveearnsrathermorethanhisfather.Rathertendstocombinewith"negative"adjectives:Frankiscleverbutratherlazy.With"positive"adjectives,ratheroftensuggests"surprisingly":Yourresultsarerathergood-betterthanIexpected.InBrErather,likequite[>7.42],isusedinunderstatements:ProfessorBoffinwasratherpleasedwhenhewontheNobelPrize.7.44.1"Rathera/an"and"arather"Rathera/ancombineswithanoun:OldFortescue"sratherabore.(=he"sinclinedtobeabore)Rathera/anorarathercanprecedeadjective+noun:It"sratherasadstory.=It"sarathersadstory.
EnglishGrammar:Adverbs7.45"Much","far"and"alot"Normally,muchandfarcombinewithcomparative/superlativeforms[>6.27.5][>6.28.2]:muchbigger,farbetter,farthebest:andalotcombineswithcomparatives:alotmoreexpensive.Muchcanbeusedlikevery[>7.51]andany[>5.12.3]withafewpositive(i.e.notcomparativeorsuperlative)formssuchasgoodanddifferent.Itisnormallyusedwithanegative:Idon"tthinkthisbatteryismuchgood/muchdifferent.Alotandfarcombinewithdifferent,butnotwithgood:Thiseditionisalot/fardifferentfromtheearlierone.Notmuchandalotcombinewithverbslikelikeandenjoy:Idon"tmuchlikefish.Idon"tlikefish(very)much/alot.Farcombineswithverbslikepreferandwouldrather[>11.44]:Ifarpreferswimmingtocycling.7.46"A(little)bit","alittle","somewhat"Abit(oralittlebit),alittleandsomewhatcombinewith:-adjectives:It"sabit/alittle/somewhatexpensive.-adverbs:Hearrivedabit/alittle/somewhatlate.-comparatives:You"reabit/alittle/somewhattallerthanAlice.-verbs:I"veturneduptheovenabit/alittle/somewhat.Notabit(likenotintheleast,notintheslightest)isoftenusedforextraemphasisasanegativeintensifier[compare>5.8]:Shewasn"tevenabitupsetwhensheheardthenews.7.47"Enough"and"fairly"[compare>5.17]Enoughandfairlyshouldnotbeconfused.Enough,asanadverb,followsanadjectiveoradverbandsuggests"forsomepurpose":Thewaterinthepoolisfairlywarm.Thewaterinthepooliswarmenough(toswimin).[>16.32.2]7.48"Too","very"and"enough"Toogoesbeforeadjectivesandadverbs.Itconveystheideaof"excess","morethanisnecessary",andshouldnotbeconfusedwiththeintensifiervery,whichdoesnotsuggestexcess[>7.51].Tooandenoughpointtoaresult:Iarrivedatthestationtoolate.(Imissedthetrain.)Ididn"tarriveatthestationearlyenough.(Imissedthetrain.)Ididn"tarriveatthestationtoolate.(Icaughtthetrain.)Iarrivedatthestationearlyenough.(Icaughtthetrain.)Toocanbemodifiedbyabit,far,alittle,alot,muchandrather(fartoomuchwork;abittoodifficult,etc.).Fortooandenoughwithadjective+infinitive[>16.32].7.49"Hardly","barely"and"scarcely"Theseadverbsaresimilarinmeaning.Theycanbeusedinfrontof:-adjectives:Thissoupishardly/barely/scarcelywarm(enough).-adverbs:Sheplayshardly/barely/scarcelywellenough.Hardlyandscarcelycanbeusedwithverbs:Itmightstopraining,butIhardly/scarcelythinkitlikely.Barelycombineswithasmallerrangeofverbs:Jimmybarelyknowshismultiplicationtablesyet.Hardly,barelyandscarcelyarenegativewordsanddonotcombinewithnotornever.Theycombinewithever[>7.39]andany[>5.10]:I"vegotsolittletime,Ihardlyeverreadnewspapers.There"shardlyanycheerfulnewsinthepapers.Hardly/barely/scarcelyevercanbereplacedbyalmostnever:IalmostnevervisitLondonthesedays.(=Ihardlyever_)Nearlywillnotcombinewithnever;wemustusealmostnever.Wecansaynotnearly,butwecannotsay*notalmost*:Therearenotnearlyenoughmemberspresenttoholdameeting.Intensifiers
EnglishGrammar:Adverbs7.50HowtoidentifyintensifiersIntensifiersareadverbswhichareusedwithgradable[>6.5]adjectivesandadverbs(veryslow/veryslowly)and,insomecases,verbs(Ientirelyagree).Whileanadverbofdegreenormallyweakensorlimitsthemeaningoftheworditmodifies,anintensifiernormallystrengthens(or"intensifies")themeaning:Yourworkisgood.Yourworkisverygood.(intensifier:meaningstrengthened)Yourworkisquitegood.(adverbofdegree:meaningweakened)7.51"Very",etc.[compare>6.9]Veryisthemostcommonintensifier.Weuseitbefore:-adjectives:Marthahasbeenveryill.-adjective+noun:Borisisnotaveryniceperson.-adverbs:Thewheelsofbureaucracyturnveryslowly.Veryonitsowncannotgobeforecomparatives,butvery+muchcan:verymuchbetter/faster.Norcanitgobeforemanypredicativeadjectiveslikealone[>6.8.2]exceptwithmuch:Sinceherhusband"sdeath,MrsKayhasbeenverymuchalone.Combinationswithnot(notverygood,notverywell)areoftenusedinpreferencetopositiveforms(bad,ill)becausetheyaresometimesmorepolite(Yourworkisnotverygood).Verycanbeusedbeforegradableadjectivalpresentparticiples(veryinteresting)andadjectivalpastparticiples(mostlyendingin-ed,e.g.veryinterested[>App10]andafewothers,e.g.verymistaken).Whenpastparticiplesareusedtoformverbtenses,theycansometimesbeprecededbymuchorverymuch:Thesedevelopmentshaveverymuchinterestedus.(Not*very*)7.51.1"Very","(very)much","so","sucha/an"Much,withorwithoutveryorso,canbeusedinmid-position:Byronisverymuch/somuch/muchadmiredinGreece.Verymuchandsomuch(butnevermuchonitsown)canalsogointheendposition:Ienjoyedyourpartyverymuch/somuch.Wecanusethevery(ore.g.my)verybeforeasuperlative(theverybest)butwemustuseverymuchorsomuchbeforeacomparative(somuchbetter)[>6.27.5].Theverycanalsocombinewithafewnouns(theverybeginning)[>6.9].Verycanbereplacedbymostbeforesomeadjectivesdescribingpersonalfeelings,attitudes(mostobliged,mostconcerned,etc.).Sucha/an+(adjective)+nouncanbeusedinplaceofso+adjective:Itwassuchaniceparty!/Thepartywassonice!Compareso_a/anin:Itwassoimportantanoccasion,wecouldn"tmissit.So+adjectivecanreplacevery,informally,e.g.inexclamations:Thisnewcheeseissogood![>App7.18]Forextraemphasis,verymayberepeated:Thisnewcheeseisveryverygood.(also:soveryverygood)7.51.2"Jolly","pretty"and"dead"inplaceof"very"Jollyandtheweakerprettycanbeusedin(informal)BrEinplaceofverybeforeadjectivesoradverbs:She"sajollygoodplayer.Thetrafficismovingprettyslowly.Prettycanalsocombinewithwelltomean"nearly":Thefilmwasprettywelloverbythetimewegottothecinema.Deadisused,usuallyinformally,withalimitedselectionofadjectives(notadverbs):deadcertain,deaddrunk,deadlevel,deadquiet,deadright,deadstraight,deadtired,deadwrong:You"redeadright!ThewarinEuropedidendonMay7,1945.7.51.3"Indeed"and"not(_)atall"Very(butnotso)canbeintensifiedbyindeedinaffirmativesentences:That"sverygoodindeed.Ienjoyeditverymuchindeed.Atall(withorwithoutverymuch)canbeusedinnegatives:Mikedoesn"tenjoyclassicalmusic(verymuch)atall.7.52-lyintensifiersusedinplaceof"very"Afew-lyadverbssuchasextremely,particularly,reallyand(informally)awfully,frightfully,andterriblyarecommonlyusedforextraemphasisinplaceofverywith:-adjectives:MissHargreavesisextremelyhelpful.-adverbs:Dawsonworksreallyslowly.-pastparticiples:I"mterriblyconfusedbyallthisinformation.--ing-formadjectives:Theinformationisterriblyconfusing.-adjective+noun:Dawsonisaparticularlygoodworker.Some-lyadverbswillcombinewithverbs:
EnglishGrammar:AdverbsIreallyappreciateallyou"vedoneforme.7.53-lyintensifiersthatretaintheirbasicmeaningMany-lyadverbswhichcanactasintensifiersretaintheirbasicmeaning:e.g.absolutely,completely,definitely,entirely,greatly,perfectly,seriously[>App16].Eachofthesewillcombinewithsomewordsandnotwithothers.Forexample,greatlywillcombinewithverbs,butnotwithadjectives(exceptafewendingin-ed)oradverbs:ManypeoplegreatlyadmiredEnglishgardens.Many-lyadverbscommonlycombinewithpastparticiples(completelymistaken,horriblyinjured,perfectlyplanned,etc.).Inthepassive-lyadverbscancomebeforeorafterpastparticiples:Hewasunexpectedlydelayed/delayedunexpectedly.7.53.1Limitedcombinationswith-lyadverbsSome-lyadverbs,suchasbadly,deeply,lightly,sharply,strikingly,utterly,combinewithrelativelysmallsetsofwords:e.g.badlyneeded,deeplysuspicious,highlyrespectedMorecombinationsarepossiblewithadverbslikedeeplyandutterlythanwithe.g.sharply.Focusadverbs7.54Theuseofadverbswhen"focusing"Adverbssuchaseven,just,merely,only,reallyandsimplycanprecedethewordtheyqualifytofocusattentiononit.Others,liketooandaswell,focusourattentionbyaddinginformation.7.55Thepositionof"even"and"only"Thepositionofsomeadverbssuchasevenandonlyisparticularlyflexible,conveyingslightlydifferentmeaningsaccordingtowheretheyareplaced.Afewexamplesare:EvenTomknownsthat2and2make4.(i.e.althoughhe"sstupid)Tomevenknowsthat2and2make4.(i.e.ofthemanythingsheknows)OnlyTomknowstheanswer.(i.e.nobodyelsedoes)Tomknowsonlyhalfofit.(i.e.nothingelse)TomonlymetHelen.(i.e.nooneelse)Thepre-verbpositionofevenandonlyoftenleadstoambiguity.Inthewrittenlanguagewecanavoidambiguitybyputtingthesewordsbeforethewordstheyqualify.Inthespokenlanguage,thisisnotnecessary(andrarelyhappens).Werelyonstressandintonation:IonlyaskedJimtolendmehis"ladder.(i.e.notanythingelse)7.55.1Otherusesof"only"[compare>16.12.2]Only+too,inthesenseof"extremely":I"monlytoogladtobeofhelp.Onlybeforeaverbinexplanationsandexcuses:Idon"tknowwhyyou"resoangry.Ionlyleftthedooropen.7.56"Too","aswell","not_either"and"also"Tooandaswellusuallygointheendpositionintheaffirmative:IlikeJohnandIlikehiswife,too/aswell.Innegativesentencesthesewordsarereplacedbyeither:Idon"tlikeJohnandIdon"tlikehiswife,either.Also,usedasareplacementfortooandaswell,ismorecommoninwritingthaninspeech.Itcomes:-afterauxiliaries:Sueisanengineer.Sheisalsoamother.-afterthefirstverbwhenthereismorethanone:I"vewrittentheletters.Ishouldalsohavepostedthem.-beforethemainverb:IplaysquashandIalsoplaytennis.Noteintheaboveexamplethatalsogenerallyreferstotheverbthatfollowsit(i.e.tennisisnottheonlygameIplay).CompareI,too,playtenniswhichreferstothesubject(=MyfriendplaystennisandIplaytennis,too/aswell).Theuseoftoo,directlyafterthesubject,isformalandtheendpositionisgenerallypreferred,especiallyininformalspeech.Liketooandaswell,alsoisnotusedinnegativesentencesandmustbereplacedbynot_either[compare>13.28-29].Viewpointadverbsandconnectives7.57Expressingaviewpoint[>App17]Manyadverbsandadverbialphrasestellussomethingaboutaspeaker"s(orwriter"s)attitudetowhatheissayingortothepersonheistalkingto(orwritingtoorfor).Wecallthese"viewpoint"or"sentence"adverbsbecausetheyqualifywhatisbeingsaid(or
EnglishGrammar:Adverbswritten),butdonotaffectitsgrammaticalstructure.Forexample,aspeakerorwritermayuseadverbssuchasclearlyorevidentlytotellusheisdrawingconclusions:franklyorhonestlytoimpressuswithhissincerity;generallyornormallytomakegeneralizations;brieflyorinshorttosuggesthewillnotbetediousorgointodetails.Viewpointadverbsmaycomeattheverybeginningofasentence,andarefollowedbyabriefpauseinspeechoracommainwriting.Theythenmodifythesentenceorsentencesthatfollow:Frankly,Iamnotsatisfiedwithyourwork.Someviewpointadverbsmayalsocomeinmid-position:Hesmilednastily.HeevidentlyknewsomethingIdidn"t.Hopefullyisanadverbofmannerin:Totravelhopefullyisbetterthantoarrive.Nowadays,hopefullyisoftenusedasaviewpointadverb,thoughnotallnativespeakersapproveofthisuse:Hopefully,(=Ihope)I"llseeyousometimetomorrow.Hopefully,(=itishoped)they"llarriveatanagreement.7.58Connectingwordsandphrases[>App18]Numerousadverbsintroduceadditionsto,modificationsorsummariesofwhathasalreadybeensaid.Theyareessentialwhenwewishtopresentinformationinacoherentfashioninspeechorwriting.Forexample,aspeakerorwritermayuseadverbssuchashoweveroronthecontrarytodrawacontrast;atthesametimeormeanwhiletotellusaboutsomethingelsethatwashappeningatthesametime:asaresultorconsequentlytodrawourattentiontoresults;furthermoreormoreovertoaddinformation.Connectivesmaycomeatthebeginning,followedbyapauseinspeechoracommainwriting:ThepoliceweresureGriffithswaslying.Theyhadfoundhisfingerprintseverywhere.Furthermore,theyknewforafactthathehadn"tbeenathismother"satthetimeofthecrime.Someconnectivesmayalsocomeinmid-positionandarethenseparatedfromtherestofthesentencebycommas:Penrosegambledheavilyand,asaresult,lostalotofmoney.Inversionafteradverbs7.59InversionafteradverbsSometimesthenormalsubject-verborderinasentenceisreversedifasentencebeginswithanadverb.Thiscanhappenasfollows:7.59.1Inversionafteradverbsofplacelike"here","there"Afterhereandthereandafteradverbparticlessuchasback,down,off,up,etc.thenounsubjectcomesaftertheverb.Thisiscommonwithverbsofmotion,suchascomeandgo:Herecomesataxi!Theregoesthelasttrain!(Notetheprogressiveisnotusedhere.)Downcametherainandupwenttheumbrellas.Thiskindofinversioniscommonafterbewhenweareofferingthingsoridentifyinglocation(oftenwithapluralsubject)[>10.18]:Here"sacupofteaforyou.(offer)Here"syourletters.(offeringorindicating)"There"s(stressed)JohnnySmith.(identifyinglocation)Inversiondoesnotoccurifthesubjectisapronoun:Hereitcomes.Thereshegoes.Upitwent.Hereyouare.(offer)Theresheis.(identifyinglocation)7.59.2Inversionafteradverbialsofplace[compare>6.17]Afteradverbialsofplacewithverbsofposition(e.g.lie,live,sit,stand)ormotion(e.g.come,go,rise),thenounsubjectcanfollowtheverb.Thishappensmainlyindescriptivewriting:Atthetopofthehillstoodthetinychapel.Inthefieldsofpoppieslaythedyingsoldiers.Thisinversionalsooccursinthepassivewithotherverbs:Inthedistancecouldbeseenthepurplemountains.Inversiondoesnotoccurifthesubjectisapronoun:Atthetopofthehillitstoodoutagainstthesky.7.59.3Inversionafternegativeadverbs,etc.Certainadverbs,whenusedatthebeginningofasentence,mustbefollowedbyauxiliaryverbs(be,do,have,can,must,etc.)+subject+therestofthesentence.Thiskindofinversion,whichmaybeusedforparticularemphasis,istypicalofformalrhetoricandformalwriting.Itoccursafterthefollowing:-negativeornear-negativeadverbs(oftenoftimeorfrequency,suchasnever,rarely,seldom);oradverbshavinganegativeeffect,e.g.little,onnoaccount.[>App19]:Never/SeldomhastherebeensomuchprotestagainsttheBomb.Littledoesherealizehowimportantthismeetingis.Onnoaccountmustyouacceptanymoneyifheoffersit.Thewordorderis,ofcourse,normalwhentheseadverbsdonotbeginasentence:Therehasnever/seldombeensomuchprotestagainsttheBomb.Helittlerealizeshowimportantthismeetingis.-combinationswithonly(e.g.onlyafter,onlythen):Thepilotreassuredthepassengers.OnlythendidIrealizehowdangerousthesituationhadbeen.-so+adjective(+that)andsuch(+that):Sosuddenwastheattack(that)wehadnotimetoescape.
EnglishGrammar:AdverbsSuchwashisstrengththathecouldbendironbars.Fornormalwordorderwithsoandsuch[>1.52.1].
EnglishGrammar:Prepositions,adverbparticlesandphrasalverbs8Prepositions,adverbparticlesandphrasalverbsGeneralinformationaboutprepositionsandadverbparticles8.1WhataprepositionisandwhatitdoesWenormallyuseprepositionsinfrontofnounsornounphrases,pronounsorgerundstoexpressarelationshipbetweenoneperson,thing,event,etc.andanother:preposition+noun:IgavethebooktoCharlie.preposition+pronoun:Igaveittohim.preposition+gerund:Charliedevoteshistimetoreading.Somerelationshipsexpressedbyprepositionsare:Space:Weranacrossthefield.Time:Theplanelandedat4.25precisely.Cause:Travelischeapforusbecauseofthestrengthofthedollar.Means:Youunlockthedoorbyturningthekeytotheright.Prepositionsalwayshaveanobject.Evenwhenaprepositionisseparatedfromitsobject,forexampleinquestion[>8.22][>13.31n.4][>13.33]orrelatives[>1.35-38],therelationshipisalwaysthere:Who(m)wereyoutalkingtojustnowonthephone?(=Towhom_)ThechairIwassittingonwasveryshaky.(=Thechaironwhich_)8.2FormandstressofprepositionsPrepositionsmaytaketheformof:-singlewords:at,from,in,to,into,etc.-twoormorewords:accordingto,apartfrom,becauseof,etc.One-syllableprepositionsarenormallyunstressedinspeech:There"s"someoneatthe"door.(Nostressonat.)Prepositionsoftwoormoresyllablesarenormallystressedononeofthesyllables:"oppositethe"bank;be"hindthe"wall,etc.Forexamplesofcommonprepositions[>App20].8.3PronounsafterprepositionsEnglishnounsdonothave"case"[>1.1],sotheydonotchangeinformwhentheyaree.g.theobjectofaverborapreposition:There"sachairbehind/by/infrontof/nearthedoor.Buttheobjectformofpronounsmustbeusedafterprepositions:Thecarstoppedbehind/infrontof/nearme/him/her/us/them.Betweenyouandme,there"snotruthinthereport.SomenativespeakersmistakenlyuseIinsteadofmeafterprepositions,especiallywhentherearetwopronounsseparatedbyand(Not*betweenyouandI*).8.4Whenisawordapreposition,adverborconjunction?Apreposition"governs"anobject,soitisalwaysrelatedtoanoun,anounphrase,pronounorgerund;anadverbparticledoesnot"govern"anobject,soitismorecloselyrelatedtoaverb[>7.3.4].8.4.1WordsthatcanbeusedasprepositionsoradverbparticlesSomewordsfunctionbothasprepositionsandasadverbparticles.Whentheyarefollowedbyanobject,theyfunctionasprepositions:Wedroveroundthecity.(round+object=preposition)Whennoobjectisstated,thesewordsfunctionasadverbparticles(evenifanobjectisimplied):Wedroveround.(noobject=adverbparticle)Unlikeprepositions,adverbparticlesarestressedinspeech.Themostcommonofthewordsthatcanbeusedasprepositionsorasadverbparticlesare:about,above,across,after,along,around,before,behind,below,beneath,beyond,by,down,in,inside,near,off,on,opposite,outside,over,past,round,through,under,underneath,up,without.8.4.2Wordsthatareusedasprepositions,butnotasparticlesThefollowingwordsareusedonlyasprepositions(thatis,theytakeanobject):against,at,beside,despite,during,except,for,from,into,of,onto,per,since,till/until,to,toward(s),upon,via,withandprepositionsendingin-ingsuchasexcepting,regarding[>App20.2].Afewphrasalverbs[>8.23]areformedwithverb+toasanadverbparticle:e.g.cometo,pullto8.4.3Wordsthatareusedasadverbparticles,butnotasprepositionsThefollowingwordsareusedonlyasparticles(thatis,theydonottakeanobject):away,back,backward(s),downward(s),forward(s),out[exceptinformally>App25.31]andupward(s):Thechildrenrangthebellandranaway.
EnglishGrammar:Prepositions,adverbparticlesandphrasalverbs8.4.4WordsthatcanbeusedasprepositionsorconjunctionsSomewordscanbeusedasprepositions(whenfollowedbyanobject)orasconjunctions(whenfollowedbyaclause):e.g.after,as,before,since,till,until[>1.44-53]:Ihaven"tseenhimsincethismorning.(preposition)Ihaven"tseenhimsinceheleftthismorning.(conjunction)Whenusedasconjunctions,aswellas,but,exceptandthancanbefollowedbyabareinfinitive[>16.1]:I"vedoneeverythingyouwantedexcept(orbut)makethebeds.8.5SomeproblemsforthelearnerintheuseofprepositionsEnglishusesmoreprepositionsthanmostotherEuropeanlanguages,partlybecause"case"[>1.1]isnolongerexpressedbynounendings.Thismaycauseproblemsofchoicebecause:-manyEnglishprepositionshavenearlythesamemeaning:e.g.beside,by,near,nextto;or:above,ontopof,over.-asingleprepositioninthestudent"smothertonguemaydotheworkofseveralEnglishprepositions.So,forexample,theremaybeoneprepositiontocoverthemeaningsofby,from,andof,orat,in,onandto,particularlyafter"movementverbs"[>8.7].-someprepositions(e.g.at)performdifferentfunctions.Forexample,theyexpressrelationshipsintime(atsixo"clock),space(atthebank)andotherrelationshipsaswell.Movementandposition8.6PositioninspaceseenfromdifferentviewpointsWhenreferringtospace(i.e.averywidearea),wehaveachoiceofpreposition,dependingonthemeaningwewishtoexpress.Forexample,wecansay:in/at/to/from/under/over/acrossLondon.Aspeaker"spersonalviewpointofaplacemayaffecthischoiceofpreposition.Ifaspeakersays:IliveinLondon.hefeels"enclosed"byLondon.Butifaspeakersays:WestoppedatLondononthewaytoNewYork.heseesLondonasapointonaroute.Weuseattoimplythatthelocationhasaspecialpurpose;itmaybeastoppingplace,ameetingplace,aneatingplace,aworkplace,etc.seenexternally.Wecanconsiderpositioninspaceinrelationto:-apoint(i.e.aplaceore.g.event):atthecinema;ataparty;to/fromLondonWestoodatthedoorandwaited.(i.e.atthatpoint)-aline(i.e.aplacewethinkofintermsoflength):across/along/onaborder/river/roadThere"saletterboxacrosstheroad(i.e.acrossthatline)-asurface(i.e.aplacewethinkofasaflatarea):across/off/onatable/floor/wall/ceilingIstaredataflyonthewall.(i.e.onthatsurface)-areaorvolume:(i.e.aplacewhichcan"enclose"):in/into/outof/outside/withinaroom/ship/car/factory/forestWeallsatinthecar.(i.e.inthatarea)Asingleplace(e.g.river)canbeviewedfromdifferentangles:Wewenttotheriver.(apoint)Greenwichisdowntheriver(aline)Thepaperboatfloatedontheriver.(asurface)Weswamintheriver.(anareaorvolume)8.7PrepositionsreflectingmovementorlackofmovementAprepositiontakesontheideaofmovement(flyunder)orlackofmovement(stopunder)fromtheverbinthesentence.Someprepositionscombineeitherwith"movementverbs"(e.g.bring,drive,fly,get,go,move,pull,run,take,walk)orwith"positionverbs"(e.g.be,live,keep,meet,stay,stop,work).movementposition(lackofmovement)8.6].8.9.1"To/fromapoint"comparedwith"atapoint"[>8.6]Toandfromapoint(indicatingdirection)maycontrastwithatapoint(indicatingdestinationorpositionaftermovement):directiontoorfromdestinationaftermovementandnowhe"satApp21].8.9.2"To/fromapoint"comparedwith"inanarea"[>8.6]Toandfromapoint(indicatingdirection)maycontrastwithinanarea(indicatingdestinationorpositionaftermovement):directiontoorfromdestinationaftermovementandnowhe"sinApp22].8.9.3"To/fromapoint"comparedwith"atapoint/inanarea"[>App23]Withcertainnouns,thedestinationaftermovementmaybeatorindependingonwhetherthelocationisseenasapointoranarea.directiontoorfromdestinationaftermovementandnowhe"s8.6]:arriveatBrightonorarriveinBrighton8.9.4"On(to)alineorsurface","offalineorsurface"On(to)(direction)andon(destinationorlocation)canbeusedtoindicate"beingsupportedby"alineorsurface:directionon(to)destinationaftermovementIputthepen(on)tothetableandnowitisonthetable.Ontoisspeltasonewordortwo:onto.On(withoutto)cansometimesindicatedirection,oftenwithachangeoflevel:Iputthepenonthetable.However,ontoissometimespreferabletoonwithmovementverbslikeclimb,lift,jump[>8.7]toavoidabiguity:MrTemplejumpedontothestage.(i.e.fromsomewhereelse)MrTemplejumpedonthestage.(whichcouldmean"jumpedupanddownonit",or"jumpedoncetotestitsstrength")
EnglishGrammar:Prepositions,adverbparticlesandphrasalverbsOn(indicatingdestinationorlocation)canalsocontrastwithto(indicatingdirection)withreferencetolevels:He"sgonetothefourthfloorandnowhe"sonthefourthfloor.Off(="noton",indicatingseparationfromalineorsurface)combineswithmovementverbsorpositionverbs:Itooktheplateoffthetableandnowitisoffthetable.8.9.5"In(to)andinanareaorvolume"Intoalwaysreflectsmovementandisneverusedfordestinationorposition.Inusuallyreflectsposition,butwithsomemovementverbslikedrop,fallandputitcanalsoreflectmovement:directionin(to)destinationaftermovementIhaveputthecoinin(to)mypocketandnowitisinmypocket.However,withothermovementverbs,suchasrunandwalk,indoesnotreflectmovementfromoneplacetoanother:Wewalkedintothepark.(=wewereoutsideitandenteredit)Wewalkedinthepark.(=wewerealreadyinsideitandwalkedwithinthearea)Insidecanreplaceinwhenwerefertoe.g.rooms,buildings:I"llmeetyouinside/intherestaurant.8.9.6"Outofanareaorvolume"Outofcanreflectdirectionanddestination:directionoutofdestinationaftermovementWeranoutofthebuildingandthenwewereoutofthebuilding.Outsidecanreplaceoutofwhenwerefertoe.g.rooms,buildings:Wewereoutsidethebuilding.Butoutsideandoutofarenotalwaysinterchangeable[>App25.31].Within,tomean"inside",canoccurinafewlimitedandformalcontexts:EveryonewithintheLondonareawasaffectedbythebusstrike.Without,tomean"outside",isnowarchaic.8.9.7"Get"+preposition/particlereflectingmovementGet,followedbyaprepositionorparticle,oftensuggests"movementwithdifficulty"[compare>12.13.1]:Wegotintothehousethroughthewindow.(i.e.withdifficulty)Howdidthecatgetout(ofthebox)?(i.e.itmusthavebeendifficult)Time8.10GeneralremarksaboutprepositionsoftimeTheprepositionsat,onandinrefernotonlytoplace,butalsototime.Wecanrefertoapproximatetimewithapproximately,about,around,roundorroundabout:Theaccidenthappenedatapproximately5.30.Theaccidenthappened(at)about/around5.30.Forotherprepositionsoftimesuchasduring,for,from,since,till,functioninginadverbialphrases[>7.30-35],andalso[>App25].8.11Timephraseswith"at"Exacttime:at10o"clock;at14hundredhours.[>App47.5]Mealtimes:atlunchtime;atteatime;atdinnertime.Otherpointsoftime:atdawn;atnoon;atmidnight;atnight.Festivals:atChristmas;atEaster;atChristmas-time.Age:attheageof27;at14.+time:atthistime;atthattime.AtisoftenomittedinquestionswithWhattime_?andinshortanswerstosuchquestions:Whattimedoyouarrive?-Nineo"clockinthemorning.Thefullquestionandanswerisformal38Atwhattimedoyouarrive?-Atnineo"clockinthemorning.8.12Timephraseswith"on"Daysoftheweek:onMonday;onFridays.[>App24.1]Partsoftheday:onMondaymorning;onFridayevening.Dates:onJune1st;on21stMarch.[>App47.4.2]Day+date:onMonday,June1st.Particularoccasions:onthatday;onthatevening.Anniversaries,etc.:onyourbirthday;onyourweddingday.Festivals:onChristmasDay;onNewYear"sDay.Ineverydayspeechonisoftenomitted:I"llseeyouFriday.SeeyouJune21st.Prepositions(andthedefinitearticle)mustbeomittedwhenweuselast,nextandthis,that[compare>App48]:
EnglishGrammar:Prepositions,adverbparticlesandphrasalverbsIsawhimlast/thisApril.I"llseeyounext/thisFriday.8.13Timephraseswith"in"(=sometimeduring[compare>7.35])Partsoftheday:intheevening;inthemorning.Months:inMarch;inSeptember.[>App24.2]Years:in1900;in1984;in1998.[>App47.4.1]Seasons:in(the)spring;in(the)winter.[>App24.2]Centuries:inthe19thcentury,inthe20thcentury.Festivals:inRamadan;inEasterweek.Periodsoftime:inthattime;inthatage;intheholidays.8.14"In"and"within"torefertostatedperiodsoftimeInand,moreformally,within,sometimesmean"beforetheendof"astatedperiodoftime,whichmaybepresent,pastorfuture:Ialwayseatmybreakfastintenminutes.Ifinishedtheexaminationin(within)anhourandahalf.Whenwerefertothefutureinphraseslikeintendays(orintendays"time),wemean"attheendofaperiodstartingfromnow";-sapostropheorapostrophe-s+timeisoptional[compare>2.49]:Thematerialwillbereadyintendays/intendays"time.However,whenwemean"withinaperiodoftime,notstartingfromnow",wecannotuse-sapostrophe+time.Compare:Sandersonwillrunamileinfourminutes.(That"showlongitwilltakehimtodoit.)Sandersonwillrunamileinfourminutes"time.(That"swhenhe"llstartrunning.)Particularusesofprepositionsandparticles8.15Particularprepositions,particlesandcontrastsManyprepositions/particleshavespecialuses.Fordetails[>App25].8.16PairsofprepositionsandparticlesPrepositionsandparticlescanberepeatedforextraemphasis:Wewentroundandround(thetown)lookingforthehotel.Someprepositionsfunctionascontrastingpairs:Pleasedon"tkeeprunningupanddown(thestairs).Orthesecondwordaddssomethingtothemeaningofthefirst:Marthawasillforalongtime,butshe"supandaboutnow.8.17PrepositionalphrasesAlargenumberoffixedprepositionalphrasesareincommonuse:e.g.byright,indebt,ontime,outofbreath,etc.Someofthesephraseshavemetaphoricaloridiomaticuseswhichextendtheirtime/placeassociations:e.g.aboveaverage,beneathcontempt,beyondbelief.Manyphrasesfollowthepatternpreposition+noun+preposition:e.gindangerof,onaccountof[>App20.3][>App26].8.18CombinationsofparticlesandprepositionsPrepositionsoftenfollowparticles,e.g.across/along/back/down/off/on+to,for,etc.[also>8.30.2]:I"mjustoffforaswim.I"mgoingdowntothebeach.Prepositionssometimescombinedirectlywitheachother,asin:That"stheboyfromovertheroad.Comeoutfromunderthere,willyou?8.19Adjectives+prepositionsManyadjectivesusedpredicatively[>6.7][>6.8.4]arefollowedbyparticularprepositions:absentfrom,certainof,etc.Simon"softenabsentfromschoolbecauseofillness.Sometimesasingleadjectivecanbefollowedbydifferentprepositions:e.g.embarrassedabout,embarrassedat,embarrassedby[>App27].8.20Nouns+prepositionsNounsusuallytakethesameprepositionsastheadjectivesorverbstheyrelateto.adjectivenounembarrassedabout/at/byembarrassmentabout/atkeenonkeennessonsuccessfulinsuccessinverbnounemergefromemergencefrom
EnglishGrammar:Prepositions,adverbparticlesandphrasalverbsobjecttoobjectiontoThiscorrelationdoesnotalwaysapply:e.g.beproudof/takeprideinOranountakesaprepositionandtheverbdoesnot:IfearsomethingMyfearofsomethingIinfluencesomebodyMyinfluenceonsomebody8.21ModificationofprepositionsandadverbparticlesPrepositionsandadverbparticlescanbemodifiedbyadverbs:directlyaboveourheads;quiteoutofhismind;rightoffthemainroad;wellover$200.Inparticular,all,tomean"entirely",cancombinewithnumerousprepositionsandparticles,suchasabout,along,down,during,round,through:Ourbabywentoncryingallthroughthenight.Straight(=immediately)isfrequentlyusedwithmovementandright(=intheexactlocation)iscommonlyassociatedwithdestination:Hewentstraighttobed/intomyoffice/uptohisroom.Helivesrightattheendofthestreet/acrossthesquare.8.22WordorderinrelationtoprepositionsSingle-wordprepositionsexcepte.g.but,during,exceptandsince[>App20]canbeseparatedfromthewordstheyrefertoin:Wh-questions:Wheredidyoubuythatjacketfrom?[>13.31n.4]Relativeclauses:Thepaintingyou"relookingathasbeensold.[>1.35-38]Wh-clausesWhatheaskedmeaboutissomethingIcan"tdiscuss.(Separationisobligatoryhere.)Indirectspeech:Tellmewhereyouboughtthat(from).(optional)Exclamations:Whatalotoftroubleheputmeto!Passives:Ourhousewasbrokenintolastnight.(Theend-positionisobligatoryinthepassive.)Infinitives:Ineedsomeonetotalkto[>16.36]Nowadaysnotmanynativespeakersbelievethatitis"badstyle"toendasentencewithapreposition,thoughthechoiceofpositiondoesdependtosomeextentonstyleandbalance.Verb+preposition/particle:non-phrasalandphrasal8.23GeneralinformationaboutphrasalverbsOneofthemostcommoncharacteristicsoftheEnglishverbisthatitcancombinewithprepositionsandadverbparticles[>7.3.4].Broadlyspeaking,wecallthesecombinationsphrasalverbs.Thoughgrammariansdifferabouttheexactdefinitionofaphrasalverb,wemayusethetermtodescribeanycommonly-usedcombinationofverb+prepositionorverb+adverbparticle.EssentialcombinationsSometimesthiscombinationisessentialtotheuseoftheverb.So,forexample,theverblisten(whichcanoccuronitsownine.g.Listen!)mustbefollowedbytowhenithasanobject:Wespenttheafternoonlisteningtorecords.Non-essentialcombinationsSometimesthecombinationisnotessentialbutreinforcesthemeaningofaverb.So,forexample,theverbdrink,inDrinkyourmilk!canbereinforcedbyuptosuggest"finishdrinkingit"or"drinkitall":Drinkupyourmilk!Or:Drinkyourmilkup![>8.28]IdiomaticcombinationsSometimestheprimarymeaningofaverbiscompletelychangedwhenitcombineswithaprepositionorparticle:anewverbisformed,whichmayhaveatotallydifferentidiomaticmeaning,orevenseveralmeanings.Forexample,therearenumerouscombinationswithmake:makefor(aplace)(=gotowards),makeoff(=runaway),makeup(=invent),etc.Seeexamplesin8.23.2.8.23.1TheuseofphrasalverbsinEnglishThereisastrongtendency(especiallyininformal,idiomaticEnglish)tousephrasalverbsinsteadoftheirone-wordequivalents.Itwouldbeveryunusual,forinstance,tosayEnter!insteadofComein!inresponsetoaknockatthedoor.Similarly,blowupmightbepreferredtoexplode,giveintosurrender,etc.Moreover,newcombinations(ornewmeaningsforexistingones)areconstantlyevolving:Sharepricesbottomedout(=reachedtheirlowestlevel)in1974.Thebooktookoff(=becamesuccessful)assoonasitappeared.8.23.2HowcommonphrasalverbsareformedThemostcommonphrasalverbsareformedfromtheshortestandsimplestverbsinthelanguage:e.g.be,break,bring,come,do,fall,find,get,give,go,help,let,make,put,send,stand,take,tear,throw,turn,whichcombinewithwordsthatoftenindicatepositionordirection,suchasalong,down,in,off,on,out,over,under,up.Notonlycanasingleverblikeputcombinewithalargenumberofprepositionsorparticlestoformnewverbs(putoff,putout,putupwith,etc.)butevenasinglecombinationcanhavedifferentmeanings:
EnglishGrammar:Prepositions,adverbparticlesandphrasalverbsPutoutyourcigarettes.(=extinguish)Ifeltquiteputout.(=annoyed)Weputoutarequestforvolunteers.(=issued)They"reputtingtheprogrammeouttomorrow.(=broadcasting)Thisstuffwillputyououtinnotime.(makeyouunconscious)Martha"sputoutherhipagain.(=dislocated)8.24Someproblemsintheuseofverb+preposition/particleApartfromtheobviousproblemthattheuseofphrasalverbsisextremelycommonandastandardfeatureofgoodidiomaticEnglish,interferencewiththelearner"sownlanguagemayarisefrom:1Verbswhichmaybefollowedbyaninfinitiveinthelearner"slanguage,butwhichinEnglishcanbefollowedbyaprepositionorparticle+object,butneverbyaninfinitive:e.g.dreamof,insiston,succeedin,thinkof[>8.27]:Yourfatherinsistsoncomingwithus.[>16.51][>16.54]2Verbswhicharefollowedbytoasapreposition,notasaninfinitive.Therearerelativelyfewofthese[>16.56]:Ilookforwardtoseeingyousoon.3Verbswhicharefollowedbydifferentprepositionsfromtheonesusedinthelearner"slanguage:e.g.believein,consistof,dependon,laughat,liveon,relyon,smellof,tasteof:Everybodylaughedatmyproposaltobansmokingontrains.4VerbswhichtakeaprepositioninEnglish,butmaynotneedoneinthelearner"slanguage:e.g.askfor,listento,lookat,lookfor,waitfor:Youshouldaskforthebill.5Verbswhichmaybefollowedbyaprepositioninthelearner"slanguage,butnotnormallyinEnglish:e.g.approach,discuss,enter,lack,marry,obey,remember,resemble:WeallturnedandlookedatMildredwhensheenteredtheroom.8.25Non-phrasalverbscomparedwithphrasalverbsWhatisaphrasalverb?Veryoftenaverbisfollowedbyaprepositionaloradverbialphrase[>7.3.3][>7.18][>7.30]:Let"seatinthegarden/ontheterrace/underthattree.Intheaboveexamples,inandondonothavea"specialrelationship"witheat:theyarein"freeassociation"sothateatinandeatonarenotphrasalverbshere.Mostverbs(especiallyverbsofmovement)canoccurinfreeassociationwithprepositionsandparticles,butthesecombinationsarenotalwaysphrasalverbs.Forexample:climb,come,go,walk,etc.willcombinefreelywithdown,from,in,up,etc.:IgotothebankonFridays.(verb+preposition,non-phrasal)Youcancomeoutnow.(verb+particle,non-phrasal)Inexamplesofthiskind,theverbsbeforetheprepositionsorparticlesarereplaceable:Hehurried/ran/walked/wentup(thehill).Furthermore,insuchexamples,averb+prepositionorparticleisusedinitsliteralsense.Themeaningoftheverbisacombinationofthetwowordsused:e.g.come+out(i.e.itisthesameasthemeaningofitsseparateparts).However,averbmayhaveanobviousliteralmeaninginonecontextandahighlyidiomaticoneinanother:We"dbetternotsteponthatcarpet.(literal)We"dbettersteponit.(i.e.hurryup:idiomaticphrasalverb)Thecombinationofverb+prepositionorparticlecanbedescribedasphrasalwhenthetwo(orthree)partsareincommonassociation(not"freeassociation")andyieldaparticularmeaningwhichmayeitherbeobvious(e.g.Itookoffmyjacket)oridiomatic(theplanetookoff=roseintotheair).However,thedividing-linebetweennon-phrasalandphrasalverbsisnotalwayseasytodraw.8.26Fourtypesofverb+preposition/particleWecandistinguishfourtypesofcombinationswithdifferentcharacteristics:Type1:verb+preposition(transitive):e.g.getover(anillness)Type2:verb+particle(transitive):e.g.bringup(thechildren)Type3:verb+particle(intransitive):e.g.comeabout(=happen)Type4:verb+particle+preposition(transitive):e.g.runoutof(matches)8.27Type1:Verb+preposition(transitive)8.27.1GeneralcharacteristicsofType1verbs[compare>12.3n.7]aVerbsofthistypearefollowedbyapreposition[>8.4]whichtakesanobject(theyaretransitive[>1.9]):I"mlookingformyglasses.(nounobject)I"mlookingforthem.(pronounobject)bWecannotputtheprepositionaftertheobject:Lookatthispicture.(Never*Lookthispictureat*)However,separationoftheprepositionfromtheverbissometimespossibleinrelativeclausesandquestions(andseenoteebelow):
EnglishGrammar:Prepositions,adverbparticlesandphrasalverbsThepictureatwhichyouarelookingwasboughtatanauction.Atwhichpictureareyoulooking?cVerb+prepositioncancomeattheendofasentenceorclause:She"sgotmoreworkthanshecancopewith.There"ssomuchtolookatwhenyouvisittheNationalGallery.dSomecombinationscangointothepassive[>App28][>App30]:Everyproblemthatcameupwasdealtwithefficiently.eAnadverbmaycomeaftertheobject:Lookatthisdrawingcarefully.or,foremphasis,immediatelybeforeoraftertheverb[>7.16]:Lookcarefullyatthisdrawing.fMonosyllabicprepositionsarenotusuallystressed:Thiscakeconsistsofafewcommoningredients.Threesub-groupscanbeidentified:8.27.2Verb+preposition:non-idiomaticmeaningse.g.approveof,associatewith,believein,emergefrom,fightagainst,hopefor,listento,etc.[>App28].Theverbsareusedintheirnormalsense.Theproblemistorememberwhichpreposition(s)areassociatedwiththem.Sometimesdifferentprepositionsarepossible:e.g.consistof,consistin,wherethemeaningoftheverbremainsbroadlyunchanged:Cementconsistsofsandandlime.(i.e.whatthesubject(cement)ismadeof)Happinessconsistsinhavingacheerfuloutlook.(i.e.consistsdefinesthesubject,happiness)8.27.3Verb+object+preposition:non-idiomaticmeaningse.g.remindsomeoneof,tellsomeoneabout,thanksomeonefor:TellusaboutyourtravelsinChina,grandpa.Mostoftheseverbscanbeusedinthepassive[>App29].8.27.4Verb+preposition:idiomaticmeaningsThepartsofsuchverbscannotbesoeasilyrelatedtotheirliteralmeanings.Relativelyfewoftheseverbscangointothepassive,andtheprepositioncanhardlyeverbeseparatedfromtheverb.(See8.27.1notebabove.)e.g.comeover(=affect),getover(=recover),gofor(=attack),runinto(=meetbyaccident)[>App30]:Ican"texplainwhyIdidit.Idon"tknowwhatcameoverme.HasMarthagotoverherillnessyet?Ourdogwentforthepostmanthismorning.8.28Type2:Verb+particle(transitive)8.28.1GeneralcharacteristicsofType2verbs[compare>12.3n.7]aTheseverbsarefollowedbyparticlesorwordsthatcanbeusedasprepositionsorparticles[>8.4].Awordfollowingaverbmayinsomecasesfunctionasaprepositioninonecontextandasaparticleinanother:Comeupthestairs.(preposition)Comeup.(particle)bTheseverbsaretransitive:Drinkupyourmilk!thoughsomeofthemcanbeusedintransitively:Drinkup!cTheparticlecanbeseparatedfromitsverbandcangoimmediatelyafterthenounornoun-phraseobject[>8.28.2]:Pleaseturneverylightinthehouseoff.Withlongobjects,weavoidseparatingtheparticlefromtheverb:Sheturnedoffallthelightswhichhadbeenlefton.dAlltransitiveverbscanbeusedinthepassive:Allthelightsinthehousehavebeenturnedoff.eWhentheparticlecomesattheendofthesentence,itisstressed:Hetookoffhis"coat.Hetookhiscoat"off.fOftenaverb+particlecanbetransitivewithonemeaning:Wehavetoturnouressaysin/turninouressaysbyFriday.andintransitive,thereforeType3[>8.29]withanothermeaning:Ifeelsleepy,soIthinkI"llturnin.[=gotobed)gNounscanbeformedfrommanyverbsofthistype:e.g.abreakdown,aknockout,afollow-up,asetback[>App31].8.28.2Type2verbs:wordorderWhenthereisanounobject,theparticlecango:-beforetheobject:Shegaveawayallherpossessions.-oraftertheobject:Shegaveallherpossessionsaway.Eventhoughwemayputanobjectaftere.g.awayasinthefirstexampleabove,awayisaparticle,notapreposition.Aparticleismorecloselyrelatedtotheverbanddoesnot"govern"theobjectasaprepositiondoes[>8.4].Itismobiletotheextentthatitcanbeusedbeforeoraftertheobject.Iftheobjectisapronoun,italwayscomesbeforetheparticle:
EnglishGrammar:Prepositions,adverbparticlesandphrasalverbsShegavethemaway.Sheletme/him/her/it/us/themout.Insomecases,theparticlecomesonlyaftertheobject[>App32]:Wecanallowthechildrenouttill9.Threesub-groupscanbeidentified:8.28.3Non-phrasalverbswithobviousmeanings("freeassociation")Verbsinthisgroupcanbeusedwiththeirliteralmeanings[>8.25]:You"dbetterpullinthatfishingline.You"dbetterpullthatfishinglinein.8.28.4Particlesthatstrengthenorextendtheeffectoftheverbe.g.callout,eatup,stickon,writedown.Theverbsinthisgroupretaintheirliteralmeanings[>App32].Insomecases,theparticlecanbeomittedaltogether:Writetheirnames.oritcanhaveastrengtheningeffectontheverb:Writedowntheirnames./Writetheirnamesdown.Inothercases,theparticlecanextendthemeaningofaverb:Giveouttheseleaflets.(i.e.distribute)Thedifferencebetween"literal(non-idiomatic)meanings"and"extendedmeanings"isoftenhardtodraw.8.28.5Type2verbswithidiomaticmeaningsThisisaverylargecategory[>App33]inwhichtheverb+particlehavelittleornorelationtotheirliteralmeanings:forexample,makeupcanmean"invent",asinmakeupastory;takeoffcanmean"imitate",asintakeoffthePrimeMinister.Verbcombinations,therefore,canhavemanydifferentmeanings,dependingontheparticlesused.Herearejustafewexamplesofthecombinationspossiblewithbring:bringupthechildren(=train/educate)bringoffadeal(=completesuccessfully)bringonanattackofasthma(=cause)bringsomebodyroundtoourpointofview(=persuade)bringsomeoneround(=revive)bringdownthehouse(=receiveenthusiasticapplause)Thereisalsoalargecategoryoffixedexpressionswithnouns.Theseremaininvariableatalltimes:e.g.makeupyourmind(wheremindcannotbereplacedbyanotherword);pushtheboatout(=takerisks),etc.Suchexpressionsaretoonumeroustolistandcanonlybefoundingooddictionaries.[but>App34]8.29Type3:Verb+particle(intransitive)8.29.1GeneralcharacteristicsofType3verbsaTheverbsinthiscategoryareintransitive,thatistheycannotbefollowedbyanobject:Hazelisout.Wesetoffearly.etc.bPassiveconstructionsarenotpossible.cThesamecombinationofverb+particlecansometimesbelongtotype2(withanobject:Webrokedownthefence)andType3(withoutanobject:Thecarbrokedown).[compare>8.28.1]dNounscanbeformedfromverbsofthistype:e.g.aclimb-down,adropout,anoutbreak,anonlooker[>App35].Twosub-groupscanbeidentified.8.29.2Non-phrasalverbswithobviousmeanings("freeassociation")Verbsinthisgroupcanbeusedwiththeirliteralmeanings[>8.25].Combinationswithbearecommon,butoccurwithmanyotherverbs,oftenintheimperative:e.g.hurryalong,goaway,sitdown,keepon,driveover([>App32]forparticlemeanings).The"strengtheningeffect"notedin8.28.4canapplytosomeoftheseverbstoo,asinhurryup,moveout,etc.8.29.3Type3verbswithidiomaticmeaningsTheverbsinthiscategory[>App36]oftenhavelittleornorelationtotheirliteralmeanings:e.g.breakdown(collapse),dieaway(becomequiet),pullup(stopwhendrivingacar),turnup(appearunexpectedly):MrsSimsbrokedowncompletelywhensheheardthenews.Theechoesdiedawayinthedistance.Thebuspulledupsharplyatthetrafficlights.Harryturnedupafterthepartywheneveryonehadleft.8.30Type4:Verb+particle+preposition(transitive)8.30.1GeneralcharacteristicsofType4verbs[compare>12.3n.7]aThesearethree-partverbs(e.g.putupwith).Theyaretransitivebecausetheyendwithprepositionsandmustthereforebefollowedbyanobject:Idon"tknowhowyouputupwiththeseconditions.Someoftheseverbstakeapersonalobject:takesomeoneuponsomething(pursueasuggestionsomeonehasmade):
EnglishGrammar:Prepositions,adverbparticlesandphrasalverbsMayItakeyouuponyouroffertoputmeupforthenight?bSomeverbscangointothepassiveandotherscannot:Alltheoldregulationsweredoneawaywith.(passive)Ifinditdifficulttokeepupwithyou.(nopassive)cTwo-partnounscanbeformedfromsomethree-partverbs:e.g.someonewhostandsinforsomeoneisastand-in.Twosub-groupscanbeidentified.8.30.2Non-phrasalverbswithobviousmeanings("freeassociation")Three-partcombinations,whichcanbeusedwiththeirliteralmeanings,arecommon[>8.18]:e.g.comedownfrom,driveonto,hurryoverto,runalongto,stayawayfrom,walkupto,etc.:AfterstoppingbrieflyinReading,wedroveontoOxford.8.30.3Type4verbswithidiomaticmeaningsTheverbsinthiscategory[>App37]oftenhavelittleornorelationtotheirliteralmeanings:e.g.putupwith(tolerate),runoutof(useup).Unlikethe"freeassociationverbs"notedabove,thereisnochoiceintheprepositionthatcanbeusedaftertheparticle:eachverbconveysasingle,indivisiblemeaning:I"mnotpreparedtoputupwiththeseconditionsanylonger.We"realwaysrunningoutofmatchesinourhouse.
EnglishGrammar:Verbs,verbtenses,imperatives9Verbs,verbtenses,imperativesGeneralinformationaboutverbsandtenses9.1WhataverbisandwhatitdoesAverbisaword(run)oraphrase(runoutof)whichexpressestheexistenceofastate(love,seem)orthedoingofanaction(take,play).Twofactsarebasic:1Verbsareusedtoexpressdistinctionsintime(past,present,future)throughtense(oftenwithadverbialsoftimeorfrequency).2Auxiliaryverbs[>10.1]areusedwithfullverbstogiveotherinformationaboutactionsandstates.Forexamplebemaybeusedwiththepresentparticipleofafullverbtosaythatanactionwasgoingon("inprogress")ataparticulartime(Iwasswimming);havemaybeusedwiththepastparticipleofafullverbtosaythatanactioniscompleted(Ihavefinished).9.2Verbtenses:simpleandprogressiveSomegrammariansbelievethattensemustalwaysbeshownbytheactualformoftheverb,andinmanylanguagespresent,pastandfutureareindicatedbychangesintheverbforms.Onthisreckoning,Englishreallyhasjusttwotenses,thepresentandthepast,sincethesearetheonlytwocaseswheretheformofthebasicverbvaries:love,write(present);loved,wrote(past).However,itisusual(andconvenient)torefertoallcombinationsofbe+presentparticipleandhave+pastparticipleastenses.Thesamegoesforwill+bareinfinitive[>16.3]torefertothefuture(Itwillbefinetomorrow).ButwemustrememberthattenseinEnglishisoftenonlylooselyrelatedtotime.Tenseshavetwoforms,simpleandprogressive(sometimescalled"continuous").Theprogressivecontainsbe+presentparticiple:simpleprogressivepresent:Iwork.Iamworking.past:Iworked.Iwasworking.presentperfect:Ihaveworked.Ihavebeenworking.pastperfect:Ihadworked.Ihadbeenworking.future:Iwillwork.Iwillbeworking.futureperfect.Iwillhaveworked.Iwillhavebeenworking.Simpleformsandprogressivecombinationscanalsooccurwith:conditionals[>Chapter14]:Iwouldwork.Iwouldbeworking.modals[>Chapter11]:Imaywork.Imaybeworking.Bothsimpleandprogressiveformsusuallygiveageneralideaofwhenanactiontakesplace.Buttheprogressiveformsalsotellusthatanactivityis(orwas,orwillbe,etc.)inprogress,orthoughtofasbeinginprogress.Thisactivitymaybeinprogressatthemomentofspeaking:Whatareyoudoing?-I"mmakingacake.ornotinprogressatthemomentofspeaking:I"mlearningtotype.(i.e.butnotatthemomentofspeaking)Ortheactivitymaybetemporaryorchangeable:Fredwaswearingablueshirtyesterday.Ortheactivitymaybeuncompleted:VerahasbeentryingtolearnChineseforyears.Ourdecisionaboutwhichtensetousedependsonthecontextandtheimpressionwewishtoconvey.9.3StativeanddynamicverbsSomeverbsarenotgenerallyusedinprogressiveforms.Theyarecalledstativebecausetheyrefertostates(e.g.experiences,conditions)ratherthantoactions.Inasentencelike:Sheloves/lovedherbabymorethananythingintheworld.loves(orloved)describesastateoverwhichthemotherhasnocontrol:itisaninvoluntaryfeeling.Wecouldnotusetheprogressiveforms(is/wasloving)here.Dynamicverbs,ontheotherhand,usuallyrefertoactionswhicharedeliberateorvoluntary(I"mmakingacake)ortheyrefertochangingsituations(He"sgrowingold),thatis,toactivities,etc.,whichhaveabeginningandanend.Dynamicverbscanbeusedinprogressiveaswellassimpleforms.Comparethefollowing:progressiveformssimpleforms1Dynamicverbswithprogressiveandsimpleforms:I"mlookingatyou.Ioftenlookatyou.I"mlisteningtomusic.Ioftenlistentomusic.2Verbswhicharenearlyalwaysstative(simpleformsonly):-Iseeyou.-Ihearmusic.[>11.13]3Verbsthathavedynamicorstativeuses:deliberateactionsstatesI"mweighingmyself.Iweigh65kilos.I"mtastingthesoup.Ittastessalty.I"mfeelingtheradiator.Itfeelshot.
EnglishGrammar:Verbs,verbtenses,imperativesStativeverbsusuallyoccurinthesimpleforminalltenses.Wecanthinkof"states"incategorieslike[>App38]:1Feelings:like,love,etc.2Thinking/believing:think,understand,etc.3Wantsandpreferences:prefer,want,etc.4Perceptionandthesenses:hear,see,etc.5Being/seeming/having/owning:appear,seem,belong,own,etc.Sometimesverbsdescribingphysicalsensationscanbeusedinsimpleorprogressiveformswithhardlyanychangeofmeaning:Ooh!Ithurts!=Ooh!It"shurting.Can/can"tandcould/couldn"toftencombinewithverbsofperceptiontorefertoaparticularmomentinthepresentorthepastwhereaprogressiveformwouldbeimpossible[>11.13]:Icansmellgas.=Ismellgas.9.4Timereferenceswithadverbs[>App48]Someadverbslikeyesterdayandtomorrowrefertopastorfuture:IsawJimyesterday.I"llbeseeingIsabeltomorrow.Otheradverbs,suchasalready,always,ever,often,never,now,stillcanbeusedwithavarietyoftenses,thoughtheymayoftenbeassociatedwithparticularones.Forexample,alwaysisoftenassociatedwiththesimplepresentorpastforhabits:Wealwayshavebreakfastat7.30.Rolandalwaystookmeouttodinneronmybirthday.Butitcanbeusedwithothertensesaswell:Ishallalwaysrememberthisholiday.(future)Natashahasalwaysbeengenerous.(presentperfect)MrBiggssaidhehadalwaystravelledfirstclass.(pastperfect)Thesequenceoftenses9.5ThesequenceoftensesInextendedspeechorwritingweusuallyselectagoverningtensewhichaffectsallothertenseforms.Theproblemofthe"sequenceoftenses"isnotconfinedtoindirectspeech[>15.5].Ourchoiceoftensemaybeinfluencedbythefollowingfactors:9.5.1ConsistencyintheuseoftensesIfwestartanarrativeordescriptionfromthepointofviewofnow,weusuallymaintain"now"asourviewpoint.Thisresultsinthefollowingcombinations:-present(simple/progressive)accordswithpresentperfect/future:Ourpostmanusuallydeliversourmailat7everymorning.It"snearlylunch-timeandthemailstillhasn"tarrived.Isupposethemailwillcomesoon.Perhapsourpostmanisill.Ifwestartanarrativeordescriptionfromthepointofviewofthen,weusuallymaintain"then"asourviewpoint.Thisresultsinthefollowingcombinations:-past(simple/progressive)accordswithpastperfect:WhenIlivedinLondonthepostmanusuallydeliveredourmailat7everymorning.Usuallynooneinourhouseholdhadgotupwhenthemailarrived.9.5.2TheproximityruleApresenttenseinthemainclause(forexample,inareportingverb)normallyattractsapresenttenseinthesubordinateclause:Hetellsmehe"sagoodtennis-player.Apasttensenormallyattractsanotherpast:Hetoldmehewasagoodtennis-player.Inthesecondexampleonlyamorecompletecontextwouldtelluswhetherhewasagoodtennis-playerreferstothepast(i.e."whenhewasayoungman")ortopresenttime.Aspeakerorwritercanignorethe"proximityrule"anduseapresenttenseafterapast,orapastafterapresentinordertobemoreprecise:Hetoldmeheisagoodtennis-player.(i.e.hestillis)Hetellsmeheusedtobeagoodtennis-player.However,combinationssuchasyousayyouareoryoutoldmeyouweretendtoformthemselvesautomatically.Thatiswhywecanrefertotheideaof"sequenceoftenses"inwhichpresentusuallycombineswithpresent,andpastusuallycombineswithpast.9.5.3ParticulartensesequencesRefertothefollowingforparticulartensesequences:Indirectspeech[>Chapter15].Conditionalsentences[>Chapter14].Temporalclauses[>1.45.2].Afterwish,etc.[>11.41-43];I"drather[>11.45].Clausesofpurpose[>1.51].Thesimplepresenttense
EnglishGrammar:Verbs,verbtenses,imperatives9.6FormofthesimplepresenttenseWeadd-sor-estothebaseformoftheverbinthethirdpersonsingular.Iwork>Youwork>Heworks>Sheworks>Itworks>inanoffice.Wework>Youwork>Theywork>9.7Thethirdpersonsingular:pronunciationandspelling9.7.1Pronunciationofthe3rdpersonsingular[compare>2.21]/s/after/f/,/p/,/k/,/t/:laughs,puffs,drops,kicks,lets.Verbsendingin/z/,/dZ/,/s/,/S/,tS/,and/ks/takeanextrasyllableinthethirdpersonwhichispronounced/Iz/:loses,manages,passes,pushes,stitches,mixes.Otherverbsarepronouncedwitha/z/inthethirdperson:after/b/robs;after/d/adds;after/g/digs;after/l/fills;after/m/dreams;after/n/runs;after/N/rings;aftervowel+/r/draws;stirs;after/v/loves;aftervowelssees,pays.Saysisnormallypronounced/sez/anddoesispronounced/d /.9.7.2Spellingofthe3rdpersonsingular[compare>2.20]Mostverbsadd-s:work/works,drive/drives,play/plays,run/runs.Verbsnormallyadd-eswhentheyendin-o:do/does;-s:miss/misses;-x:mix/mixes;-ch:catch/catches;-sh:push/pushesWhenthereisaconsonantbefore-y,changeto-ies:cry/cries,butcompare:buy/buys,say/says,obey/obeys.9.8Usesofthesimplepresenttense9.8.1PermanenttruthsWeusethesimplepresentforstatementsthatarealwaystrue:Summerfollowsspring.Gasesexpandwhenheated.9.8.2"Thepresentperiod"Weusethesimplepresenttorefertoevents,actionsorsituationswhicharetrueinthepresentperiodoftimeandwhich,forallweknow,maycontinueindefinitely.Whatwearesaying,ineffect,is"thisisthesituationasitstandsatpresent":Myfatherworksinabank.Mysisterwearsglasses.9.8.3HabitualactionsThesimplepresentcanbeusedwithorwithoutanadverboftimetodescribehabitualactions,thingsthathappenrepeatedly:Igetupat7.Johnsmokesalot.Wecanbemorepreciseabouthabitualactionsbyusingthesimplepresentwithadverbsofindefinitefrequency(always,never,etc.[>7.39])orwithadverbialphrasessuchaseveryday[>7.38]:Isometimesstayuptillmidnight.Shevisitsherparentseveryday.WecommonlyusethesimplepresenttoaskandanswerquestionswhichbeginwithHowoften?:Howoftendoyougotothedentist?-Igoeverysixmonths.Questionsrelatingtohabitcanbeaskedwitheverandansweredwithe.g.neverandsometimesnot_ever[>7.40.5]:Doyouevereatmeat?-No,Inevereatmeat.9.8.4FuturereferenceThisuseisoftenrelatedtotimetablesandprogrammesortoeventsinthecalendar:TheexhibitionopensonJanuary1standclosesonJanuary31st.Theconcertbeginsat7.30andendsat9.30.Weleavetomorrowat11.15andarriveat17.50.Wednesday,May24thmarksour25thweddinganniversary.Fortheuseofthesimplepresentafterwhen,etc.[>1.45.2].9.8.5ObservationsanddeclarationsWecommonlyusethesimplepresentwithstativeandotherverbstomakeobservationsanddeclarationsinthecourseofconversation:e.g.Ihope/assume/suppose/promiseeverythingwillbeallright.Ibetyouwerenervousjustbeforeyourdrivingtest.Itsaysherethatthepoliceexpectmoretroubleinthecity.
EnglishGrammar:Verbs,verbtenses,imperativesIdeclarethisexhibitionopen.Isee/hearthereareroadworksinthestreetagain.Iloveyou.Ihatehim.Weliveindifficulttimes.-Iagree.Thepresentprogressivetense9.9FormofthepresentprogressivetenseTheprogressiveisformedwiththepresentofbe+the-ingform.Seeunderbefordetailsaboutform[>10.6].Iam>I"m>Youare>waiting.You"re>waiting.Heis>writing.He"s>writing.Sheis>running.She"s>running.Itis>beginning.It"s>beginning.Weare>lying.We"re>lying.Youare>You"re>Theyare>They"re>9.10Spelling:howtoadd"-ing"toaverbwait/waitingWecanadd-ingtomostverbswithoutchangingthespellingoftheirbaseforms.Otherexamples:beat/beating,carry/carrying,catch/catching,drink/drinking,enjoy/enjoying,hurry/hurrying.write/writingIfaverbendsin-e,omitthe-eandadding.Otherexamples:come/coming,have/having,make/making,ride/riding,use/using.Thisruledoesnotapplytoverbsendingindoublee:agree/agreeing,see/seeing;ortoage/ageingandsinge/singeing.run/runningAverbthatisspeltwithasinglevowelfollowedbyasingleconsonantdoublesitsfinalconsonant.Otherexamples:hit/hitting,let/letting,put/putting,run/running,sit/sitting.Compare:e.g.beat/beatingwhichisnotspeltwithasinglevowelandwhichthereforedoesnotdoubleitsfinalconsonant.begin/beginningWithtwo-syllableverbs,thefinalconsonantisnormallydoubledwhenthelastsyllableisstressed.Otherexamples:for"get/forgetting,pre"fer/preferring,up"set/upsetting.Compare:"benefit/benefiting,"differ/differingand"profit/profitingwhicharestressedontheirfirstsyllablesanddonotdoubletheirfinalconsonants.Note"label/labelling,"quarrel/quarrelling,"signal/signallingand"travel/travelling(BrE)whichareexceptionstothisrule.Compare:labeling,quarreling,signaling,traveling(AmE)[compare>9.14.2]:-icattheendofaverbchangesto-ickwhenweadd-ing:panic/panicking,picnic/picknicking,traffic/trafficking.lie/lyingOtherexamples:die/dying,tie/tying.9.11Usesofthepresentprogressivetense9.11.1ActionsinprogressatthemomentofspeakingWeusethepresentprogressivetodescribeactionsoreventswhichareinprogressatthemomentofspeaking.Toemphasizethis,weoftenuseadverbialslikenow,atthemoment,just,etc.:Someone"sknockingatthedoor.Canyouanswerit?Whatareyoudoing?-I"mjusttyingupmyshoe-laces.He"sworkingatthemoment,sohecan"tcometothetelephone.Actionsinprogressareseenasuncompleted:He"stalkingtohisgirlfriendonthephone.Wecanemphasizetheideaofdurationwithstill[>7.25]:He"sstilltalkingtohisgirlfriendonthephone.9.11.2TemporarysituationsThepresentprogressivecanbeusedtodescribeactionsandsituationswhichmaynothavebeenhappeninglong,orwhicharethoughtofasbeinginprogressforalimitedperiod:What"syourdaughterdoingthesedays?She"sstudyingEnglishatDurhamUniversity.Suchsituationsmaynotbehappeningatthemomentofspeaking:don"ttakethatladderaway.Yourfather"susingit.(i.e.butperhapsnotatthemoment)She"satherbestwhenshe"smakingbigdecisions.Temporaryeventsmaybeinprogressatthemomentofspeaking:Theriverisflowingveryfastafterlastnight"srain.Wealsousethepresentprogressivetodescribecurrenttrends:
EnglishGrammar:Verbs,verbtenses,imperativesPeoplearebecominglesstolerantofsmokingthesedays.9.11.3Plannedactions:futurereferenceWeusethepresentprogressive[>9.46.3]torefertoactivitiesandeventsplannedforthefuture.Wegenerallyneedanadverbialunlessthemeaningisclearfromthecontext:We"respendingnextwinterinAustralia.Thisuseofthepresentprogressiveisalsocommonlyassociatedwithfuturearrivalanddepartureandoccurswithverbslikearrive,come,go,leave,etc.todescribetravelarrangements:He"sarrivingtomorrowmorningonthe13.27train.Theadverbialandthecontextpreventconfusionwiththepresentprogressivetodescribeanactionwhichisinprogressatthetimeofspeaking:Look!Thetrain"sleaving.(i.e.it"sactuallymoving)9.11.4RepeatedactionsTheadverbsalways(inthesenseof"frequently"),constantly,continually,forever,perpetuallyandrepeatedlycanbeusedwithprogressiveformstodescribecontinually-repeatedactions:She"salwayshelpingpeople.Somestativeverbscanhaveprogressiveformswithalways,etc.:I"malwayshearingstrangestoriesabouthim.[>9.3]Sometimestherecanbeimpliedcomplaintinthisuseoftheprogressivewhenitreferstosomethingthathappenstoooften:Ourburglaralarmisforevergoingofffornoreason.9.12Thepresenttensesintypicalcontexts9.12.1ThesimplepresentandpresentprogressiveincommentaryThesimplepresentandthepresentprogressiveareoftenusedincommentariesoneventstakingplaceatthemoment,particularlyonradioandtelevision.Insuchcases,thesimplepresentisusedtodescriberapidactionscompletedatthemomentofspeakingandtheprogressiveisusedtodescribelonger-lastingactions:MacFeepassestoFranklyn,FranklynmakesaquickpasstoBooth.Boothisawaywiththeball,buthe"slosinghisadvantage.9.12.2ThesimplepresentandpresentprogressiveinnarrationWhenwearetellingastoryordescribingthingsthathavehappenedtous,weoftenusepresenttenses(eventhoughtheeventsareinthepast)inordertosoundmoreinterestinganddramatic.Theprogressiveisusedfor"background"andthesimpletenseforthemainevents:I"mdrivingalongthiscountryroadandI"mcompletelylost.ThenIseethisoldfellow.He"sleaningagainstagate.Istopthecarandaskhimtheway.Hethinksabit,thensays,"Well,ifIwereyou,Iwouldn"tstartfromhere."9.12.3ThesimplepresentindemonstrationsandinstructionsThisuseofthesimplepresentisanalternativetotheimperative[>9.51].Itillustratesstep-by-stepinstructions:First(you)boilsomewater.Then(you)warmtheteapot.Then(you)addthreeteaspoonsoftea.Next,(you)pouronboilingwater_9.12.4Thesimplepresentinsynopses(e.g.reviewsofbooks,films,etc.)KateFox"snovelisanhistoricalromancesetinLondoninthe1880s.Theactiontakesplaceoveraperiodof30years_9.12.5Thesimplepresentandpresentprogressiveinnewspaperheadlinesande.g.photographiccaptionsThesimplepresentisgenerallyusedtorefertopastevents:FREAKSNOWSTOPSTRAFFICDISARMAMENTTALKSBEGININVIENNATheabbreviatedprogressivereferstothefuture.Theinfinitivecanalsobeusedforthispurpose[>9.48.1]:CABINETMINISTERRESIGNINGSOON(or:TORESIGNSOON)Thesimplepasttense9.13FormofthesimplepasttensewithregularverbsTheformisthesameforallpersons[>App39].pronunciationspellingI>played/d/arrive/arrivedYou>arrived/d/wait/waitedHe>worked/t/stop/stoppedShe>dreamed/dreamt/dri8md/or/dreamt/occur/occurredIt>posted/Id/cry/criedWe>You>They>9.14Theregularpast:pronunciationandspelling[>App39]9.14.1PronunciationoftheregularpastVerbsintheregularpastalwaysendwitha-dintheirspelling,butthepronunciationofthepastendingisnotalwaysthesame:
EnglishGrammar:Verbs,verbtenses,imperativesplay/played/d/Themostcommonspellingcharacteristicoftheregularpastisthat-edisaddedtothebaseformoftheverb:opened,knocked,stayed,etc.Exceptinthecasesnotedbelow,this-edisnotpronouncedasifitwereanextrasyllable,soopenedispronounced:/EUpEnd/,knocked:/n_kt/,stayed:/steId/,etc.arrive/arrived/d/Verbswhichendinthefollowingsoundshavetheirpastendingspronounced/d/:/b/rubbed;/g/tugged;/dZ/managed;/l/filled;/m/dimmed;/n/listened;vowel+/r/stirred;/v/loved;/z/seized.The-edendingisnotpronouncedasanextrasyllable.work/worked/t/Verbswhichendinthefollowingsoundshavetheirpastendingspronounced/t/:/k/packed;/s/passed;/tS/watched;/S/washed;/f/laughed;/p/tipped.The-edendingisnotpronouncedasanextrasyllable.dream/dreamed/d/ordreamt/t/Afewverbsfunctionasbothregularandirregularandmayhavetheirpastformsspelt-edor-tpronounced/d/or/t/:e.g.burn,dream,lean,learn,smell,spell,spill,spoil[>App40].post/posted/Id/Verbswhichendinthesounds/t/or/d/havetheirpastendingspronounced/Id/:posted,added.The-edendingispronouncedasanextrasyllableaddedtothebaseformoftheverb.9.14.2SpellingoftheregularpastTheregularpastalwaysendsin-d:arrive/arrivedVerbsendingin-eadd-d:e.g.phone/phoned,smile/smiled.Thisruleappliesequallytoagree,die,lie,etc.wait/waitedVerbsnotendingin-eadd-ed:e.g.ask/asked,clean/cleaned,follow/followed,video/videoed.stop/stoppedVerbsspeltwithasinglevowelletterfollowedbyasingleconsonantletterdoubletheconsonant:beg/begged,rub/rubbed.occur/occurredIntwo-syllableverbsthefinalconsonantisdoubledwhenthelastsyllablecontainsasinglevowelletterfollowedbyasingleconsonantletterandisstressed:pre"fer/preferred,re"fer/referred.Compare:"benefit/benefited,"differ/differedand"profit/profitedwhicharestressedontheirfirstsyllablesandwhichthereforedonotdoubletheirfinalconsonants.InAmElabeled,quarreled,signaledandtraveledfollowtherule.InBrElabelled,quarrelled,signalledandtravelledareexceptionstotherule[compare>9.10].cry/cried[compare>2.20]Whenthereisaconsonantbefore-y,theychangestoibeforeweadd-ed:e.g.carry/carried,deny/denied,fry/fried,try/tried.Compare:delay/delayed,obey/obeyed,play/played,etc.whichhaveavowelbefore-yandthereforesimplyadd-edinthepast.9.15FormofthesimplepasttensewithirregularverbsTheformisthesameforallpersons[>App40]I>You>He>She>shut>It>saton>thesuitcaseWe>You>They>9.16NotesonthepastformofirregularverbsUnlikeregularverbs,irregularverbs(about150inall)donothavepastformswhichcanbepredicted:shut/shutAsmallnumberofverbshavethesameforminthepresentasinthepast:e.g.cut/cut,hit/hit,put/put.Itisimportanttoremember,particularlywithsuchverbs,thatthethirdpersondoesnotchangeinthepast:e.g.heshut(past);heshuts(present).sit/satThepastformofmostirregularverbsisdifferentfromthepresent:bring/brought,catch/caught,keep/kept,leave/left,lose/lost.9.17Usesofthesimplepasttense9.17.1CompletedactionsWenormallyusethesimplepasttensetotalkaboutevents,actionsorsituationswhichoccurredinthepastandarenowfinished.
EnglishGrammar:Verbs,verbtenses,imperativesTheymayhavehappenedrecently:Samphonedamomentago.orinthedistantpast:TheGothsinvadedRomeinA.D.410.Atimereferencemustbegiven:IhadawordwithJulianthismorning.ormustbeunderstoodfromthecontext:IsawFredintown.(i.e.whenIwastherethismorning)Inevermetmygrandfather.(i.e.heisdead)Whenweusethesimplepast,weareusuallyconcernedwithwhenanactionoccurred,notwithitsduration(howlongitlasted).9.17.2PasthabitLikeusedto[>11.60],thesimplepastcanbeusedtodescribepasthabits[comparepresenthabit>9.8.3]:IsmokedfortycigarettesadaytillIgaveup.9.17.3TheimmediatepastWecansometimesusethesimplepastwithoutatimereferencetodescribesomethingthathappenedaveryshorttimeago:Jimmypunchedmeinthestomach.Didthetelephonering?Wholeftthedooropen?(Who"sleftthedooropen?[>9.26.1]).9.17.4Politeinquiries,etc.Thesimplepastdoesnotalwaysrefertopasttime.Itcanalsobeusedforpoliteinquiries(particularlyaskingforfavours),oftenwithverbslikehope,thinkorwonder.Compare:Iwonderifyoucouldgivemealift.Iwonderedifyoucouldgivemealift.(moretentative/polite)Fortheuseof"theunrealpast"inconditionalsentences[>14.12]9.18AdverbialswiththesimplepasttenseTheassociationofthepasttensewithadverbialsthattelluswhensomethinghappenedisveryimportant.Adverbialsusedwiththepasttensemustrefertopast(notpresent)time.Thismeansthatadverbialswhichlinkthepresent(beforenow,sofar,tillnow,yet)arenotusedwithpasttenses.Someadverbialslikeyesterday,lastsummer[>App48]andcombinationswithagoareusedonlywithpasttenses:IsawJaneyesterday/lastsummer.Ago[>7.31],meaning"backfromnow",cancombinewithavarietyofexpressionstorefertothepast:e.g.twoyearsago;sixmonthsago;tenminutesago;alongtimeago:ImetRobertParrmanyyearsagoinCzechoslovakia.Thepastisoftenusedwithwhentoaskandanswerquestions:Whendidyoulearnaboutit?-WhenIsawitinthepapers.Whenoftenpointstoadefinitecontrastwiththepresent:IplayedfootballeverydaywhenIwasaboy.Otheradverbialscanbeusedwithpasttenseswhentheyrefertopasttime,butcanbeusedwithothertensesaswell[>9.4]:adverbs:IalwayslikedGloria.IoftensawherinRome.DidyouevermeetSonia?InevermetSonia.adverbial/prepositionalphrases:Weleftat4o"clock/onTuesday.WehadourholidayinJuly.adverbialclauses:Iwaitedtillhearrived.ImethimwhenIwasatcollege.as+adverb+as:Isawhimasrecentlyaslastweek.Thepastprogressivetense9.19FormofthepastprogressivetenseThepastprogressiveisformedwiththepastofbe+the-ingform.Seeunderbe[>10.8]fordetailsaboutform.Iwas>Youwere>Hewas>Shewas>Itwas>waiting.[>9.10]Wewere>Youwere>Theywere>9.20Usesofthepastprogressivetense9.20.1Actionsinprogressinthepast
EnglishGrammar:Verbs,verbtenses,imperativesWeusethepastprogressivetodescribepastsituationsoractionsthatwereinprogressatsometimeinthepast:Iwaslivingabroadin1987,soImissedthegeneralelection.Oftenwedon"tknowwhethertheactionwascompletedornot:Philippawasworkingonheressaylastnight.Adverbialsbeginningwithall[>5.22.2][>7.36]emphasizecontinuity:Itwasrainingallnight/allyesterday/alltheafternoon.Inthesameway,stillcanemphasizeduration[>7.25]:JimwastalkingtohisgirlfriendonthephonewhenIcameinandwasstilltalkingtoherwhenIwentoutanhourlater.9.20.2ActionswhichbeganbeforesomethingelsehappenedThepastprogressiveandthesimplepastareoftenusedtogetherinasentence.Thepastprogressivedescribesasituationoractioninprogressinthepast,andthesimplepastdescribesashorteractionorevent.Theactionorsituationinprogressisoftenintroducedbyconjunctionslikewhenandas,justas,while:JustasIwasleavingthehouse,thephonerang.JanemetFrankSinatrawhenshewaslivinginHollywood.Ortheshorteractioncanbeintroducedbywhen:Wewerehavingsupperwhenthephonerang.Wecanoftenusethesimplepasttodescribetheactioninprogress,buttheprogressiveputsmoreemphasisonthedurationoftheaction,asinthesecondofthesetwoexamples:WhileIfumbledforsomemoney,myfriendpaidthefares.WhileIwasfumblingforsomemoney,myfriendpaidthefares.9.20.3ParallelactionsWecanemphasizethefactthattwoormoreactionswereinprogressatthesametimebyusinge.g.whileoratthetime(that):WhileIwasworkinginthegarden,mywifewascookingdinner.9.20.4Repeatedactions[compare>9.11.4]Thisuseissimilartothatofthepresentprogressive:Whenheworkedhere,Rogerwasalwaysmakingmistakes.9.20.5Politeinquiries[compare>9.17.4]Thisuseisevenmorepoliteandtentativethanthesimplepast:Iwaswonderingifyoucouldgivemealift.9.21PasttensesintypicalcontextsThesimplepastcombineswithotherpasttenses,suchasthepastprogressiveandthepastperfect,whenwearetalkingorwritingaboutthepast.Notethatthepastprogressiveisusedforscene-setting.Pasttensesofvariouskindsarecommoninstory-telling,biography,autobiography,reports,eye-witnessaccounts,etc.:OnMarch14that10.15a.m.IwaswaitingforabusatthebusstoponthecornerofDoverRoadandWestStreetwhenablackMercedesparkedatthestop.Beforethedriver(had)managedtogetoutofhiscar,anumber14busappeared_Itwasevening.Thesunwassetting.Agentlewindwasblowingthroughthetrees.InthedistanceInoticedaLandRovermovingacrossthedustyplain.Itstoppedandtwomenjumpedoutofit.ItwasjustbeforetheSecondWorldWar.Tomwasonly20atthetimeandwaslivingwithhismother.HewasworkinginabankandtravellingtoLondoneveryday.Onemorning,hereceivedamysteriousletter.Itwasaddressedto"MrThomasParker".Thesimplepresentperfecttense9.22FormofthesimplepresentperfecttenseThepresentperfectisformedwiththepresentofhave[>10.27]+thepastparticiple(thethirdpartofaverb).Forregularverbs[>App39]thepastparticiplehasthesameformasthesimplepasttense:e.g.arrive,arrived,havearrived.Forirregularverbs[>App40]thesimplepastandthepastparticiplecanbeformedinavarietyofways:e.g.drink,drank,havedrunkIhave(I"ve)Youhave(You"ve)arrived/d/(regular)Hehas(He"s)finished/t/(regular)Shehas(She"s)started/Id/(regular)Ithas(It"s)shut(irregular)Wehave(We"ve)lost(irregular)Youhave(You"ve)drunk(irregular)Theyhave(They"ve)9.23PresenttimeandpasttimeStudentsspeakingotherEuropeanlanguagessometimesmisusethepresentperfecttenseinEnglishbecauseofinterferencefromtheirmothertongue.Thepresentperfectisoftenwronglyseenasanalternativetothepast,sothatastudentmightthinkthatI"vehadlunchandIhadlunchareinterchangeable.Itisalsoconfusedwiththepresent,sothatanidealikeI"vebeenheresinceFebruaryiswronglyexpressedinthepresentwithIam.Thepresentperfectalwayssuggestsarelationshipbetweenpresenttimeandpasttime.SoI"vehadlunch(probably)impliesthatI
EnglishGrammar:Verbs,verbtenses,imperativesdidsoveryrecently.However,ifIsayIhadlunch,Ialsohavetosayorimplywhen:e.g.Ihadlunchanhourago.Similarly,I"vebeenheresinceFebruaryshowsaconnexionbetweenpastandpresent,whereasIamherecanonlyrelatetothepresentandcannotbefollowedbyaphraselikesinceFebruary.Inthepresentperfecttense,thetimereferenceissometimesundefined;oftenweareinterestedinpresentresults,orinthewaysomethingthathappenedinthepastaffectsthepresentsituation.Thepresentperfectcanthereforebeseenasapresenttensewhichlooksbackwardsintothepast(justasthepastperfect[>9.29]isapasttensewhichlooksbackwardsintoanearlierpast).Comparethesimplepasttense,wherethetimereferenceisdefinedbecauseweareinterestedinpasttimeorpastresults.Thefollowingpairsofsentencesillustratethisdifferencebetweenpresenttimeandpasttime:Ihaven"tseenhimthismorning.(i.e.uptothepresenttime:itisstillmorning)Ididn"tseehimthismorning.(i.e.themorninghasnowpassed)HaveyoueverflowninConcorde?(i.e.uptothepresenttime)WhendidyouflyinConcorde?(i.e.when,precisely,inthepast)9.24Usesofthesimplepresentperfecttense[compare>10.13]ThepresentperfectisusedintwowaysinEnglish:1Todescribeactionsbeginninginthepastandcontinuinguptothepresentmoment(andpossiblyintothefuture).2Torefertoactionsoccurringornotoccurringatanunspecifiedtimeinthepastwithsomekindofconnexiontothepresent.Thesetwousesarediscussedindetailinthesectionsbelow.9.25Actions,etc.continuingintothepresent9.25.1Thepresentperfect+adverbialsthatsuggest"uptothepresent"Wedonotusethepresentperfectwithadverbsrelatingtopasttime(ago,yesterday,etc.)[>9.18][>App38].Adverbialphraseslikethefollowingareusedwiththepresentperfectbecausetheyclearlyconnectthepastwiththepresentmoment:before(now),It"sthefirsttime_,sofar,sofarthismorning,uptillnow,uptothepresent.Adverbslikeever(inquestions),andnot_everornever(instatements)arecommonly(butnotexclusively)usedwiththepresentperfect.I"veplantedfourteenrose-bushessofarthismorning.She"snevereatenamangobefore.Haveyouevereatenamango?It"sthemostinterestingbookI"veeverread.[compare>6.28.1]Olgahasn"tappearedonTVbeforenow.9.25.2Thepresentperfectwith"since"and"for"[>7.31-32][>10.13.5]Weoftenusesinceandforwiththepresentperfecttorefertoperiodsoftimeuptothepresent.Since(+pointoftime)canbe:-aconjunction:Tomhasn"tbeenhomesincehewasaboy.-anadverb:IsawFionainMayandIhaven"tseenhersince.-apreposition:I"velivedheresince1980.Since,asaconjunction,canbefollowedbythesimplepastorpresentperfect:Iretiredin1980andcametolivehere.I"velivedheresinceIretired.(i.e.thepointwhenIretired:1980)IhavelivedhereforseveralyearsnowandI"vemademanynewfriendssinceIhavelivedhere.(i.e.uptonow)For+periodoftimeoftenoccurswiththepresentperfectbutcanbeusedwithanytense.Compare:I"velivedhereforfiveyears.(andIstilllivehere)Ilivedhereforfiveyears.(Idon"tliveherenow)Iamhereforsixweeks.(that"showlongI"mgoingtostay)9.26Actions,etc.occurringatanunspecifiedtime9.26.1ThepresentperfectwithoutatimeadverbialWeoftenusethepresentperfectwithoutatimeadverbial,especiallyinconversation.Wedonotalwaysneedone,foroftenweareconcernedwiththeconsequencesnowofsomethingwhichtookplacethen,whether"then"wasveryrecentlyoralongtimeago.Iffurtherdetailsarerequired(e.g.preciseanswerstoquestionslikeWhen?,Where?)wemustgenerallyusethesimplepast:Haveyoupassedyourdrivingtest?(Dependingoncontext,thiscanmean"atanytimeuptonow"or"afterthetestyou"vejusttaken".)-Yes,IpassedwhenIwas17.(simplepast:exacttimereference)JasonVilliershasbeenarrested.(Dependingoncontext,thiscanimply"today"or"recently"or"atlast".)HewasseenbyaCustomsOfficerwhoalertedthepolice.(simplepastwithdetails)However,adverbslikejust,usedwiththepresentperfect,canprovidemoreinformationaboutactionsin"unspecifiedtime".Detailsfollow.9.26.2ThepresentperfectforrecentactionsThefollowingadverbscanrefertoactions,etc.inrecenttime:-just[>7.29]:I"vejusttidiedupthekitchen.-recently,etc.:He"srecentlyarrivedfromNewYork.-alreadyinquestionsandaffirmativestatements[>7.26][>7.28]:Haveyoutypedmyletteralready?-Yes,I"vealreadytypedit.-yet,inquestions,foreventsweareexpectingtohearabout:Haveyoupassedyourdrivingtestyet?[>7.27-28]
EnglishGrammar:Verbs,verbtenses,imperativesorinnegatives,forthingswehaven"tdone,butexpecttodo:Ihaven"tpassedmydrivingtestyet.-still[>7.25],atlast,finally:Istillhaven"tpassedmydrivingtest.(despitemyefforts)Ihavepassedmydrivingtestatlast.(afterallmyefforts)9.26.3ThepresentperfectforrepeatedandhabitualactionsThisuseisassociatedwithfrequencyadverbs(often,frequently)andexpressionslikethree/four/severaltimes[>7.38-39]:I"vewatchedhimonTVseveraltimes.(i.e.andIexpecttoagain)I"veoftenwonderedwhyIgetsuchapoorreceptiononmyradio.She"sattendedclassesregularly.She"salwaysworkedhard.9.27ThesimplepresentperfecttenseintypicalcontextsThepresentperfectisneverusedinpastnarrative(e.g.storiestoldinthepast,historybooks).Apartfromitscommonuseinconversation,itismostoftenusedinbroadcastnews,newspapers,lettersandanykindoflanguage-usewhichhasconnexionwiththepresent.Examples:9.27.1Broadcastreports,newspaperreportsInterestratesroseagaintodayandthepriceofgoldhasfallenby$10anounce.Industrialleadershavecomplainedthathighinterestrateswillmakeborrowingexpensiveforindustry.9.27.2ImpliedinnewspaperheadlinesVILLAGESDESTROYEDINEARTHQUAKE(=havebeendestroyed)9.27.3Letters,postcards,etc.We"vejustarrivedinHongKong,andthoughwehaven"thadtimetoseemuchyet,we"resurewe"regoingtoenjoyourselves.Thesimplepastperfecttense9.28FormofthesimplepastperfecttenseThepastperfectisformedwithhad+thepastparticiple.Seeunderhave[>10.28]fordetailsaboutform.Ihad(I"d)>Youhad(You"d)>arrivedHehad(He"d)>finishedShehad(She"d)>startedIthad(It"d)>shut[>9.22]Wehad(We"d)>lostYouhad(You"d)>drunkTheyhad(They"d)>9.29UsesofthepastperfecttenseItissometimessupposedthatweusethepastperfectsimplytodescribe"eventsthathappenedalongtimeago".Thisisnotthecase.Weusethesimplepastforthispurpose[>9.17.1]:AnthonyandCleopatradiedin30B.C.9.29.1ThepastperfectreferringtoanearlierpastThemainuseofthepastperfectistoshowwhichoftwoeventshappenedfirst.Herearetwopastevents:Thepatientdied.Thedoctorarrived.Wecancombinethesetwosentencesindifferentwaystoshowtheirrelationshipinthepast:Thepatientdiedwhenthedoctorarrived.(i.e.thepatientdiedatthetimeorjustafterthedoctorarrived)Thepatienthaddiedwhenthedoctorarrived.(i.e.thepatientwasalreadydeadwhenthedoctorarrived)Theeventthathappenedfirstneednotbementionedfirst:Thedoctorarrivedquickly,butthepatienthadalreadydied.Sometypicalconjunctionsusedbeforeapastperfecttoreferto"anearlierpast"are:whenandafter,assoonas,bythetimethat.Theyoftenimplyacause-and-effectrelationship:Weclearedupassoonasourguestshadleft.Adverbsoftenassociatedwiththepresentperfect[>9.25-26]:already,ever,for(+periodoftime),just,never,never_before,since(+pointoftime)areoftenusedwiththepastperfecttoemphasizethesequenceofevents:WhenIrang,Jimhadalreadyleft.Theboyslovedthezoo.Theyhadneverseenwildanimalsbefore.9.29.2ThepastperfectasthepastequivalentofthepresentperfectThepastperfectsometimesfunctionssimplyasthepastformofthepresentperfect:Julietisexcitedbecauseshehasneverbeentoadancebefore.Julietwasexcitedbecauseshehadneverbeentoadancebefore.Thisisparticularlythecaseinindirectspeech[>15.13n.3].Usedinthisway,thepastperfectcanemphasizecompletion:
EnglishGrammar:Verbs,verbtenses,imperativesIbegancollectingstampsinFebruaryandbyNovemberIhadcollectedmorethan2000.Yetcanbeusedwiththepastperfect,butweoftenpreferexpressionslikeuntilthenorbythattime.Compare:Hehasn"tfinishedyet.Hehadn"tfinishedbyyesterdayevening.9.29.3ThepastperfectforunfulfilledhopesandwishesWecanusethepastperfect(orthepastsimpleorprogressive)withverbslikeexpect,hope,mean,suppose,think,want,todescribethingswehopedorwishedtodobutdidn"t[>11.42.3]:Ihadhopedtosendhimatelegramtocongratulatehimonhismarriage,butIdidn"tmanageit.9.30Obligatoryandnon-obligatoryusesofthepastperfectWedonotalwaysneedtousethepastperfecttodescribewhicheventcamefirst.Sometimesthisisperfectlyclear,asin:AfterIfinished,Iwenthome.Thesequenceisoftenclearinrelativeclauses[>1.27]aswell:Iworethenecklace(which)mygrandmother(had)leftme.Wenormallyusethesimplepastforeventsthatoccurinsequence:Igotoutofthetaxi,paidthefare,tippedthedriveranddashedintothestation."Icame,Isaw,Iconquered."JuliusCaesardeclared.Butthereareinstanceswhenweneedtobeverypreciseinouruseofpastorpastperfect,particularlywithwhen:WhenIarrived,Anneleft.(i.e.atthatmoment)WhenIarrived,Annehadleft.(i.e.beforeIgotthere)Inthefirstsentence,IsawAnne,h,weverbriefly.Inthesecond,Ididn"tseeheratall.Seealsoindirectspeech[>15.12].Wenormallyusethepastperfectwithconjunctionslikenosooner_thanorhardly/scarcely/barely_when:MrsWinthrophadnosoonerlefttheroomthantheybegantogossipabouther.MrJenkinshadhardly/scarcely/barelybegunhisspeechwhenhewasinterrupted.9.31SimplepastandsimplepastperfectintypicalcontextsThepastperfectcombineswithotherpasttenses(simplepast,pastprogressive,pastperfectprogressive)whenwearetalkingorwritingaboutthepast.Itisusedinstory-telling,biography,autobiography,reports,eye-witnessaccounts,etc.andisespeciallyusefulforestablishingthesequenceofevents:Whenwereturnedfromourholidays,wefoundourhouseinamess.Whathadhappenedwhilewehadbeenaway?Aburglarhadbrokenintothehouseandhadstolenalotofourthings.(Nowthatthetimeoftheburglaryhasbeenestablishedrelativetoourreturn,thestorycancontinueinthesimplepast.)Theburglargotinthroughthekitchenwindow.Hehadnodifficultyinforcingitopen.Thenhewentintotheliving-room_Notethereferencetoanearlierpastinthefollowingnarrative:SilasBadleyinheritedseveraloldcottagesinourvillage.Hewantedtopullthemdownandbuildnewhouseswhichhecouldsellforhighprices.HewrotetoMrHarrison,nowblindandnearlyeighty,askinghimtoleavehiscottagewithinamonth.OldMrHarrisonwasverydistressed.(Thesituationhasbeenestablishedthroughtheuseofthesimplepast.Whatfollowsnowisareferencetoanearlierpastthroughtheuseofthesimplepastperfect.)Hehadbeenborninthecottageandstayedthereallhislife.Hischildrenhadgrownupthere;hiswifehaddiedthereandnowhelivedthereallalone.Thepresentperfectprogressiveandpastperfectprogressivetenses9.32Formofthepresent/pastperfectprogressivetensesThepresentperfectprogressiveisformedwithhavebeen+the-ingform.Thepastperfectprogressiveisformedwithhadbeen+the-ingform.Seeunderbe[>10.12]fordetailsaboutform.presentperfectprogressivepastperfectprogressiveIhave(I"ve)>Ihad(I"d)>Youhave(You"ve)>Youhad(You"d)>Hehas(He"s)>Hehad(He"d)>Shehas(She"s)>Shehad(She"d)>beenwaiting.Ithas(It"s)>beenwaiting.Ithad(It"d)>[>9.10]Wehave(We"ve)>Wehad(We"d)>Youhave(You"ve)>Youhad(You"d)>Theyhave(They"ve)>Theyhad(They"d)>9.33Usesofthepresent/pastperfectprogressivetenses9.33.1ActionsinprogressthroughoutaperiodWeusethepresentperfectprogressivewhenwewishtoemphasizethatanactivityhasbeeninprogressthroughoutaperiod,oftenwithconsequencesnow.Dependingoncontext,thisactivitymayormaynotstillbeinprogressatthepresenttime.Thisuseoftenoccurswithall+timereferences:e.g.allday[>9.20.1]:Sheisverytired.She"sbeentypinglettersallday.(Dependingoncontext,sheisstilltypingorhasrecentlystopped.)
EnglishGrammar:Verbs,verbtenses,imperativesThepastperfectprogressive,inthesameway,isusedforactivitiesinprogressduringanearlierpast,oftenwithconsequencesthen:Shewasverytired.Shehadbeentypinglettersallday.(Dependingoncontext,shewasstilltypingorhadrecentlystopped.)Someverbslikelearn,lie,live,rain,sit,sleep,stand,study,wait,worknaturallysuggestcontinuityandoftenoccurwithperfectprogressiveswithsinceorfor[>7.31-32][>9.25.2]andalsoinquestionsbeginningwithHowlong_?[>10.13.5]:I"vebeenworkingforExxonfor15years.(Dependingoncontext,Iamstillnow,orImayhaverecentlychangedjobsorretired.)WhenIfirstmetAnn,shehadbeenworkingforExxonfor15years.(Dependingoncontext,AnnwasstillworkingforExxonthenorshehadrecentlychangedjobsorretired.)With"continuityverbs",simpleandprogressiveformsareofteninterchangeable,sointheaboveexamples"I"veworked"and"shehadworked"couldbeused.Theonlydifferenceisthattheprogressiveputsmoreemphasisoncontinuity.9.33.2Thepresent/pastperfectprogressiveforrepeatedactionsTheperfectprogressiveformsareoftenusedtoshowthatanactionis(orwas)frequentlyrepeated:JimhasbeenphoningJennyeverynightforthepastweek.Jennywasannoyed.Jimhadbeenphoninghereverynightforawholeweek.9.33.3Thepresent/pastperfectprogressivefordrawingconclusionsWeusetheprogressive(seldomthesimple)formstoshowthatwehavecometoaconclusionbasedondirectorindirectevidence:Youreyesarered.You"vebeencrying.Hereyeswerered.Itwasobviousshehadbeencrying.Thepresentperfectprogressiveoftenoccursincomplaints:Thisroomstinks.Someone"sbeensmokinginhere.9.34Thepresent/pastperfectsimpleandprogressivecomparedThedifferencebetweenanactivitystillinprogressandonethathasdefinitelybeencompletedismarkedbycontextandbytheverbsweuse.Thesimpleandprogressiveformsarenotinterchangeablehere:aI"vebeenpaintingthisroom.I"vepaintedthisroom.Inthefirstexample,theactivityisuncompleted.Inthesecondexample,thejobisdefinitelyfinished.bWhenIgothome,IfoundthatJillhadbeenpaintingherroom.WhenIgothome,IfoundthatJillhadpaintedherroom.Inthefirstexample,theactivitywasuncompletedthen.Inthesecondexample,thejobwasdefinitelyfinishedthen.Thesimplefuturetense9.35FormofthesimplefuturetenseThesimplefutureisformedwithwill[but>9.36]andthebaseformoftheverb.affirmativeshortformnegativeshortformsIwill>I"ll>Iwillnot>I"llnot>Iwon"t>Youwill>You"ll>Youwillnot>You"llnot>Youwon"t>Hewill>He"ll>Hewillnot>He"llnot>Hewon"t>Shewill>She"ll>Shewillnot>She"llnot>Shewon"t>stay.Itwill>It"ll>Itwillnot>It"llnot>Itwon"t>Wewill>We"ll>Wewillnot>We"llnot>Wewon"t>Youwill>You"ll>Youwillnot>You"llnot>Youwon"t>Theywill>They"ll>Theywillnot>They"llnot>Theywon"t>9.36Notesontheformofthesimplefuturetense1ShallandwillWillisusedwithallpersons,butshallcanbeusedasanalternativewithIandweinpurefuturereference[>9.37.1].ShallisusuallyavoidedwithyouandI:YouandIwillworkinthesameoffice.2ContractionsShallweakensto/SEl/inspeech,butdoesnotcontractto"llinwriting.Willcontractsto"llinwritingandinfluent,rapidspeechaftervowels(I"ll,we"ll,you"ll,etc.)but"llcanoccurafterconsonants.Sowemightfind"llused:e.g.-afternames:Tom"llbeheresoon.-aftercommonnouns:Theconcert"llstartinaminute.-afterquestion-words:When"lltheyarrive?3NegativesWillnotcontractsto"llnotorwon"t;shallnotcontractstoshan"t:I/Wewon"torshan"tgo.(I/Wewillnotorshallnotgo).InAmEshan"tisrareandshallwithafuturereferenceisunusual.4FuturetenseWhenweusewill/shallforsimpleprediction,theycombinewithverbstoformtensesintheordinaryway[>9.2][>11.7]:simplefuture:Iwillseefutureprogressive:Iwillbeseeing
EnglishGrammar:Verbs,verbtenses,imperativesfutureperfect:Iwillhaveseenfutureperfectprogressive:Iwillhavebeenseeing9.37Usesofthe"will/shall"future9.37.1"Will/shall"forpredictionbrieflycomparedwithotherusesWillandshallcanbeusedtopredictevents,forexample,tosaywhatwethinkwillhappen,ortoinviteprediction:TottenhamwillwinonSaturday.Itwillraintomorrow.Willhousepricesriseagainnextyear?Idon"tknowifIshallseeyounextweek.Thisissometimescalled"thepurefuture",anditshouldbedistinguishedfrommanyotherusesofwillandshall:e.g.I"llbuyyouabicycleforyourbirthday.[>11.73](Notethatwillisnotusedtomean"wantto")Willyouholdthedooropenformeplease?[>11.38]ShallIgetyourcoatforyou?[>11.39]Shallwegoforaswimtomorrow?[>11.40]Justwait-you"llregretthis![>11.23][>11.73]Thoughalltheaboveexamplespointtofuturetime,theyarenot"predicting";theyare"coloured"bynotionsofwillingness,etc.Will/shallhavesomanyusesasmodalverbs[>Chapter11]thatsomegrammariansinsistthatEnglishdoesnothaveapurefuturetense[also>9.2].9.37.2"Will"informalstyleforscheduledeventsWillisusedinpreferencetobegoingto[>9.44]whenaformalstyleisrequired,particularlyinthewrittenlanguage:TheweddingwilltakeplaceatStAndrew"sonJune27th.ThereceptionwillbeattheAnchorHotel.9.37.3"Will/shall"toexpresshopes,expectations,etc.Thefutureisoftenusedafterverbsandverbphraseslikeassume,beafraid,besure,believe,doubt,expect,hope,suppose,think:Ihopeshe"llgetthejobshe"sappliedfor.Thepresentwithafuturereferenceispossibleafterhope:Ihopeshegetsthejobshe"sappliedfor.[compare>11.42.1]Lackofcertainty,etc.canbeconveyedbyusingwillwithadverbslikeperhaps,possibly,probably,surely:Askhimagain.Perhapshe"llchangehismind.9.38Timeadverbialswiththe"will/shall"futuretenseSomeadverbialsliketomorrow[>App48]areusedexclusivelywithfuturereference;otherslikeat4o"clock,beforeFriday,etc.areusedwithothertensesaswellasthefuture:I"llmeetyouat4o"clock.Nowandjustcanalsohaveafuturereference[>7.29]:ThisshopwillnowbeopenonJune23rd.(achangeofdate)I"mnearlyready.I"lljustputmycoaton.Forin+periodoftime[>8.14]andby,not_until[>7.34].9.39OtherwaysofexpressingthefutureWecanexpressthefutureinotherways,apartfromwill/shall:begoingto:I"mgoingtoseehimtomorrow.[>9.44]beto:I"mtoseehimtomorrow.[>9.47]presentprogressive:I"mseeinghimtomorrow.[>9.11.3]simplepresent:Iseehimtomorrow.[>9.8.4]Thesewaysofexpressingthefutureareconcernedlesswithsimplepredictionandmorewithintentions,plans,arrangements,etc.Thefutureprogressivetense9.40FormofthefutureprogressivetenseThefutureprogressiveisformedwithwill/shall+be+the-ingform:Iwill/shall(I"ll)be>Youwill(You"ll)be>Hewill(He"ll)be>Shewill(She"ll)be>expectingyou/me.Itwill(It"ll)be>[>9.10]Wewill/shall(We"ll)be>Youwill(You"ll)be>Theywill(They"ll)be>9.41Usesofthefutureprogressivetense9.41.1ActionsinprogressinthefutureThemostcommonuseoftheprogressiveformistodescribeactionswhichwillbeinprogressintheimmediateordistantfuture:Hurryup!Theguestswillbearrivingatanyminute!
EnglishGrammar:Verbs,verbtenses,imperativesAspacevehiclewillbecirclingJupiterinfiveyears"time.Itisoftenusedforvisualizingafutureactivityalreadyplanned:Bythistimetomorrow,I"llbelyingonthebeach.9.41.2The"softeningeffect"ofthefutureprogressiveSometimesthefutureprogressiveisusedtodescribesimplefuturity,butwitha"softeningeffect"thattakesawaytheelementofdeliberateintentionoftenimpliedbywill:I"llworkonthistomorrow.(intention,possiblyapromise)I"llbeworkingonthistomorrow.(futurity)Insomecontexts,thefutureprogressivesoundsmorepolitethanwill,especiallyinquestionswhenwedonotwishtoappeartobepressingforadefiniteanswer:Whenwillyoufinishtheseletters?(e.g.bosstoassistant)WhenwillyoubeseeingMrWhite?(e.g.assistanttoboss)Sometimestherereallyisadifferenceinmeaning:Marywon"tpaythisbill.(sherefusesto)Marywon"tbepayingthisbill.(futurity)Willyoujoinusfordinner?(invitation)Willyoubejoiningusfordinner?(futurity)Won"tyoucomewithus?(invitation)Won"tyoubecomingwithus?(futurity)9.41.3Arrangementsandplans[compare>9.11.3]Thefutureprogressivecanbeusedlikethepresentprogressivetorefertoplannedevents,particularlyinconnexionwithtravel:We"llbespendingthewinterinAustralia.(wearespending)ProfessorCraigwillbegivingalectureonEtruscanpotterytomorrowevening.(=isgiving)Thefutureperfectsimpleandfutureperfectprogressivetenses9.42FormofthefutureperfectsimpleandprogressivetensesThefutureperfectsimpleisformedwithwillhave+thepastparticiple.Thefutureperfectprogressiveisformedwithwillhavebeen+the-ingform.futureperfectsimplefutureperfectprogressiveIwill/shallhave>will/shallhavebeen>Youwillhave>willhavebeen>Hewillhave>willhavebeen>Shewillhave>receivedhitwillhavebeen>livingherefor20yearsItwillhave>bythen.willhavebeen>bytheendoftheyear.Wewill/shallhave>will/shallhavebeen>Youwillhave>willhavebeen>Theywillhave>willhavebeen>9.43Usesofthefutureperfectsimpleandprogressivetenses9.43.1"Thepastasseenfromthefuture"Weoftenusethefutureperfecttoshowthatanactionwillalreadybecompletedbyacertaintimeinthefuture.Iwillhaveretiredbytheyear2020.(Thatis,beforeorintheyear2020,myretirementwillalreadybeinthepast.)Thistenseisoftenusedwithbyandnot_till/until+time[>7.34]andwithverbswhichpointtocompletion:build,complete,finish,etc.Wealsooftenusethefutureperfectafterverbslikebelieve,expect,hope,suppose:Iexpectyouwillhavechangedyourmindbytomorrow.9.43.2ThecontinuationofastateuptothetimementionedWhatisinprogressnowcanbeconsideredfromapointinthefuture:Bythistimenextweek,Iwillhavebeenworkingforthiscompanyfor24years.WewillhavebeenmarriedayearonJune25th.The"goingto"-future9.44Formofthe"goingto"-futureThegoingto-futureisformedwitham/is/aregoingto+thebaseformoftheverb.Iam>Youare>Heis>Sheis>Itis>goingtoarrivetomorrow.Weare>Youare>Theyare>
EnglishGrammar:Verbs,verbtenses,imperatives9.45Thepronunciationof"goingto"Therecanbeadifferenceinpronunciationbetweenbegoingto(whichhasnoconnexionwiththeordinaryverbgo)andtheprogressiveformoftheverbgo.In:"I"mgoingtohaveawonderfultime"goingtoisoftenpronounced/gEnE/ineverydayspeech.In:"I"mgoingtoChicago"goingtocanonlybepronounced/gEUNtu8/or/gEUIntE/9.46Usesofthe"goingto"-future9.46.1The"goingto"-futureforpredictionThegoingto-futureisoftenused,likewill,topredictthefuture.Itiscommoninspeech,especiallywhenwearereferringtotheimmediatefuture.Thespeakerseessignsofsomethingthatisabouttohappen:Oh,look!It"sgoingtorain!Lookout!She"sgoingtofaint!Thisuseofgoingtoincludesthepresent,whereasItwillrainispurelyaboutthefuture.Alternatively,thespeakermayhavepriorknowledgeofsomethingwhichwillhappeninthenearfuture:They"regoingtobemarriedsoon.(Herbrothertoldme.)Afuturetimereferencemaybeaddedwithsuchpredictions:It"sgoingtoraintonight.They"regoingtobemarriednextMay.Weusuallypreferwilltothegoingto-futureinformalwritingandwhenthereisaneedforconstantreferencetothefutureasin,forexample,weatherforecasts.9.46.2The"goingto"-futureforintentions,plans,etc.Whenthereisanysuggestionofintentionsandplans,wetendtousethegoingto-futureratherthanwillininformalstyle:I"mgoingtopractisethepianofortwohoursthisevening.(i.e.That"smyintention:whatIhaveplanned/arrangedtodo.)However,wegenerallypreferwilltogoingtowhenwedecidetodosomethingatthemomentofspeaking:We"rereallylost.I"llstopandasksomeonetheway.Intentioncanbeemphasizedwithadverbslikenowandjustwhicharegenerallyassociatedwithpresenttime[compare>7.29]:I"mnowgoingtoshowyouhowtomakespaghettisauce.I"mjustgoingtochange.I"llbebackinfiveminutes.Theuseofbegoingtotorefertotheremotefutureislesscommonandgenerallyrequiresatimereference:Shesaysshe"sgoingtobeajockeywhenshegrowsup.Ifwewanttobepreciseaboutintentionsandplans,weuseverbslikeintendto,planto,proposeto,ratherthangoingto:They"regoingtobuildanewmotorwaytothewest.(vague)Theyproposetobuildanewmotorwaytothewest.(moreprecise)9.46.3The"goingto"-futureinplaceofthepresentprogressiveThegoingto-futuremaybeusedwherewewouldequallyexpecttohavethepresentprogressive[>9.11.3]withafuturereference:I"mhavingdinnerwithJanettomorrowevening.I"mgoingtohavedinnerwithJanettomorrowevening.However,wecannotusethepresentprogressivetomakepredictions,soitwouldnotbepossibleinasentencelikethis:It"sgoingtosnowtonight.Thoughbegoingtocancombinewithgoandcome,thepresentprogressiveispreferredwiththeseverbsforreasonsofstyle.Wetendtoavoidgoingnexttogoorcome(e.g.goingtogo/goingtocome):I"mgoing/cominghomeearlythisevening.9.46.4The"goingto"-futureafter"if"Wedonotnormallyusewillafteriftomakepredictions[>14.24.2],butwecanusebegoingtotoexpressanintention:Ifyou"regoingtojoinus,we"llwaitforyou.Begoingtocanoftenbeusedinthemainclauseaswell:IfyouinviteJack,there"sgoingtobetrouble.Otherwaysofexpressingthefuture9.47FormsoffuturesubstitutesIam/Youare,etc.toseeMrJonestomorrow.Iam/Youare,etc.duetoleaveat7.30.Iam/Youare,etc.abouttogetabigsurprise.Iam/Youare,etc.onthepointofleaving.Iam/Youare,etc.-leavingimmediately.[>9.11.3]I/You,etc.-leaveat7tomorrow.[>9.8.4]9.48Usesoffuturesubstitutes9.48.1Theuseof"am/is/areto"Betoisusedtorefertothefuturewhentheactionsaresubjecttohumancontrol.ThusstatementssuchasI"mgoingtofaintorIt"sgoingtoraincannotbeexpressedwithbeto,whichhasrestricteduses:e.g.Formalarrangements/publicduties:
EnglishGrammar:Verbs,verbtenses,imperativesOPECrepresentativesaretomeetinGenevanextTuesday.Compare:OPECREPRESENTATIVESTOMEETINGENEVA[>9.12.5]Formalappointments/instructions:active:You"retodelivertheseflowersbefore10.passive:Threetabletstobetakentwiceaday.Prohibitions/publicnotices:You"renottotellhimanythingaboutourplans.(=youmustn"t)POISON:NOTTOBETAKEN!9.48.2Theuseof"beaboutto","beonthepointof"Theseconstructionsareusedtorefertotheimmediatefuture:Look!Theraceisabouttostart.Onthepointofconveysevengreaterimmediacy:Look!They"reonthepointofstarting!Theuseofjustwithabouttoandbeonthepointofincreasesthesenseofimmediacy,asitdoeswiththepresentprogressive:They"rejuststarting!9.48.3Theuseof"bedueto"Thisisoftenusedinconnexionwithtimetablesanditineraries:TheBA561isduetoarrivefromAthensat13.15.TheBA561isnotduetill13.15.Thefuture-in-the-past9.49Thefuture-in-the-pastThefuture-in-the-pastcanbeexpressedbywasgoingto,wasaboutto,wasto,wastohave+pastparticiple,wasonthepointof,wasduetoand(inmorelimitedcontexts)would.Theseformscanrefertoeventswhichwereplannedtotakeplaceandwhichdidtakeplace:Icouldn"tgotoTom"spartyasIwasabouttogointohospital.orrefertoanoutcomethatcouldnotbeforeseen:Littledidtheyknowtheyweretobereunitedtenyearslater.However,thefutre-in-the-pastcanalsobeusedtodescribeeventswhichwereinterrupted(just_when)[compare>9.20.2]:WewerejustgoingtoleavewhenJeanfellandhurtherankle.ortodescribeeventswhichwerehinderedorprevented(_but):Iwastosee/wasgoingtosee/wastohaveseenMrKaytomorrow,buttheappointmenthasbeencancelled.Notethepossibleambiguityof:IwasgoingtoseeMrKay.(themeetingdidordidnottakeplace)comparedwith:IwastohaveseenMrKay.(Ididnotseehim)9.50Future-in-the-past:typicalcontextsThefuture-in-the-pastisoftenusedinnarrativetodescribe"eventsthatweredestinedtohappen":Einsteinwasstillayoungman.Hisdiscoverieshadnotyetbeenpublished,buttheyweretochangeourwholeviewoftheuniverse.Wouldcanalsoexpressfuture-in-the-pastinsuchcontexts:Wehadalreadyreached9,000feet.Soonwewouldreachthetop.Theimperative9.51FormoftheimperativeTheimperativeformisthesameasthebareinfinitive[>16.1]:Affirmativeform(baseformoftheverb):Wait!Negativeshortform(Don"t+baseform):Don"twait!Emphaticform(Do+baseform):Dowaitamoment!Addressingsomeone(e.g.pronoun+baseform):Youwaithere!Imperative+questiontag:Waithere,willyou?Imperativesjoinedbyand:Goandplayoutside.9.52Somecommonusesoftheimperative[compare>10.5]Weusetheimperativefordirectordersandsuggestionsandalsoforavarietyofotherpurposes.Stressandintonation,gesture,facialexpression,and,aboveall,situationandcontext,indicatewhethertheuseofthisformisfriendly,abrupt,angry,impatient,persuasive,etc.ThenegativeformisusuallyexpressedbyDon"t.Thefullform(Donot)isusedmainlyinpublicnotices.Herearesomecommonuses:1Directcommands,requests,suggestions:Followme.Shutthedoor(please).Don"tworry!2Warnings:Lookout!There"sabus!Don"tpanic!3Directions:Takethe2ndturningontheleftandthenturnright.4Instructions:
EnglishGrammar:Verbs,verbtenses,imperativesUseamoderateovenandbakefor20minutes.5Prohibitions(ine.g.publicnotices):Keepoffthegrass!Donotfeedtheanimals!6Advice(especiallyafteralwaysandnever[>7.40.4]):Alwaysanswerwhenyou"respokento!Neverspeaktostrangers!7Invitations:Comeandhavedinnerwithussoon.8Offers:Helpyourself.Haveabiscuit.9Expressingrudeness:Shutup!Pushoff!Forusesofletasanimperative[>16.4.1].9.53Usesoftheimperativewith"do"Weusedo(alwaysstressed)beforetheimperativewhenweparticularlywishtoemphasizewhatwearesaying:e.g.-whenwewishtobepolite:Dohaveanothercupofcoffee.-orwhenwewishtoexpressimpatience:Dostoptalking!-orwhenwewishtopersuade:Dohelpmewiththismathsproblem.Inresponsetorequestsforpermission,offers,etc.doanddon"tcanbeusedinplaceofafullimperative:May/ShallIswitchthelightoff?-Yes,do.No,don"t.9.54TheuseoftheimperativetoaddressparticularpeopleTheimperative,e.g.Waithere!,mightbeaddressedtoonepersonorseveralpeople:youisimplied.However,wecangettheattentionofthepersonorpeoplespokentointhefollowingways.(For1stpersonpluralimperativewithlet"s[>16.4.1]):1+imperative:Youwaithereforamoment.Intonationandstressareimportant.If,intheaboveexample,youisunstressed,thesentencemeans"thisiswhereyouwait".Ifitisstressed,itmeans"thisiswhatIwantyoutodo".Whenyouisstressed,itmightalsoconveyanger,hostilityorrudeness:"Youmindyourownbusiness!"Youtryteaching40noisychildrenfivedaysaweek!Don"t(notyou)isstressedinthenegative:"Don"tyouspeaktomelikethat!2You+name(s)orname(s)+you:Youwaithere,Jim,andMary,youwaitthere.3Imperative+nameorname+imperative:Drinkupyourmilk,Sally!Sally,drinkupyourmilk!4Imperative+reflexive[>4.25]:Enjoyyourself.Behaveyourself.5Wecanusewordslikeeverybody,someonewiththeimperativewhenwearetalkingtogroupsofpeople[>4.37]:Everyonekeepquiet!Keepstilleverybody!Nobodysayaword!Somebodyanswerthephoneplease.Anycompoundsareusedafternegativecommands:Don"tsayawordanybody!Don"tanybodysayaword!9.55Theimperativewithquestiontags[>13.17-22]Tagslikewillyou?,won"tyou?,canyou?,can"tyou?,couldyou?andwouldyou?canoftenbeusedafteranimperativeforavarietyofpurposes:e.g.-toexpressannoyance/impatiencewithwill/won"t/can"tyou?(risingtone):StopfiddlingwiththatTV,willyou/won"tyou/can"tyou?-tomakearequest(canyou?forneutralrequests;could/wouldyou?formorepoliteones);ortosoundlessabrupt:Postthisletterformecanyou?/couldyou?/wouldyou?-toofferpoliteencouragementortomakefriendlyoffersandsuggestions(willyou?andwon"tyou?):Comein,willyou/won"tyou?Takeaseat,willyou/won"tyou?-toobtaintheco-operationofotherswithDon"t_willyou?Don"ttellanyoneItoldyou,willyou?Andnotewhydon"tyou?asatagin:e.g.Goofffortheweekend,whydon"tyou?9.56Doubleimperativesjoinedby"and"[compare>16.12.2]Someimperativescanbefollowedbyandandanotherimperativewherewemightexpectato-infinitive:Goandbuyyourselfanewpairofshoes.(Not*Gotobuy*)Comeandseethisgoldfish.(Not*Cometosee*)Comeandplayagameofbridgewithus.(Not*Cometoplay*)Waitandsee.(Not*Waittosee*)
EnglishGrammar:Verbs,verbtenses,imperativesTryandseemypointofview.(NoteTrytoisalsopossible.)InAmEgoissometimesfolloweddirectlybyabareinfinitive:Gofetchsomewater.(=Goandfetch)Ato-infinitivecanfollowanimperativetoexpresspurpose:Eattolive;donotlivetoeat.[>16.12.1]
EnglishGrammar:Be,Have,Do10Be,Have,Do"Be","have"and"do"asauxiliaryverbs10.1"Be","have","do":fullverbsandauxiliaryverbsBeisafullverbwhenitcombineswithadjectivesandnouns[>10.9];haveisafullverbwhenitisusedtomean"possess",etc.[>10.27][>10.32];doisafullverbwhenitisusedtomean"performanactivity",etc.[>10.40].Thethreeverbsareauxiliary(or"helping")verbswhentheycombinewithotherverbsto"help"themcompletetheirgrammaticalfunctions(seebelow).10.2Usesof"be"asanauxiliaryverb1Be,onitsownorincombinationwithhave,isusedforprogressivetenseforms[>9.1-2]:e.g.Iam/Heis/Weareworking.(presentprogressive)Ihavebeenworking.(presentperfectprogressive)2Becombineswiththepastparticipletoformpassives:e.g.Itwastaken.[>12.2];Itcan"tbedone.[>12.2n.2]10.3Usesof"have"asanauxiliaryverb1Have+pastparticipleformssimpleperfecttenses:e.g.Ihave/Hehaseaten.Ihadeaten.[>9.1-2]2Have+been+presentparticipleformsperfectprogressive:e.g.Ihave/Ihadbeeneating.[>9.2]3Have+been+pastparticipleformspassives:e.g.Ithasbeeneaten.[>12.2n.1]Shemusthavebeendelayed.[>12.2n.2]Questions/negativeswithbeandhaveasauxiliaryverbsfollowthesamepatternasthoseforbeasafullverb[>Chapter13].Havecanfunctionasanauxiliaryandfullverbinthesamesentence[>10.34-36].10.4Usesof"do"asanauxiliaryverb1Themostimportantuseofdoasanauxiliaryverbisthatitcombineswiththebaseformofverbstomakequestionsandnegativesinthesimplepresentandsimplepasttenses,andisusedinplaceofaverbinshortanswersandquestiontags[>Chapter13].Notethatdocanfunctionbothasanauxiliaryverbandasafullverbinthesamesentence[>10.41-42].Do(auxiliaryverb)youdo(fullverb)yourshoppingonceaweek?2Doisalsousedforemphasis[compare>9.53]:Dositdown.Ididturnthegasoff.Drivecarefully!-Idodrivecarefully.3Doisusedinplaceofaverbin:e.g.Ilikeice-creamandAnndoes,too.[>4.18][>10.44.2][>11.31][>13.28]"Be"asafullverb10.5Usesof"be"intheimperative[compare>9.51]Theimperativeofbeisrestrictedtothefollowingcombinations:10.5.1"Be"+nounManycombinationsofbe(affirmative)+nounareidiomatic:Beaman!Beanangelandfetchmemyslippersplease.Goon!Haveanotherslice!Beadevil!Don"tbe+nounismuchmorecommonandveryoftenrefersto(foolish)behaviour.ThenegativeresponseisI"mnot!:Don"tbeanass/aclown/afool/anidiot/animbecile!etc.Andnotecombinationsofbe+adjective+noun:Beagoodgirlatschool.Don"tbeasillyidiot!Becanhavethesenseof"become"especiallyinadvertisements:Beabettercook!Betheenvyofyourfriends!Thenegativedon"tbe(=don"tbecome)isoftenusedforadvice.AgreementisexpressedwithIwon"t(be).:Don"tbearacingdriver!It"ssodangerous.Beisalsousedtomean"pretendtobe",especiallyafteryou:(You)bethefairygodmotherandI"llbeCinderella.Beamonster,granddad!Andnote:
EnglishGrammar:Be,Have,DoNowbeyourselfagain!10.5.2"Be"+adjectiveOnlyadjectivesreferringtopassingbehaviourcanbeusedafterbe/don"tbe,e.g.careful/careless,patient/impatient,quiet,silly.(Be/Don"tbewillnotusuallycombinewithadjectivesdescribingstates,e.g.hungry/thirsty,pretty):Bequiet!(negativeresponse:Iwon"t!)Don"tbesoimpatient!(negativeresponse:I"mnot!)10.5.3"Be"+pastparticipleBecombineswithafewpastparticiples:e.g.Beprepared!,(Please)beseated!,Bewarned!Compare:Getwashed![>12.6].10.5.4"Do"+"be"inplaceoftheimperativeandthepresenttenseTheimperative:Becareful,oryou"llbreakthatvase!canbere-phrasedwithifinthefollowingway:Ifyoudon"tbecareful,you"llbreakthatvase.Thisislesscommonthan[>14.4]:Ifyou"renotcareful,you"llbreakthatvase.Wecanusebelikeanyotherimperativewherethesenseallows:-afterdo[>9.53]:Dobecarefulwiththatvase!-afteryou[>9.54]:Youbequiet!-withtags[>9.55]:Bequietforamoment,willyou?10.6Thesimplepresentformof"be"affirmativeshortformnegativeshortformsIam>I"m>I"mnotYouare>You"re>You"renot=Youaren"t>Tomis=Heis>Tom"s=He"s>He"snot=Heisn"t>Annis=Sheis>Ann"s=She"s>She"snot=Sheisn"t>Myticketis=Itis>Myticket"s=It"s>It"snot=Itisn"t>old.TomandIare=Weare>We"re>We"renot=Wearen"t>Annandyouare=Youare>You"re>You"renot=Youaren"t>TomandAnnare=Theyare>They"re>They"renot=Theyaren"t>10.7Notesonthepresentformof"be"1Shortformsneveroccurattheendofasentence:Idon"tknowwheretheyare.2Therearetwonegativeshortforms(e.g.Youaren"tandYou"renot)andthereisnodifferenceintheiruse.Theshortnegativeformscanstandontheirown(I"mnot/Theyaren"t).Theaffirmativeshortforms(I"m,etc.)cannotstandontheirown.Onlythefullaffirmativeformscandothis:Areyouready?-Yes,Iam.No,I"mnot.3Notetheformationofnegativequestionsandnegativequestiontags[>13.14][>13.18]withI.The(rare)fullformisAmInot_?,butthiscontractstoAren"tI_?(Not*Amn"tI_?*):-negativequestion:AmInotlate?->Aren"tIlate?-negativeWh-question:WhyamInotinvited?->Whyaren"tIinvited?-negativequestiontag:I"mlate,amInot?->I"mlate,aren"tI?Aren"tIisonlypossibleinnegativequestions/negativequestiontagsandisneverusedinnegativestatementsinstandardEnglish:Iamnotlate>I"mnotlate.(theonlypossiblecontraction)Therearenovariationswithotherpersons:e.g.Heisn"tlate.Isn"thelate?He"slate,isn"the?4Thenon-standardformain"t,inplaceofamnot,isnotandarenot[also>10.30n.8],isfrequentlyheardinallpersonsandisavoidedbyeducatedspeakers(exceptperhapsinjoking):Ain"tyoulate?Heain"tlate.Iain"tlateTheyain"tlate.10.8Thesimplepastformof"be"affirmativenegativenegativeshortformIwas>Iwasnot>Iwasn"t>Youwere>Youwerenot>Youweren"t>Hewas>Hewasnot>Hewasn"t>Shewas>late.Shewasnot>late.Shewasn"t>late.Itwas>Itwasnot>Itwasn"t>Wewere>Wewerenot>Weweren"t>Youwere>Youwerenot>Youweren"t>Theywere>Theywerenot>Theyweren"t>10.9Usesof"be"inthesimplepresentandsimplepastWeusethepresentandpastofbewhenweareidentifyingpeopleandthingsorgivinginformationaboutthem,andwhenwearetalkingaboutexistencewithThere_[>10.17].Forverbsrelatedinmeaningtobe,suchasseem,look,appear[>10.23].
EnglishGrammar:Be,Have,Do10.9.1"Be"+names/nouns/pronouns:identification/informationHernameis/wasHelen.ThisisTom.ThatwasHarry.Who"sthat?-It"sme.Whowasthat?-ItwasJane.WhichoneisMary?-That"sherontheleft.ThecapitalofEnglandisLondon.InthepastitwasWinchester.Sheis/wasadoctor.Theyare/weredoctors.Heis/wasanAmerican.Theyare/wereAmericans.10.9.2"Be"+adjectiveHeishungry.Theyarehungry.(state)Hewasangry.Theywerenaughty.(mood,behaviour)Shewastall.Hereyesaregreen.(description,colour)SheisFrench.TheyareFrench.(nationality)Itwasfine/wet/cold/windy.(weather)10.9.3"Be"+adjective(s)+nounHeisaninterestingman.Theyareinterestingmen.Itisabluejacket.Theyarebluejackets.10.9.4"Be":timereferences,price,age,etc.ItisMonday/July23/1992.Itis£5.50.Tomis14.10.9.5"Be"+possessivesIt"smine/Tom"s.Theyaremine/Tom"s.10.9.6"Be"+adverbsandprepositionalphrases[>7.3.3]Sheishere/there.Theyareupstairs.TheplayisnextWednesday.(futurereference)Heisinthekitchen.Theyareatthedoor.10.9.7"Be"+adverbparticleand"home"[compare>8.29.2][>10.13.4]Becombineswithadverbparticles(away,in,out,etc.[>8.4]);IsTimin?No,he"sout.He"sbackinanhour.Becombineswithhome(atisoptional):WherewasTim?Washehome?/Washeathome?Compare:Tim"sathomenow.(=hehasarrivedathishome)Tim"sathomenow.(=hemaynothavelefthomeatall)10.9.8"Be"inthepresentandpastreplacing"have/had"IninformalEnglish,thepresentandpastofbecanreplacehave/had[>9.22][>9.28]withverbslikedo,finish,go:I"mdonewithallthatnonsense.(=Ihavedone,i.e.finished)Ileftmykeysjustthereandnextmomenttheywere(had)gone.Haveyoufinishedwiththepaper?-I"m(have)nearlyfinished.10.9.9"Emptysubject"+"be"[>4.12]It"sfoggy.It"s20milestoLondon.10.9.10"Be"+infinitive[>9.47-48][>16.16]Myaimistostartupmyowncompany.10.10Formofthepresentandpastprogressiveof"be"pastprogressivepastprogressiveIam(I"m)being>Iwasbeing>Youare(You"re)being>Youwerebeing>Heis(He"s)being>Hewasbeing>Sheis(She"s)being>silly.Shewasbeing>silly.(Itis(It"s)being)>(Itwasbeing)>Weare(We"re)being>Wewerebeing>Youare(You"re)being>Youwerebeing>Theyare(They"re)being>Theywerebeing>TheformsHe"sbeingsillyandHe"sbeensilly[>10.12]shouldnotbeconfused.10.11Theuseof"be"+"being"todescribetemporarybehaviourTheprogressiveformsnormallyoccuronlywiththepresentandthepastformsofbe.Theyareusedwithafewadjectivesandnouns[>App41](oradjectiveandnouncombinations).Theprogressiveispossiblewithadjectivessuchasnaughty,silly,referringtopassingbehaviour,butisnotpossiblewithadjectivesdescribingstates(hungry,thirsty,etc.).Withsomecombinationsthereisastrongimplicationthatthebehaviourisdeliberate.Comparetemporaryandusualbehaviourinthefollowing:Yourbrotherisbeingveryannoyingthisevening.
EnglishGrammar:Be,Have,DoHeisn"tusuallysoannoying.Yourbrotherwasbeinga(silly)foolyesterday.Heisn"tusuallysucha(silly)fool.10.12Formofthepresentperfectandpastperfectof"be"presentperfectpastperfectfullformshortformfullformshortformIhavebeen>I"vebeen>Ihadbeen>I"dbeen>Youhavebeen>You"vebeen>Youhadbeen>You"dbeen>Hehasbeen>He"sbeen>Hehadbeen>He"dbeen>Shehasbeen>She"sbeen>ill.Shehadbeen>She"dbeen>ill.(Ithasbeen)>(It"sbeen)>(Ithadbeen)>->Wehavebeen>We"vebeen>Wehadbeen>We"dbeen>Youhavebeen>You"vebeen>Youhadbeen>You"dbeen>Theyhavebeen>They"vebeen>Theyhadbeen>They"dbeen>TheformsHe"sbeensillyandHe"sbeingsilly[>10.10]shouldnotbeconfused.10.13Usesof"havebeen"and"hadbeen"[compare>9.24]Inmanyoftheusesdescribedbelow,otherlanguagesrequirethepresentorpastofbewhereEnglishrequireshasbeenorhadbeen10.13.1"Havebeen/hadbeen"+adjective:behaviourandstatesHavebeenandhadbeenwillcombinenotonlywithadjectivesdescribingtemporarybehaviour(annoying,etc.,[>10.11]),butalsowiththosedescribingstatesandmoodscontinuinguptillnowortillthen.Havebeeniscommoninconversationandhadbeeninreportedspeechandwrittennarrative:Behaviour:She"sbeenveryquiet.Isaidshehadbeenveryquiet.States:I"veneverbeensotired.IsaidI"dneverbeensotired.Moods:He"sbeenverygloomy.Isaidhe"dbeenverygloomy.Someparticiplesusedasadjectivescombinewithhave/hadbeen:Myunclehasbeenretiredformorethantwoyears.Theirdoghasbeenmissingforthreedays.Andnoticeespecially:She"sbeengone(=away)forhalfanhour.10.13.2"Havebeen/hadbeen"+adjective:weather,etc.Havebeenandhadbeenalsocombinewithadjectivesdescribingtheweather(i.e.states):It"sbeenverycoldlately.Isaidithadbeenverycold.Incertaincontextsotheradjectives(e.g.numbers)arepossible:You"respeakingasifyou"dneverbeen15yearsoldinyourlife.10.13.3"Havebeen/hadbeen"+noun:professions,behaviourHavebeenandhadbeenwillcombinewithnoun(orwithadjective+noun)toaskaboutordescribeprofessions:Haveyoueverbeenateacher?I"vebeenateacher,butnowI"macomputersalesman.Howlonghaveyoubeenacomputersalesman?Nounsreferringtobehaviourwillalsocombinewithhavebeen:Whatagoodgirlyouare!You"vebeenanangel!Alltheaboveexamplescanbetransferredtothepastperfect:Hetoldmehehadbeenawaiterbeforehebecameataxi-driver.10.13.4"Havebeen/hadbeen"and"havegone/hadgone"Havebeen(generally+toorin)hasthesenseof"visitaplaceandcomeback".Havegone(followedbytoandneverbyin)hasthesenseof"beataplaceoronthewaytoaplace":Sothereyouare!Wherehaveyoubeen?-I"vebeentoaparty/inthecanteen.(=andcomeback)Where"sPam?-She"sgonetoaparty/toParis/tothecanteen.(=She"sonherwaythere,orshe"stherenow.)Havebeenandhavegonewillcombinewithadverbparticleslikeout,away,andwithhome(notprecededbyto[>10.9.7]):Wherehaveyoubeen?I"vebeenout/away/home.(i.e.I"mherenow)WherehasTimgone?-He"sgoneout/away/home.(i.e.he"snotherenow)
EnglishGrammar:Be,Have,DoWecanusefrombeforehomein:e.g.He"scomefromhome.(i.e."home"iswherehestartedoutfrom.)Compare:He"scomehome.(=Hehasarrivedathishome.)Havebeen/hadbeencombinewithotheradverbialsaswell:He"sbeenalongtime.(i.e.Hehasn"tcomebackyet.)Havebeenandhavegoneareinterchangeableonlywhentheyhavethesenseof"experience".Thiscanoccurwhentheyareusedwitheverorneverandfollowedby:-agerund:Haveyoueverbeen/goneskiingintheAlps?-for+noun:I"veneverbeen/goneforaswimatnight.-on+noun:Haveyoueverbeen/goneonholidayinwinter?10.13.5"Havebeen/hadbeen"with"since"and"for"[>9.25.2]WithHowlong_?,since_,for_havebeencanbeusedinthesensehavelived/worked/waitedorhavebeenliving/working/waiting:HowlonghaveyoubeeninLondon?(i.e.lived/beenliving)-I"vebeenheresinceJanuary/forsixmonths.HowlonghaveyoubeenwithIBM?(i.e.worked/beenworking)-I"vebeenwiththemsinceNovember/forthreemonths.Howlonghaveyoubeeninthiswaiting-room?(waited/beenwaiting)-I"vebeenheresince3o"clock/forhalfanhour.Thepastperfectreplacesthepresentperfectinreportedspeech:ShetoldmeshehadbeenwithIBMforthreemonths.10.14Formofthefutureandfutureperfectof"be"future[>9.35]futureperfect[compare>9.42]fullformshortformfullformshortformIwill/shallbe>I"llbe>Iwill/shall>I"llhavebeen>Youwillbe>You"llbe>Youwill>You"llhavebeen>Hewillbe>He"llbe>Hewill>He"llhavebeen>Shewillbe>She"llbe>Shewill>She"llhavebeen>late.Itwillbe>It"llbe>Itwill>It"llhavebeen>Wewill/shallbe>We"llbe>Wewill/shall>We"llhavebeen>Youwillbe>You"llbe>Youwill>You"llhavebeen>Theywillbe>They"llbe>Theywill>They"llhavebeen>10.15Thefutureof"be"asafullverbWillbecombineswithmanyofthenounsandadjectivespossibleafterthesimplepresent/pastofbefornormalwill-futureuses:Itwillbesunnytomorrow.I"llbehereby7.[>9.35-37]Willbecanbeusedfordeduction:ThatwillbeHelen.[>11.33]10.16Thefutureperfectof"be"asafullverbWillhavebeencombineswiththesamenounsandadjectivespossibleafterhavebeenfornormalusesinthefutureperfect[>9.43]:Howlongwillyouhavebeenateacher?Bytheendofnextweek,Iwillhavebeenateacherfor25years.Willhavebeencanbeusedtomean"lived,worked,waited":HowlongwillyouhavebeenwithIBM?BytheendofJanuary,IwillhavebeenwithIBMforsixmonths.Willhavebeencanalsobeusedfordeduction[>11.33]:ThatwillhavebeenRoland.Hesaidhe"dbebackat7."There"+"be"10.17Someformsof"there"+"be"[>11.76]thesimplepresentthesimplepastThereisamanatthedoor.Therewassomeonetoseeyou.Therearetwomenatthedoor.Thereweresomepeopletoseeyou.thepresentperfectthepastperfectTherehasbeenanaccident.Hesaidtherehadbeenanaccident/Therehavebeenalotofenquiries.alotofenquiries.thesimplefuturethefutureperfectTherewillbealetterforyouTherewillhavebeenadefinitetomorrow.resultbeforeFriday.tagquestions[>13.17-22]ThereisabigmatchonTVtonight,isn"tthere?Therehasbeensomeawfulweatherlately,hasn"tthere?commoncontractionsThereis=There"s:There"samanatthedoor.
EnglishGrammar:Be,Have,DoTherehas=There"s:There"sbeenanaccident.Therehave=There"ve:There"vebeenalotofaccidentsroundhere.Therehad=There"d:Hetoldmethere"dbeenanaccidentnearhere.Therewould=There"d:There"dbefeweraccidentsifdriverstookcare.Therewill=There"ll:There"llbeagoodharvestthisyear.10.18Notesontheformandpronunciationof"there"+"be"1ThesingularformThere"sisoftenusedinformallyinplaceofTherearetorefertotheplural:There"slotsofcarsontheroadsthesedays.There"samanandadoginourgarden.2Whenwearetalkingaboutexistence,Thereis/There"sandThereareareunstressedandpronounced/TeErIz,TEz/and/TeEr_8/.Comparethestressedformtoshowwehavejustseensomething:Look!"There"s/TeEz/thenewFiat.[also>7.59.1]10.19Whenweuse"there"+"be"combinationsWeusethere+becombinationswhenwearetalkingoraskingabouttheexistenceofpeople,things,etc.Itismoreidiomaticand"natural"tosay"There"samanatthedoor"thantosay"Amanisatthedoor".Theconstructionwiththereallowsimportantnewinformationtocomeattheendofthesentenceforemphasis.Weusethere:-whenitisa"naturalchoice":There"sbeenanaccident.(=Anaccidenthasoccurred.)Isthereahotelnearhere?-There"soneonthecorner.-toannounceorreportevents,arrangements,facts,etc.:There"llbeareceptionforthePresidentattheGrandHotel.There"sbeenaweddingatthelocalchurch.-forscene-settinginstory-telling:Therehadn"tbeenanyrainformonths.Theearthwasbareanddry.Therewasn"tabladeofgrassgrowinganywhere.10.20"Thereis",etc.comparedwithe.g."itis"Onceexistencehasbeenestablishedwiththere,wemustusepersonalpronouns+be(orotherverbs)togivemoredetails:There"sabuscoming,butit"sfull.There"samanatthedoor.,It"sthepostman.[>3.20.4]There"samanatthedoor.Hewantstospeaktoyou.[>4.5.5]Therearesomechildrenatthedoor.TheywanttoseeJimmy.There"savanstoppingoutside.It"ssomeonedeliveringsomething.[compare>1.60][>11.76.3-4][>16.52]There"stobeaconcertattheAlbertHalltonight.It"stobebroadcastlive.(There/Itistobe=There/Itisgoingtobe)10.21"Thereis",etc.+determinerThereis,etc.cancombinewith:e.g.-aandan[>3.10]:There"saletterforyoufromGerald.There"llbeanexhibitionofHockneypaintingsinDecember.-thezeroarticle[>3.28.8]:Therearewaspsinthejam.-some,anyandno[>5.10-11]:Therearesomechangesintheprintedprogramme.Arethereanylemonsinthefridge?Therearenovolunteersforajoblikethis!-some,anyandnocompounds[>4.37]:IsthereanyoneherewhocanreadArabic?I"mstarvingandthere"snothinginthefridge.-numbersandquantitywords[>5.3]:Thereareseventeenpeoplecomingtodinner!Therearen"tmanySanskritscholarsintheworld.There"llbethousandsoffootballfansinLondonthisweekend.-definitedeterminers(the,this,that,my,etc.[>3.1]).Theuseofthe,etc.afterthereisisrelativelyrare:Whatcanwecarrythisshoppingin?-There"sthe/this/mybriefcase.Willthatbeallright?10.22"There"+verbsotherthan"be"Therecanbeusedwithafewverbsbesidesbe(usuallyintheaffirmativeandinformalstyle).Theseverbsmustberegardedasvariationsofbeinthattheydescribeastate:e.g.exist,live(therelivediscommoninfairystories)lie,remain:Thereremainsonematterstilltobediscussed.Itishighlyprobablethatthereexistanynumberofsystemsresemblingourownsolarsystem.Therecombineswithverbsrelatedtobe,suchasappear[>10.25]:Thereappears/seemstobelittleenthusiasmforyouridea.Therecombineswithafewotherverbs,suchasarrive,come,enter,follow,rise.Suchcombinationshaverestricteduses:
EnglishGrammar:Be,Have,DoTherewillfollowanintervaloffiveminutes.Verbsrelatedinmeaningto"be"10.23Verbsrelatedinmeaningto"be":selectedformsverbsrelatedto"be"presentof"be":Heisquiterich.Heappears/seems(tobe)quiterich.Itisquitedark.Itappears/seems(tobe)quitedark.pastof"be":Hewasquiterich.Heappeared/seemed(tobe)quiterich.Itwasquitedark.Itappeared/seemed(tobe)quitedark.presentprogressive:Heisworkinghard.Heappears/seemstobeworkinghard.It"sworking.Itappears/seemstobeworking.pastprogressive:Hewasworkinghard.Heappeared/seemedtobeworkinghard.Itwasworking.Itappeared/seemedtobeworking.presentperfect:Hehasbeenhurt.Heappears/seemstohavebeenhurt.Ithasbeenbroken.Itappears/seemstohavebeenbroken.10.24Expressinguncertaintywithverbsrelatedto"be"Wecanexpresscertaintyaboutstateswithbe:Heisill.Wecanexpresslesscertaintyaboutstateswithmodals[>11.27-28]:Hemay/might/couldbeill.orthroughtheuseofverbsrelatedtobe:Heseems(tobe)ill.Somecommonverbsrelatedinmeaningandfunctiontobeare:appear,feel,look,seem,smell,soundandtaste[>9.3][>App38.5];chance,happenandprovecanalsobeusedincertainpatterns.10.25Somepossibleconstructionswithverbsrelatedto"be"Wecannotnormallyomittobeafterappearandseemexceptinthesimplepresentandsimplepast:Heappears/seems(tobe)ill.Heseems(tobe)afool.Itseems/seemed(tobe)arealbargain.Tobeisusuallyincludedbeforepredicativeadjectivesbeginningwitha-[>6.8.2]:Thechildrenappear/seemtobeasleep.ThechildrenseemedtobeawakewhenIwentintotheirroom.Wecanuseotherinfinitivesafterappear,happen,proveandseem:Youseemtoknowalotaboutsteamengines.JuanhappenstoownacastleinToledo.Wecannotusetobeafterfeel,look,smell,soundortaste:Hefeels/lookshot.Yousmellnice.Gilliansoundedveryconfidentwhenshespoketome.Ilikeyournewjacket.Itlookscomfortable.Itfeelscoldinhere.Itsmellsfunnyinhere.Feel,look,seem,smell,soundandtastecanbefollowedbylike+nounoradjective+noun:Thislooks/tastes/smells/feelslikeanorange.(obligatorylike)Jenniferseems/sounds/looks(like)therightpersonforthejob.To+objectpronouniscommonlyusedafteranadjective:Heseems/appears/lookstiredtome.(Not*seemstome*)Thismaterialfeelsquiteroughtome.(Not*feelstome*)Orto+objectpronouncancomeimmediatelybeforeaninfinitive:Heseemstometoberatherimpatient.Wecanusethatafterit+appear,chance,happenandseem:Itseemed(that)nooneknewwherethevillagewas.Fortheuseofasifafterverbs[>1.47.2].Therewillcombinewithappear,chance,happen,proveandseem+tobeandtohavebeen:Thereseemstobeamistakeinthesefigures.Thereappearstohavebeenanaccident.10.26Processverbsrelatedto"be"and"become"10.26.1Processverb+adjectivecomplement[>1.9][>1.11]Processverbs(e.g.become,come,fall,go,get,grow,run,turn,wear)+adjectivecomplementdescribeachangeofstate.Unlikeappear,seem,etc.theycanbeusedintheprogressivetoemphasizetheideathatchangeisactivelyinprogress:
EnglishGrammar:Be,Have,DoItwasgraduallygrowingdark.Asshewaitedtobeserved,shebecameveryimpatient.OldMrParsonsgetstiredveryeasilysincehisoperation.Themilkinthisjughasgonebad.Theleavesareturningyellowearlythisyear.Myshoelaceshavecomeundone.TheRiverWeyrandryduringtherecentdrought.Mypyjamasarewearingratherthin.Themostcommonprocessverbsareget,becomeandgrow.Getisusedinformallywithavarietyofadjectives:getannoyed,getbored,getdepressed,getill,gettired,getwet[compare>12.6].Usedtoiscommonafterget(andtoalesserextentafterbecome)todescribetheacquisitionofahabit.Insuchcases,usedtofunctionsasanadjectiveandcanbereplacedbyaccustomedto[>16.56]:Ihatedjoggingatfirst,butIeventuallygotusedtoit.Processverbsareoftenusedinfixedphrases:e.g.comeright,cometrue,fallill,gomad,runwild,turnnasty,wearthin.10.26.2Processverb+nouncomplementNounsarenotsocommonafterprocessverbs,butnotethat:-become+nouncandescribeachangeofstateoroccupation:Theuglyfrogbecameahandsomeprince.Jimbecameapilot/aBuddhist/aCNDsupporter.-make+nouncanbeusedtosuggestachangeofstate:I"msureCynthiawillmakeagoodnurseoneday.Thispieceofwoodwillmakeaverygoodshelf.10.26.3Processverb+infinitiveCome,getandgrowcanbefolloweddirectlybyato-infinitive:Wedidn"ttrustMaxatfirst,butwesoongrewtolikehim."Have"asafullverb="possess";"havegot"="possess"10.27Thepresentformof"have"asafullverbaffirmativefullformshortformnegativeshortform[>10.30n.2]Ihave>I"ve>Ihaven"t>Youhave>You"ve>Youhaven"t>Tomhas=Hehas>->Hehasn"t>Maryhas=Shehas>->Shehasn"t>chance.Mycarhas=Ithas>->Ithasn"t>TomandIhave=Wehave>We"ve>Wehaven"t>Tomandyouhave=Youhave>You"ve>Youhaven"t>TomandMaryhave=Theyhave>They"ve>Theyhaven"t>10.28Thepastformof"have"asafullverbaffirmativefullformshortformnegativeshortform[>10.30n.5]Ihad>I"d>Ihadn"t>Youhad>You"d>Youhadn"t>Tomhad=Hehad>He"d>Hehadn"t>Maryhad=Shehad>She"d>Shehadn"t>chance.Mycarhad=Ithad>->Ithadn"t>TomandIhad=Wehad>We"d>Wehadn"t>Tomandyouhad=Youhad>You"d>Youhadn"t>TomandMaryhad=Theyhad>They"d>Theyhadn"t>10.29Thepresentformof"havegot"affirmativefullformCshortformnegativeshortformsIhavegot>I"vegot>Ihaven"t(I"venot)gotYouhavegot>You"vegot>Youhaven"t(You"venot)gotTom=Hehasgot>Tom"s=He"sgot>Hehasn"t(He"snot)gotMary=Shehasgot>Mary"s=She"sgot>Shehasn"t(She"snot)gotMycar=Ithasgot>Mycar"s=It"sgot>Ithasn"t(It"snot)gotTomandI=Wehavegot>We"vegot>Wehaven"t(We"venot)gotMaryandyou=Youhavegot>You"vegot>Youhaven"t(You"venot)gotTomandMary=Theyhavegot>They"vegot>Theyhaven"t(They"venot)got10.30Notesontheformsof"have"and"havegot"="possess"Haveandhavegot(=possess)areofteninterchangeable,buttherearedifferencesbetweenBritishandAmericanusage.1Havegotisbasicallyaperfectform.Comparethefollowing:a)get(=obtain)b)havegot(=possess)AGoandgetthetickets.Whathaveyougot?AHaveyougotthetickets?
EnglishGrammar:Be,Have,DoBI"vegotthetickets.BYes,I"vegotthetickets.(=Ihaveobtainedthem.)(=Ipossessthem.)InBrE,havegotcanbeusedastheperfectformofgettomean"haveobtained",asina)above.ThismeaningisemphasizedintheAmEformhavegotten,whichalwaysmeans"haveobtained".However,inBrE(morerarelyinAmE)havegotcanalsomean"possess"-asinb)above,sothate.g.IhavetheticketsandI"vegottheticketsareequivalents.Indeed,inspoken,idiomaticBrE,I"vegot,etc.ismorecommonthanIhave,etc.2InBrE,questionsandnegativeswithhave="possess"canbeformedinthesamewayasforbe:Areyouready?Haveyouapen?(=Haveyougot_?)Aren"tyouready?Haven"tyouapen?(=Haven"tyougot_?)Youaren"tready.Youhaven"tapen.(=Youhaven"tgot_)Thereisanalternativenegativeformforhavegot:I"venotgot,etc.,butthisislesscommonthanIhaven"tgotHaveonitsown(withoutgot)canalsoformquestionsandnegativeswithdo,doesanddid.ThisisusualinAmEandisbecomingmorecommoninBrEtotheextentthatYouhadn"ta/an_andHad/Hadn"tyoua/an_?arebecomingrare:Youdon"thaveapen.Youdidn"thaveapen.Doyouhaveapen?Didyouhaveapen?3Have(=possess)isastativeverb[>9.3].Itcannotbeusedintheprogressive,thoughitcanbeusedinallsimpletenses:present:IhaveaFord.past:HehadaFordlastyear.presentperfect:Ihavehadthiscarforthreeyears.pastperfect:HetoldmehehadhadaFordforseveralyears.future:Iwillhaveanewcarsoon.futureperfect:ByMayIwillhavehad(=possessed)thiscarfiveyears.withmodals:e.g.IcanhaveaFordasacompanycar.Have(=possess)isnotnormallyusedinthepassive.Theimperative(neverwithgot)israre:Havepatience!4Havegot(=possess)isnormallyusedonlyforpresentreference:I"vegotaFord.Theaffirmativehadgotissometimespossibleinthepast,buthadonitsownisgenerallypreferred:Thebridelookedlovely.Herdresshad(got)afinelacetrain.Wecanneverusehadgotforcertainstates.Hehad(not*hadgot*)longhairwhenhewasateenager.Hadgotisgenerallyusedinitsoriginalsenseof"hadobtained":WhenIsawhimhehadjustgotanewcar.Willhavegotisonlyusedinthesenseof"willhaveobtained":ByMayIwillhavegot(=willhaveobtained)anewcar.Havegotinthepassiveisimpossible.5Hadn"tgotisusuallypossibleasanalternativetodidn"thave:Ididn"thave(hadn"tgot)anappointment,soImadeonefor4p.m.Ifeltcold.Ididn"thave(hadn"tgot)acoat.Hadn"tonitsown(alwayscontracted)ispossible(Ihadn"tanappointment,Ihadn"tacoat)butnotveryusual.Inpastquestions,theusualformisDidyouhave_?:Didyouhaveanappointment?Whendidyouhaveone?Hadyou_?soundsold-fashionedandformal.Hadyougot_?canbeusedinYes/Noquestions,butsoundsawkwardinWh-questions,soisusuallyavoided:Hadyougotanappointment?(butnotusuallyWhenhadyougot?)HavegotispreferabletohaveinWhichsubject-questions:Which(pen)haveyougot?(ordoyouhave?),butnotusuallyWhich(pen)haveyou?6Someformsofhave(=possess)arerareornotencounteredatall:-theshortformoftheaffirmative,especiallyinthethirdperson(he"s/she"s).Thefullformisused:He/Shehasapen.-theuncontractednegative.Thecontractedformisnormal:Ihaven"t(orhadn"t)apen.-somequestion-forms,exceptwhenformedwithdo,etc.(note5).7Compare:Mybag"sold.It"sold.(=Mybagisold/Itisold)Mybag"sgotaholeinit.It"sgotaholeinit.(=Mybaghasgotaholeinit/Ithasgotaholeinit)8Thenon-standardformain"tgotiscommonlyheardinplaceofhaven"tgotandhasn"tgot[compare>10.7n.4]:Iain"tgotmybag.Sheain"tgotherbag.similarly,haveandhasareoftenomittedbeforegot:Igotmycaroutside.(forIhavegot)10.31Whenweuse"have"and"havegot"="possess"Inalltheexamplesbelow,havecanbereplacedbyhavegotinthepresentandsometimesinthepast.Shortformswithgot(I"vegot)aremuchmorecommonthanfullforms(Ihavegot),especiallyinspeech.1Inthesenseof"own"or"possess"[>App38.5]:Ihave(got)anewbriefcase.2Inthesenseof"beabletoprovide":
EnglishGrammar:Be,Have,DoDoyouhave/Haveyou(got)anyink?(=Canyouletmehavesome?)Doyouhave/Haveyou(got)anyfresheggs?(=Canyouletmehavesome?)3Have(got)+number(ofthings)/quantityofasubstance:Ihave(got)fourteenpencils.Ihave(got)alotofmilk.4Possessionofphysicalcharacteristics[>App25.37]:Haveandhavegotcombinewithnounslike:abeard,blueeyes,longhair,ascar,aslimfigure,todescribeappearance:Youshouldseeourbaby.Hehas(got)bigbrowneyes.Ourdoghas(got)longears.Thisplanthas(got)lovelyrussetleaves.Ourhousehas(got)fiverooms.5Possessionofmentalandemotionalqualities[>App42.1.10]:Haveandhavegotcombinewithnounslike:faith,agoodmind,patience,aquicktemper,todescribecharacter:Shehas(got)nicemanners,butshehas(got)aquicktemper.6Familyrelationships:Ihave(got)twosisters.7Contactswithotherpeople.Ihave(got)agooddentist.(i.e.whomIcanrecommendtoyou)8Inthesenseof"wear"[>App25.37]:That"sanicedressyouhave/you"vegot.Inthissense,haveoftencombineswithon:havesomethingon,havegotsomethingon:That"sanicedressyouhaveon/you"vegoton.Ican"tanswerthedoor.Ihave(got)nothingon.9Illnesses[>App42.1.7]:Haveandhavegotcombinewithnounsdescribingpainsandillnesses.Fortheuseofa/anwithsuchnouns[>3.15]:Ihave(got)acold/abadheadache.Thebabyhas(got)measles.10Arrangements[>App42.1.4]:Haveandhavegotcombinewithnounslike:anappointment,aconference,adate,aninterview,ameeting,time,etc.:Ihave(got)anappointmentwithmydentisttomorrowmorning.Sallyhas(got)aninterviewforajobtoday.11Opinions[>App42.1.10]:Haveandhavegotcombinewithnounslike:anidea,influence,anobjection,anopinion,apointofview,aproposal,asuggestion:Ihave(got)anidea!Haveyou(got)anyobjectiontothisproposal?12Inthesenseof"thereis":Youhave(got)astainonyourtie.(=Thereisastainonyourtie.)Youhave(got)sandinyourhair.(=Thereissandinyourhair.)"Have"asafullverbmeaningsomethingotherthan"possess"10.32Formsof"have"meaningsomethingotherthan"possess"imperative:Haveacupofcoffee!simplepresent:Ialwayshavemilkinmytea.presentprogressive:We"rehavinganicetime.simplepast:Wehadalovelyholidaylastsummer.pastprogressive:Iwashavingabathwhenthephonerang.presentperfect:PoorJimhasjusthadanaccident.presentperfectprogressive:Thechildrenhavebeenhavingalotoffun.pastperfect:IwokeupbecauseIhadhadabaddream.pastperfectprogressive:Iwokeup-Ihadbeenhavingabaddream.simplefuture:I"llhaveahaircuttomorrow.futureprogressive:Ifanyonephones,I"llbehavingabath.futureperfect:You"llhavehadananswerbytomorrow.futureperfectprogressive:Shewillhavebeenhavingtreatmentallherlife.withmodalverbs:e.g.Youcouldhaveacupofteaifyoulike.10.33Theforms"have"(=possess)and"have"(othermeanings)1Have,inthesenseof"eat,enjoy,experience,drink,take",etc.,isadynamicverb[>9.3]soitisconcernedwithactions(e.g.haveawalk),notstateslikehaveinthesenseof"possess"(e.g.Ihave(got)acar).Becauseofthis,itcanbeusedintheprogressiveformofallthetenses.Compare:Ihave(=I"vegot)adrink,thanks.(i.e.it"sinmyhand:stative)I"mhavingadrink.(=I"mdrin,ing:dynamic)Ihaveadrinkeveryeveningbeforedinner.(=Idrink:dynamic)Havegotcanneverreplacehaveusedasadynamicverb.2Haveinthesenseof"take",etc.isusedlikeanyotherEnglishverb.Thismeansthat:-questionsandnegativesinthesimplepresentandsimplepastmustbeformedwithdo,doesanddid:
EnglishGrammar:Be,Have,DoDoyouhavemilkinyourtea?Idon"thavemilkinmytea.Didyouhaveaniceholiday?Ididn"thaveaniceholiday.Comparehavemeaning"possess":Haveyou(got)anymilkinyourtea?(=Isthereany?)Ihaven"t(got)anymilkinmytea.(=Thereisn"tany.)-itoccursfreelyinallactivetensesasthecontextpermits,but-passiveformsarerare:e.g.agoodtimewashadbyall.-thepassiveinfinitivesometimesoccursin:e.g.Itriedtobuysomeextracopiesofthismorning"snewspaper,buttherewerenonetobehad.(i.e.theywerenotavailable)3Therearenocontractedformsofhave(="take",etc.)asafullverbinthesimplepresentandsimplepast:Ihaveacoldshowereverymorning.(not*I"ve...*)Comparehave,meaning"possess":Ihave/I"ve/I"vegotanewshowerinmybathroom.4Thepresentandpastperfecttensesofhaveinvolvetheuseofhaveasbothauxiliaryverbandmainverb.Forthisreason,thepresentperfectandpastperfectformsaregiveninfullbelow.10.34Formofthesimplepresentperfectof"have"="take"affirmativeshortformnegativeshortformsIhavehad>I"vehad>I"venothad>=Ihaven"thad>Youhavehad>You"vehad>You"venothad>=Youhaven"thad>Hehashad>He"shad>He"snothad>=Hehasn"thad>Shehashad>She"shad>She"snothad>=Shehasn"thad>lunch.Ithashad>It"shad>It"snothad>=Ithasn"thad>Wehavehad>We"vehad>We"venothad>=Wehaven"thad>Youhavehad>You"vehad>You"venothad>=Youhaven"thad>Theyhavehad>They"vehad>They"venothad>=Theyhaven"thad>10.35Formofthesimplepastperfectof"have"="take"affirmativeshortformnegativeshortformsIhadhad>I"dhad>I"dnothad>=Ihadn"thad>Youhadhad>You"dhad>You"dnothad>=Youhadn"thad>Hehadhad>He"dhad>He"dnothad>=Hehadn"thad>Shehadhad>She"dhad>She"dnothad>=Shehadn"thad>lunch.Ithadhad>It"dhad>It"dnothad>=Ithadn"thad>Wehadhad>We"dhad>We"dnothad>=Wehadn"thad>Youhadhad>You"dhad>You"dnothad>=Youhadn"thad>Theyhadhad>They"dhad>They"dnothad>=Theyhadn"thad>10.36Notesontheforms"havehad"and"hadhad"1Theseformsare,ofcourse,quiteregular:IhavehadmylunchandIhadhadmylunchworkinthesamewayasIhaveeatenmylunchandIhadeatenmylunchHereareafewmoreexamplesofhaveasafullverbinthepresentperfectandpastperfect:HaveyoueverhadlunchatMaxim"s?Thatboylooksasifhe"sneverhadahaircut.IhadneverhadarideonanelephantbeforeIwenttoIndia.2Ingeneral,thenegativeformsIhaven"thad,Ihadn"thad,etc.aremorecommonthanI"venothadandI"dnothad3Thefollowingformsshouldnotbeconfused:He"sill.(=Heisill.)andHe"shadlunch.(=Hehashadlunch.)He"dhadlunch.(=Hehadhadlunch.)andHesaidhe"dhavelunchnow.(=hewouldhavelunchnow)10.37Common"have"+nouncombinationsHavecombineswithagreatmanynouns.Inthisrespect,itissimilartootherphraseswithsuchverbsasgive(e.g.ingiveathought)andtake(ine.g.takeanexam).Forverbphrasesofthiskindandforexampleswithhave[>App42]:Let"shavelunch.I"dliketohaveasandwichplease.10.38"Have"+nouninplaceofotherverbsTheverbstosleep,toswim,etc.canbeexpressedwithhave+nouninthesenseof"performthatactivity":e.g.todance-tohaveadance:IhadtwodanceswithMolly.tofight-tohaveafight:Thosetwinsarealwayshavingfights.tolook-tohavealook:Justhavealookatthis.torest-tohavearest:Iwanttohavearestthisafternoon.toride-tohavearide:CanIhavearideinyourcar?totalk-tohaveatalk:JimandIhavejusthadalongtalk.
EnglishGrammar:Be,Have,Dotoswim-tohaveaswim:Comeandhaveaswimwithus.towash-tohaveawash:Imusthaveawashbeforelunch.Havecommonlyreplacesverbslikethefollowing:receive:IhadaletterfromJimthismorning.permit:Iwon"thavethatkindofbehaviourinmyhouse.10.39Theuseof"have"intheimperativeOneofthemostcommonusesofhave(="take",etc.)isintheimperative.Itisoftenusedafterdo[>9.53]foremphasisand/orencouragement(Dohave_).Commoninstancesare:Offers:Dohavesomeoysters!Don"thavetomatosoup!Suggestions:Haveabathandarestandyou"llfeelbetter.Encouragement:Haveago!Haveatry!Haveashotatit!Goodwishes:Havefun!Haveagoodtime!Haveagoodday!(fixedexpressions)Therearenodirectreferencestoappetite,digestion,etc.(likeBonappetit!inFrenchorGutenAppetit!inGerman),butexpressionswithhavecanbecoinedtosuitparticularoccasions:Haveareallygoodmeal!Havealovelyparty!Haveareallyrestfulholiday!Haveareallyinterestingdebate!etc."Do"asafullverb10.40Formsof"do"asafullverbimperative:Doyourhomework!simplepresent:Idotheshoppingeverymorning.presentprogressive:I"mdoingthiscrosswordpuzzle.simplepast:Hedidalotofworkthismorning.pastprogressive:Weweredoingsumsallyesterdayevening.presentperfect:We"vejustdonethewashingup.presentperfectprogressive:I"vebeendoingthisexerciseallday.pastperfect:Wewenthomeafterwehaddoneourwork.pastperfectprogressive:Wehadbeendoingbusinesswitheachotherforyearsbeforewequarrelsimplefuture:I"lldothehouseworktomorrowmorning.futureprogressive:I"llbedoingjobsaboutthehousetomorrow.futureperfect:Ifyoufinishthisjobaswell,youwillhavedonefarmorethanIexpfutureperfectprogressive:Bythistimenextyear,wewillhavebeendoingbusinesswitheachothwithmodalverbs:e.g.Wouldyoudomeafavourplease?10.41Thepresentformof"do"asafullverbaffirmativenegativefullformnegativeshortformIdo>Idonot>Idon"t>Youdo>Youdonot>Youdon"t>Hedoes>Hedoesnot>Hedoesn"t>Shedoes>thework.Shedoesnot>Shedoesn"t>dothework.Itdoes>Itdoesnot>Itdoesn"t>Wedo>Wedonot>Wedon"t>Youdo>Youdonot>Youdon"t>Theydo>Theydonot>Theydon"t>10.42Thepastformof"do"asafullverbaffirmativenegativefullformnegativeshortformIdid>Ididnot>Ididn"t>Youdid>Youdidnot>Youdidn"t>Hedid>Hedidnot>Hedidn"t>Shedid>thework.Shedidnot>Shedidn"t>dothework.Itdid>Itdidnot>Itdidn"t>Wedid>Wedidnot>Wedid"nt>Youdid>Youdidnot>Youdidn"t>Theydid>Theydidnot>Theydidn"t>10.43Thepresentperfectformof"do"asafullverbaffirmativenegativefullformnegativeshortformIhavedone>Ihavenotdone>Ihaven"t(I"venot)done>Youhavedone>Youhavenotdone>Youhaven"t(You"venot)done>Hehasdone>Hehasnotdone>Hehasn"t(He"snot)done>Shehasdone>Shehasnotdone>Shehasn"t(She"snot)done>it.
EnglishGrammar:Be,Have,DoIthasdone>Ithasnotdone>Ithasn"t(It"snot)done>Wehavedone>Wehavenotdone>Wehaven"t(We"venot)done>Youhavedone>Youhavenotdone>Youhaven"t(You"venot)done>Theyhavedone>Theyhavenotdone>Theyhaven"t(They"venot)done>10.44Usesof"do"asafullverb10.44.1"Do"="performanactivityortask"Dooftenhasthesenseof"workat"or"beengagedinsomething"."Doingsomething"canbedeliberateoraccidental.WecanuseverbsotherthandotoanswerquestionslikeWhatareyoudoing?:Whatareyoudoing?-I"mreading.(i.e.that"swhatI"mdoing)Whatdidyoudothismorning?-Iwrotesomeletters.(i.e.that"swhatIdid)Whathaveyoudone?-I"vebrokenthisvase.(i.e.that"swhatI"vedone)Weoftenusedointhissensewithsome/any/nocompounds:Haven"tyougotanythingtodo?I"vegotnothingtodo.Wecanusedotorefertoanunnamedtaskandthenwecanrefertonamedtasksbymeansofotherverbs:Ididalotofworkaroundthehousetoday.ItookdownthecurtainsandwashedthemandIcleanedthewindows.10.44.2Theuseof"do"toavoidrepeatingapreviousverbWecanusedotoavoidrepeatingapreviousverb[>4.18]:Antoniaworks16hoursaday.Idon"tknowhowshedoesit.Takethedogforawalk.-I"vealreadydoneit/doneso.Wecanavoidrepeatingtheverbinshortanswers,suchas:ShallItakethedogforawalk?-Yes,do./No,don"t.[>9.53](i.e.take/don"ttakethedogforawalk)10.44.3"Do"="beinthewrongplace"Usedinthissense,dooftenconveysdisapproval,e.g.-ofpresentresultsofpastactions:Whatarethoseclothesdoingonthefloor?(i.e.theyshouldn"tbethere)-ofpeople:Whatarethoseboysdoinginourgarden?(i.e.wedisapproveoftheirpresence,nottheiractions)10.44.4"Do"beforegerundsWecanusedo+gerundtorefertonamedtasks:I"vedonetheshopping/theironing/thewashingup.Wedidallourshoppingyesterday.Idoalotofswimming.(inpreferenceto"Iswimalot.")Istayedathomelastnightanddidsomereading.10.45"Do"and"make"comparedMakeconveysthesenseof"create";do(oftensuggesting"beengagedinanactivity")isamoregeneralterm:Whatareyoudoing?-I"mmakingacake.Whatareyoumaking?-Acake.Bothdoandmakecanbeusedinavarietyoffixedcombinations[>App43].Hereisabriefselection:do+one"sbest;businesswithsomeone;damagetosomething;one"sduty;anexperiment;someoneafavour;good,etc.make+anaccusationagainst(someone);anagreementwith(someone);anappointment;anarrangement;abed,etc.Sometimesbothmakeanddoarepossible:I"llmake/I"lldothebedsthismorning,ifyoulike.10.46"Do"infixedexpressionsDooccursinnumerousfixedexpressions,suchas:Whatdoeshedo?(i.e.Whatworkdoeshedoforaliving?)Howdoyoudo?[>13.40.6]That"lldo!(e.g.Thatwillbeenough.)Howmanymilesdoesitdotothegallon?(dointhesenseof"go")Thissimplywon"tdo.(i.e.It"sunacceptable.)
EnglishGrammar:Be,Have,DoHowdidyoudo?(i.e.Howdidyoumanage?)Icoulddowithadrink.(i.e.Iwouldlikeadrink.)It"sgotnothingtodowithme.(i.e.Itdoesn"tconcernme.)Icandowithoutacar.(i.e.managewithoutacar)Iwasdone!(i.e.Iwascheated.)ShallIdoyourroomout?(i.e.cleanit)Youdidmeoutofmyshare.(i.e.cheatedme)
EnglishGrammar:Modalauxiliariesandrelatedverbs11ModalauxiliariesandrelatedverbsGeneralcharacteristicsofmodalverbs11.1Whichverbsaremodalauxiliariesandwhatdotheydo?Verbslikecanandmayarecalledmodalauxiliaries,thoughweoftenrefertothemsimplyasmodalverbsormodals.Wefrequentlyusemodalswhenweareconcernedwithourrelationshipwithsomeoneelse.Wemay,forexample,askforpermissiontodosomething;grantpermissiontosomeone;giveorreceiveadvice;makeorrespondtorequestsandoffers,etc.Wecanexpressdifferentlevelsofpolitenessbothbytheformswechooseandthewaywesaythings.Thebluntestcommand(Youmustseeadoctor),withacertainkindofstress,mightbemorekindlyandpersuasivethanthemostcomplicatedutterance(Ithinkitmightpossiblybeadvisableforyoutoseeadoctor).Modalssharingthesamegrammaticalcharacteristics[>11.5-6]are:can-couldmay-mightwill-wouldshall-shouldmust--oughtto--Verbswhichsharesomeofthegrammaticalcharacteristicsofmodalsare:need[>11.49],dare[>11.65],usedto[>11.58].Bycomparison,needtoanddaretoarefullverbs.Modalshavetwomajorfunctionswhichcanbedefinedasprimaryandsecondary.11.2PrimaryfunctionofmodalverbsIntheirprimaryfunction,modalverbscloselyreflectthemeaningsoftengivenfirstinmostdictionaries,sothat:-can/couldrelatemainlytoability:Icanlift25kg/Icantype.-may/mightrelatemainlytopermission:Youmayleaveearly.-will/wouldrelatemainlytoprediction[>9.35]:Itwillrainsoon.-shallafterI/We[>9.36n.1]relatesmainlytoprediction:Canwefindourwayhome?-I"msureweshall.-should/oughttorelatemainlytoescapableobligationorduty:Youshoulddo(oroughttodo)asyou"retold.-mustrelatesmainlytoinescapableobligation:Youmustbequiet.-needn"trelatestoabsenceofobligation:Youneedn"twait.11.3SecondaryfunctionofmodalverbsIntheirsecondaryfunction,nineofthemodalauxiliaries(notshall)canbeusedtoexpressthedegreeofcertainty/uncertaintyaspeakerfeelsaboutapossibility.Theycanbearrangedonascalefromthegreatestuncertainty(might)tothegreatestcertainty(must).Theorderofmodalsbetweenmightandmustisnotfixedabsolutely.Itvariesaccordingtosituation.Forexample,onearrangementmightbe:veryuncertain||Youberight.|havebeenright.|ValmostcertainYouareright.certainYCanrequiresqualificationtobeusedinthisway[>11.29]:Hecanhardlyberight.Doyouthinkhecanberight?Idon"tthinkhecanberight.
EnglishGrammar:Modalauxiliariesandrelatedverbs11.4Primaryandsecondaryfunctionsof"must"comparedThisexampleofmustshowsthatitis"defective"[>11.6.1]:1Initsprimaryfunctionitrequiresanotherfullverb(haveto)tomakeupits"missingparts".(Inthesamewaycan,forexample,initsprimaryfunctionrequiresthefullverbbeabletotomakeupitsmissingparts.)2Initssecondaryfunctionmust(liketheothermodalslistedin11.1)hasonlytwobasicforms:aformwhichrelatestothepresentandaformwhichrelatestotheperfectorpast[>11.8.4]primary(inescapableobligation)secondary(certainty)infinitive:tohavetoleave--ingform:havingtoleave-presentTheymustleave.Theymustberight.future:Theymustleavetomorrow.-perfect:Theyhavehadtoleave.>past:Theyhadtoleave.>Theymusthavebeenright.pastperfect:Theyhadhadtoleave.>futureperfect:Theywillhavehadtoleave.-"conditional":Theywouldhavehadtoleave.-11.5Somewaysinwhichmodalsresemble"be","have","do"Structurally,modalauxiliariesresembletheauxiliariesbe,haveanddoinsomewaysanddiffercompletelyfromtheminothers.Someofthemostimportantsimilaritiesarenotedinthissectionandsomedifferencesareexplainedin11.6.11.5.1Thenegative[>13.1-2]Thenegativeisformed(asitisforbe,haveanddo)bytheadditionofnotafterthemodal.IninformalspokenEnglishnotisoftenreducedtotheunemphaticn"t:be(is)not(is)n"t[>10.6][>10.8]have(have)not(have)n"t[>10.27-28]do(do)not(do)n"t[>10.41-42]cancannotcan"tcouldcouldnotcouldn"tmaymaynotmayn"tmightmightnotmightn"twillwillnotwon"t[>9.35]wouldwouldnotwouldn"tshallshallnotshan"t[>9.36n.3]shouldshouldnotshouldn"tmustmustnotmustn"toughttooughtnottooughtn"ttoneedneednotneedn"tdaredarenotdaren"tThefullformcannotiswrittenasoneword.Mayn"tisrare,butdoesoccur.Forusednotandusedn"t[>11.59n.2].11.5.2Questions[>13.1-3][>13.30][>13.41]Yes/Noquestionsareformedasforbe,haveanddo.Webeginwiththemodal,followedbythesubjectandthenthepredicate:Mayweleaveearly?Inquestion-wordquestions,thequestion-wordprecedesthemodal:Whenmayweleave?WithYes/Noquestions,themodalusedintheanswerisnormallythesameastheoneusedinthequestion[>11.31][>13.6n.1]:Canyoucomeandseemetomorrow?-Yes,Ican./No,Ican"t.Modalsalsobehavelikebe,haveanddointagquestions[>13.17]:Youcandoit,can"tyou?11.5.3Negativequestions[>13.14]Aswithbe,haveanddo,thefullformofnegativequestionswithmodalsrequiresnotafterthesubject(Canyounothelpme?).Thisisformalandrare.Contractedformsarenormallyused:Can"tyouhelpme?[compare>13.16]Shouldn"t(you)_?isusuallypreferredtoOughtn"t(you)to_?perhapsbecausethelatterismoredifficulttopronounce.NegativequestionswithUsed?ontheabovepatternsarerare[>11.59].11.6Somewaysinwhichmodalsdifferfrom"be","have","do"11.6.1"Defectiveverbs"Modalsaresometimescalleddefectiveverbsbecausetheylackformsordinaryfullverbshave[>11.4].Forexample:1Modalscannotbeusedasinfinitives(comparetobe,tohave,todo).Ifeverweneedaninfinitive,wehavetouseanotherverb:Ifyouwanttoapplyforthisjob,youhavetobeabletotypeatleast60wordsaminute.(Not*to*beforecanorcanalone)
EnglishGrammar:Modalauxiliariesandrelatedverbs2Wedonotuseato-infinitiveaftermodals(comparebeto,haveto).Onlythebareinfinitive[>16.3]canbeusedaftermodals(exceptought,whichisalwaysfollowedbyto):Youmust/mustn"tphonehimthisevening.(Not*tophone*)3Modalshaveno-ingform(comparebeing,having,doing).Insteadof-ing,wehavetouseanotherverborverb-phrase:Icouldn"tgo/Iwasn"tabletogohomebybus,soItookataxi.(=Notbeingabletogo_)4Modalshaveno-(e)sinthe3rdpersonsingular(compareis,has,does):Thebosscanseeyounow.(No-sontheendofcan)5Eachmodalhasabasicmeaningofitsown.Bycomparison,asauxiliaries,be/have/dohaveonlyagrammaticalfunction[>10.1].11.6.2ContractedformsUnlikebeandhave(butnotdo),modalsintheaffirmativedonothavecontractedforms,exceptforwillandwould[>9.35][>14.17n.3].Inspeech,can,couldandshallare"contracted"bymeansofunemphaticpronunciation:I,(etc.)can/kEn/,I,(etc.)could/kEd/,I/Weshall/SEl/11.6.3OnemodalatatimeOnlyonemodalcanbeusedinasingleverbphrase:Wemaycallthedoctor.>>butnotmayandmusttogether.Wemustcallthedoctor.>Ifwewishtocombinethetwoideasintheabovesentences,wehavetofindasuitableparaphrase:Itmaybenecessary(forus)tocalladoctor.Bycomparison,wecanusee.g.beandhavetogether:Ithasbeennecessarytocalladoctor.11.7FormofmodalauxiliariescomparedwithfuturetensesEachofthemodalsfitsintofourpatternsforfuturetenseforms:Iwillseesimplefuture[>9.35]Iwillbeseeingfutureprogressive[>9.40]Iwillhaveseenfutureperfectsimple[>9.42]Iwillhavebeenseeingfutureperfectprogressive[>9.42]activepassivemodal+(bareinfinitive):ImayseeImaybeseenmodal+be+presentparticiple:Imaybeseeing-[but>12.3n.6]modal+have+pastparticiple:ImayhaveseenImayhavebeenseenmodal+havebeen+presentparticiple:Imayhavebeenseeing-#911.8FormsandusesofmodalscomparedwithverbtensesThelabelsweusetodescribetheverbtenses(e.g.present,progressive,past,perfect)cannoteasilybeappliedtomodals.11.8.1"Present"Allmodalscanrefertotheimmediatepresentorthefuture,therefore"present"isnotalwaysareliablelabel:Ican/may(etc.)phonenow.Ican/may(etc.)phonetomorrow.11.8.2"Progressive"Thereisnoprogressiveformformodals.Butwecanputtheverbthatfollowsamodalintotheprogressiveform:Megisphoningherfianc_.(presentprogressive)Megmaybephoningherfianc_.(modal+be+verb-ing)Megmayhavebeenphoningherfianc_.(modal+havebeen+-ing)Itisthephoningthatisorwasinprogress,not"may".11.8.3."Past"Would,could,mightandshouldcanbesaidtobepastinform,butthisusuallyhaslittletodowiththeiruseandmeaning.Theycanbecalled"past"whenusedinindirectspeech[>15.13n.6]:Hesaysyoucan/will/mayleaveearly.(present)Hesaidyoucould/would/mightleaveearly.(past)Mightcanhaveapastreferenceinhistoricalnarrative:Inthe14thcenturyapeasantmighthavetherighttograzepigsoncommonland.However,mightusuallyexpressesmoreuncertaintythanmay:Imightseeyoutomorrow.islesscertainthan:Imayseeyoutomorrow.Couldsometimesexpressesabilityinthepast[>11.12.1]:
EnglishGrammar:ModalauxiliariesandrelatedverbsHecould(orwasableto)swimfivemileswhenhewasaboy.butcouldisnotpossiblein:Imanagedto/wasabletofinishthejobyesterday.[>11.12.3]However,couldn"tandwasn"tabletoareusuallyinterchangeable:Icouldn"t/wasn"tabletofinishthejobyesterday.Theothermainuseofcould,asamorepolitealternativetocaninrequests,hasnothingtodowithtime:Couldyouhelpmeplease?Wouldexpressesthepastin[>11.61]:WhenwewereyoungwewouldspendourholidaysinBrighton.Otherwise,wouldandshouldhavespecialuses[e.g.>11.74-75]Mustcanexpresspasttimeonlyinindirectspeech[>15.13n.6];otherwiseithastobereplacedbyhaveto,etc.[>11.4]:Hetolduswemustwait(orwehadtowait)untilwewerecalled.Sheaskedherbossifshemustwork(orhadtowork)overtime.11.8.4"Perfect"and"past"Formswithmodal+have+pastparticipleorwithmodal+havebeen+progressivearenotnecessarilytheequivalentofthepresentperfect.Themodalreferstothepresent,whilehave+pastparticiplereferstothepast.So,dependingoncontext,Youmusthaveseenhimcanmean:Iassume(now)youhaveseenhim.(i.e.beforenow;equivalenttothepresentperfect)Iassume(now)yousawhim.(i.e.then;equivalenttothepast)Iassume(now)youhadseenhim.(i.e.beforethen;equivalenttothepastperfect)11.9Modal+verbandmodal+"be/havebeen"+progressiveTwoobservationsneedtobemadehere:1Modal+be/havebeen+progressiveisnotalwayspossibleintheprimaryfunction.Forexample:Hecan"tleaveyet.(=it"snotpossibleforhimtoleaveyet)isquitedifferentfromthesecondaryfunction:Hecan"tbeleavingyet.(=Idon"tthinkheis)Butcomparetheprimaryandsecondaryfunctionsofmustin:primary:Youmustbeworkingwhentheinspectorcomesin.(i.e.itisnecessary(foryou)tobeworking.)secondary:Youmustbejoking!(i.e.I"malmostcertainyouarejoking.)2Occasionally,intheprimaryfunction,amodal+be+progressivehasa"softeningeffect"similartotheuseofthefutureprogressive[>9.41.2].So:Wemust/may/should(etc.)beleavingsoon.ismorepoliteandtentativethan:Wemust/may/should(etc.)leavesoon.Usesofmodals,etc.toexpressability11.10Formofmodalsandrelatedverbsexpressingabilitycan/couldCan/couldexpressability,whichmaybenaturalorlearned:presentreferenceI/You/He(etc.)can/can"thearmusic.pastorperfectreferenceI/You/He(etc.)could/couldn"tplaychess.I/You/He(etc.)couldhave/couldn"thavedancedallnight.futurereferenceNone.Weusewillbeableto[butcompare>11.19][>11.26].Verbsandverbphrasesrelatedinmeaningtocan(ability):be(un)ableto:Iam(not)able/Iamunabletoattendthemeeting.be(in)capableof:Heis(not)capable/Heisincapableofdoingthejob.manageto:Wemanaged/didn"tmanagetopersuadehimtoaccept.succeedin:They"llsucceed/won"tsucceedingettingwhattheywant.#911.11"Can"=ability:thepresent11.11.1"Can"+verb(naturalability)Naturalabilitycanbeexpressedasfollows:Canyourun1500metresin5minutes?(=Areyouabletorun?Areyoucapableofrunning?)Ican/cannot/can"trun1500metresin5minutes.Canandam/is/areabletoaregenerallyinterchangeabletodescribenaturalability,thoughabletoislesscommon:
EnglishGrammar:ModalauxiliariesandrelatedverbsBillyisonly9monthsoldandhecanalreadystandup.Billyisonly9monthsoldandheisalreadyabletostandup.However,am/is/areabletowouldbeunusualwhenwearecommentingonsomethingthatishappeningatthetimeofspeaking:Look!Icanstandonmyhands!11.11.2"Can"+verb(learnedabilityor"know-how")Learnedabilitycanbeexpressedasfollows:Canyoudriveacar?(=Doyouknowhowto?Haveyoulearnthowto?)Ican/cannot/can"tdriveacar.Verbssuchasdrive,play,speak,understandindicateskillsorlearnedabilities.Can,andtoalesserextent,am/is/areableto,oftencombinewithsuchverbsandmaygenerallybeusedinthesamewayasthesimplepresenttense:Ican/can"tplaychess.(=Iplay/don"tplaychess.)11.12"Could/couldn"t"=ability:thepast11.12.1Pastability(naturalandlearned)expressedwith"could"Could,couldn"torwas/were(not)abletocandescribenaturalandlearnedabilityinthepast,notrelatedtoanyspecificevent:Jimcould/couldn"trunveryfastwhenhewasaboy.Barbaracould/couldn"tsingverywellwhenshewasyounger.Jimwasableto/wasunabletorunfastwhenhewasaboy.Wealsooftenuseusedtobeabletotodescribepastabilities:Iusedtobeabletoholdmybreathforoneminuteunderwater.Couldandwas(orwouldbe)abletooccurafterreportingverbs:Hesaidhecouldseemenextweek.For"unrealpast"could(=was/wereableto)afterif[>14.10-12][>14.14].11.12.2Thepast:"could"+verb:achievementaftereffortCouldandwas/wereabletocanbeinterchangeablewhenwerefertotheacquisitionofaskillaftereffort:ItriedagainandfoundIcouldswim/wasabletoswim.11.12.3SpecificachievementinthepastCouldcannotnormallybeusedwhenwearedescribingthesuccessfulcompletionofaspecificaction;was/wereableto,managedtoorsucceededin+-ingmustbeusedinstead:Intheendtheythecatontheroof.Ifanactionwasnotsuccessfullycompleted,wemayusecouldn"t;Theytriedforhours,buttheycouldn"trescuethecat.(orweren"tableto,didn"tmanageto,etc.)Couldcanbeusedwhenweareaskingaboutaspecificaction(asopposedtodescribingit):Couldtheyrescuethecatontheroof?(=didtheymanageto?)-No,theycouldn"t.Itwastoodifficult.However,anaffirmativeresponserequiresanalternativetocould:-Yes,theymanagedto.(Not*could*)11.13"Can/could"+verbsofperceptionVerbsofperception[>9.3],likesee,hear,smell,rarelyoccurintheprogressive.Can,andtoalesserextent,am/is/areableto,combinewithsuchverbstoindicatethatwecansee,hear,etc.somethinghappeningatthemomentofspeaking.Insuchcasescanhasagrammaticalfunctionequivalenttothesimplepresentinstatementsandtodo/doesinquestionsandnegatives:Icansmellsomethingburning.(=Ismellsomethingburning.)Ican"tseeanyone.(=Idon"tseeanyone.)Couldcanbeusedinplaceofthesimplepastinthesameway:Ilistenedcarefully,butcouldn"thearanything.(=Ilistenedcarefully,butdidn"thearanything.)Can/couldcanbeusedwithverbssuggesting"understanding":Ican/can"tunderstandwhyhedecidedtoretireat50.Icould/couldn"tunderstandwhyhehaddecidedtoretireat50.Can"t/couldn"tcannotbereplacedbythesimplepresentorsimplepastwhenconveyingtheidea"beyond(my)control"(impossible):Ican"t(couldn"t)imaginewhatitwouldbeliketoliveinahotclimate.(Not*Idon"t/Ididn"timagine*)11.14"Could"and"wouldbeableto"Wecanusecouldasan"unrealpast"[>14.10][>14.14]inthesenseof"wouldbeableto".Whenwedothis,anif-clauseissometimesimplied:
EnglishGrammar:ModalauxiliariesandrelatedverbsI"msureyoucouldgetintouniversity(ifyouapplied).Could+neverhasthesenseof"wouldneverbeableto":IcouldneverputupwithsuchinefficiencyifIwererunninganoffice.(i.e.Iwouldneverbeableto)Couldisoftenusedtoexpresssurprise,anger,etc.inthepresent:Icouldeatmyhat!Icouldslapyourface!11.15"Couldhave"and"wouldhavebeenableto"Wedonotusecan/can"thave+pastparticipletoexpressabilityorcapacity.Weusethemforpossibilityorconjecture(Hecan"thavetoldyouanythingIdon"talreadyknow)[>11.32]However,inconditionalsentencesandimpliedconditionalswemayusecouldhave+pastparticiple(inplaceofwouldhavebeenableto)torefertoabilityorcapacitythatwasnotusedowingtopersonalfailureorlackofopportunity[>14.19]:Ifithadn"tbeenforthefreezingwindandblindingsnow,therescuepartycouldhavereachedtheinjuredmanbeforenightfall.Forcouldhave(=hadbeenableto)inconditions[>14.16-17].11.16AbilityintensesotherthanpresentandpastIfweneedtoexpressabilityinothertensecombinations(e.g.thefutureorthepresentperfect),thentheappropriateformsofbeableto,managetoorsucceedinmustbeused:I"llbeabletopassmydrivingtestafterI"vehadafewlessons.I"vebeentryingtocontacthim,butIhaven"tmanagedto.Can,referringtoability,skill,orperception,isusableinclausesafterifandwhen[>14.4]torefertothefuture:Ifyoucanpass(orareabletopass)yourdrivingtestatthefirstattempt,I"llbeverysurprised.11.17Expressingabilitywith"can"and"could"inthepassivePassiveconstructionswithcanandcould,indicatingability,arepossiblewherethesenseallows:Thiscarcanonlybedrivenbyamidget.Thelecturecouldn"tbeunderstoodbyanyonepresent.Theinjuredmencouldhavebeenreachedifheavyequipmenthadbeenavailableduringtherescueoperation.11.18"Can/could"=capability/possibilityCan+be+adjectiveornounhastheeffectof"issometimes"or"isoften"andreferstocapabilityorpossibility.Itcanbereplacedbybecapableof+-ing,butnotbyam/is/areableto:ItcanbequitecoldinCairoinJanuary.(=itissometimes-oroften-quitecold.)Hecanbeverynaughty.(or"averynaughtyboy")[>10.11](Whenusedforpeople,theeffectisgenerallynegative,evenwhentheadjectiveisfavourable:Shecanlookquiteattractivewhenshewantsto-whichimpliesshedoesn"tusuallylookattractive.)Couldhasthesameeffectinthepast:ItcouldbequitecoldinCairoinJanuarywhenIlivedthere.(=Itwassometimes-oroften-quitecold.)Hecouldbeverynaughtywhenhewasalittleboy.Couldcanalsohaveafuturereferenceinthiskindofcontext:ItcouldbequitecoldwhenyougettoCairo.Usesofmodals,etc.toexpresspermissionandprohibition11.19Formofmodalsandrelatedverbs:permission/prohibitioncan/could/may/might[compare>11.34][>11.36-38]:CanIstayoutlate?>You(etc.)can/can"t/mustn"tstayoutlate.CouldIstayoutlate?>MayIstayoutlate?>You(etc.)may/maynot/mayn"t/mustn"tstayoutlate.MightIstayoutlate?>can/could(=befreeto)presentorfuturereferenceIcanseehimnow/tomorrow.Icouldseehimnow/tomorrow.Verbsandverbphrasesrelatedinmeaningtocan/could/may/might/mustn"t.(not)beallowedto:You"re(not)allowedtostayoutlate.(not)bepermittedto:You"re(not)permittedtostayoutlate.beforbiddento:You"reforbiddentostayoutlate.beprohibited:Smokingis(strictly)prohibited.
EnglishGrammar:Modalauxiliariesandrelatedverbsbenotto:You"renottosmoke.negativeimperative:Don"tsmoke!11.20Askingforpermission/responding:"can/could/may/might"Requestsforpermissioncanbegradedona"hesitancyscale",rangingfromabluntrequesttoanextremelyhesitantone.Requestsforpermissioncanrefertothepresentorfuture.Thebasicformsare:Can>Could>Iborrowyourumbrella(please)?May>Might>1Canisthecommonestandmostinformal:CanIborrowyourumbrella(please)?Afew(old-fashioned)nativespeakersstillholdthatcanistheequivalentofam/is/areabletoandthereforemaymustbeusedinstead.Theideaofe.g.askingforafavourislessstrongincanthanincould/may/might.2Couldismore"hesitant"andpolitethancan.Weoftenuseitwhenwearenotsurepermissionwillbegranted:CouldIborrowyourumbrella(please)?3Mayismoreformal,politeand"respectful"thancanandcould:MayIborrowyourumbrella(please)?4Mightisthemosthesitant,politeand"respectful"andisratherlesscommonthantheotherthree:MightIborrowyourumbrella(please)?Inpractice,can,couldandmayareofteninterchangeablein"neutral"requests.Commonresponseswithmodalsare:e.g.-affirmative:Ofcourseyoucan/may.(Not*could*/*might*)-negative:No,youcan"t/maynot.Not*couldnot*/*mightnot*)Numerousnon-modalresponsesarepossiblerangingfromthepoliteOfcourse(affirmative),I"mafraidnot,I"dratheryoudidn"t(negative),tobluntrefusallikeCertainlynot.Apoliterefusalisusuallyaccompaniedbysomekindofexplanation(I"mafraidyoucan"tbecause_).PermissiontoaskanindiscreetquestionmayberequestedwiththeformulasifImayaskand(moretentative)ifImightask:HowmuchdidyoupayforthishouseifImay/mightask?11.21Askingforpermissionwith"can"t"and"couldn"t"Can"tandcouldn"tareoftenusedinplaceofcanandcouldwhenwearepressingforanaffirmativeanswer:Can"t>>Istayouttillmidnight(please)?Couldn"t>MayInot_?isold-fashioned.Mayn"tI_?isunlikely.MightInot_?israre,butalltheseformsoccurinformalstyle.11.22Verypoliterequests:"can/could/may/might"Therearenumerousvariationsonstraightforwardrequestformstoexpressdegreesofpoliteness.Possiblyiscommonlyaddedtomakerequestsmorepolite.Requestsmaybehesitant:Can/CouldI(possibly)>DoyouthinkIcould/might>useyourphone?IwonderifIcould/might>Ortheymaybeover-cautiousorobsequious:MightI(possibly)beallowedto_?11.23GrantingandrefusingpermissionPermissioncanbegrantedorrefusedasfollows:(not*could*)You<>watchTVforaslongasyoulike.(not*might*)Youmay/maynotcarriestheauthorityofthespeakerandistheequivalentof"I(personally)giveyoupermission".Youcan/cannotismoregeneralanddoesnotnecessarilyimplypersonalpermission.Permissionissuingfromsomeotherauthoritycanbegrantedor
EnglishGrammar:Modalauxiliariesandrelatedverbswithheldmoreemphaticallywithbeallowedto,bepermittedto,andbeforbiddento,asfollows:Youcan/cannot>orYou"reallowedto/notallowedto>Youcan/cannot>orYou"repermittedto/notpermittedto>smokehere.Youmustn"t>orYou"reforbiddento>Granting/refusingpermissionisnotconfinedto1stand2ndpersons:Johnny/Frankie<>stayuplate.Thiscanbeextendedto:-rule-makinge.g.forgames:Eachplayermaychoosefivecards.-othercontexts:Candidatesmaynotattemptmorethanthreequestions.Permissionmayalsobegivenbyaspeakerwithshallinthe2ndand3rdpersons(formalandliterary):Youshalldoasyouplease.(i.e.Youhavemypermissionto.)Heshalldoashepleases.(i.e.Hehasmypermissionto.)Permissionmayalsobedeniedwithshan"tinBrEonly[>9.36n.3]Ifyoudon"tbehaveyourself,youshan"tgoout/beallowedout.Ifhedoesn"tbehavehimself,heshan"tgoout/beallowedout.Numerousalternativeformsareavailabletoexpressanythingfrommildrefusal(I"dratheryoudidn"tifyoudon"tmind)tostrongprohibition(Iforbidyouto_).Formalandstrongstatementswithnon-modalformsareoftenfoundinpublicnotices[compare>12.9.1]:Thankyoufornotsmoking.(i.e.pleasedon"t)Passengersarerequestedtoremainseatedtilltheaircraftstops.Trespassingisstrictlyforbidden.11.24Permission/prohibitioninothertensesThegapsinthe"defective"verbsmayandmust[>11.4][>11.6.1]canbefilledwiththeverbphrasesbeallowedtoandthemoreformalbepermittedto.Examplesofothertenses:presentperfect:MrsJamesisinhospitalandhasn"tbeenallowedtohaveanyvisitors.past:Wewereallowedtostayuptill11lastnight.Couldcanonlyexpresspast"permissioningeneral"[compare>11.12.1]:Whenwewerechildrenwecouldwatch(orwereallowedtowatch)TVwheneverwewantedto.11.25Conditionalsentenceswith"could"and"couldhave"Couldmayimply"wouldbeallowedto":Icouldhaveanextraweek"sholidayifIaskedforit.Couldhave+pastparticiplecanbeusedinplaceofwouldhavebeenallowedtotoshowthatpermissionwasgivenbutnotused:Youcouldhavehadanextraweek"sholiday.Youaskedforit.Isaidyoucouldhaveit,butyoudidn"ttakeit.[compare>11.15]11.26"Can/could"="am/is/arefreeto":presentorfuture"Beingfreeto"isoftenlinkedtotheideaof"havingpermission".Can,inthesenseof"am/is/arefreeto",canbeusedtorefertothepresentorthefuture:Icanseehimnow.(=Iamfreeto)Icanseehimtomorrow.(=Iam/willbefreeto)Couldexpressesexactlythesameidea,butislessdefinite:Icouldseehimnow.(=Iamfreeto)Icouldseehimtomorrow.(=Iam/willbefreeto)Comparecan/could(=ability)whichcannotbeusedtorefertothefuture[>11.10][>11.16]Usesofmodals,etc.toexpresscertaintyandpossibility11.27Certainty,possibilityanddeductionIfwearecertainofourfacts,wecanmakestatementswithbeoranyfullverb[compare>10.24]:Janeis(orworks)athome.(acertainfact)
EnglishGrammar:ModalauxiliariesandrelatedverbsIfwearereferringtopossibility,wecanusecombinationsofmay,mightorcould+verb:Janemay/might/couldbe(orwork)athome.(apossibility)Wemaydrawadistinctionbetweentheexpressionofpossibilityinthisway(whichallowsforspeculationandguessing)anddeductionbasedonevidence.Deduction[>11.32],oftenexpressedwithmustbeandcan"tbe,suggestsnear-certainty:Jane"slightison.Shemustbeathome.Shecan"tbeout.11.28Formsoftenses(certainty)versusmodals(possibility)certainpossible/lessthancertain(expressedbyverbtenses)(expressedbymay,mightandcould)Heisathome.Hemay/might/couldbeathome(now).Hewillbeathometomorrow.Hemay/might/couldbeathometomorrow.Hewasathomeyesterday.Hemay/might/couldhavebeenathomeyesterday.Heleavesat9.Hemay/might/couldleaveat9.Hewillleavetomorrow.Hemay/might/couldleavetomorrow.Hehasleft.Hemay/might/couldhaveleft.HeleftlastnightHemay/might/couldhaveleftlastnight.Hewillhaveleftby9.Hemay/might/couldhaveleftby9.Heisworkingtoday.Hemay/might/couldbeworkingtoday.Hewillbeworkingtoday.Hemay/might/couldbeworkingtoday.Hewasworkingtoday.Hemay/might/couldhavebeenworkingtoday.Hehasbeenworkingallday.Hemay/might/couldhavebeenworkingallday.Hewillhavebeenworkingallday.Hemay/might/couldhavebeenworkingallday.11.29Notesonmodalformsexpressingpossibility1ShouldbeandoughttobetoexpresspossibilityInadditiontotheaboveexamples,wecanalsoexpresspossibilitywithshouldbeandoughttobe:Johnshouldbe/oughttobeathome.Johnshouldbeworking/oughttobeworking.Johnshouldhaveleft/oughttohaveleftbytomorrow.etc.However,becauseshouldandoughttoalsoexpressobligation[>11.46]theycanbeambiguous,soarenotusedasmuchasmay/might/couldtoexpresspossibility.Forexample,Heshouldhavearrived(oughttohavearrived)yesterdaycouldmean"Ithinkheprobablyhasarrived"or"Hefailedinhisdutytoarriveyesterday".2QuestionsaboutpossibilityWhenweareaskingaboutpossibility,wemayuseMight_?,Could_?andsometimesCan_?andrarelyMay_?.(Wedonotnormallyuseshouldandoughttoinaffirmativequestionsaboutpossibilitybecauseoftheriskofconfusionwithobligation):Might/Could/Canthisbetrue?ýMight/Couldheknowtheanswer?Might/Could/Canhestillbeworking?(orbestillworking)ýMight/Couldhebeleavingsoon?Might/Could/Canhehavebeenwaitinglong?ýMight/Couldhehaveleftbytomorrow?ýCanisnotalwayspossibleinquestionslikethese,probablybecauseoftheriskofconfusionwithcan=ability[>11.10].However,inquestionslikeCanthisbetrue?,canoftenindicatesdisbelief.Canispossibleinsomeindirectquestions:Iwonderwherehecanhaveleftthekey?3NegativequestionsaboutpossibilityNegativequestionsaboutpossibilitycanbeaskedwithMightn"tandCouldn"t.Maynot(Not*Mayn"t*)cansometimesbeused,ascanShouldn"tandOughtn"tto:Mightn"thebeathomenow?etc.Couldn"theknowtheanswer?etc.4NegativepossibilityNegativepossibilityisexpressedwithmaynot,mightn"t,can"tandcouldn"t,butnotusuallywithshouldn"tandoughtn"tto:Hemaynotbe(orhavebeen)here.etc.Hemaynotbe(orhavebeen)workinglate.etc.Can"t+beoftensuggestsdisbelief:Whatyou"resayingcan"tbetrue!Icanhardlybelieveit!Canmaybeusedinnegativeindirectquestions:Idon"tthinkhecanhavelefthomeyet.orinsemi-negatives:Hecanhardlybeathomeyet.It"sonly6.11.30ModalsonascaleofcertaintyDegreesofcertaintycanbeexpressedonascale:Heisathome.(=it"sacertainfact:non-modalbe)Hecouldbeathome.(=doubtfulpossibility)Heshouldbeathome.(=doubtfulpossibility)Heoughttobeathome.(=doubtfulpossibility)Hemaybeathome.(=it"spossible,butuncertain)Hemightbeathome.(=lesscertainthanmay)
EnglishGrammar:ModalauxiliariesandrelatedverbsHeisn"tathome.(=it"sacertainfact)Hecan"tbeathome.(=it"snearlycertain)Hecouldn"tbeathome.(=more"tentative"thancan"t)Hemaynotbeathome.(=possible,butuncertain)Hemightn"tbeathome.(=lesscertainthanmaynot)(See11.29ns.1,3forshouldn"tandoughtn"tto)(Seeunderdeduction[>11.32],formustbe,can"tbe,etc.)Inspeech,theelementofdoubtisincreasedwithheavystress:He"couldbeathome(i.e.butIverymuchdoubtit).Particularstressisalsousedinexclamations:It"can"tbetrue!You"can"t"meanit!You"mustbemistaken!11.31CertainanduncertainresponsestoquestionsYes/Noanswerstoquestionscanreflectvaryingdegreesofcertaintyfeltbythespeaker.Forexample,a"certain"questionmayelicitan"uncertain"answer:Doeshelikeice-cream?(directquestion)-Yes,hedoes.No,hedoesn"t.("certain"response)-Hemight(do).Hemay(do).Hecould(do).(possibility)-Hemightn"t.Hemaynot.(uncertainty)Similarly,an"uncertain"questionmayelicita"certain"answer:Canhestillbeworking?(disbelief)Mightn"thebeworking?(possibility)-Yes,heis.No,heisn"t.("certain"response)-Hemight(be).Hemay(be).(possibility)-Hemaynotbe.Idon"tthinkhecanbe.(possibility)-Hecan"tbe.Hecouldn"tbe.(disbelief)Ofcourse,anyotheranswer,notnecessarilyinvolvingtheuseofamodalverb,maybeavailable,dependingoncircumstances:-Idon"tknow.I"mnotsure.Idon"tthinkso.etc.Beandhavebeenarenormallyusedinanswerstoquestionswithbe:Isheill?-Hemaybe.Washeill?-Hemayhavebeen.Dooftenreplacesotherverbs:Willyoucatchanearlytrain?-Imaydo.Hashereceivedmymessage?-Hecouldhave/couldhavedone.Usesofmodalstoexpressdeduction11.32Examplesofmodalformsfordeductionmustandcan"tpresentreference:Certaintyexpressedbyverbtenses:Heishere.Heliveshere.Heisleaving.Heisn"there.Hedoesn"tlivehere.Heisn"tleaving.Deductionexpressedbymustbeandcan"tbe:Hemustbehere.Hemustlivehere.Hemustbeleaving.Hecan"tbehere.Hecan"tlivehere.Hecan"tbeleaving.perfectandpastreference:Certaintyexpressedbyverbtenses:Hewashere.Hehasleft/Heleftearly.Hehasbeen/wasworkinglate.Deductionexpressedbymusthavebeenandcan"t/couldn"thavebeen:Hemusthavebeenhere.Hemusthaveleftearly.Hemusthavebeenworkinglate.Hecan"thavebeenhere.Hecan"thaveleftearly.Hecan"thavebeenworkinglate.Hecouldn"thavebeenhere.Hecouldn"thaveleftearly.Hecouldn"thavebeenworkinglate.11.33Expressingdeductionwith"mustbe"and"can"tbe",etc.Thedistinctionbetweenpossibility(oftenbasedonspeculation)anddeduction(basedonevidence)hasalreadybeendrawn[>11.27].Thestrongestandcommonestformstoexpressdeductionaremustandcan"t.Forteachingandlearningpurposes,itisnecessarytoestablishthefollowingclearly:1can"tbe(Not*mustn"tbe*)isthenegativeofmustbe.2can"thavebeen(Not*mustn"thavebeen*)isthenegativeofmusthavebeen.
EnglishGrammar:ModalauxiliariesandrelatedverbsHaveto/havegottobe(affirmative)canexpressdeductioninAmE:Thishastobe/hasgottobethemoststupidfilmIhaveeverseen.Comparededuction[secondaryuseofmodals>11.3-4][>11.9]in:Hecan"tbethirsty.Hemustbehungry.Hecan"thavebeenthirsty.Hemusthavebeenhungry.withinescapableobligation[primaryuseofmodals>11.2][>11.4][>11.9]in:Hemustn"tbecareless.Hemustbecareful.Hedidn"thavetobeatthedentist"s.Hehadtobeatthedoctor"s.Wealsousemay/might/couldandshould/oughttoformakingdeductions(aswellasforexpressingpossibility);and,whenwearealmostcertainofourevidence,wemayusewillandwon"t:ThatwillbeRoland.Icanhearhimatthedoor.ThatwillhavebeenRoland.Hesaidhe"dbebackat7.Thatwon"tbeRoland.I"mnotexpectinghimyet.Thatwon"thavebeenRoland.I"mnotexpectinghimtill7.Again[>11.31],itispossibletogivevaryingresponsestoaquestion:IsRolandinhisroom?-Yes,heis.No,heisn"t.(certainty)-Yes,hemustbe.Iheardhimcomein.(deduction)-No,hewon"tbe.Hehadtogoout.(near-certainty)-No,hecan"tbe.There"snolightinhisroom.(deduction)Usesofmodalsforoffers,requests,suggestions11.34Generalinformationaboutoffers,requestsandsuggestionsModalverbsareusedextensivelyfor"languageacts"orfunctionssuchasoffering,askingforthings,expressingpreferences.Fineshadesofmeaningareconveyednotonlybythewordsthemselves,butparticularlybystress,intonation,andgesture.(Notethatwecanalsomakesuggestions,etc.withnon-modalforms,e.g.Haveadrink,Let"sgotothezoo).Inthissection,offers,requests,etc.areconsideredfromsixpointsofviewundertwoheadings:11.34.1Thingsandsubstances1Offeringthingsandsubstances+appropriateresponses.2Requestsforthingsandsubstances+appropriateresponses.11.34.2Actions3Makingsuggestions,invitingactions+appropriateresponses.4Requestingotherstodothingsforyou+appropriateresponses.5Offeringtodothingsforothers+appropriateresponses.6Suggestionsthatincludethespeaker.11.35Thingsandsubstances:offerswithmodals11.35.1TypicaloffersinvitingYes/NoresponsesCan/CouldIofferyou>Will/Won"tyouhave>asandwich/somecoffee?Would/Wouldn"tyoulike>11.35.2TypicalresponsesTherearemanynon-modalforms(Yesplease,Nothankyou,etc.)andafewmodalones:Yes,I"dlikeone/someplease.Yes,I"dloveone/someplease.However,wedon"tusuallyrepeatthemodalwhenwerefuseanoffer.AreplylikeNo,Iwon"tinanswertoWillyouhave_?couldsoundrude[>11.74.1]11.35.3Typicalofferswith"What"Whatwillyouhave?Whatwouldyouliketohave?Whatwouldyouprefer?Whatwouldyouratherhave?11.36Thingsandsubstances:requestswithmodals11.36.1TypicalrequestsinvitingYes/Noresponses[>11.19-20][>13.6]Can/Could/May/MightIhaveasandwich/somecoffee(please)?11.36.2TypicalresponsesOfcourseyoucan/may.(Not*could/might*[compare>11.23])No,youcan"t/maynot(I"mafraid).
EnglishGrammar:Modalauxiliariesandrelatedverbs(Theseanswerswithmodalswouldbelikelywheree.g.aparentisaddressingachild.Adultresponseswouldbee.g.CertainlyorI"mafraidthereisn"tany,etc.)11.37Actions:suggestions/invitationswithmodals11.37.1TypicalsuggestionsinvitingYes/NoresponsesWillyou/Won"tyou>Wouldyou/Wouldn"tyouliketo>comeforawalk(withme)?11.37.2Typicalresponses(Yes,)I"dliketo.I"dloveto.(No,)I"dprefernotto,thankyou.Notethattomustfollowlike,loveetc.[>16.17].NegativeresponseslikeNo,Iwon"tarenotappropriate[>11.74.1].11.37.3Typicalinquirywith"What"toinvitesuggestionsWhatwouldyouliketodo?11.38Actions:usingmodalstoasksomeonetodosomething11.38.1TypicalrequestsinvitingYes/Noresponses[>11.19-20]Willyou_?,Wouldyou_?intheserequestsrefertowillingness.Canyou_?,Couldyou_?refertoability.Willyou(please)>Can/Couldyou(please)>Wouldyou(please)>openthewindow(forme)?Wouldyouliketo>Wouldyoumindopeningthewindow(forme)?Will/Wouldyousoundsevenmorepolitewiththeadditionofkindly,andcan/couldwiththeadditionofpossibly[compare>11.22]:Will/Wouldyoukindly_?Can/Couldyoupossibly_?WecannotuseMayyou_?inrequestsforhelp.11.38.2TypicalresponsesYes,ofcourse(Iwill).No,I"mafraidIcan"t(atthemoment).11.39Actions:usingmodalstooffertodothingsforothers11.39.1Typicalofferstodothings[>11.19-20]OffersbeginningShallI_?Shallwe_?areverycommon:CanI/CouldI/ShallIopenthewindow(foryou)?Wouldyoulikemetoopenthewindow(foryou)?That"sthephone.I"llgetitforyou,(shallI)?Whatshall/canIdoforyou?Andnoteverypoliteofferswithmayin:e.g.MayItakeyourcoat?11.39.2TypicalresponsesTheusualresponsesareYesplease,Nothankyou,ortagresponseslikeCan/Could/Wouldyou?-that"sverykind,butnotYes,youcan/No,youcan"t,whichcouldsoundrude.11.40Actions:suggestionsthatincludethespeaker11.40.1TypicalsuggestionsinvitingYes/NoresponsesShallwegoforaswim?Wecan/could/mightgoforaswim.11.40.2TypicalresponsesYes,let"s,(shallwe)?[compare>16.4.1]No,I"dratherwedidn"t./No,I"drathernot.11.40.3Typicalinquirieswith"What"Whatshall/can/couldwedothisafternoon?Expressingwisheswith"wish","ifonly",etc.11.41TheexpressionofwishesTheverbwishcanbefollowedbytoandcanbeusedlikewanttoinformalstyletoexpressanimmediatedesire:Iwishto(orwantto)applyforavisa.Inaddition,wecanexpresshypotheticalwishesanddesireswith:-theverbwish:oftenforsomethingthatmighthappen.
EnglishGrammar:Modalauxiliariesandrelatedverbs-thephraseifonly:oftentoexpresslongingorregret.-thephrasesit"s(high)timeandit"sabouttimetoexpressfuturewishesandimpatiencethatacourseofactionisoverdue.Afterwish,ifonly,it"s(high)time,it"sabouttime,weuse:-thepasttensetorefertopresenttime.-thepastperfecttensetorefertopasttime.-wouldandcouldtomakegeneralwishesorrefertothefuture.Inotherwords,we"goonetenseback"[compare>15.13n.3].Thoughwishandifonlyareoftenusedinterchangeably,ifonlyexpressesmorestronglytheideathatthesituationwishedfordoesnotexist,whereaswishisusedforsomethingthatmighthappen.Detailsfollow.11.42Theverb"wish"andthephrase"ifonly"11.42.1Presentreference:"wish/ifonly"with"be"+complementAfterwishandifonlywemayuse:-thesimplepastofbe:Iwish/ifonlyTessawasherenow.-thesubjunctive[>11.75.1]ofbe,i.e.wereafterallpersons.Thisisformalandhastheeffectofmakingawishmoredoubtful:Iwish/ifonlyTessawereherenow.Wishandifonlycanalsobefollowedbythepastprogressive:Iwish/Ifonlythesunwas(orwere)shiningatthismoment.Comparehope+simplepresentorfutureforanimmediate"wish":Ihopeheisontime.Ihopehewon"tbelate.(Not*Iwish*)[>9.37.3]11.42.2.Presentreference:"wish/ifonly"+verbsotherthan"be"Iwish/IfonlyIknewtheanswertoyourquestion.Iwish/IfonlyIdidn"thavetoworkforaliving.Ifonly(butnotwish)willalsocombinewiththesimplepresent:Ifonlyhegetsthisjob,itwillmakeagreatdealofdifference.Here,ifonlyfunctionslikeifinType1conditionals[>14.4]andthatiswhythepresent(whichhasafuturereference)canbeused.11.42.3Pastreferencewith"wish"and"ifonly"-be+complement:Iwish/IfonlyIhadbeenhereyesterday.-verbsotherthanbe:Iwish/Ifonlyyouhadletmeknowearlier.Iwish/IfonlywehadbeentravellingIyesterdaywhentheweatherwasfine.Insentencesliketheabove,ifonlyparticularlyexpressesregret:IfonlyIhadbeenhereyesterday.Theaccidentwouldneverhavehappened.Compare:IwishIhadbeenhereyesterday.Youallseemtohavehadsuchagoodtime,(asimplewish,nottheexpressionofregret)11.42.4"Would"and"could"after"wish"and"ifonly"Iwishyouwould/wouldn"toftenfunctionslikeapoliteimperative.Becausethewishcaneasilybefulfilled,ifonlyislesslikely:Iwishyouwouldbequiet.Iwishyouwouldn"tmakesomuchnoise.WemustusecouldandnotwouldafterIandWe:IwishIcouldbeyou.Ifonlywecouldbetogether.IwishIcouldswim.IwishIcouldhavebeenwithyou.Wouldexpresseswillingness;couldexpressesability:Iwishhewouldcometomorrow.(i.e.Idon"tknowifhewantsto)Iwishhecouldcometomorrow.(i.e.I"msurehecan"t)IwishTessacouldhavecometomyparty.(i.e.shewasn"tableto)Wishesexpressedwithwouldatthebeginningofasentencehaveeitherbecomeobsolete(Wouldthatitweretrue!)orhavebecomefossilizedidioms(WouldtoGodIknew!WouldtoGodIhadknown!)11.42.5Thepositionof"only"after"if"Onlycanbeseparatedfromifandcanbeplaced:-afterbe:Ifhewas/wereonlyherenow!-beforethepastparticiple:IfIhadonlyknown!-afterthemodal:Ifyouwouldonlytryharder!Thoughtheseparationofonlyfromifiscommoninexclamations(asabove),itisalsopossibleinlongersentences:Ifmorepeoplewereonlypreparedtobeasgenerousasyouare,manychildren"sliveswouldbesaved.(Ifonlymorepeople_)11.42.6Theuseof"wish"and"ifonly"inshortresponses
EnglishGrammar:ModalauxiliariesandrelatedverbsShortresponsescanbemadewithwishandifonly:ItwouldbeniceifTessawas/were/couldbeherenow!-Iwish/Ifonlyshewas!/shewere!/shecouldbe!Youshouldhavecomewithus.-Iwish/IfonlyIhad!Icanhelpyouwiththatbox.-Iwish/Ifonlyyouwould!11.43"It"s(high)time"and"It"sabouttime"Theseexpressionsareusedwiththepasttenseorthesubjunctive[>11.42.1][>11.75.1]torefertothepresentandfuture:It"s(high)timehewas(orwere)taughtalesson.It"sabouttimehelearnttolookafterhimself.(=thetimehascome)Could(butnotwould)issometimespossible:Isn"titabouttimeourbabycouldwalk?Negativesarenotusedafterit"s(high)timeandit"sabouttimeShortresponsesarepossiblewiththeseexpressions:Istillhaven"tthankedAuntLucyforherpresent.-It"stimeyoudid.(you"retakingtoolongoverit)Comparetheuseofit"stimein:We"veenjoyedtheevening,butit"stime(forus)togo.(i.e.thetimehasnowarrivedforustogo)We"veenjoyedtheevening,butit"stimewewent.(i.e.weshouldprobablyhaveleftbeforethis)Expressingpreferenceswith"wouldrather"and"wouldsooner"11.44"Wouldrather/sooner"toexpresspreferenceWould+rather/sooner+bareinfinitive[>16.5]expressesourpersonalpreference,orenablesustotalkaboutsomeoneelse"s.Thiscanrefertopresenttime:I"drather/soonerbeaminerthanabankclerk.He"drather(not)gobycar.ortopasttime:IfI"dlivedin1400,I"dratherhavebeenaknightthanamonk.Ifshe"dhadthechance,she"dratherhavelived100yearsago.Innegativeresponses,wecanomittheinfinitive:Areyoucomingwithus?-I"drathernot.Wouldyouratherhavebeenaknight?-I"drathernot(havebeen).Wouldrather/soonercanbemodifiedbyfarand(very)much:I"dfar(ormuch)ratherbehappythanrich.I"dfar(ormuch)soonerbeyoungthanold.11.45"Wouldrather/sooner"+clauseWouldratherandwouldsoonercanintroduceaclausewithitsownsubject(differentfromthesubjectofwouldrather/sooner).Weusethisconstructionwhenwewanttosaywhatwewouldprefersomeoneorsomethingelsetodoortobe:I"drather/soonerhe/Jack(etc.)leftonanearliertrain.NotetheuseofpasttensesafterI"drather+clause:-thepastwithpresentorfuturereference:I"dratheryouwerehappy(orweren"tunhappy).I"drathershesat(ordidn"tsit)nexttome.-thepastperfectwithpastreference:I"dratheryouhadbeen/hadn"tbeenpresent.I"dratherhehadtold/hadn"ttoldmeaboutit.Whenexpressingnegativepreferences(torefertothepresentorfuture),wecanusedidn"ttoavoidrepeatingthemainverb:YoualwaysgowithoutmeandI"dratheryoudidn"t.Wecanusehadn"tinthesamewaytorefertothepast:KatiewentbycarandI"drathershehadn"t.Shortresponsestoexpresspreferencesarepossibleasfollows:presentandfuture:Frankwantstobuyamotorbike-I"dratherhedidn"t.past:I"vetoldeveryoneaboutit.-I"dratheryouhadn"t.Advisability,duty/obligationandnecessity11.46Examplesofformsexpressingadvisability,etc.
EnglishGrammar:ModalauxiliariesandrelatedverbspresentadvisabilitypastadvisabilitynotacteduponIshouldstopsmoking.Ishouldhavestoppedsmoking.Ioughttostopsmoking.Ioughttohavestoppedsmoking.I"dbetterstopsmoking.(Iwasadvisedtostopbut(Istillsmoke.)ignoredtheadvice.)presentinescapableobligationpastinescapableobligationImuststopsmoking.Ihadtostopsmoking.(Iamobligedtostopsmoking(IwasobligedtostopsmokingandIshall:itismyduty.)andIdid:itwasmyduty.)Forshouldandoughttoinindirectspeech[>15.13n.6].Fortheambiguityofshouldhaveandoughttohave[>11.29n.1].Fortheusesofmustandhadtoinindirectspeech[>15.13n.6]11.47Advisability=necessity:"ascaleofchoice"Wecanusemodalsandotherverbstoexpressadvisabilityonascalewhichreflectsadegreeofchoice.Thisscalemayvaryaccordingtothesubjectivepointofviewofthespeaker.advisabilityshould:generallymeans"inmyopinion,itisadvisableto"or"itis(your)duty".|oughtto:canbeslightlystrongerthanshouldin|thatitissometimesusedtoreferto|regulationsordutiesimposedfromthe|outside:Yououghttovote(=itisyour|publicduty).Shouldismorelikelythan|oughttoinquestionsandnegatives.|hadbetter:isstrongerthanshouldandoughtto.|Itisusedtorecommendfutureactionon|aparticularoccasion,notingeneral.|Itcarriesahintofthreat,warningor|urgency:You"dbetterseeadoctor.|am/is/areto:canbeusedforinstructions[compare|>9.48.1]:You"retoreportfordutyat7.|need(to):(=itisnecessaryto).|haveto:isanalternativetomustandfillstheVgapsinthatdefectiveverb[>11.4].havegotto:likehaveto,butmoreinformal.necessitymust:likehavetoandhavegotto,suggestsinescapableobligation.Inthespeaker"sopinionthereisnochoiceatall.11.48"Must","haveto"and"havegotto"Asfarasmeaningisconcerned,thesethreeformsarelargelyinterchangeable.However,therearedifferencesbetweenthem.Whenusedinthefirstperson,havetoandhavegotto(oftenpronounced/h‘vtE/and/hEv"g_tE/ineverydayspeech)canrefertoanexternalauthorityandmightbepreferabletomustin:e.g.Wehaveto/We"vegottosendtheseVATformsbackbeforetheendofthemonth.(i.e.wearerequiredtodosobylaw)Ontheotherhand,mustcanexpressaspeaker"sauthorityoverhimselfandmightbepreferabletohaveto/havegottoin:I/Wereallymustdosomethingabouttheweedsinthisgarden.(i.e.butIdon"thavetoaccounttoanybodyifIdon"t)Inotherpersons(you,etc.)mustconveysmorestronglythanhavetotheideaofinescapableobligationorurgencyin:e.g.Youmustphonehomeatonce.It"surgent.Havetoandhavegottoareinterchangeableforsingleactions:Ihaveto/havegottochecktheoillevelinthecar.Howevertheyarenotalwaysinterchangeablewhenwerefertohabitualactions.Thefollowingarepossible:Ihaveto/Ihavegottoleavehomeeverymorningat7.30.Butwhenone-wordadverbsoffrequency(always,sometimes,etc.)areusedhavetoisalwayspreferabletohavegotto:Ioftenhavetogetupat5.Doyoueverhavetogetupat5?Must(nothavetoorhavegotto)isusedinpublicnoticesordocumentsexpressingcommands:Cyclistsmustdismount.Candidatesmustchosefivequestions.WegenerallypreferMustyou_?toDoyouhaveto_?/Haveyougotto_?tomean"Can"tyoustopyourself_?"MustyoualwaysinterruptmewhenI"mspeaking?Mustisalsousedinpressinginvitations,suchas:Youreallymustcomeandseeussometime.
EnglishGrammar:Modalauxiliariesandrelatedverbsandinemphaticadvice,suchas:Youreallymusttakeaholidaythisyear.Evenwhenheavilystressed,theseusesofmustdonotmeanorimply"inescapableobligation".11.49"Need"asamodalNeedhasonlysomeofthecharacteristicsofmodalverbs[>11.1]inthatitoccursinquestions,Needyougo?,andnegatives,Youneedn"tgo[>11.52-53].InYes/Noquestions,anegativeanswerisoftenexpected:Needyouleavesosoon?(=surelynot/Ihopenot)Yes/NoquestionswithNeed?canbeansweredwithmustorneedn"t:NeedItypethisletteragain?-Yes,youmust./No,youneedn"t.Need+have+pastparticiplebehavesinthesameway:Needyouhavetoldhimaboutmyplans?Youneedn"thavetoldhimaboutmyplans.Yes/NoquestionswithNeed_have_?canbeanswered:Yes,Ihadto.(nochoice)No,Ineedn"thave.(Ihadachoice)Needasamodalverbalsooccursincombinationwithnegative-typeadverbslikehardly,never,seldom,rarelyandscarcelytomakewhatareeffectivelynegativestatements:Sheneedneverknowwhatyouhavejusttoldme.IneedhardlytellyouhowbadlyIfeelaboutherdeparture.Allyouneeddoistotakeataxifromtheairport.(i.e.youneedtodonothingexcepttakeataxi)Needcanalsooccurinclauseswithanegativemainclause:Idon"tthinkyouneedleaveyet.Needasamodalismostlyusedinthenegative(Ineedn"tgo[>11.53])toexpresslackofnecessity.Otherwisewegenerallyusethefullverbneedto(usedlikeanyregularverb):Ineedto/Ineededtogotothedentistthismorning.Idon"tneedto/Ididn"tneedtogotothedentist.Whenwillyounextneedtogotothedentist?Whydidyouneedtogotothedentist?etc.11.50Advisability/necessity:thepresentandfutureShould,oughtto,etc.refertopresenttime(exceptinindirectspeech[>15.13n.6]).Withtheadditionofadverbialssuchasthisafternoon,tomorrow,etc.,theyrefertofuturetime.beattheoffice(before9tomorrow).Ileave(before9tomorrow).beleaving(before9tomorrow).Will/shallwillcombinewithhavetoandneedto(fullverb)forexplicitfuturereference:11.4]:Ihavehadtoremindhimseveraltimestoreturnmybook.BecauseofthebusstrikeI"vebeenhavingtowalktoworkeveryday.Thereasonforourlatearrivalwasthatwehadhadtowaitforhourswhiletheycheckedtheplanebeforetake-off.Ifhehadaskedme,Iwouldhavehadtotellhimthetruth.Lackofnecessity,inadvisability,prohibition11.52Examplesofmodalformstoexpressinadvisability,etc.presentlackofnecessitypastlackofnecessityYouneedn"tgothere.Youneedn"thavegonethere.Or:Youdon"tneedtogothere.(=youwentthereunnecessarily)Youdon"thavetogothere.Youdidn"thavetogothere.Youhaven"tgottogothere.Or:Youdidn"tneedtogothere.(=therewasnonecessitytogotherewhetheryoudidgoornot)presentinadvisabilitypastinadvisability,notacteduponYoushouldn"tstartsmoking.Youshouldn"thavestartedsmoking.Yououghtnottostartsmoking.Yououghtn"ttohavestartedsmoking.(bute.g.youignoredthisadvice)presentprohibitionfailuretoobserveaprohibitionYoucan"tparkhere.Youshouldn"thaveparkedthere.Youmustn"tparkhere.Yououghtnottohaveparkedthere.Forshould(n"t)andought(n"t)inindirectspeech[>15.13n.6].Shouldn"thaveandoughtn"ttohavearenotambiguousinthewaythatshouldhaveandoughttohavecansometimesbeambiguous[compare>11.29n.1].Fortheuseofmust(n"t)inindirectspeech[>15.13n.6].Havetocanreplacemustinthepresent[>11.48][>11.50],butdon"t/didn"thavetocannotreplacemustn"tinthepresentandpast[>11.55][>11.57.1].11.53Lackofnecessity:"needn"t/don"thaveto/haven"tgotto"Lackofnecessitycanbeexpressedbyneedn"t,don"thavetoandthemoreinformalhaven"tgotto(wheregotisoftenstressed):Youneedn"t>Youdon"thaveto>worksuchlonghours.Youhaven"tgotto>(i.e.youcanworkfewerhours,ifyouchooseto)Theaboveformscanbeusedtoexpressthesubjectivepointofviewofthespeakerthatthelistenerhasachoiceorhaspermissionnottodosomething.Notethat(You)haven"ttoisaregionalBrEvariationof(You)don"thaveto11.54Inadvisability=prohibition:"ascaleofchoice"Wecanusemodalsandotherverbstoexpressinadvisability=prohibitiononascalewhichreflectsadegreeofchoice.Thisscalemayvaryaccordingtothesubjectiveviewofthespeaker.Thisisparticularlythecasewhenweareaddressingothersdirectlywithyou,orwhenwearereferringtootherswithhe,she,andthey.Atoneendofthescale(seenextpage)theadvice(howeverstrong)canbeignored.Attheotherendofthescale,theprohibitionistotaland,inthespeaker"sopinion,thereisnochoiceatall.inadvisabilityshouldn"t:generallymeans"inmyopinion,itis|inadvisableto/itis(your)dutynotto"|oughtn"tto:canbeslightlystrongerthan|shouldn"t.Itissometimesusedtorefer|toregulationsanddutiesimposedfrom|theoutside.Yououghtn"ttoparkso|nearthecrossingsuggests"it"syour|publicdutynottodothis".|hadbetternot:isstrongerthanshouldn"tand|oughtn"tto.Itisusedtorecommend|futureactiononaparticularoccasion,|notingeneral.Itcarriesahintof|threat,warning,orurgency:You"d|betternotovertakehere!|am/is/arenotto:canbeusedforinstructions[>9.48.1]|can"t:isnearlyasstrongasmustn"tto|suggestsomethingisprohibited:VYoucan"tparkhere.
EnglishGrammar:Modalauxiliariesandrelatedverbsmustn"t:conveysabsoluteprohibition.Inprohibitiontheopinionofthespeaker,thereisnochoiceatall.Thisopinionmaybesubjectiveormaybesupportedbysomeoutsideauthority,asinYoumusn"tturnleft.(e.g.there"saroadsignforbiddingit).11.55"Mustn"t","needn"t","don"thaveto","haven"tgotto"Thoughmust,havetoandhavegottoaregenerallyinterchangeableintheaffirmative[>11.48],don"thavetoandhaven"tgottocanneverreplacemustn"ttoconveyprohibition.Likeneedn"ttheyconveylackofnecessity[>11.56.1].Mustn"tconveysthestrongestpossibleopinionofthespeaker:Youreallymustn"tsaythingslikethatinfrontofyourmother.Julianmustn"thitchhiketoTurkeyonhisown.Prohibitionreflectingexternalauthority(ine.g.publicnotices,documents)isoftenexpressedasmustnot(infull):Lifebeltsmustnotberemoved.Candidatesmustnotattemptmorethanfourquestions.Haven"tgottoshouldbeavoidedwithadverbsoffrequency(always,sometimes,etc.)forreasonsofstyle.So:Ibeattheofficeby9.isusuallypreferredto:Ihaven"talwaysgottobe_11.56Lackofnecessity,etc.:present/future11.56.1Lackofnecessity:"needn"t","don"thaveto","haven"tgotto"Referencetopresentorfuturetimecanbemadeasfollows.Theseformsarenormallyinterchangeable[compare>11.57.1]:9.36n.3])willcombinewithhavetoandneedto(fullverb)forexplicitreferencetothefuture:Iwon"tneedto/havetobeattheofficebefore9tomorrow.11.56.2Inadvisability/prohibition:"shouldn"t"/"oughtn"tto"/"mustn"t",etc.Youshouldn"t/oughtn"tto/can"t/mustn"tbelateformeetings.("present/habitual")Youshouldn"t/oughtn"tto/hadbetternot/can"t/mustn"tbelatetomorrow.(future)Shouldn"t,oughtn"tto,hadbetternot,can"tandmustn"tareusedtorefertothefuture,althoughtheydonothavefutureforms.Possiblealternativesare:Shouldn"t/oughtn"tto/hadbetternotcanbereplacedby:Itwon"tbeadvisable(forher)toplaygamesforthenextmonth.Can"tandmustn"tcanbereplacedby:Wewon"tbeallowedtoparkhereforlong.Youwillbeforbiddentoenterthecourtroombefore9.30.Trafficinthisstreetwillbeprohibitedbylaw.11.57Lackofnecessity/inadvisability/prohibition:perfect/past11.57.1Lackofnecessity:"needn"thave","didn"thaveto","didn"tneedto"Theseformsmeanroughlythesamethingin:e.g.Ineedn"thavegonetotheofficeyesterday.Ididn"t"haveto(orIdidn"t"needto)gototheofficeyesterday.(haveandneedarestressed)(=Iwentthere,butitwasunnecessary)Whenhaveandneedareunstressed,theymeansomethingdifferentfromneedn"thave:Ididn"thaveto/Ididn"tneedtogototheofficeyesterday.(=IknewitwasunnecessaryandIdidn"tgo)Becausemodalsaredefective[>11.4][>11.6.1]appropriatealternativesmustbeusedinsometenses:Itwouldn"thavebeennecessarytochangeatLeedsifwehadcaughttheearliertrain.Ihaven"thadtocancelmyappointmentafterall.Ifhehadaskedme,Iwouldhavehadtotellhimthetruth.
EnglishGrammar:Modalauxiliariesandrelatedverbs11.57.2Inadvisability:"shouldn"thave"and"oughtn"ttohave"Boththeseformssuggestcriticismofanaction:Youpaidtheplumberinadvance.orfailuretoobserveaprohibition:Youstoppedonthemotorway.Usesofmodalstoexpresshabit11.58Modalformsexpressinghabitwill:Hewillalwayscomplainifhegetstheopportunity.would:Whenwewerestudentswewouldoftenstayupallnight.usedto:Jackieusedtomakeallherowndresses.Fredneverusedtobesobad-tempered.11.59Notesontheformof"usedto"1Usedtooccursonlyinthesimplepastform.2Questionsandnegativeswithusedtomaybeformedwithouttheauxiliarydo:UsedhetoliveinManchester?Youusedn"t(usednot)tosmoke.Theseformsarerelativelyrare.Usedn"t/ju8sEnt/isprobablyavoidedbecauseitisdifficulttosayandspell.Didanddidn"taremorecommonlyusedtoformquestionsandnegatives.Insuchinstances,useisoftentreatedasaninfinitiveinwriting:DidheusetoliveinManchester?Youdidn"tusetosmoke.InspokenEnglish,wecannottellwhetheraspeakerissayingDidheusetoorDidheusedto,sincewhatwehearis/ju8st/not/ju8zd/asinused(=madeuseof).Theformsdid(he)usetoand(he)didn"tusetoarelogicalongroundsofgrammaticalform(comparedidn"tdo,Not*didn"tdid*/*didn"tdone*).Wecanavoidtheproblemofthenegativebyusingnever[compare>7.40.1]:Fredneverusedtobesodifficult.3Questiontags[>13.17-18]andshortresponsesareformedwithdidn"t,ratherthanusedn"t:HeusedtoliveinManchester,didn"the?Notetheseshortanswers,etc.[compare>13.5]:Didyouusetosmoke?-Yes,Idid.orYes,Iusedto.-No,Ididn"t.orNo,Ididn"useto.(No,Iusednottoisrare.)HeusedtoliveinManchesterandsodidI.(Not*used*)11.60Pasthabit:"usedto"andthesimplepastUsedtorefersonlytothepast.Ifwewishtorefertopresenthabit,wemustusethesimplepresenttense(Not*Iuseto*)[>9.6-8].Werelyonusedtotorefertohabitsthatwenolongerhave,sothereisacontrastbetweenpastandpresent.Thiscontrastisoftenemphasizedwithexpressionslikebutnow_,butnot_anymore/anylongerwhichcombinewiththesimplepresent:Iusedtosmoke,butIdon"tanymore/anylonger.Ineverusedtoeatalargebreakfast,butIdonow.However,usedtocanrefersimplytodiscontinuedhabitwithoutimplyingacontrastwiththepresent.Forbeusedto[>10.26.1][>16.56].Ifwewishtousethesimplepasttorefertopasthabit,wealwaysneedatimereference.Compare:IcollectedstampswhenIwasachild.(simplepast+timereference)Iusedtocollectstamps(whenIwasachild).(timereferencenotnecessarywithusedto,butmaybeincluded)Usedtoisnotpossiblewithsince[>7.31]andfor[>7.32]:Ilivedinthecountryforthreeyears.(Not*usedtolive*)Forthepastprogressivereferringtorepeatedactions[>9.20.4].11.61Pasthabit:"usedto","would"andthesimplepastWecanrefertopasthabitinthefollowingways:WhenIworkedonafarm,Ialwaysusedtogetupat5a.m.WhenIworkedonafarm,Iwouldalwaysgetupat5a.m.WhenIworkedonafarm,Ialwaysgotupat5a.m.Wouldcanbeusedinplaceofusedto,but,likethesimplepast,italwaysrequiresatimereference.Weoftenuseittotalkaboutregularactivities,particularlyinnarrative,orwhenwearereminiscing.Wouldisneverusedatthebeginningofastory:thescenemustfirstbesetwiththesimplepastorusedto.Infamiliarnarrative,wouldcanbereducedto"d:WhenIwasaboywealwaysspent(orusedtospend)ourholidaysonafarm.We"dgetupat5andwe"dhelpmilkthecows.Thenwe"dreturntothefarmkitchen,wherewewouldeatahugebreakfast.
EnglishGrammar:Modalauxiliariesandrelatedverbs11.62"Usedto"todescribepaststates,etc.Usedto(notwould)combineswithbe,have(possession)andotherstativeverbs[>9.3]todescribepaststates:Iusedtobeawaiter,butnowI"mataxi-driver.(paststate)Iusedtohaveabeard,butI"veshaveditoff.(pastpossession)Ifweusepasttensesinsteadofusedto,weneedatimereference:Iwasawaiteryearsago,butnowI"mataxi-driver.11.63"Will/would"todescribecharacteristichabit/behaviourWillcansometimesbeusedinplaceofthesimplepresentandwouldinplaceofthesimplepasttorefertoaperson"scharacteristichabitsorbehaviour.Willandwouldareunstressedwhenusedinthisway:Infineweather,hewilloftensitinthesunforhours.Ashegrewolder,hewouldoftentalkabouthiswarexperiences.Andnotecommonfixedphraseswithwill:Boyswillbeboys.Accidentswillhappen.Willandwould(usuallywithheavystress)areoftenusedaccusinglytocriticizeaperson"scharacteristicbehaviour:Harrietwillkeepleavingherthingsalloverthefloor.That"sjusttypicalofHarry.Hewouldsayathinglikethat!Sometimeswillusedinthiswayimpliesinsistence,orwilfulrefusaltofollowadvice.Notethatalthoughwillisnotnormallyusedafterif[>14.4-6][>14.24.2],itcanbeinthissense:Ifyou"will(stressed)gotobedsolate,nowonderyou"retired.11.64"Will"and"would"todescribenaturaltendencyLikethesimplepresenttense[>9.6-8]will(witha3rdpersonsubject)canrefertogeneraltruthsortothequalitiesofthings;wouldcansometimesrefertothepast:Waterwillboilat100_C.Itwon"tboilatunder100_C.Iplantedavinelastyearbutitwouldn"tgrowbecauseitdidn"tgetenoughsun.Inthesamewaywillandwouldcansuggest"hasthecapacityto".Wouldismoretentativethanwill:Thatcontainerwill/won"tholdagallon.(definitestatement)Thatcontainerwould/wouldn"tholdagallon.("tentative")"Dare"asamodalverbandasafullverb11.65Formsof"dare"asamodalverbandasafullverbLikeneeddarecanworkasamodalverborasafullverbwithlittleornodifferenceinmeaning.presentreferencepastreferencemodalverb:modalverb:dare/daren"t/don"tdare+godared/darednot/didn"tdare+gofullregularverb:fullregularverb:dare/don"tdare+togodared/didn"tdare+togo11.66Notesontheformsof"dare"Dareasamodalisnotnearlyascommonasneedandusedtoasmodals.Itsfunctionisgenerallyfilledbyverbphraseslikenotbeafraidtoor(not)havethecourageto[>11.67].Likemodalneed[>11.49],modaldareoccursinquestionsandnegativesandisrareintheaffirmative,unlessanegativeisexpressedorimplied:Dareyoudoit?-Idaren"tdoit.Ihardlydaretellhimwhathappened.(impliednegative)Questions/negativesaremorecommonlyformedwithdo/does/did:Doyoudaretellhim?-Idon"tdaretellhim.Didyoudaretellhim?-Ididn"tdaretellhim.Suchformsareanomalousbecausedareislikeafullverbintakingdo,butlikeanauxiliaryintakingabareinfinitive.Tocanbeusedafterdareintheexampleswithdo/don"tanddid/didn"t,makingitafullverb,butnotchangingitsmeaning:Doyoudaretotellhim?-Idon"tdaretotellhim.etc.Bothdarenotanddarednotcanbeusedtorefertothepast,thoughthisismoreformal:Motherdare(d)nottellfathershe"dgivenawayhisoldjacket.Darecannotcombinewithbe+progressive,butitcancombinewithhave+pastparticiple,thoughthisisnotverycommon:Ididn"tliketheirnewhouse,thoughIdaren"thavesaidso.11.67Theuseof"dare"toexpresscourageorlackofcourage
EnglishGrammar:ModalauxiliariesandrelatedverbsDaren"tisusedinthepresent(torefertopresentorfuturetime)andcanbereplacedbyam/is/areafraidto:I"dliketoaskforthedayoff,butIdaren"t.(=I"mafraidto)Don"tdareto(regularverb)isacceptableinthepresent:I"dliketoaskforthedayoff,butIdon"tdare(to).Didn"tdaretoisusedinthepast:Iwantedtoaskforthedayoff,butIdidn"tdare(to).Darecanalsobeusedintheaffirmative,butthisislesscommon:Sallyistheonlypersoninourclasswhodares(to)answerMissThompsonback.11.68"Dare"for"challenging"Dareasafulltransitiveverbisusedespeciallybychildrenwhenchallengingeachothertodosomethingdangerous:Idareyoutojumpoffthatwall.Ididn"twanttodoit,buthedaredme(to).11.69"Dare"forexpressingoutrageDare,asamodal,isoftenusedtoreprimandandexpressoutrageorstrongdisapproval.ItisespeciallycommonafterHow:Howdareyou!Howdareshesuggestsuchathing!Don"tyoudarespeaktomelikethatagain!Youdareraiseyourvoice![>9.54]I"mgoingtosmashthisvase!-Justyoudare!DaredcanbeusedafterHowin:e.g.HowdaredhetelleverybodyIwaslookingforanewjob!11.70Theuseof"daresay"Theverbsdareandsaycancombineintoasingleverb,daresay,(sometimesspeltastwoseparatewords,daresay)whichcanbeusedinthefirstpersonsingularandplural(presenttenseonly)tomeanIsupposeorit"spossible:Idaresayyou"llphonemeifyou"regoingtobelatetonight.Orinthesenseof"acceptwhatyousay":Thisissupposedtobeacheaprestaurant.Itsayssointhisguidebook.-Idaresayitdoes,butlookattheseprices!Otherusesofmodalauxiliaries11.71"May"informulasforexpressingwishesMayoccursinfixedphraseslike:MayGodbewithyou!Mayyoulivetobeahundred!Maycanalsobeusedinthesenseof"Wehopeverymuchthat_":Maythereneverbeanuclearwar!11.72"May/might"11.72.1"May/might(just)aswell"Mayaswellandmightaswellcanbeusedinterchangeablytoexpresstheidea"itmakesnodifference":It"snotveryfar,sowemay/mightaswellgoonfoot.Mayaswellandmightaswellcandifferasfollows:Shallwewalkortakeabus?-Wemay/mightaswellwalk.(i.e.itmakesnodifference)Whataslowbusthisis!-Yes,wemight(Not*may*)justaswellwalk.(i.e.we"dgettheremorequickly)11.72.2"May/might/couldwell"="itisextremelylikely"Maywell,mightwellandcouldwellcanbeusedinterchangeably:Hemay/might/couldwellfindthatthecourseistoodifficult.11.72.3"May/might"inthesenseof"Igrantyou_"Thisconstructionisoftenusedindiscussionandargument:Yourtypewritermay/mightbeawonderfulmachine,butit"sstillold-fashionedcomparedwithaword-processor.11.72.4"Might/could(atleast)"innaggingcomplaints/reproachYoumight(atleast)cleanthebathtubafteryou"veusedit!(I)mighthave+pastparticipleofverbslikeguess,knowandsuspectcanreinforcecomplaint:Imighthaveguessedhe"dfailtoreadtheinstructions.
EnglishGrammar:Modalauxiliariesandrelatedverbs11.72.5"Might"inrequestsMightcanreplacetheimperative[>9.52]in:Whileyou"reoutyoumight(nostress)postthisletterforme.11.73"Shall"ApartfromitsmainuseswithI/wetorefertothefuture[>9.36],andtomakeoffers/suggestions[>11.39-40],shallcanbeusedwithotherpersons(you,he,they,etc.)ine.g.thefollowingways[compare>11.23]:Youshallpayforthis:(threat)Youshall(stressed)haveacarforyourbirthday.(promise)Theyshallnotpass!(determination)Whenhecomesinnobodyshallsayaword.[>9.54n.5](order)11.74"Won"t/wouldn"t"and"would/wouldn"t"11.74.1"Won"t"and"wouldn"t"for"refusal"Won"tandwouldn"tarecommonlyusedtoexpressrefusalinthepresentandthepast:Drinkyourmilk,Jimmy!-Iwon"t.(Also,BrE:Ishan"t!)IofferedJimmysomemilk,buthewouldn"tdrinkit."Refusal"(orresistancetoeffort)canbeextendedtothings:Thecarwon"tstart.Thecarwouldn"tstartthismorning.11.74.2"Would"and"wouldn"t"inplaceofthesimplepresenttenseWeoftenusewouldandwouldn"tinplaceofthesimplepresenttenseandsometimesinplaceofwill/won"t,whenwewanttosoundlessdefinite(Iwouldthinkthat_,etc.):Thatseemsthebestsolutiontome.(definite)Thatwouldseemthebestsolutiontome.(lessdefinite)Fridayeveningisnot(orwon"tbe)veryconvenient.(definite)Fridayeveningwouldn"tbeveryconvenient.(lessdefinite)11.75"Should"11.75.1Nounclauseswith"should"Therearetwoclasseshere:1Manyverbs,particularlyreportingverbs:say,etc.[>App45]canbefollowedby(that)_shouldor(that)_oughttoreferringtoobligation,advice,etc.:Hesaid(that)Ishould(oroughtto)seeadoctor.2Afterverbsreferringtoproposals,suggestions,requestsandorders(e.g.propose,suggest),wemayfollowwith(that)_should(notoughtto),thesimplepresent,orthesubjunctive[>App45.3].Thesubjunctive(rareinEnglish)referstowhatcouldorshouldhappeninhypotheticalsituations.Inthepresent,thebaseformoftheverbremainsthesameinallpersons:IfI/you/he(etc.)be;Itisimportantthatyou/he(etc.)go.Thepastsubjunctiveofbeiswere:IfI/you/he(etc.)were;IwishI/he(etc.)were.11.75.2"That_should"after"suggest",etc.-futurereference:affirmative/negativeafter(that):That_shouldcanbeusedaftersuchverbsasask,propose,recommendandsuggest;alternatively,thepresentorsubjunctivecanbeusedinBrEorthesubjunctiveinAmE.Thatisgenerallydroppedininformalstyle:Isuggest(that)heshould/shouldn"tapplyforthejob.(should)Isuggest(that)heapplies/doesn"tapplyforthejob.(present)Isuggest(that)heapply/notapplyforthejob.(subjunctive)-pastreference:affirmative/negativeafter(that):Inpastreportedsuggestions,the(that)_shouldconstructionandthesubjunctivecanbereplacedbyapasttense:Isuggested(that)theyshould/shouldn"tdrivealongthecoast.Isuggested(that)theydrive/notdrivealongthecoast.Isuggested(that)theydrove/didn"tdrivealongthecoast.11.75.3"That_should"aftercertainadjectivesAdjectivesreferringtodesirabilityorurgency,suchasessentialandurgent,canbeusedinthesameway[>App44]:Itisvital(that)weshouldbepresent.(should)Itisvital(that)wearepresent.(present)Itisvital(that)webepresent.(subjunctive)Thereferencemayalsobetothepast:Itwasimportant(that)heshouldapply/apply/appliedforthejob.11.75.4"That_should"after"I"msurprised",etc.That_shouldcanbeusedafterphraseswithadjectivesandnounsexpressingfeelingsandemotions:e.g.I"mannoyed,I"m
EnglishGrammar:Modalauxiliariesandrelatedverbssurprised,It"sfunny,It"sapity:I"msurprisedthatheshouldfeellikethat.Ifwewishtobemoreemphatic,wemayusethesimplepresent:I"msurprisedthathefeelslikethat.Shouldn"tispossiblebutoftenavoided(becauseofitsambiguity)insuchcasesandthenegativepresentorpastarepreferred:presentreference:I"msurprisedthathedoesn"tfeelanyremorse.pastreference:I"msurprisedthathedidn"tfeelanyremorse.Thepastorshouldhavecanbeusedin:e.g.Iwassurprisedthathemade/shouldhavemadethesamemistake.11.76"There"+modalauxiliariesParallelstructurestothereis/thereare,etc.[>10.17]canbeformedwithmodalauxiliariesinvariouscombinations.Herearesomeexamples:11.76.1"There"+modal+"be"Therecouldbenodoubtaboutit.Therewon"tbeanelectioninJune.Theremustbeamistake.11.76.2"There"+modal+"havebeen"+complementTherecan"thavebeenanydoubtaboutit.Theremighthavebeenastrike.Thereoughtn"ttohavebeenanydifficultyaboutit.11.76.3"There"+modal+"be"+complement+verb"-ing"Therecan"tbeanyonewaitingoutside.Thereneverusedtobeanyonelivingnextdoor.Therecouldbesomethingblockingthepipe.11.76.4"There"+modal+"havebeen"+complement+verb"-ing"Theremighthavebeensomeonewaitingoutside.Theremusthavebeensomethingblockingthepipe.Therecouldhavebeensomeonecrossingtheroad.11.76.5"There"+modal:questionformsAlltheusualquestionformsarepossible:e.g.Yes/Noquestions:Couldtherehavebeenanydoubt?Mighttherehavebeensomeonewaiting?negativequestions:Wouldn"ttherehavebeenastrike?Couldn"ttherehavebeenanaccident?question-wordquestions:Whenmighttherebeananswer?Whycouldn"ttherehavebeenamistake?
EnglishGrammar:Thepassiveandthecausative12ThepassiveandthecausativeThepassive:generalinformationaboutform12.1ActivevoiceandpassivevoiceActivevoiceandpassivevoicerefertotheformofaverb.Intheactive,thesubjectoftheverbisthepersonorthingdoingtheaction:Johncookedthefoodlastnight.Othertypicalactiveverbforms:eats,made,willtake.Inthepassive,theactionisdonetothesubject:Thefoodwascookedlastnight.Othertypicalpassiveverbforms:iseaten,wasmade,willbetaken.ThepassiveoccursverycommonlyinEnglish;itisnotmerelyanalternativetotheactive,buthasitsowndistinctiveuses.12.2FormofthepassivePassivescanbeformedinthefollowingways:1Atenseofbe[>10.6-14]+pastparticiple:active:Hecooks/hascooked/willcookthefood.Heis/wascookingthefood.passive:Thefoodis/hasbeen/willbe+cooked.Thefoodis/wasbeing+cooked.2Modal[>11.1]+be/havebeen+pastparticiple:active:Hemaycook/mayhavecookedthefood.passive:Thefoodmaybe/havebeen+cooked.3Infinitive[>16.2]:tobe/tohavebeen+pastparticiple:active:Heis/wastocookthefood.passive:Thefoodistobe/wastohavebeen+cooked.4ingform[>16.41]:being/havingbeen+pastparticiple:active:Cooking/Havingcooked_passive:Being/Havingbeen+cooked_12.3Notesontheformofthepassive1Formation:regularandirregularpastparticiples.Weformthepassivewithaformofbeandapastparticiple.Thepastparticipledoesnotnecessarilyrefertopasttime.Forregularandirregularpastparticiples[>App39][>App40].(Thepastparticipleisusedtoformperfectactivetenses,e.g.Hehasleft[>9.22],aswellasallpassives).Rulesapplyingtotheuseoftensesintheactive[>9.2]applyinthepassive.Forexample,anactioninprogressnowrequiresthepresentprogressivein:e.g.Yoursteakisbeinggrilledandwillbereadyinaminute.2TransitiveandintransitiveverbsThepassiveoccursonlywithverbsusedtransitively,thatis,verbsthatcanbefollowedbyanobject[>1.9]:active:Someonefoundthiswalletinthestreet.passive:Thiswalletwasfoundinthestreet.Manyverbscanbeusedtransitivelyorintransitively:Thedooropened.(perhapsbyitself)Thedoorwasopened.(perhapsbysomeone)3PersonalandimpersonalsubjectsThepassivecanrefertothings(aletterwaswritten,etc.)orpeople:active:ThecompanyhassentSmitherstoCaliforniaforayear.passive:SmithershasbeensenttoCaliforniaforayear.4Directandindirectobjects[>1.9][>1.13]Verbslikebringandgive,whichcanhavetwoobjects,e.g.Tomgaveme(indirect)apen(direct),canhavetwopassiveforms:IwasgivenapenbyTom.(indirectobjectbecomessubject)Apenwasgiven(to)mebyTom.(directobjectbecomessubject)Becauseweareoftenmoreinterestedinpeople(oranimals)thanthings,personalsubjectstendtobemorecommonthanimpersonalones.Thus,IwasgiventhispenismorelikelytooccurthanThispenwasgiventome.Insentenceslikethesecondexample,to(orfor)canbeomittedbeforeapersonalpronoun(Thispenwasgivenme)butnotusuallyotherwise:Thispenwasgiventomyfather.5Stativeverbs[>9.3][>App38]Manystativeverbscannotbeusedinthepassive,evenwhentheyaretransitive:Ilovebeansontoast.(activevoiceonly)Verbslikemeasure,whichcanbestativeordynamic,canonlybepassiveintheirdynamicsense:stative:Thisdeskmeasures125+60cms.dynamic:Thisdeskhasbeenmeasured.
EnglishGrammar:Thepassiveandthecausative6ProgressiveformsOnlypresentandpastprogressiveformsarecommon:Heisbeinginterviewednow.Hewasbeinginterviewedat10.However,modalswithprogressivepassivesometimesoccur:IknowMarkwasgoingtohaveaninterviewsometimethisafternoon.Hemaybebeinginterviewedatthisverymoment.7Phrasalverbs[>8.23-30]Transitiveconstructionswiththepatternverb+adverbparticle(Agustofwindblewthetentdown)canbeusedinthepassive:Ourtentwasblowndown(byagustofwind).Forpossiblepassiveswithverb+preposition:Thenewsagent"shasbeenbrokeninto.Onlyafewverbsofthetypeverb+particle+preposition(Wehavedoneawaywiththeoldrules)canbeusedinthepassive:Theoldruleshavebeendoneawaywith.8The-ingformandtheto-infinitive[>16.13][>16.42][>16.58-59]Passiveconstructionsarecommonafterverbsfollowedbythe-ingform,suchasenjoy,likeandremember:Mostpeopledon"tlikebeingcriticized.andafterverbsfollowedbyato-infinitive:Hehatestobecriticized.Wecanusethepassive(-ingformonly)afterconjunctionssuchasonandafter[>1.62.2][>8.4.4]:On/Afterbeinginformedthathermotherwasseriouslyill,shehurriedbacktoEngland.(i.e.Whenshewasinformed_)9ActiveverbswithapassivemeaningAfewactiveverbssometimeshaveapassivemeaning:Thissurfacecleanseasilyreallymeans"Itcanbe/Itiscleanedeasily":Theseclotheswashwell.Thiswineissellingquickly.What"sshowingatthecinemathisweek?Hernovelisreprintingalready.10VerbsgenerallyusedinthepassiveAsmallnumberofverbsareusedmorefrequentlyinthepassivethanintheactive:e.g.beborn,bemarried,beobliged:I"mnotobligedtoworkovertimeifIdon"twantto.11Adverbsofmannerinpassivesentences[>7.53]Adverbsofmannercanoccurbeforeoraftertheparticiple:Thisroomhasbeenbadlypainted/paintedbadly.12ThepassiveandreflexiveverbsEnglishoftenusesthepassivewhereotherEuropeanlanguagesusereflexiveverbs:burnmyself,hurtmyself,etc.[>4.25][>4.27]:Iwashurtinacarcrashlastsummer.Jimwasinafightandhisshirtwastorninthestruggle.Wedonotnormallyusethepassivewhenrespondingspontaneously:What"sthematter?-I"veburnt/cut/hurt,etc.myself.13Weoftenuseabbreviatedpassiveconstructionswhenexpressing:-wishes:I"dlikeit(tobe)fried/cleaned/repaired.etc.-preferences:Ilikeit(whenitis)fried/boiled.etc.Usesofthepassive12.4Usesofthepassive12.4.1SpontaneousanddeliberateuseofthepassiveInfluentEnglish,passivesoccurnaturallyandspontaneously,withoutaconsciouschangefrom"active"to"passive".Infact,activeequivalentswouldbehardtoproduceforsentenceslike:Theoriginoftheuniversewillprobablyneverbeexplained.Romewasnotbuiltinaday.Thepassiveissometimesdeliberatelychoseninpreferencetotheactive,especiallywhenspeakersdonotwishtocommitthemselvestoactions,opinions,orstatementsoffactofwhichtheyarenotcompletelycertain:Thismatterwillbedealtwithassoonaspossible.Thousandsofbooksarepublishedeveryyearandveryfewofthemarenoticed.Eventhosethatarereviewedinthepapersrarelyreachlargeaudiences.12.4.2.ThepassiveforfocusWeusethepassivewhenwewishtofocusonahappeningwhichismoreimportanttousthanwhoorwhatcausesthehappening-orwhenthereissimplynoneedtomentionthedoer.Ifwesay:Ourroofwasdamagedinlastnight"sstorm.wearemainlyconcernedwiththeroofandwhathappenedtoit.Similarly:Mycar"sbeenscratched!Thousandsofbeachesarepolluted.Thehappeningmayconcernpeople:CharlesIwasbeheadedin1649.12.4.3AvoidingvaguewordsassubjectsWealwayspreferthepassivewhenwewishtoavoidusingavaguewordassubject(e.g.someone;aperson,etc.):Aftermytalk,IwasaskedtoexplainapointIhadmade.Conversely,thepassivemaybeavoided(wherewemightexpectit)whenwewishtomakewhatisdescribedpersonal:
EnglishGrammar:ThepassiveandthecausativeTheyoperatedonfatherlastnight.ThepassiveisusedinEnglishwhereotherEuropeanlanguagesmightpreferanindefinitepronounsubjectlikeone[>4.9-11].Inaformalcontextwewouldavoidone:e.g.Theformhastobesignedinthepresenceofawitness.(Not*Onehastosign_*)ThepassiveisobligatoryinnoticessuchasEnglishSpoken,LoansArranged,ShoesRepaired,etc.(Not*One_*).Suchnoticesarenormallyabbreviated:English(is)spoken.12.5Theuseof"by",etc.+agentafterapassiveAnagentisa"doer",i.e.thepersonorthingthatperformstheactionindicatedbytheverb.By+agentinpassiveconstructionstellsuswhoorwhatdidsomething:Thewindowwasbrokenbytheboywholivesopposite.Thewindowwasbrokenbyastone.By+agentisonlynecessarywhenthespeakerwishestosay(orthehearerhastoknow)whoorwhatisresponsiblefortheeventinquestion.Thepositionofby+agentattheendofaclauseorsentencegivesitparticularemphasis:Thewindowwasbrokenbyaslatethatfellofftheroof.Informationcanbegivenbymeansofphrasesotherthanby+agent:Thisbridgewasbuiltin1816/ofstone/beforethewar.etc.By+agentisoftenusedwiththepassiveofverbslikebuild,compose,damage,design,destroy,discover,invent,make,wreckandwrite.Notehowaquestionintheactiveisoftenansweredbyapassive,sothattheimportantinformation(i.e.whatthequestionerwantstoknow)isemphasizedbybeingattheend:Whocomposedthatpiece?-ItwascomposedbyMozart.Whatdestroyedthevillage?-Itwasdestroyedbyabomb.NotetheinclusionofbyinquestionswithWho(m):Who(m)was"BleakHouse"writtenby?-Dickens.Withisoftenusedwithanagent,especiallyafterpastparticiplessuchascrammed,crowded,filled,packed:DuringtheWorldCupourstreetswerefilledwithfootballfans.Butcompareby+agentandwith[>7.11]in:e.g.Hewaskilledbyafallingstone.(accidental)Hewaskilledwithaknife.(deliberate)[compare>App25.17]12.6"Get"+pastparticipleGetisoftenusedinsteadofbebeforecertainpastparticiplesincolloquialEnglish.Becansometimesbereplacedbybecome:ItriedtofindmywayroundLondonwithoutamapandgotlost.Ibecameconcernedwhenhehadn"tcomehomebymidnight.(Compareget/become+adjectiveine.g.getfat/old[>10.26]).Getcombineswithpastparticipleslike:arrested,caught,confused,delayed,divorced,dressed,drowned,drunk,elected,engaged,hit,killed,lost,marriedandstuck.Weusegetwhen:-wedosomethingtoourselves[compare>4.26-27]:IgotdressedasquicklyasIcould.-wemanagetoarrangesomethinginourownfavour.Reflexivepronounscanoftenbeusedinsuchcases:Iwasn"tsurprisedshegotelectedafteralltheeffortsshemade.IseeoldMortonhasgothimselfpromotedatlast.-something(oftenunfavourable)happensbeyondourcontrol:Wegotdelayedbecauseoftheholidaytraffic.Afewcombinationswithget+pastparticipleareusedascommands(Getdressed!Getwashed!)orinsults(Oh,getlost,willyou!).12.7ThepassivecomparedwithadjectivalpastparticiplesManywordssuchasbroken,interested,shut,worried[>6.14-15][>7.51]canbeusedeitherasadjectivesoraspastparticiplesinpassiveconstructions.Adifferencecanbenotedbetween:Iwasworriedaboutyouallnight.(adjective:astate)Iwasworriedbymosquitoesallnight.(passive:dynamicverb)Ifthewordisanadjective,itcannotbeusedwithby+agentandcannotbetransposedintoasentenceintheactive.12.8Thepassivewithverbsof"saying"and"believing"WeneedtobesureofourfactsinastatementlikeMurielpayslessincometaxthansheshould.Itisoften"safer"tosaye.g.Murielissaidtopaylessincometaxthansheshould.Ifitseemsnecessarytobecautious,wecanusepassiveconstructionslikethefollowing:1It(+passive+that-clause)withverbslikeagree,allege,arrange,assume,believe,consider,decide,declare,discover,expect,fear,feel,find,hope,imagine,know,observe,presume,prove,report,say,show,suggest,suppose,think,understand:Itissaidthatthereisplentyofoiloffourcoast.Itisfearedthatmanyliveshavebeenlostinthetraincrash.2There(+passive+tobe+complement)withalimitedselectionofverbs:e.g.acknowledge,allege,believe,consider,fear,feel,know,presume,report,say,suppose,think,understand:
EnglishGrammar:ThepassiveandthecausativeThereissaidtobeplentyofoiloffourcoast.Thereareknowntobethousandsofdifferentspeciesofbeetles.3Subjectotherthanit(+passive+to-infinitive)withafewverbs:e.g.acknowledge,allege,believe,consider,declare,know,recognize,report,say,suppose,think,understand:Mandyissaidtobesomekindofsecretagent.Turnerwasconsideredtobeagenuiseveninhislifetime.Homeopathicremediesarebelievedtobeveryeffective.Otherverbsbesidesbearepossibleintheinfinitive:Janeissaidtoknowallthereistoknowaboutchimpanzees.Notehowsupposehastwodifferentmeaningsin:Heissupposedtobeatworkatthemoment.Thiscanmean"Peoplethinkheisatwork"or"Itishisdutytobeatwork".There+bealsocombineswithsuppose:Thereissupposedtobeatrainat12.37.12.9Sometypicalcontextsforthepassive12.9.1FormalnoticesandannouncementsCandidatesarerequiredtopresentthemselvesfifteenminutesbeforetheexaminationbegins.Theyareaskedtobepunctual.Passengersarerequestedtoremainseateduntiltheaircraftcomestoacompletestop[compare>11.23].12.9.2PressreportsOftentheagentisnotknownordoesnotneedtobementioned:Thesearchforthebankrobberscontinues.Meanwhile,manypeoplehavebeenquestionedandtheownerofthestolengetawaycarhasbeentraced.12.9.3.Headlines,advertisements,notices,etc.KENNEDYASSASSINATED!TRADEAGREEMENTSBROKEN!PRICESSLASHED!ALLGOODSGREATLYREDUCED!PETROLCOUPONSACCEPTED12.9.4Scientificwriting(todescribe"process")Themixtureisplacedinacrucibleandisheatedtoatemperatureof300_C.Itisthenallowedtocoolbeforeitcanbeanalysed.Thecausative12.10FormofthecausativeThecausativeisformedwithhave+object+pastparticiple:e.g.Tenses:presentWehaveourhousedecoratedeveryyear.Wearehavingourhousedecoratedsoon.past:Wehadourhousedecoratedlastyear.presentperfect:Wehavejusthadourhousedecorated.future:Wewillhaveourhousedecoratednextyear.We"llbehavingourhousedecoratednextyear.Modals:"present":Wemayhaveourhousedecoratednextyear.Wemaybehavingourhousedecoratedsoon.12.11Notesontheformofthecausative1Formation:regularandirregularpastparticiplesWeformthecausativewithhave+nounorpronounobject+thepastparticipleofaverb,regularorirregular[>App39][>App40]:I"vejusthadmycarrepaired.I"mgoingtohavemyhaircut.Whataboutthechildren?-I"mhavingthemcollectedat6.Getcanbeusedinplaceofhave,butithasamorelimiteduseandoftenconveysaslightlydifferentmeaning[>12.13].Caremustbetakenwiththewordordertoavoidconfusion:Ihadbuiltahouse.(pastperfect)Ihadahousebuilt.(causative:simplepast)2PhrasalverbsAsentencecanendinaprepositionoradverbparticle[>8.22]:Thefridgeisn"tworkingproperly.I"mhavingitlookedat.Thereareinstanceswherethepastparticiplecanbeomitted:Ihadatoothoutthismorning.(forpulledout)12.12Thecausativeusedforfocus12.12.1TheuseofthecausativeforthingsThecausativeissimilartothepassive.Wefocusonwhatisdonetosomethingorsomeone,notonwhatsomeonedoes:active:I"mservicingmycar.Jackisservicingmycar.(i.e.I"mdoingthejobmyself;orIknowwhoisdoingit)
EnglishGrammar:Thepassiveandthecausativepassive:Mycarisbeingserviced.(i.e.someoneisdoingthejobforme)causative:I"mhavingmycarserviced.(i.e.I"mresponsibleforcausingsomeonetodothejob)Whenweusethepassiveorthecausative,wemaynotknowormaynotneedtonamewhoperformsaserviceforus.However,incontrasttothepassive,weusethecausativetostressthefactthatweare"causing"someoneelsetoperformaserviceforus.Wethereforeoftenuseitwithsuchverbsasbuild,clean,decorate,deliver,develop(afilm),mend,photocopy,press,print,repair,andservice.Wedonotnormallyusetheactive(Iamservicingmycar)tomeanthatsomeoneelseisdoingsomethingforus.NorcanwesayIwanttocutmyhairwhenwemeanIwanttohavemyhaircut.Notethatby+agentisaddedonlywhenitisnecessarytomentionwhoorwhatdidtheaction:We"rehaving/gettingthejobdonebysomelocalbuilders.Theyaremuchcheaperandmorereliablethananyoneelse.12.12.2TheuseofthecausativeforpeopleThecausativewithverbslikecoach,instruct,prepare,teachandtraincanrefertothingswecausetobedonetootherpeople:active:I"mteachingherEnglish.(i.e.I"mteachinghermyself)passive:She"sbeingtaughtEnglish.(i.e.Imaynotknoworwishtonametheteacher)causative:I"mhavinghertaughtEnglish.(i.e.I"mresponsibleforcausingsomeonetodothejob)Comparetheconstruction"havesomeonedosomething"[>16.10.1].12.12.3Otherrelatedusesof"have"+object+pastparticipleInthesenseof"experience":Youshouldunderstandbynow.You"vehaditexplainedoftenenough!(=ithasbeenexplainedtoyou)Whenhegotuptospeak,theministerhadeggsthrownathim.Inthesenseof"allow"[compare>10.38]:Irefusetohavemyhouseusedasahotel.Todescribethepresentresultofpastaction:Wenowhavetheproblemsolved.12.13"Get"+object+pastparticipleorinfinitive12.13.1Causative"have"and"get"comparedThoughhaveandgetareoftenusedinterchangeablyinthecausative[>12.11n.1],getismorelimited.Theyarenotinterchangeablein:e.g.Ihadatoothoutthisafternoon.Getisstrongerthanhave(andcontainsastrongerideaofactionbythesubject)in:e.g.Imustgetthiscarservicedsoon.In:e.g.Ifinallygotmyroofrepaired.thereisasuggestionofdifficulty,whichwouldnotbeconveyedbyhad.Getsoundsmorenaturalthanhaveintheimperative:Getyourhaircut!Getyoureyestested!InsuggestionswithWhydon"tyou_?,getismuchstrongerthanhave:Whydon"tyouhaveyourhaircut?(neutralsuggestion)Whydon"tyougetyourhaircut?(almostanorder)12.13.2"Get"+to-infinitivetomean"persuade","manageto",etc.Getwithanobjectbeforeato-infinitiveconveystheideaof"persuade"or"manageto":Ifinallygotthecartostartbyaskingeveryonetopushit.Sometimesweuseget+object+pastparticipletosaythatwemanagedtodosomethingourselves.Thestressisdifferentfromthestressincausativesentences.Compare:Igotthe"jobdone.(stressonobject:=Ididitmyself)Igot(orhad)thejob"done.(stressonparticiple:someoneelsedidit)Inthefirstoftheseexamples,gotcouldnotbereplacedbyhadandisnotcausative.12.13.3Non-causative"get"and"have"+object+pastparticipleGet+object+pastparticiplecanbeusedinanon-causativewayforaccidents,disasters,etc.thathappenbeyondourcontrol:Don"tjoinintheirargumentoryoumightgetyournosepunched.(i.e.that"swhatmighthappentoyou)Non-causativehavecanbeusedinthesameway[>16.10]:Shehadherhousedestroyedinanearthquake.
EnglishGrammar:Questions,answers,negatives13Questions,answers,negativesYes/Noquestionsandnegativestatements13.1Questions/negativeswith"be","have"andmodals[>11.5]questions:(Iamlate.)AmIlate?(Hewasgoing.)Washegoing?(Hehaswon.)Hashewon?(Shecanswim.)Cansheswim?(Itwillrain.)Willitrain?fullformshortformnegatives:(Iamready.)Iamnotready.I"mnotready.(Heislate.)Heisnotlate.Heisn"t/He"snotlate.(Wearegoing.)Wearenotgoing.Wearen"t/We"renotgoing.(Icanseeyou.)Icannotseeyou.Ican"tseeyou.(Itwillrain.)Itwillnotrain.Itwon"train.13.2Questions/negativeswith"do","does"and"did"[>10.4][>10.41-43]questions:(I/You/We/Theydancewell.)DoI/you/we/theydancewell?(He/She/Itworkswell.)Doeshe/she/itworkwell?(I/You/He/She/It/We/Theyranfast.)DidI/you/he/she/it/we/theyrunfast?negatives:(I/You/Theywork.)I(etc.)donotwork.(fullform)I(etc.)don"twork.(shortform)(He/She/Itworks.)He(etc.)doesnotwork.(fullform)He(etc.)doesn"twork.(shortform)(I/You/He/She/It/We/Theywent.)I(etc.)didnotgo.(fullform)I(etc.)didn"tgo.(shortform)13.3Yes/Noquestions:whattheyareandhowtheyareformedAYes/NoquestionisonewhichasksforYesorNointheanswer:HaveyoueverbeentoEgypt?Haven"tyoueverbeenthere?-Yes,Ihave./No,Ihaven"t.-Yes,Ihave./No,Ihaven"t.Doeshelikefish?Doesn"thelikefish?-Yes,hedoes./No,hedoesn"t.-Yes,hedoes./No,hedoesn"t.13.3.1TheformationofYes/Noquestionswith"be","have"andmodalsStatementswithbe[>10.6-7],have(auxiliaryorsometimesfullverbwhenhave="havegot"[>10.27-30]),andmodalverbslikecan[>11.5.2]canbeturnedintoYes/Noquestionsbyinversion.Thatis,theappropriateformofbe,haveorthemodalverbgoesinfrontofthesubject:statement:Heisleaving.question:Isheleaving?13.3.2TheformationofYes/Noquestionswith"Do","Does",and"Did"Withallotherverbs,weformYes/NoquestionswithDo_?,Does_?(simplepresent)andDid_?(simplepast).TheformoftheverbthatfollowsDo,DoesorDid(+subject)isalwaysthebareinfinitive(e.g.go,play,think[>16.1]).DogoesbeforeI/you/we/theyforquestionsinthesimplepresent:statement:I/You/We/Theyturnlefthere.Yes/Noquestion:Do/I/you/we/theyturnlefthere?Doesgoesbeforehe/she/itforquestionsinthesimplepresent:statement:He/She/Itworkswell.Yes/Noquestion:Doeshe/she/itworkwell?Didisusedinallpersonstoformquestionsinthesimplepast:statement:I/You/He/She/It/We/Theyarrivedlate.Yes/Noquestion:DidI/you/he/she/it/we/theyarrivelate?13.3.3GeneralpointsaboutYes/Noquestions1Anounsubjectisnotnormallyusedinfrontoftheauxiliary(Not*James,isheleaving?*)unlessweareaddressingsomeone:James,areyougoingintothetown?Susan,doyoulikefish?2Ifthereareanumberofauxiliariesinthesamesentence,itisalwaysthefirstonethatgoesinfrontofthesubject:
EnglishGrammar:Questions,answers,negativesstatement:Hecouldhavebeendelayed.question:Couldhehavebeendelayed?3Thewholesubjectcomesaftertheauxiliary,howeverlongitis:Caneveryoneintheroomhearme?Doeseveryoneintheroomagree?4Questionslikethefollowingarepossibleinconversationwhenwewishtomakeitquiteclearwhoorwhatwearereferringto:Hasshecaughtacold,yourmother?Isitallright,thatcoffee?Doesheplayfootball,yourbrother?5Ineverydayspeech,someYes/Noquestionscanbeabbreviated;Leavingalready?(For:Areyou_?)Likeanothercupoftea?(For:Wouldyou_?)Enjoytheparty?(For:Didyou_?)6WegenerallyaskYes/Noquestionswitharisingintonation:Haveyoufinishedyoursupper?Didyouphoneyourmother?7Yes/Noquestions(exaggeratedintonation)canbeexclamations:Ishemad!Canshetype!Didheannoyme!(noanswersexpected)13.4Negativestatements:whattheyare/howtheyareformedAnegativestatementistheoppositeofanaffirmativestatement.Itsaysormeans"no"andcontainsanegativewordsuchasnotornever[>13.8-9].Fullnegativeforms(donot,etc.)occurinformalstyle(writtenandspoken)andinemphaticspeech.Contractedforms(e.g.don"t)arenormalinconversationalstyle.Inwrittencontractedforms,theapostropheisusedwhereavowelhasbeenomitted,soforexampleinthenegativeitwillgobetweenthenandthet;thetwowordsofthefullform:didnot,combineintooneword:didn"t.13.4.1Theformationofnegativestatementswith"be","have"andmodals1Whenasentencecontainsbe(auxiliaryorfullverb),have(auxiliaryorsometimesfullverbwhenhave="havegot"),oramodalauxiliary(can,etc.),weformthenegativebyputtingnotaftertheauxiliary:affirmative:Heisleaving.negative:Heisnotleaving./He"snotleaving./Heisn"tleaving.2Ifthereareanumberofauxiliariesinthesamesentence,notalwaysgoesafterthefirstone:affirmative:Hecouldhavebeendelayed.negative:Hecouldnot/couldn"thavebeendelayed.13.4.2Theformationofnegativestatementswith"do","does"and"did"Donot(don"t),doesnot(doesn"t)(simplepresent)anddidnot(didn"t)(simplepast)goafterthesubjecttoformnegativestatementswithotherverbs.Theverbthatfollowsdo/does/did+notisalwaysintheformofabareinfinitive[>16.1]:simplepresent:affirmative:I/You/We/Theyturnlefthere.negative:I/You/We/Theydon"tturnlefthere.affirmative:He/She/Itworkswell.negative:He/She/Itdoesn"tworkwell.simplepast:affirmative:I/You/He/She/It/We/Theystayedin.negative:I/You/He/She/It/We/Theydidn"tstayin.13.4.3"Be","have"andmodalscomparedwith"do/does"and"did"Notethatdoisnotnormallyrequiredinaffirmativesentencesandisnotusedtoformtensesinthesamewayasbeandhave:1AffirmativestatementssubjectauxiliarypredicateYou"reworkingtoohard.You"veeatentoomuchYoumaystopnow.You-worktoohard.You-atetoomuchyesterday.2QuestionsauxiliarysubjectpredicateAreyouworkingtoohard?Haveyoueatentoomuch?MayIstopnow?DoIworktoohard?DidIeattoomuchyesterday?3Negativestatementssubjectauxiliarynotpredicate
EnglishGrammar:Questions,answers,negativesIamnotworkingtoohard.Youhavenoteatentoomuch.Youmaynotgoout.Idonotworktoohard.Ididnoteattoomuchyesterday.Yes/NoquestionsandYes/Noshortanswers13.5FormofYes/NoquestionsandYes/NoshortanswersYes/Noquestionsaffirmativeandnegativeshortanswersbe[>10.6]:Areyouready?Yes,Iam.No,I"mnot.Isheleaving?Yes,heis.No,he"snot/heisn"t.Wereyouill?Yes,wewere.No,weweren"t.have[>10.27]:Haveyoufinished?Yes,Ihave.No,Ihaven"t.Hassheleft?Yes,shehas.No,shehasn"t.do[>10.41]:Doyoulikeit?Yes,Ido.No,Idon"t.does:Doesitwork?Yes,itdoes.No,itdoesn"t.did:Didyoupaintit?Yes,Idid.No,Ididn"t.modals[>11.5]:CanIseehim?Yes,youcan.No,youcan"t.13.6NotesontheformofYes/Noquestionsandanswers1Thefirstverbinthequestion(i.e.theauxiliaryormodal)isusuallyrepeatedintheanswer:WasJameslate?-Yes,hewas.No,hewasn"t.CanJamesplaychess?-Yes,hecan.No,hecan"t.Butnote:Areyou_?-Yes,Iam./No,I"mnot.andWereyou_?Yes,Iwas./No,Iwasn"t.wheretheverbisrepeated,butinadifferentform[compare>11.35.2].Variationswithmodalsarecommonwhenwearenotsureofouranswers[>11.31].Auxiliaryverbsareoftenstressedinanswers:IsthatVicki?/MightthatbeVicki?-Yes,it"is.Yes,it"mightbe.It"couldbe.It"mustbe.-No,it"isn"t.No,it"mightnotbe.It"couldn"tbe.It"can"tbe.2Fullnegativeshortanswers(e.g.No,Idonot)onlyoccurinemphaticorformalspeech.Inordinaryconversation,contractedforms(e.g.No,Idon"t)arenormal.3Ofcourse,manyotheranswersarepossibleinresponsetoYes/Noquestions;andsometimesYesandNocanbeomitted:DidyouwatchthenewsonTVlastnight?-Yes,butnotallofit.No,IneverwatchTV.-Iwatchedsomeofit.Iwatchedacartooninstead.-Ofcourse.Ican"tremember.Ithinkso.Notreally.OtherexamplesofexpressionsusedinplaceofYes/No,are:certainly,naturally,Ithinkso,Iexpectso,perhaps,maybe,Idon"tthinkso,ofcoursenot,notatall.13.7WhenweuseYes/NoquestionsandanswersItisveryunusualtoansweraYes/Noquestioninfull:DidJamesgotothetheatrelastnight?-Yes,hewenttothetheatrelastnight.-No,hedidn"tgotothetheatrelastnight.ItisalsounusualtoanswerverybrieflywithYesorNo,asthiscaneasilybeinterpretedasunfriendlyorrude:Doyoulikedancing?-Yes./No.Shortanswerssaveusfromrepeatingthequestionandgivescopeforexpression,comparedwithplainYesorNo.WeuseYes/Noquestionsandanswers:-forrequestingandsupplyinginformation:Didyoulockthebackdoor?-Yes,Idid./No,Ididn"t.-forexpressingagreementordisagreementwithstatements:statementagreementdisagreementIt"sraining.-Yes,itis.-No,itisn"t.Itisn"training.-No,itisn"t.-Yes,itis.-forexpressingconfirmationinresponsetostatements:Itwasaverygoodperformance.-Yes,itwas.Itwasn"taverygoodperformance.-No,itwasn"t.-inresponsetotheimperative:Drivecarefully!-(Yes)Iwill.Don"ttakeanyrisks!-(No)Iwon"t.[compare>10.5.1]Weanswerwithwill/won"tbecausetheimperativepointstothefuture.Alternativenegativeforms
EnglishGrammar:Questions,answers,negatives13.8Negativestatementswith"negativeadverbs"[>7.59.3][>App19]Wecanmakenegativeandnear-negativesentenceswithadverbslikenever,seldom,rarely,hardlyever,scarcelyever(frequency);andbarely,hardly,scarcely(=onlyjust).Sentenceswhichincludeoneofthesewordsorphrasesaresometimescalled"impliednegatives":Weneverseethemnowadays.(moreemphaticthanWedon"tsee)Wehardly(ever)/scarcely(ever)/rarelyseethemnowadays.Fortheeffectofnegativeadverbsonwordorder[>7.59.3].13.9Negativeswith"no"and"notany"[>4.37][>5.11]No,anyandtheircompoundsformnegativesasfollows:"No"and"no"-compounds"Any"and"any"-compoundsaffirmativeverbnegativeverbI"vegotnotime.Ihaven"tgotanytime.I"veseennoone/nobody.Ihaven"tseenanyone/anybody.I"veboughtnoneofthem.Ihaven"tboughtanyofthem.I"vedonenothingtoday.Ihaven"tdoneanythingtoday.I"vebeennowheretoday.Ihaven"tbeenanywheretoday.Thetwokindsofnegativeshavethesamemeaning,thoughnoisgenerallymoreemphaticthannot_any13.10OnlyonenegativeinanyoneclauseWecannotnormallyuseanegativeadverborawordlikenobodyincombinationwithanegativeverb.Compare:Ican"tgetanyeggs.Icangetnoeggs.Icannever(orhardly)getanyinformation.etc.Twonegativewordsinasentencemakea"doublenegative".Adoublenegativecanbeusedtoexpressanaffirmative,butthisisrareorsometimesheardinjoking:Nobodydidnothing.(=Everybodydidsomething.)Morethanonenegativeisacceptablewhenthereisco-ordination:I"veneverhadandneverwantedatelevisionset.Negativesarealsopossibleindifferentclauses:IcannevergetintouchwithThomas,ashehasnotelephone.AndnoteWecan"tnotgo(=Wecan"tavoidgoing.)[>16.14]13.11Nouns,verbsandadjectiveswithnegativemeaningsOtherpartsofspeechbesidesadverbshaveanegativeeffect:-nounssuchasdenial,failure,refusal:Hisfailuretoreactquicklyenoughcausedthecrash.(=Hedidnotreactquicklyenoughandthiscausedthecrash.)-verbssuchasdeny,fail,forget,refuse,whichcanbeusedintheaffirmativeandthenegativeandoftenattractwordslikeany[>5.10]:Sherefusedanyhelp.(=Shedidnotacceptanyhelp.)-adjectiveslikeimprobable,unlikely:It"snowunlikelythathe"llbehereintimeforlunch.(=Heprobablywon"tbehereintimeforlunch.)Comparethenegativeeffectoftheprepositionwithout[>16.51].13.12CancellationofwhathasjustbeensaidThewordnotcanbeusedwithoutanauxiliaryimmediatelybeforeawordtocancelwhathasjustbeensaid:SeeyouWednesday-(No),notWednesday,Thursday.AskDiana-(No),notDiana.Askhersister.I"llseeyouat5.-(No),notat5.Maybeat5.30.Wecanalsousenottoreplaceanegativeimperative:InvitetheSmiths,butnottheRobinsons.(=butdon"tinvite)13.13BeginningasentencewithanegativeStatementscanbeginwithnegativewordslikenothingornegativephraseswithnotfollowedbyaffirmativeverbs[compare>5.8][>5.13].Notmanypeopleenjoywashing-up.He"swrittenalotofbooks,butnotallofthemarenovels.Nobodylovesabadloser.Nothinghashappenedheresinceyou"vebeenaway.Whenasentencebeginswithanegativeadverbsuchasnever,thewordorderisaffected[>7.59.3]:Neverhastherebeensuchanefforttosavewhalesfromextinction.NegativequestionsandYes/Noshortanswers
EnglishGrammar:Questions,answers,negatives13.14Formofnegativequestionsnegativefullformnegativeshortformbe[>10.6]:AmInotlate?Aren"tIlate?Aretheynotwaiting?Aren"ttheywaiting?WasInotill?Wasn"tIill?have[>10.27]:HaveInotfinished?Haven"tIfinished?Hasshenotleft?Hasn"tsheleft?do[>10.41]:Doyounotlikeit?Don"tyoulikeit?does:Doesitnotwork?Doesn"titwork?did:Didyounotpaintit?Didn"tyoupaintit?modals[>11.5]:CanInotseehim?Can"tIseehim?13.15NotesontheformofnegativequestionsInnegativeYes/Noquestionsthereisadifferenceinwordorderbetweenthefullformandtheshortform:fullform:Didhenotinviteyouout?(notcomesafterthesubject)shortform:Didn"theinviteyouout?(auxiliary+n"tbeforeverb)Sometimesthesubjectmayberepeatedattheend,especiallyineverydayconversation,whenwewanttomakeitquiteclearwhoorwhatwearereferringto[compare>13.3.3n.4]:Aren"ttheyanuisance,theseroadworks?13.16WhenweasknegativequestionsWegenerallyasknegativequestions:-whenweareexpecting,invitingorhopingfortheanswerYes:Don"tyourememberthatholidaywehadinSpain?-Yes,Ido.(No,Idon"twouldbepossiblebutunexpected.)-whenwewishtoexpresssurprise,disbelieforexasperation:Can"tyou(really)rideabicycle?-No,Ican"t.-whenwewishtopersuadesomeone:Won"tyouhelpme?(=Pleasehelpme.)[compare>11.21]-Oh,allrightthen./No,I"mafraidIcan"t/won"t.etc.-whenwewanttocriticizeortoexpressannoyanceorsarcasm:Can"tyoushutthedoorbehindyou?(noanswerexpected)-inexclamations(withfallingintonation):Didn"thedowell!Isn"tithotinhere!Anexclamationcanalsobeusedasareplytoastatement:Hehasbeenverysuccessful.-Yes,hasn"the!Weusethefullforminformalquestionsorwhenwerequirespecialemphasistoexpressanger,surprise,etc.:HaveInotaskedyouagainandagaintobehereontime?andinrhetoricalquestionsnotrequiringananswer:Aretherenotmorethanenoughweaponsofdestructiononearth?Wherethesubjectisanounnotcancomeaftertheauxiliary:Arenotmorepeopledyingofcancerthesedays?FullformandshortformquestionscanbeansweredwithYes/Noshortanswers.Theauxiliarydoesnotechotheformofthequestion(i.e.Didyou_?-Yes,Idid./No,Ididn"t),butindicateswhatthefactsare:Didn"tyou(orDidyounot)gotoapartylastnight?-Yes,Idid.(i.e.Ididgotoapartylastnight.)-No,Ididn"t.(i.e.Ididn"tgotoapartylastnight.)-No,Ididnot.(emphaticdenial)TagquestionsandYes/Noshortanswers13.17Formoftagquestions:affirmative-negativeaffirmativenegativebe[>10.6]I"mlate,aren"tI?They"rewaiting,aren"tthey?Wewerelate,weren"twe?have[>10.27]:I"vefinished,haven"tI?He"sleft,hasn"the?do[>10.41]:Youlikeit,don"tyou?does:Itworks,doesn"tit?
EnglishGrammar:Questions,answers,negativesdid:Youpaintedit,didn"tyou?modals[>11.5]Icanseehim,can"tI?13.18Formoftagquestions:negative-affirmativenegativeaffirmativebe[>10.6]:I"mnotlate,amI?Heisn"tleaving,ishe?Iwasn"till,wasI?have[>10.27]:Ihaven"tfinished,haveI?Hehasn"tleft,hashe?do[>10.41]:Youdon"tlikeit,doyou?does:Itdoesn"twork,doesit?did:Youdidn"tpaintit,didyou?modals[>11.5]:Ican"tseehim,canI?13.19Notesontheformoftagquestions1Atagquestionisashortquestion(e.g.haveyou?/haven"tyou?)thatfollowsastatement.Auxiliaries(be,have,can,may,etc.)usedinthestatementarerepeatedattheendfollowedbythesubject(alwaysapronoun):Johnwasannoyed,wasn"the?(affirmative-negative)Hewasn"tannoyed,washe?(negative-affirmative)2Withallotherverbs,tagquestionsareformedwithdo/don"tanddoes/doesn"t(simplepresent)anddid/didn"t(simplepast):(affirmative-negative)(negative-affirmative)Youlikefish,don"tyou?Youdon"tlikefish,doyou?Helikesfish,doesn"the?Hedoesn"tlikefish,doeshe?Sheateitall,didn"tshe?Shedidn"teatitall,didshe?Thisalsoappliestohaveanddoasfullverbs:Youhaveteaat4,don"tyou?Youdon"thaveteaat4,doyou?Hedoeshisjob,doesn"the?Hedoesn"tdohisjob,doeshe?3Thenegativetagattheendcanbeunabbreviatedinformalstyleorforspecialemphasis,thoughthisformisnotveryusual:Juliarunsfivemilesadaytokeepfit,doesshenot?4Tagquestionsarealsopossiblewiththere:There"llbearailstriketomorrow,won"tthere?5Affirmativetagscanfollowotherstatementsthatarenegativeinmeaning[>13.8]:Younever/seldomworkonSundays,doyou?6Tagscanbeusedafterindefinitepronouns[>4.40]:Nobody"sbeentold,havethey?Everone"sreadytoleavenow,aren"tthey?7Notethatthisandthatarereplacedbyit[>4.36]:This/that(suit)isexpensive,isn"tit?13.20Formoftagquestions:affirmative-affirmativeaffirmativeaffirmativebe[>10.6]:I"mrude,amI?He"sleaving,ishe?Iwasimpatient,wasI?have[>10.27]:I"vefinished,haveI?She"sleft,hasshe?do[>10.41]:Youlikeit,doyou?does:Itworks,doesit?did:Youpaintedit,didyou?modals[>11.5]:Icanseehim,canI?13.21Noteontheformofaffirmative-affirmativetagsThisformislesscommonthanthetwootherkindsoftagquestions.Anegative-negativeformisalsogrammaticallypossible,butisveryrareandisusedtoconveyaggression:Sohewon"tpayhisbills,won"the?We"llseeaboutthat.ForLet"s_[>11.40.2][>16.4.1]andimperative+tag[>9.55].13.22Usesoftagquestions+Yes/Noshortanswers
EnglishGrammar:Questions,answers,negativesManylanguageshaveasinglefixedexpressiontoconveythegeneralideaof"isn"tthatso?"toaskpeoplewhethertheyagreewithyou.Bycomparison,Englishhasacomplexsystemoftagswhichcanbeused,withvaryingformsandintonation,toexpressasubtlerangeofmeanings.TagsaretheessenceofconversationalstyleandareveryimportantinspokenEnglish.Certainfixedphrasescanbeusedinplaceoftags:e.g.isn"tthattrue?,don"tyouthink/agree?informalstyleandright?,OK?andeveneh?ininformalstyle.13.22.1Affirmative-negative/negative-affirmative:factualinformationWhenweasktagquestionswitharisingtone,weareaskingrealquestionswhichexpectYes/Noanswers.However,tagquestionsoftenconveymorethansimpleYes/Noquestions:aswellasaskingforinformation,theycanexpresssurprise,anger,interest,etc.:Youleftthegason,didn"tyou?(=Didyouleavethegason?)Youdidn"tleavethegason,didyou?(=Ihopeyoudidn"t.)Youcouldn"tdomeafavour,couldyou?(=Ihopeyoucan.)13.22.2Affirmative-negative/negative-affirmative:confirmationWhentagquestionsareaskedwithafallingtone,theyaremorelikestatements:thefallingtonesuggestsgreatercertainty.Theyaskforconfirmationofwhatthequestionerassumestobetrue.Affirmative-negativeexpectsapositiveconfirmation:Youlockedthedoor,didn"tyou?-(Yes,Idid.)Negative-affirmativeexpectsanegativeconfirmation:Youdidn"tlockthedoor,didyou?-(No,Ididn"t.)13.22.3Affirmative-affirmativetagquestions:confirmation,etc.Affirmative-affirmativetagquestionswitharisingtonesometimesaskforconfirmationofsomethingthespeakeralreadyknows,expressingfriendlyinterest,etc.(i.e."Tellmemore"):Soshe"sgettingmarried,isshe?(=Tellmemore!)-Yes,she"sgotengagedtoadoctor.Thewedding"sinJune,etc.However,withafallingtone,affirmative-affirmativetagsareoftenusedtoexpressone"sdisappointment:Yousoldthatlovelybracelet,didyou?(=I"msorryyoudid.)Affirmative-affirmativetagscanalsoexpresslessfriendlyfeelingslikesuspicion,disapprovalandeventhreat.Thetonefallsattheendofthestatementandrisesonlyonthetag.Noanswerisrequired:Youcallthisaday"swork,doyou?(=Icertainlydon"t!)I"llgetmymoneyback,willI?(=Idon"tbelieveit!)Soyouthoughtyou"dfooledme,didyou?Statement-questionsandYes/Noanswers13.23Statement-questionsStatement-questionsarequestionswhichhavethesamebasicgrammaticalstructureasstatementsbutwhichareexpressedbyusingarisingtone:You"recomingwithus?Youaren"thungry?Itisn"t4o"clock?Surelycanbeaddedforemphasis:He"sfinished,surely?Surelyhehasn"tgonehomealready?ThisisthestandardwayofaskingYes/Noquestionsinmanylanguages,butitisnotcommoninEnglish.Statement-questionsareusedtoseekconfirmation,expectingtheanswerYesiftheyareaffirmativeandNoiftheyarenegative.Theyaskforconfirmationofwhatthespeakerassumestobetrue,orthinkshehasmisheardorimperfectlyrecalled:You"reoutofwork?Youaren"thungry?-Yes,Iam,I"mafraid.-No,Ihadabigbreakfast.Theassumptionmadebythequestionermayalsobecontradicted:Youturnedthelightsoff?-No,Ididn"t.Wealsousestatement-questionstoechostatements.Indoingso,wemayexpresssurprise,pleasure,etc.orconfirmwhatwehavejustheard,orwemaybeaskingforastatementtobeexplained:Iforgotthemilk-Youforgotthemilk?(=Pleaseexplain!)Echotags13.24Formofechotagsaffirmativenegativebe/have:He"sresigning.Heisn"tresigning.[>10.6][>10.27]-Ishe?Heis?-Isn"the?Heisn"t?-Heis,isn"the?-Heisn"t,ishe?-Heis,ishe?-
EnglishGrammar:Questions,answers,negativesdo/does/did:Iworkallnight.Idon"tworkallnight.[>10.41]-Doyou?Youdo?-Don"tyou?Youdon"t?-Youdo,don"tyou?-Youdon"t,doyou?-Youdo,doyou?-modals:Icanwaittilltomorrow.Ican"twaittilltomorrow.[>11.5]-Canyou?Youcan?-Can"tyou?Youcan"t?-Youcan,can"tyou?-Youcan"t,canyou?-Youcan,canyou?-13.25Notesontheformofechotags1Anechotagisaresponse,intagform,toanaffirmativeornegativestatementbywhichwemayormaynotrequestfurtherinformationdependingontheintonationweuse.Hehasresigned.Hehasn"tresigned.-Hashe?etc.-Hasn"the?etc.2Wherethereisnoauxiliary(i.e.intheaffirmative),do,doesordidmustbeused:Sheworksallnight.Shedoesn"tworkallnight.-Doesshe?-Doesn"tshe?3Echotagscanbeformedwiththere:There"llbeastrikesoon.Therewon"tbeastriketomorrow.-Willthere?-Won"tthere?4Negative-negativecombinations(Hewon"t,won"the?)maybeusedtoexpressangerormenace,butareveryunusual.13.26WhenweuseechotagsEchotagsareusedconstantlyineverydayconversationtorequestfurtherinformation,seekconfirmation,toexpressinterest,concern,anger,surprise,disbelief,suspicion,etc.,ortoshowthatwearelistening.1Torequestmoreinformation,expressinterest,etc.,risingtone:I"vejustwon£500!-Haveyou?/Youhave?-Youhaven"t,haveyou?(=Howinteresting!Tellmemore!)2Toconfirmwhatmightalreadybeknown/guessed,fallingtone:I"mafraidhe"smadeabadmistake.-Hehas,hasn"the?3Toexpressanger,disbelief,suspicion,etc.:I"vegotthesack!-Youhaven"t!(fallingtone)Fallingtoneonthestatement,risingonthetag:Youhaven"t,haveyou?(=disbelief)Youhave,haveyou?(=anger)13.27ReinforcementtagsforemphasisReinforcementtagsaresimilartoechotags:theyemphasizethespeaker"spointofview.Theyareusuallyaffirmative-affirmativeandaretypicalofcolloquialEnglish:You"reintrouble,youare.Gilbertannoyedme,hedid.Jim"sliedtome,hehas.You"remakingafoolofyourself,youare.Tagscanalsobeaddedtoabbreviatedstatements:Likeshercomfort,shedoes.Andnote:Helikeshisbeer,doesFred/Freddoes.Anounornounphrasecanserveasatagin:e.g.They"reallthesame,men.Verynice,thesecakes.Additionsandresponses13.28FormofadditionsandresponsesTheseadditions,etc.workwithbe,have,doandsomemodals:statementparalleladditioncontrastJohncanspeakFrenchandIcan,too.butIcan"t.Johncan"tspeakFrenchandIcan"t,either.butIcan.
EnglishGrammar:Questions,answers,negativesJohnspeaksFrenchandIdo,too.butIdon"t.Johndoesn"tspeakFrenchandIdon"t,either.butIdo.statementparalleladditioncontrastJohncanspeakFrenchandsocanI.butIcan"t.Johncan"tspeakFrenchandneither/norcanI.butIcan.JohnspeaksFrenchandsodoI.butIdon"t.Johndoesn"tspeakFrenchandneither/nordoI.butIdo.statementparallelresponseJohncanspeakFrench.Ican,too.orSocanI.Johncan"tspeakFrenchIcan"t,either.orNeither/NorcanI.JohnspeaksFrench.Ido,too.orSodoI.Johndoesn"tspeakFrenchIdon"teither.orNeither/NordoI.statementconfirmation,surprisedagreement,etc.She"sgoingtohelpus.Sosheis!JeanretiressoonSoshedoes!13.29Whenandhowweuseadditionsandresponses13.29.1Contractedformswith"so","nor",etc.Additionsandresponseswithso,neitherandnorarecontractedwherepossible.Thesecontractionsdonotnormallyoccurinwriting,eveninwrittendialogue,buttheyareoftenusedinspeech:So"mI;Neither"mI;Nor"mI.So"she(Soishe/Sohashe);Nor"she(Norishe/Norhashe).So"veI;Neither"veI;Nor"veI.So"llI;Neither"llI;Nor"llI.So"dyou(Sohad/wouldyou);Neither"dyou(Neitherhad/wouldyou);Nor"dyou(Norhad/wouldyou).13.29.2Theuseofauxiliarieswith"so","nor",etc.Theauxiliaryisrepeatedintheparalleladditionorresponse.Ifthereisnoauxiliary,do,doesordidmustbeused.Thismakesitunnecessarytorepeataclause:YoushouldworklessandsoshouldI.Youshouldn"tworksohardandnorshouldI.Iwenttoameetinglastnight.-SodidI.13.29.3"Too"and"either"inaffirmativeandnegativestatementsEithermustreplacetooinnegativestatements[>7.56]:Iwenttothemeetingtoo.Ididn"tgotothemeetingeither.VeryinformallyMetoo,Norme,Meneitherareoftenusedinresponses[>4.7.2].Othernounsandobjectpronounsarepossible:I"mgladit"sFriday.-Metoo!(Iamtoo)Ustoo!(Wearetoo)Idon"twanttogotoapoliticalmeeting.-Norme/Meneither!13.29.4"So","neither"and"nor"inadditionsandresponsesInparalleladditionsandresponses,soisfollowedbyauxiliary+subject:_sodidI,etc.Inconfirmationssoisfollowedbysubject+auxiliary:Soyouhave,etc.Compare:I"vegotarashonmyarmandsohaveyou.I"vegotarashonmyarm.-Soyouhave!I"vegotanewcar.-SohasJohn.John"sgotanewcar.-Sohehas!Neitherandnorarecompletelyinterchangeableinadditionsandresponses[>13.28].Question-wordquestions:formanduse13.30Formofquestion-wordquestionsForsubject-questions,e.g.Whocame?,Whathappened?[>13.41]question-word+auxiliary+subjectare/aren"tyou_?be[>10.6]Who(m)----------------------------------------Whathave/haven"tyou_?have[>10.27]Whenhas/hasn"tshe_?Which----------------------------------------Whydo/don"tyou_?do[>10.41]Wheredoes/doesn"tshe_?doesWhosedid/didn"twe_?didHow----------------------------------------can/can"tI_?modals[>11.5]13.31Notesontheformofquestion-wordquestions1Inquestionsofthiskind,inversionwiththeauxiliarymustoccurafterthequestion-word.Thesequenceis:question-wordfirst,auxiliarynext,thenthesubject:
EnglishGrammar:Questions,answers,negativesstatement:Heis/isn"tworking.Yes/Noquestion:Ishe/Isn"theworking?question-word:Whyis/isn"theworking?2Inthesimplepresentofverbsotherthanbe,question-wordquestionsareformedwithdoordoes,andinthesimplepastwithdid:statement:Wearriveat8.Wedon"tarriveat8.Yes/Noquestion:Dowearriveat8?Don"twearriveat8?question-word:Whendowearrive?Whydon"twearriveat8?statement:Hearrivesat8.Hedoesn"tarriveat8.Yes/Noquestion:Doeshearriveat8?Doesn"thearriveat8?question-word:Whendoeshearrive?Whydoesn"thearriveat8?statement:Hearrivedat8.Hedidn"tarriveat8.Yes/Noquestion:Didhearriveat8?Didn"thearriveat8?question-word:Whendidhearrive?Whydidn"thearriveat8?3Questionwords+auxiliariesarefrequentlycontractedineverydayspeechandwrittendialogue.Thisismorecommonwhenthequestion-wordendswithavowelsound(Who"ll)thanwhenitendswithaconsonant(Which"ll).Thosemarked*commonlyoccurininformalwriting:Who:*Who"s_?=Whois_?orWhohas_?*Who"d_?=Whohad_?orWhowould_?*Who"ll_?=Whowill_?What:*What"s_?=Whatis_?orWhathas_?What"ve_?=Whathave_?What"ll_?=Whatwill_?When:*When"s_?=Whenis_?orWhenhas_?When"ve_?=Whenhave_?When"ll_?=Whenwill_?Which:Which"ve_?=Whichhave_?Which"ll_?=Whichwill_?Why:Why"s_?=Whyis_?orWhyhas_?Why"d_?=Whyhad_?orWhywould_?Why"ll_?=Whywill_?Where:*Where"s_?=Whereis_?orWherehas_?Where"ve_?=Wherehave_?Where"d_?=Wherehad_?orWherewould_?Where"ll_?=Wherewill_?How:*How"s_?=Howis_?orHowhas_?*How"d_?=Howhad_?orHowwould_?*How"ll_?=Howwill_?4WhenweaskaWh-questionusingaverb+preposition/particlewenormallyputthepreposition/particleattheend[>8.22][>13.33]:Who(m)areyougoingwith?Whatareyoulookingat?Wheredidyougetthatsuitfrom?HowonearthcanIgettheseshoeson?InveryformalEnglish,prepositionscanprecedequestion-words:TowhomshouldIapplyformoreinformation?Inwhichhallwilltherecitalbegiven?5Question-wordsarefollowedbyprepositionsinshortquestions:We"reoffonholidaytomorrow.-Whereto?Willyoubeattheseeggsforme?-Whatwith?Iwanttoleavethisparcel.-Whofor?Moreformally,prepositionscanprecedequestionwords:I"mgoingoutthisevening.-Withwhom?6Shortquestionsconsistingofsinglequestion-wordsorlimitedcombinationsarecommonineverydayspeechwhenweareaskingforrepetition(e.g.What?),briefinformationorclarification:We"reofftoChicago.-When?Thisoldladycameuptomeandsaid_&-Which(old)lady?Thisoldladycameuptomeandsaid_-Shesaidwhat?7Question-wordquestionscanechostatementstoexpresssurprise,anger,concern,etc.:I"mafraidIusedyourcombonthedog.-Youdidwhatwithit?8Allquestion-wordsexceptWhichandWhosecancombinewithelsetorefertopeople,things,places,etc.:Whatelsehaveyoubought?Whereelsedidyougo?13.32Howweusequestion-words
EnglishGrammar:Questions,answers,negativesWeaskquestion-word+inversion-typequestionstoelicitanyelementinasentenceotherthantheidentityofthesubject:statement:Elainewenttohermother"sbybusyesterdaybecausethetrainsweren"trunning.Notethe"target"ofeachofthefollowingquestions.Noneofthemproducestheanswer"Elaine".Theanswermaybeasingleword,aphrase,aclause,orevenawholesentence[but>13.41-42]:questionsanswers"target"WhendidElainegotohermother"s?Yesterday.adverboftimeWheredidElainegoyesterday?Tohermother"s.adverbofplaceHowdidshegetthere?Bybus.adverbofmannerWhosehousedidElainegoto?Hermother"s.adverbofplaceWhydidshegobybus?Becausethetrainsweren"trunning.clauseofreasonWhatdidElainedoyesterday?Shewenttohermother"sbybus.wholesentenceSometimestwoormorequestion-wordsareusedinaquestion:WhereandwhenshallIpickyouup?HowandwhydidLouisXIVjustifytheinvasionoftheSpanishNetherlands?(Thiskindofquestioniscommoninexampapers.)Particularquestion-wordsandtheiruses13.33"Who(m)_?"asaquestion-wordWho(m)_?asksfortheobjectofasentence,usuallyaperson"sname:subjectverbobjectstatement:FrankmetAlice.Who(m)-question:Who(m)didFrankmeet?-Alice.Who(m)_?refersonlytopeopleandcanbeusedtoinquireaboutmasculine,feminine,singularorplural,sotheanswertotheabovequestioncouldbeAlice,JohnorAliceandJohn.ThoughWhom_?isstillusedinformalEnglish,spokenorwritten,Who_?isgenerallyacceptedineverydaystyle.Who(m)_?oftenoccursinquestionswithverbsfollowedbytoorfor:Who(m)didyougiveitto/didyoubuyitfor?[compare>8.22]13.34"What_?"asaquestion-wordWhat_?canbeansweredbyawholesentence:Whatareyoudoing?-I"mreading"Kim".Whatcanalsoaskabouttheobjectofasentencewhichmight,forexample,beathing,asubstance,adate,ameasurement,etc.:subjectverbobjectstatement:Iamreading"Kim".What-question:Whatareyoureading?-"Kim".What?canalsobeusedinavarietyofcombinations,suchas:13.34.1"Whatbook/books_?""Whatboy/boys_?"[compare>13.36.1]What+nounasksaboutthings(singularorplural)orsubstances:Whatbook/booksdidyoubuy?Whatsoapdoyouuse?What+nouncansometimesaskabouttheidentityofpeople,maleorfemale,singularorplural:Whatboy/boys/girl/girls/peopledidyoumeetattheparty?butthisislesscommon,sincewegenerallyaskaboutpeoplewithWho(m)_?What_?onitsownrefersonlytothingsandtoanunlimitedandunspecifiedchoice.So,forexample,thequestionWhatwouldyoulike?withreferencetoamenuisnotlimited-except,ofcourse,bytheextentofthemenuitself.Wherethechoiceislimitedandspecified,weoftenpreferWhich_?asine.g.Whichwouldyouprefer,beeforlamb?13.34.2"What(be,look,etc.)like?"[compare>6.1]WeuseWhat_like?toobtaindescriptionsof:e.g.-peopleorthings;appearanceorcharacteristics:What"syourbrotherlike?(="tolookat"or"asaperson")What"syourcarlike?(="tolookat"or"asavehicle/todrive")-theweather,climate,etc.:What"stheweatherliketoday?What"sitliketoday?13.34.3"What_?":names,etc.-people:What"shecalled?(=What"shisname?)He"scalledJohn.-technicalterms,etc.:What"sthiscalled?It"scalledamicrochip.-foreignwords:What"sthiscalledinEnglish?It"scalledchalk.-What+make:Whatmakeisyourcar?-It"saVolvo.
EnglishGrammar:Questions,answers,negatives13.34.4"What_?":nationality,jobs,etc.Whatnationalityareyou?-I"mSpanish.(=I"mfromSpain.)Whatdoesshedo(foraliving)?-She"sanoptician.Andwhat"sherhusband?(=Whatdoesherhusbanddo?)13.34.5"Whattime/date/year?"ThesecombinationsarebroadlytheequivalentofWhen_?exceptthattheyaskformorespecificinformation:Whattime/datewillhearrive?-At4./OnJune14th.13.34.6"What_for?"Thiscombinationasksforadescriptionoftheuseorpurposeofthingsorsubstances:What"sthis(thing)for?-(It"sfor)peelingpotatoes.What+clause+forcanactastheequivalentofWhy_?.TheansweroftenbeginswithBecause_orhasato-infinitive:Whatdidyoudothatfor?(=Whydidyoudothat?)-BecauseIwassignallingthatI"mturningleft.-TosignalthatI"mturningleft.13.34.7"Whatkind(s)/sort(s)of_?"[compare>App7.16]Thiscombinationasksforpreciseinformationandweexpectadescriptionintheanswer:Whatkind/sortofpicturedoyoulikebest?Whatkinds/sortsofpicturesdoyoulikebest?Whatkindofpictures_?isoftenheardinspeech.13.34.8"Whatcolour_?","Whatsize_?"Whatcolour?andWhatcolours?areusedtoinquireaboutcolour:Whatcolourisyournewtie?-It"sred.Whatcombineswithnounssuchassize,height,age,length,breadth,width,depth,toinquireaboutdimension,etc.ThestructureisparalleltoHowbig/high/old/long?etc.[>13.40.2][>6.16]:Whatsizeshoesdoyoutake?-(Size)41.What"stheheightofEverest?WhatheightisEverest?13.35"When_?"asaquestion-wordWeuseWhen_?toinquireabouttime(eitherprecisereferencesorgeneralperiodsoftime)inthepresent,pastorfuture.Theanswersareusuallyadverbsoftimeorprepositionalphrases:adverboftime:Whenisyourflight?-Tomorrowmorning.prepositionalphrase:Whenwillhearrive?-At4.13.36"Which_?"asaquestion-wordQuestionswithWhich_?canaskabouttheobjectofasentence:subjectverbobjectstatement:Iamreading"Kim".Which-question:Whichnovelareyoureading?-"Kim".Which+nouncanbeusedinavarietyofcombinations:13.36.1"Whichbook/books_?"[compare>13.34.1]WeuseWhich+nountoinquireaboutthings(singularorplural)orsubstances:Whichbook/booksdoyouprefer?Whichsoapdoyoulikebest?Which+nouncanbeusedjustaseasilytoaskabouttheidentityofpeople,maleorfemale,singularorplural:Whichboy/boys/girl/girlsdidyoumeetattheparty?Whichalwaysreferstoalimitedspecifiedchoice[>13.34.1].Itcanbeusedonitsowninthissense,especiallyforthings:Whichbooksdidyoubuy?(i.e.oftheonesyouwerelookingat:alimitedselectionofitems)Whichisthelongestriverintheworld:theAmazonortheNile?Which_?oftencombineswiththecomparativeandsuperlative:Whichisthecheaper/thecheapest?(e.g.oftheonesontheshelf)13.36.2"Whichofthem/ofthetwo_?"[compare>4.10]WeoftenuseWhichof_?(theofphraseisoptional)whenwerefertopreferenceandchoicebetweentwoormoreitems:Ilikeboththesebags.Which(ofthetwo)doyouprefer?Ilikeallthesebags.Which(ofthem)doyouprefer?13.36.3"Whichday/month/year_?"ThesecombinationsaremorespecificthanWhen_?:Don"tforgetSam"sbirthday?-Iwon"t.Which/Whatdayisit?13.36.4"Whichway_?"Whichway_?asksformorepreciseinformationthanWhere_?:
EnglishGrammar:Questions,answers,negativesWhichwaydidtheygo?(i.e.twoormorewaystochoosefrom)13.37"Why_?"asaquestion-word13.37.1"Why_?":reasonandpurpose[>1.48][>1.51]WhyquestionsmayaskforareasonorreasonswhichcanbesuppliedwithBecause_(Not*Why_*):Whydidn"tyoutellmeJohnhadleftyou?-BecauseIdidn"twanttoburdenyouwithmytroubles.Becauseisoftenomitted(andthereforeimplied)inresponses.Ato-infinitiveorbecausecananswerWhy?[purpose>16.12.1]:Whydidyougothisway?-Tosavetime.("becauseIwantedto")13.37.2"Whydon"t/doesn"t_?"and"Whynot?"Why+don"tordoesn"tcanbeusedtomakesuggestions:Idon"tlikethiswallpaper.-Thenwhydon"tyouchangeit?Whynotfollowedbyabareinfinitivecanbeusedinthesameway:Whynotwaittillthewintersalestobuyanewcoat?Whynot?(inplaceofaWhyquestion)canaskforareason:I"mnotgoingtoworktoday.-Whynot?orcanbeusedinresponsetosuggestions:Let"seatouttonight.-Yes,whynot?Itcanbeuseddefensivelyin:Areyoureallygoingtosuethem?-Yes,whynot?13.37.3Somefunctionalusesof"Why_?"Why+verboftenconveysthemeaningof"It"snotworththetroubleto_"or"Idon"tthinkyoushould":IthinkIoughttotidythisplaceup.-Whybother?(i.e.it"snotworthbotheringto)You"refullyinsured,sowhyworry?Whycombineswithmodalstoconveyavarietyofemotions,etc.:-anger:Whycan"tyoushutup?-irritation/complaint:WhyshouldIdoit?-failuretounderstand:Whyshouldtheboilingpointofwaterbeloweratthetopofamountain?13.38"Where_?"asaquestion-wordWhereisusedtoinquireaboutplace(eitherprecisereferencesorgeneralones).TheanswerstoWherequestionscanbewholesentences,phrasesorsinglewords:Whereishe?-He"soverthere.Overthere!There!Wheredidyougetthatladderfrom?-Fromthegarage.IneverydayspeechWhere"scancombinewithapluralsubject:Where"syourkeys?-They"rehere.[>7.59.1]Where_from?asksfortheoriginofpeopleorthings:Whereareyoufrom?/Wheredoyoucomefrom?-Spain.That"salovelyvase.Where"sitfrom?-China.13.39"Whose_?"asaquestion-wordWhose_?asksaboutpossession.Thepossessorisalwaysapersonandweexpecttheanswertobesomebody"sname+"s(Kate"s)orapossessivepronoun(e.g.mine).Whenthepossessionisathing,things,orasubstance,thenouncanbeomittedafterWhose:Whose(umbrella)isthis?-(It"s)mine.Whose(umbrellas)arethese?-(They"re)mine.Whose(coffee)isthis?-(It"s)mine.Whenthe"possession"isaperson,Whoseisfollowedbyanoun:Whoseson/daughteris(s)he?-Kate"s.(=Kate"sson/daughter)Whosechildrenarethey?-TheLakers".(=TheLakers"children)NotethatquestionswithWhosecanalsobephrasedas:Whoseisthis(umbrella)?Whosearethosechildren?13.40"How_?"asaquestion-word13.40.1"Howmuch_?/Howmany_?"Howcancombinewithmuchtoinquireaboutthequantityofasubstanceorthevolumeofaliquid[uncountablenouns>2.14].Howmuchsugar/milkdoyouwantinyourtea?Howmuchcancombinewithabstractuncountablenounsaswell:Howmuchtimehavewe?Howmuchspaceisthereonthatshelf?Howmuchcanalsorefertocost:Howmuchdoesthiscost?(i.e.Howmuchmoney?)Howcancombinewithmanytoinquireaboutnumber(peopleandthings;i.e.pluralcountablenouns)[>5.13]:
EnglishGrammar:Questions,answers,negativesHowmanypeopleareinvited?Howmanywindowsarebroken?13.40.2"How_?"+adjectiveoradverbHowwillcombinewithavarietyofadjectives,someofwhichcanalsofunctionasadverbs,suchas:big,deep,far,hard,long,old,sharp,wide[>7.13-14]:HowfarisittoBanbury?Howfardidyoudrivetoday?Howcombinesmorereadilywithadjectivesexpressingahigher,ratherthanalower,degree:Howlong/old,etc.ratherthanHowlittle/short/young.WeonlyuseHow+lowerdegreeadjectiveswhenweareparticularlyconcernedaboutsmallness,etc.:Ithinkhe"stooyoungforthejob.-Howyoungishethen?Weneedashortarticletofillthepaper.-Howshortmustitbe?How+adjectivesreferringtodimension(e.g.Howlong?)aresimilarinmeaningtoWhat+nouns(dimension)e.g.Whatlength?[>13.34.8]:Howlongisthispool?(=Whatlengthisthispool?)13.40.3"How_?"+adverbHowcombineswithadverbstoaskabout:-frequency:Howoftendoyouvisityourmother?-Onceaweek.-degree:Howwelldoyouknowhim?-Notverywell.-time:Howquicklycanyoudoitforme?-Intwodays.13.40.4"How_?":mannerandprocessHow_?questionscanaskaboutmannerorprocess.Somequestionsneedawholesentenceinreply:Howdidyouspendyourtimewhileyouwereonholiday?Somequestionslikethiscanbeansweredwithby+-ing:Howdidyoufinishthejobsosoon?-Byclimbingontotheroof.Howcombineswithmodalsin:-ruderesponses:Whyaskme?HowshouldIknow?-argument/reproof:Howcanyousayathinglikethat?-exclamations:Howcouldshedosuchathing!AdverbsofmannercansometimesanswerHow?questions:Howdidhespeak?-(Rather)well/inaudibly.Itisn"talwaysclearwhatkindofansweraHow?questionrequires:HowdidshecutSue"shair?-Beautifully./Veryshort./Withafringe./Withthekitchenscissors.13.40.5"Howlong_?":timeHowlong_?(withoptionalfor)asksaboutduration:Howlonghaveweknownher(for)?-(For)20years.I"veknownheralongtime.-Howlong(for)?Howcanalsocombinewithlongagotorefertoapointoftime:HowlongagodidBachlive?-300yearsago(agonotoptional)13.40.6Somesocialusesof"How_?"introductions:Howdoyoudo?isaformulainformalintroductionsandisneverusedtoinquireabouthealth:A:MrsSimms,thisisMrMcGregor.B:Howdoyoudo?C:Howdoyoudo?(inreplytoB)health:Commonformulasforaskingabouthealthorgeneralwell-beingare:Howareyou?,Howhaveyoubeen?,Howareyoukeeping?,Howhaveyoubeenkeeping?.presentcircumstances:Howisoftenusedtoinquireabout"presentcircumstances"inquestionslike:How"slife?,Howare(orHow"s)things?,How"sthegarden?,How"swork?,etc."How_?"and"What_like?"[>13.34.2]:Thesecansometimesbeinterchangeableinquestionswhichaskforpersonalreactions:Howwasthefilm?(=Whatwasitlike?Didyouenjoyitornot?)Howcanbefollowedbylikeorenjoyinsuchquestions:Howdidyoulike/enjoythefilm?"Howabout_?"and"Whatabout_?":Theseareinterchangeableinoffersandsuggestions:Howabout/Whataboutadrink?andingeneralreference:I"llpostyourletters.-Howabout/Whataboutthisparcel?John"scomingwithus.-Howabout/WhataboutSusan?invitations:HowwouldyouliketohaveteaattheRitz?Thisisanelaborateformofthemoreusual:WouldyouliketohaveteaattheRitz?[>11.37]
EnglishGrammar:Questions,answers,negativesQuestion-wordquestions:subject-questions13.41Formofsubject-questionssubject-questionswith"Who?"subject-answer+auxiliaryWho"sready?Iam/Johnis.etc.beWho"sgotmykeys?Ihave./Johnhas.etc.haveWhomakesthedecisions?Ido./Johndoes.etc.do/doesWhopaidthewaiter?Idid./Johndid.etc.didWhocanexplainthis?Ican./Johncan.etc.modalssubject-questionswith"What?","Which?"and"Whose?"Whatmadeyoujump?Thecatdid.Whichonesuitsmebest?Theredonedoes.Whosetelephonerang?Minedid.13.42Notesontheformofsubject-questions1Asubject-questionnormallyasksfortheidentityofthesubject.Thereisnoinversionandthequestionhasthesamewordorderasthestatement[compare>13.31]:subjectverbobjectsubject-answerstatement:Someonepaidthewaiter.subject-question:Whopaidthewaiter?Johndid.CompareaWhoquestionwhichasksfortheobjectofastatement:subjectverbobjectobject-answerstatement:Johnpaidthewaiter.Yes/Noquestion:DidJohnpaythewaiter?Who(m)-question:Who(m)didJohnpay?Thewaiter.2Answerstosubject-questionsoftenechotheauxiliaryusedinthequestion,eitherintheaffirmativeorthenegative:Whocanplaythepiano?-Ican./Ican"t.Whenthesubjectquestion-wordisfollowedbyaverbinthesimplepresentorpast,thendo,doesordidmaybeusedintheanswer:Whowantsalift?-Ido.Whowon?-Wedid.Whentheanswerisanameoranoun,weoftenomittheauxiliary:Whowasatthedoor?-Thepostman(was).Informally,meisoftenusedinplaceofIintheanswer[>4.7.2]:Whowantssomemoretea?-Me.(inplaceofIdo)3What,WhichandWhosecancombinewithothersubject-words:Whatnumberis_?Whichboylikes_?Whosecaris_?4Subjectquestion-wordscanbefollowedbysingularorpluralverbs.Ineverydayspeechwecommonlyuseasingularverbafter,e.g.Who?evenwhenweareaskingforapluralanswer:Whoiscomingtonight?Johnis./JohnandSallyare.However,pluralverbscanoccurquitenaturallyaftersubjectquestionswithWho,WhichandWhat:Whoareplayingintheorchestra?WhohavewonNobelPrizesforliteratureinthepasttenyears?13.43Whenweasksubject-questionsWeasksubject-questions:-withWhotoidentifyapersonorpersons:Whotakessugar?-Jane(does).Bothofus(do).-withWhattoidentifyathingorthings:Whatcausedthedamage?-Rain(did).Fallingstones(did).-withWhat+nountoidentifypeopleorthings:Whatcarelessboyleftthetapon?-John(did).Whatpaperhasthelargestcirculation?-"Today"(has).-withWhichtoidentifypeopleorthings:Whichgirlspokefirst?-Jane(did).Whichcomesfirst,AorB?-A(does).-withWhosetoidentifya"possessor":Whosechildrenrangourdoorbell?-Ourneighbour"s(did).-withe.g.How+manytoelicitanumber:Howmanystudentsunderstandthis?-Theyalldo.Questionsaboutalternatives
EnglishGrammar:Questions,answers,negatives13.44FormofquestionsaboutalternativesWhat/Whichwouldyouprefer,teaorcoffee?Wouldyouliketeaorcoffee?Teaorcoffee?Milk?Howshallwego,bybusorbytrain?Didyougothere,ordidn"tyou?Didyouordidn"tyougothere?Didyougothereornot?Didyouordidn"tyou?13.45Whenweaskquestionsaboutalternatives13.45.1LimitedchoicesQuestionsaboutalternativesnarrowachoicetoalimitednumberofitems,coursesofaction,etc.:-open-endedchoice:Whatwouldyouliketodrink?-threeitems:Whatwouldyouliketea,coffee,ormilk?-twoitems:Whichwouldyouprefer,teaorcoffee?Limitedchoicescanalsobepresentedwithtwoormoreverbs:Didyoulaughorcry?Ishesleeping,reading,orwatchingTV?Questionsaboutalternativesareoftenabbreviated:e.g.-threeormoreitems:Tea,coffee,ormineralwater?-twoitems:Teaorcoffee?Trueorfalse?Yesorno?-oneitem:Milk?Right?Ready?Now?Anotherwayofabbreviatingaquestionisnottorepeattheverb:Didyouwantablackandwhitefilm,orcolour?13.45.2QuestionsendinginnegativetagsAclearchoicecanbepresentedbyrepeatingtheauxiliaryattheend,particularlywhenwearepressingsomeonetoprovideananswer:Didyoutakeitordidn"tyou?-Yes,(Idid)./No,(Ididn"t).Thesequestionscanbedifferentlyphrasedasfollows:Didyouordidn"tyoutakeit?Thenegativeauxiliarycanbereplacedbyornot?:Didyoutakeitornot?Providedbothspeakerandlistenerknowwhatisreferredto,suchquestionscanbereducedevenfurther:Didyouordidn"tyou?canmean"Didyou(takeit)ordidn"tyou?Canyouorcan"tyou?canmean"Canyou(helpme)orcan"tyou?"Emphaticquestionswith"ever",etc.13.46Formofemphaticquestionswith"ever",etc.Whoevertoldyouathinglikethat?Whatevermadeyoudoit?Whateverdidhetellyou?Howeverdoyoumanage?Whyevernot?Whyonearthnot?Whateverfor?Whatonearthfor?Whydidyouevermentionit?Howonearthdidyoufindoutaboutit?13.47WhenweaskemphaticquestionsWeaskemphaticquestionstoexpressadmiration,anger,concern,etc.Everiswrittenasaseparatewordfromquestion-words.Itcanbeusedafterallquestion-wordsexceptWhich?andWhose?.Itisoftenheavilystressedinquestions:Where"everdidyoupickthatup?(Butnotethateveralsocombineswithwordslikewho,what,when,how(notwhy)toformadverbs(However,_),orpronouns(Bringwhoeveryoulike),ortoformconjunctions(Comewheneveryoulike).)Everquestionscanaskforthesubjectorobjectofasentence:subject:Whatevermadeyousolate?-Thetraffic(mademelate).object:Whateverdidhetellyou?-(Hetoldme)asecret.Evercansometimesbetransposed:Whyeverdidyougothere?Whydidyouevergothere?Shortresponsesexpresssurprisedreactions:Ididn"tvoteonpollingday.-Whyevernot?Isentthemadonation.-Whateverfor?
EnglishGrammar:Questions,answers,negativesIneverydayspeechstrongeremphasisinquestionscanbeconveyedbyusingtheexpressiononearthinplaceofeverafterthequestion-word:Howonearthdidyoufindoutmytelephonenumber?Evenstrongerexpressionispossibleifonearthisreplacedby,e.g.theblazes,thedevil,thedickens,thehellandbytaboowords:Whothehelldoyouthinkyouareanyway?WhyandWherecanbemademoreemphaticbysimplerepetition,oftenwithoh:Why,(oh)whydidyoudoit?Where,(oh)wherehashegone?
EnglishGrammar:Conditionalsentences14ConditionalsentencesGeneralinformationaboutconditionals14.1Conditions:"if_(then_)"Aconditionissomethingthathastobefulfilledbeforesomethingelsecanhappen.If,normallymeaning"providedthat",issometimesfollowedbythen.Ifthenisnotstated,itisimplied:IfXhappens,(then)Yfollows:Iftherainstops,we"llbeabletogoforawalk.Conditionalclausesafterifarenotabouteventsetc.thathaveoccurred,butabouteventsthatcanormightoccurormighthaveoccurred.Sometimestheseeventsarehighlyprobable:Ifthepriceofoilcomesdown,morepeoplewillbuyit.Sometimestheyareimpossible(theydidnotorcannothappen):Ifmyhorsehadwon,Iwouldhavemadealotofmoney.Conditionsareoftenintroducedbyif,butcanbeintroducedbyotherwords[>14.21].Theycanalsobeimplied[>14.22]:Iwouldn"t(orshouldn"t)gothatway.(i.e.ifIwereyou)14.2TypesofconditionalsentencesConditionalsentencesareusuallydividedintothreebasictypesreferredtoasType1,Type2andType3.Eachhasitsownvariations,buttheelementsareasfollows:type1:Whatwillyoudoifyouloseyourjob?Asking/talkingaboutsomethingthatisquitepossible:"if"+present+"will"IfIlosemyjob,Iwillgoabroad.type2:Whatwouldyoudoifyoulostyourjob?Asking/talkingaboutimaginedsituations/consequencesnow:"if"+past+"would"1IfIlostmyjob,Iwouldgoabroad.type3:Whatwouldyouhavedoneifyouhadlostyourjob?Asking/talkingaboutimaginedsituations/consequencesthen:"if"+pastperfect+"wouldhave"1IfIhadlostmyjob,Iwouldhavegoneabroad.Theabbreviation"llcanbeusedinsteadofwillinallpersons,andshallcanbeusedinsteadofwillafterIandwe[>9.36].Theabbreviation"dcanbeusedinsteadofwouldinallpersons,andshouldcanbeusedinsteadofwouldafterIandwe.Theconditionalcanbeexpressedwithothermodalverbs[e.g.>14.19],aswellaswithshall,will,shouldandwould:Wecouldhavehadagoodtime.(e.g.ifwehadhadthemoney)14.3MixedtensesequencesinconditionalsentencesSenseandcontextpermitting,anytensesequenceispossible:type1type3IfIamascleverasyouthink,Ishouldhavebeenrichbynow.type2type3Ifyouknewmebetter,youwouldn"thavesaidthat.type3type2IfIhadhadyouradvantages,I"dbebetteroffnow.type2type1Ifhemissedthebus,hewon"tbehereontime.Type1conditionals14.4BasicformofType1conditionals"if"clause:mainclause:presenttenses"shall/will"futureconditiontobesatisfied->likelyoutcomebe:IfIambettertomorrow,Iwillgetup.have:IfIhaveaheadache,Iwilltakeanaspirin.simplepresent:Ifshefinishesearly,shewillgohome.presentprogressive:Ifheisstandingintherain,hewillcatchcold.presentperfect:Ifshehasarrivedatthestation,shewillbeheresoon.
EnglishGrammar:Conditionalsentencespresentperfectprogressive:Ifhehasbeentravellingallnight,hewillneedarest.can,must:IfIcanaffordit,Iwillbuyit.14.5NotesontheformofType1conditionals1Themostcommonlyusedformis:"if"+simplepresent+""ll"futureIfitrains,we"llstayathome.However,inType1conditionals,allpresenttensescanbeusedafterif,notjustthesimplepresent(see14.4above).2InType1,ifisfollowedbypresenttenses,andonlyexceptionallybyshallorwill[>11.63][>14.24.2].Ifcanalsobefollowedbyshould[>14.8]andbyothermodalslikecan(ability),mustandneedn"t.3Otherfuturetenses[>9.40-43]canbeusedinthemainclause:Ifhegetsthejob,he"llbegoingabroad.IfIdon"trun,thetrainwillhaveleft.IfIstaytillMay,I"llhavebeenworkingherefor20years.4Fixedphraseslikeifnecessary,ifpossible,ifso,arereallyabbreviatedif-clauses.InformalEnglish(commonlyinAmE)thefullformisif+be(i.e.thesubjunctive[>11.75.1n.2]):ifitbenecessaryetc.Noteotherphraseswithbe:ifneedbe,bethatasitmay,etc.:Inflationmayberising.If(thisbe)so,priceswillgoup.Weoftenuseshouldbeforebeinsuchcases,especiallywhenwewishtosuggestthatthesituationreferredtoisimprobable:Sterlingmayfall.Ifthisshouldbeso,interestrateswillrise.14.6WhenweuseType1conditionalsWeuseType1conditionalstodescribewhatwillorwon"thappenifwethinkafutureeventisprobable:conditiontobesatisfied->likelyoutcomeIftheweatherclears,we"llgoforawalk.Iftheweatherdoesn"tclear,wewon"tgoforawalk.Theconditiontobesatisfiedisreal:theweathermayreallyclearup,andifitdoes,itwillhavearealeffect.Thatiswhysuchstatementsareoftencalled"open"or"real"conditionals.14.7Type1,Variation1:"If"+present+modal"if"-clause:presenttensesmainclause:modal[>11.1]conditiontobesatisfied->likelyoutcomesimplepresent:Ifshefinishesearly,>presentprogressive:Ifsheisarrivingtoday,>presentperfect:Ifshehasarrived,>shephoneme.presentperfectprogressive:Ifshehasbeenwaiting,>can,must:Ifshecan"tunderstandit,>Willinthemainclauseexpressescertaintyornear-certainty[>11.28].Ifwedonotfeel"certain"enoughtousewill,ofifwewanttoexpresstheideaofe.g.necessity,wecanuseanothermodalinstead:conditiontobesatisfied=likelyoutcomeIfit"sfinetomorrow,wegoout.Progressiveandperfectcombinationswithmodalsarepossible:IfIhearfromTim,Imaybeleavingtonight.IfheisinNewYork,hemaynothavegotmyletteryet.14.8Type1,Variation2:"If+should"+e.g.imperative"if"-clauseorvariationmainclause:e.g.imperativeconditiontobesatisfied->request,suggestion,etc.Ifyou(should)seehim,>Shouldyouseehim,>Ifyou(should)happentoseehim,>pleasegivehimmyregards.Shouldyouhappentoseehim,>If+should(+bareinfinitive),insteadofif+present,makestheconditionmoredoubtful:Ifhecalls,tellhimI"llringback.(normalType1)Ifheshouldcall,tellhimI"llringback.(if+should)Themainclauseisnotnecessarilyalwaysanimperative:IfIshouldseehim,I"llaskhimtoringyou.
EnglishGrammar:ConditionalsentencesIf+should+imperativeinthemainclauseisusedespeciallywhenwewanttomakepoliterequestsorsuggestions,ortotellpeople(tactfully)whattodo:Ifyoushouldwritetoher,sendhermylove.IfyoushouldgotoNairobi,goandseetheSnakePark.ImperativescanalsobeusedinordinaryType1conditions:Cancelthematchifitrains.Ifitrains,cancelthematch.Theonlykindofnegativewecanformwithshouldise.g.shouldyounot(seeexamplenextparagraph);otherwisewemustusethenegativeformofthesimplepresent:Ifyoudon"tseehim_(Not*Ifyoushouldn"t*)Aconditioncanbeexpressedwithoutifbybeginningasentencewithshould.Thisisratherformalandisoftenfound,forexample,inbusinessletters,notineverydayconversation:Shouldyoubeinterestedinouroffer,pleasecontactus.Shouldyounotwishouragenttocall,pleaseletusknow.Themoreelaboratetheconstructionwithshouldand/orhappento,themoretactfulaspeakeristryingtobe.Comparethesequence:Ifyouseehimfairlylikely:neutralIfyoushouldseehimShouldyouseehim|Ifyouhappentoseehim|IfyoushouldhappentoseehimVShouldyouhappentoseehimShouldyoubyanychancehappentoseehimunlikely:verytactful14.9Type1,Variation3:Imperative+conjunction+clauseimperativeconjunctionmainclause:"shall/will"conditiontobesatisfied->likelyoutcomeProvidethematerialsandwe"lldothejob.Stopshouting,oryou"llwakeuptheneighbours.Putthatdown,orelseI"llsmackyou.Bethereontime,otherwiseyou"llcreateabadimpression.Imperativescanbeusedinplaceofif-clausestocomment,makerequests,makeabargain,offeradvice,threatenandsoon.Theuseoftheimperativeconveysmoreurgencythantheif-clause.comment:Failtopayandthey"llcutofftheelectricity.(Ifyoufailtopay,they"llcutofftheelectricity.)request:Telluswhattodoandwe"llgetonwithit.(Ifyoutelluswhattodowe"llgetonwithit.)threat:Stopeatingsweets,oryouwon"tgetanydinner.(Ifyoudon"tstopeatingsweets,youwon"tgetanydinner.)advice:Takeataxi,otherwiseyou"llmissyourtrain.(Ifyoudon"ttakeataxi,you"llmissyourtrain.)Notethedifferencebetweenimperative+orandimperative+andinthreats:Dropthatgun,orI"llshootyou.(i.e.ifyoudon"tdropit)Dropthatparcel,andI"llkillyou.(i.e.ifyoudodropit)Type2conditionals14.10BasicformofType2conditionals"if"-clause:mainclause:pasttense"would/should"conditiontobesatisfied=likelyoutcomebe:IfIwastaller,Iwouldbecomeapoliceman.have:Ifhehadanymoney,he"dleavehome.otherverbs:Ifyoutookataxi,you"dgettherequicker.could[>11.12]:Ifyoucouldseemenow,you"dlaughyourheadoff.14.11NotesontheformofType2conditionals1Themostcommonlyusedformis:"if"+simplepast+""d"conditionalIfitrainedtomorrowwe"dstayathome.InType2,ifisfollowedbyapasttenseoricould(=was/wereableto).Themainclauseisnormallyformedwithwould,thoughshould(weakenedto/SEd/inspeechbutnotcontractedto"dinwriting)canbeusedinsteadofwouldafterIandwe.Wouldisgenerallycontractedto"dinallpersonsinthemainclause.Compareshallandwill[>9.36].Ifisfollowedonlyexceptionallybywould
EnglishGrammar:Conditionalsentences[>14.24.1].2AnunnecessaryextranegativecanoccurinType2conditionals:Iwouldn"tbesurprisedifhedidn"ttrytoblackmailyou.(i.e.ifhetriedtoblackmailyou)Thenotintheif-clausedoesnotmakeatruenegative.14.12WhenweuseType2conditionalsType2conditionalstalkaboutimaginarysituationsintheif-clauseandspeculateabouttheirimaginaryconsequencesinthemainclause.Thoughpasttensesareused,thereferenceisnottopasttime.(Thatiswhythisuseofthepasttenseafterifisoftencalled"theunrealpast".)Bycomparison,Type1conditionals[>14.4]talkaboutthingswhichwillpossiblyhappenandconsidertheirrealconsequencesforthefuture.Dependingontheattitudeofthespeaker,aType2conditionalcanbeusedinplaceofaType1todescribesomethingthatisreasonablypossible.So:Ifyouwentbytrain,youwouldgetthereearlier.Ifyoudidn"tstayupsolateeveryevening,youwouldn"tfeelsosleepyinthemorning.meanthesame,butaremore"tentative"than:Ifyougobytrain,youwillgetthereearlier.Ifyoudon"tstayupsolateeveryevening,youwon"tfeelsosleepyinthemorning.However,Type2conditionalsmoreoftendescribewhatistotallyimpossible:IfIhadlongerlegs,I"dbeabletorunfaster.14.13Type2,Variation1:"If+were/was"+"would/should""if"-clause:"were/was"mainclause:"would/should"conditiontobesatisfied=likelyoutcomeIfreadygo.14.13.1"IfIwere/IfIwas"WherecanbeusedinplaceofwasafterIfI/he/she/it.Thereisnodifferenceinmeaning,butwereismoreformal,particularlywhenwearemakingdoubtfulstatements:IfIwas/werebetterqualified,I"dapplyforthejob.However,wereispreferableinpurelyimaginarystatements:IfIweretheQueenofSheba,you"dbeKingSolomon.14.13.2"IfIwereyou/IfIwereinyourposition"(Not*was*)Weoftenusetheseexpressionstogiveadvice:IfIwereyou/inyourposition,I"daccepttheiroffer.(Thismeans:Youshouldaccepttheiroffer.)Wecanalsousetheseexplanationstorefertosomebodyelse:IfIwereJane/inJane"sposition,I"dwalkoutonhim.14.13.3"Ifitwerenotfor/Wereitnotfor"(Not*was*)Thisexpressionexplainswhysomethinghasorhasn"thappened:Ifitweren"tforyourhelp,Iwouldstillbehomeless.Informalcontexts,IfitwerenotforcanbeexpressedasWereitnotfor,withthenegativeinfull(Not*Weren"tit*):Wereitnotforyourhelp,Iwouldstillbehomeless.IfitwerenotforandWereitnotforareoftenfollowedbythefactthat:Wereitnotforthefactthatyouhelpedme,Iwouldbehomeless.14.14Type2,Variation2:"If"+past+modal"if"-clause:pasttensemainclause:modal[>11.1]conditiontobesatisfied=likelyoutcomeIfheknewthefacts,>hetelluswhattodo.Ifhecouldgetthefacts,>AnothermodalcanreplacewouldinType2conditionals,e.g.whenwefeeltheimaginaryconsequencesarelesslikely,orwhenwearereferringtoability[>11.14],possibility[>11.28],etc.:conditiontobesatisfied=likelyoutcomeIfhewerehere,hecouldhelpus.(ability)Ifhewerehere,hemighthelpus.(possibility)Ifhefailed,heoughtto/shouldtryagain.(duty)Progressiveandperfectcombinationswithmodalsarepossible:Ifshewereherenow,shecouldbehelpingus.IfhewasinNewYork,hecouldhavemetmysister.
EnglishGrammar:ConditionalsentencesIftheywereinthearmy,theywouldhavebeenfightinginthejunglemostofthetime.14.15Type2,Variation3:"If+wereto/wasto"+"would",etc."if"-clause:"wereto/wasto"mainclause:"would/should",etc.conditiontobesatisfied=likelyoutcomeIf14.11n.1]Ifithadrained,wewouldhavestayedathome.Progressiveformsarepossibleintheif-clauseand/ormainclause:Ifithadbeenrainingthismorning,wewouldhavestayedathome.IfIhadnotgotmarried,Iwouldstillhavebeenlivingabroad.2Ifisfollowedbythepastperfectorcouldhave(=hadbeenableto).Wouldhaveandshouldhavearenotusedintheif-clause.However,ineverydayspeech(neverinwriting)thefollowingnon-standardform(akindof"doublepastperfect")oftenoccursandshouldbeavoided:IfI"dhaveknownshewasill,I"dhavesenthersomeflowers.3Theabbreviation"dcanstandforhadorwouldandiscommoninbothspeechandinformalwriting:IfI"d(=Ihad)leftsooner,I"d(=Iwould)havebeenontime.TheabbreviationsIwould"veandI"d"veforwouldhavearecommoninspeech.Onlywould"veand"dhaveoccurininformalwriting:IfI"dgotupearlier,Iwould"ve/I"dhavebeenontime.14.18WhenweuseType3conditionalsType3conditionalsassumesomethingpurelyimaginaryintheif-clauseandconsidertheimaginedconsequencesinthemainclause.Inthisrespect,theyarelikeType2[>14.12].However,Type3conditionalsrefertoconsequenceswhichdidnotandcouldnot(now)everhappenbecausetheyrefertosomethingthatdidn"thappeninthepast.Theyare"hypotheticalconditions":IfIhadworkedharderatschool,I"dhavegotabetterjob.IfIhadn"tbeenwearingaraincoat,Iwouldhavegotwet.(referringtosomethingpossible:oftenexpressingregret)IfIhadwonthepools,lifewouldhavebeenmucheasier.(referringtoanimaginary,hopedforsituationinthepast)IfIhadlivedintheStoneAge,Iwouldhavebeenahunter.(referringtoacompletelyimpossiblesituation)
EnglishGrammar:ConditionalsentencesWeuseType3conditionalstospeculateaboutarangeofpossibilities,fromwhatmighthavebeenreasonablyexpectedtowhatwouldhavebeencompletelyimpossible.14.18.1"IfIhadbeenyou/inyourposition"Weoftenusetheseexpressionstodescribeacourseofactionwewouldhavefollowedinsomeoneelse"sposition:IfIhadbeenyou/inyourposition,I"dhaveacceptedtheiroffer.(Thismeans:Youshouldhaveacceptedtheiroffer.)Wecanalsousetheseexpressionstorefertosomebodyelse:IfIhadbeenJane,I"dhavewalkedoutonhimyearsago.14.18.2"Ifithadn"tbeenfor"Weoftenusethisexpressiontoexplainwhysomethingdidn"thappeninthepast:Ifithadn"tbeenfortherain,wewouldhavehadagoodharvest.14.18.3Inversionwith"had"inType3conditionalsTheformHad(he)isaformalvariationofIf(he)had:Hadthemanagementactedsooner,thestrikewouldn"thavehappened.Anegativeinversionispossiblewiththefullform:Haditnotbeenfortheunusuallybadweather,therescuepartywouldhavebeenabletosavethestrandedclimber.(Not*Hadn"t*)14.19Type3,Variation1:"If"+pastperfect+modal"if-"clause:pastperfecttensemainclause:modal[>11.1]imaginedcondition=imaginedoutcomeIfhehadknownthefacts,>hehavetolduswhattodo.Ifhecouldhavegotthefacts,>AnothermodalcanreplacewouldinType3conditionals,e.g.whenwefeelthattheimaginedconsequenceswerelesslikely,orwhenwearereferringtoability[>11.15],possibility[>11.28],etc.:imaginedcondition=imaginedoutcomeIfhehadbeenhereyesterday,hecouldhavetoldus.(ability)Ifhehadbeenhereyesterday,hemighthavetoldus.(possibility)Ifhehadreceivedapresent,heshouldhavethankedher.(duty)Progressiveandperfectcombinationswithmodalsarepossible:Ifhehadbeenhere,hecouldhavebeenhelpingusintheshop.Ifshehadbeenhere,shecouldhavemetmysister.Otherusesof"if"andsimilarconjunctions14.20Negativeswith"if_not"and"unless"If_notandunlessaresometimesinterchangeable,butthereareoccasionswhenitisimpossibletouseoneinplaceoftheother.14.20.1When"if_not"and"unless"areinterchangeableBothif_notandunlesscanbeusedinnegativeType1conditionalswithoutanoticeablechangeofmeaning:Ifyoudon"tchangeyourmind,Iwon"tbeabletohelpyou.Unlessyouchangeyourmind,Iwon"tbeabletohelpyou.However,unlessis"stronger"thanif_notandissometimespreferable,e.g.inanultimatum:Unlessthemanagementimprovetheiroffer,there"llbeastrike.14.20.2Whenwecannotuse"unless"inplaceof"if_not"Unlesscannotreplaceif_notinaType1sentencelike:I"llbesurprisedifhedoesn"twin.Thisisbecauseunlessalwaysmeans"exceptontheconditionthat",sowecannotnormallyuseittoreferto"unreal"situations:She"dbebettercompanyifshedidn"tcomplainsomuch.14.20.3Whenwecannotuse"if_not"inplaceof"unless"Weoftenuseunlessinpastreferencestointroduceanafterthought.Theunless-clausefollowsthemainclauseandisusuallyseparatedbyadashratherthanacomma:Icouldn"thavegottothemeetingontime-unlessIhadcaughtanearliertrain.Thismeansthespeakerdidn"tgettothemeeting.Hecouldonlyhavedonesobycatchinganearliertrain.Ifweuseif_notinplaceofunlessintheabovesentence,weget:Icouldn"thavegotthereifIhadn"tcaughtanearliertrain.Thesentencenowconveystheexactoppositemeaning:thespeakerdidgettothemeetingbecausehedidcatchanearliertrain.14.20.4"If"and"unless"clausesinshortanswersNotehowif-clausesandunless-clausescanoccurinshortanswers:
EnglishGrammar:ConditionalsentencesWillyouhelpuswiththisre-decorating?-Yes,ifIcan.No,notunlessyoupayme.14.21Conjunctionsthatcansometimesbeusedinplaceof"if"Conditionalscanalsobeintroducedbythefollowingconjunctions,whichdonotalwayshavepreciselythesamemeaningasif:aslongas,assuming(that),evenif,ifonly[>11.41-42],on(the)condition(that),provided/providing(that),solongasandunless[>14.20];alsosuppose(that)andsupposing(that),whichnormallyintroducequestions:He"lldefinitelywin,evenifhefallsover.They"lllendustheirflaton(the)condition(that)welookafterit.Providing/Provided(that)(orSoslongas)youclearyourdeskbythisevening,youcanhavetomorrowoff.Suppose/Supposing(that)wemissthetrain,whatshallwedo?WhatifandSaycanbeusedinthesenseof"Letussuppose":Whatif/Sayhegetshomebeforeusandcan"tgetin?Whatwillhedothen?Whatif/Sayyouweretorunoutofmoney?Whatwouldyoudo?WecanabbreviateaconditionifwebeginanewsentencewithIfso,Inthatcase,orIfnot;orifwecontinuewithinwhichcase:Hemaybebusy,inwhichcaseI"llcalllater.or:Hemaybebusy.Ifso,(Inthatcase,)I"llcalllater.Ifnot,canIseehimnow?Whetherornot(Not*ifornot*)introduces"alternative"conditionals[compare>1.24.1][>15.18n.7]:WhetherIfeelwellornotonMonday,I"mgoingbacktowork.WhetherornotIfeelwellonMonday,I"mgoingbacktowork.You"llhavetoputupwithit,whetheryoulikeitornot.14.22ImpliedconditionalsConditionalscanbeimplied(i.e.notdirectlyintroducedbyif)inavarietyofways:e.g.type1:Withluck,we"llbetherebytomorrow.(=ifwe"relucky)Giventime,they"llprobablyagree.(=ifwegivethemtime)type2:Tohearhimtalk,you"dthinkhewasPrimeMinister.(=ifyoucouldhearhimtalk)Iwouldwritetoher,butIdon"tknowheraddress.(=ifIknewheraddress)Butforhispension,hewouldstarve.(=ifhedidn"thave)type3:Withoutyourhelp,Icouldn"thavedoneit.(=ifyouhadn"thelped)Indifferentcircumstances,Iwouldhavesaidyes.(=ifcircumstanceshadbeendifferent)14.23"If"withmeaningsotherthan"providedthat"14.23.1"If"meaning"when"Ifitrainsheavily,ourriverfloods.(=onthoseoccasionswhen)Ifmeaning"when"oftenreferstopermanenttruths.Theverbinthemainclausemaybeeitherwillorthesimplepresent[>11.64]:Ifyouboilwater,itturns(orwillturn)intosteam.Peoplecommonlyusethephraseifandwhenforemphasisinplaceof"onlywhen":Thedisputewillendifandwhenbothsidesagree.14.23.2"If"meaning"although"or"evenif"I"llfinishthisreportifitkillsme.(i.e.evenif)Subjectandverbcanbeomittedinclausesofthissort:He"sapleasant,ifawkwardlad.(i.e.evenifheisawkward)14.23.3"Asif"inexclamations[compare>1.47.2]Asifinthissenseiscommoninexclamations:AsifIcarewhethershe"soffended!(=Idon"tcare)Asifitmatters/mattered!(=itdoesn"tmatter)14.23.4"If"inplaceof"whether"[>1.24.1][>15.18n.5]Aswellasintroducingconditionalsifalsointroducesindirectquestions.Incertaincircumstances,ifismorenaturalthanwhetherinindirectquestions:Hewantstoknowifhecanstaytodinner."Will"and"would"after"if"14.24"If"+"will"and"would"14.24.1"Will"and"would"toemphasizewillingnessandunwillingness-whenaskingotherstodothings/respondingtooffersofhelp:ShallIholdthedooropenforyou?-Yes,ifyouwill/would.
EnglishGrammar:ConditionalsentencesIfyouwill/would/couldwaitamoment,I"llfetchthemoney.-withreferencetosomeoneelse:Ifhewill/would/couldonlytryharder,I"msurehe"ddowell.-inpoliteformulas,particularlyinformalcontexts;I"dbegratefulifyouwill/wouldletmeknowsoon.Ifyouwill/youwouldfollowme,I"llshowyoutheway.Givemeamoment,ifyouwould.(or,sometimes,will)-indirectreferencestowillingness/unwillingness:Ifyouwill/wouldagreetopayuscompensation,wewill/wouldagreenottotakethematteranyfurther.(i.e.ifyou"rewilling)Ifyouwon"tstopsmoking,youcanonlyexpecttohaveabadcough.(i.e.ifyouareunwillingtostopsmoking-Not*wouldn"t*)14.24.2"If"+"will"inType1conditionalsWedonotnormallyuseapurefuturewillafterif.However,thoughrare,itisjustpossiblewhenwewishtoemphasizetheideaof"notnow,butlater".Compare:Ifitsuitsyou,I"llchangethedateofourmeeting.(Type1)Ifitwillsuityou,(i.e.notnow,butlater)I"llchangethedateofourmeeting.
EnglishGrammar:Directandindirectspeech15DirectandindirectspeechDirectspeech15.1Whendoweusedirectspeech?Weusedirectspeechwheneverwespeak.Weusethetermdirectspeechtodescribethewaywerepresentthespokenwordinwriting.15.2Formofdirectspeechinwritingactualspokenstatementdirectstatementinwriting"I"mwaiting.""I"mwaiting,"Johnsaid.actualspokenquestiondirectquestioninwriting"Whendidyouarrive,John?""Whendidyouarrive,John?"Maryasked.15.3Notesontheuseofpunctuationmarks1Quotationmarks(or"invertedcommas")goroundwhatisactuallyspokenandencloseotherpunctuationmarkssuchascommas(,)fullstops(.),questionmarks(?)andexclamationmarks(!).Theymaybesingle("_"),ordouble("_")andareplacedhighabovethebase-lineatthebeginningandendofeachquotation:"Isthatyou,Jane?"Bobasked."Isthatyou,Jane?"Bobasked.2Whatissaid,plusreportingverbanditssubject,isconsideredasawholeunit.Whenthesubject+reportingverb[>App45]comesatthebeginningofasentence,thereportingverbisalwaysfollowedbyacomma(sometimesbyacolon(:)inAmE)andthequotationbeginswithacapitalletter:Johnsaid,"It"sgoodtoseeyou."Whenthesubject+reportingverbcomesafterwhatissaid,thequotationhasacommabeforethesecondquotationmark:"It"sgoodtoseeyou,"Johnsaid.Butifthequotationendswithanexclamationmarkoraquestionmark,acommaisnotusedaswell:"WherecanIgetataxi?"Johnasked.Subject+verbcancomeinthemiddleofaquotation-sentence:"Where,inthiswretchedtown,"Johnasked,"canIgetataxi?"Thesecondpartofthequotationdoesnotbeginwithacapitalletterbecauseitisnotaseparatesentence.3Ifthereisa"quotewithinaquote"(e.g.ifwearequotingsomeone"sexactwords),weuseasecondsetofquotationmarks.Ifdoublequotationmarkshavebeenusedonthe"outside",singleonesareusedonthe"inside"andviceversa.Theinsidequotationhasitsownpunctuation,distinctfromtherestofthesentence:Annsaid,"JustasIwasleaving,avoiceshouted,"Stop!".""Whatdoyoumean,"Areyouallright?"?"Annasked.Wecanalsouseasecondsetofquotationmarkswhenwementionthetitleofe.g.abook,filmorplay:"Howlongdidittakeyoutoread"WarandPeace"?"Iasked.However,thisisoftenamatterofpersonaltaste.Inprint,titlesoftenappearinitalicswithoutquotationmarks.4Noun+reportingverbmaybeinsubject+verborderormaybeinverted(verb+subject)[>App45.1]:"Thisisaseriousoffence,"thejudgesaid/saidthejudge.Ifthesubjectisalongone,theninversionisusual:"Where"sthistraingoing?"askedtheladysittingbesideme.Withapronounsubject,inversionisrareinmodernEnglish:"Thisisaseriousoffence,"hesaid.Somereportingverbs,particularlythoserequiringanobject,suchasassure,informandtellcannotbeinverted[>App45.2].Adverbsofmannerusuallycomeattheend[compare>7.16.1]:"Goaway!"saidMrTomkins/MrTomkinssaidangrily.5Quotationmarksaregenerallynotrequiredwithreportingverbssuchasaskoneself,thinkandwonderwhentheyareusedtodescribe"directthoughts"in"freeindirectspeech"[>15.27.3]:Sothatwastheirlittlegame,hethought.Wherearetheynow,hewondered.15.4Directspeechincontext15.4.1PrinteddialoguePrinteddialogueisparticularlycommoninworksoffictionandcanoccurwithoutconnectingnarrative:"Atissueoflies!"Boylecried."Youthinkso?"theinspectorasked."Thinkso?Iknowit.""Andnodoubtyoucanproveit.Firstthereareafewimportantpointsthatneedanswering."Inthiskindofdialogue,eachnewspeechbeginsonanewlineinanewparagraph.Oncethecharactershavebeenestablished,itisnotnecessarytogoonrepeatingnames(orpronouns)andreportingverbs-excepttoremindthereaderfromtimetotimewhoisspeaking.Ifaspeechgoesonformorethanaparagraph,weputopeningquotationmarksatthebeginningofeachparagraph,butclosingonesonlyattheendofthefinalparagraph.
EnglishGrammar:DirectandindirectspeechDialoguecanalsooccurwithinconnectingnarrative:Boylewasagitated.Hepacedtheroomastheinspectorreconstructedthecrime.Finally,hecouldbearitnolonger."Atissueoflies!"hecried.Theinspectorpausedandaskedwithheavyirony,"Youthinkso?""Thinkso?Iknowit,"Boylesnapped.Theinspectorwasunconvinced."Andnodoubtyoucanproveit,"hesaid."Firstthereareafewimportantpointsthatneedanswering,"headded,glancingquicklyathisnotebook.Inthiskindofdialogue,thewordsspokenbythecharactersarequotedwithineachnewparagraphaspartofthenarration.15.4.2QuotationsWeusetheconventionsofdirectspeechwhenwearequotingexactwords,e.g.inletters,reportsandstatementsbywitnesses:IreconstructedthecrimeandbeforeIhadfinishedspeaking,Boylesaid,"Atissueoflies!"Iaskedtheaccusedifhereallythoughtsoandheanswered,"Thinkso?Iknowit!"15.4.3ScriptsQuotationmarksarenotusedinscriptsforplays,etc.:BOYLE(agitated):Atissueoflies!INSPECTORWILEY:Youthinkso?BOYLE(sharply):Thinkso?Iknowit!INSPECTORWILEY:Andnodoubtyoucanproveit."Say","tell"and"ask"15.5Indirectspeechandthesequenceoftenses[compare>9.5.2]Weuseindirectspeech(sometimescalled"reportedspeech")whenwearetellingsomeonewhatanotherpersonsaysorsaid.Thereportingverb(e.g.say,tell)maybeinthepresentorpast(mostofteninthepast)andthetensesofthereportedstatementareoften(butnotalways)affectedbythis.Compare:-actualspokenstatement:"Icanseehimnow."-directstatementinwriting:"Icanseehimnow,"thebosssays/said.-indirectstatement(present):Thebosssays(that)hecanseeyounow.-indirectstatement(past):Thebosssaid(that)hecouldseeyounow.Quotationmarksarenotusedinindirectspeech.Forverbsthatcanintroducereportedstatementsandquestions[>App45].15.6Reportingverbsandadjectivesindirect/indirectspeechThecommonestreportingverbsinbothdirectandindirectspeecharesay,tellandask.Manyotherverbscanbefollowedbythatorif/whetherandcanserveasreportingverbs[>App45].Anumberofthesedonotstrictly"reportspeech"(actualspokenwords),butthoughts,feelings,etc.Thatiswhy"indirectspeech",asaterm,ispreferableto"reportedspeech".Similarly,anumberofadjectives,suchascertain,sure[>App44]canbefollowedbythat,if,whether,(whether)toandquestion-words.15.7Theverbs"say","tell"and"ask"15.7.1Basicusesof"say","tell"and"ask"Thesethreeverbsdonotfollowthesamepattern.Themostimportantthingtorememberisthattellmustbefollowedbyapersonalindirectobject(tellsomebody_).Saycanbefollowedbyanoptionalto+thepersonwhoisaddressed:"Youhaven"tgotmuchtime,"hetoldme/hesaid(tome).Askcanbefollowedbyanindirectobject[>15.17][>16.20]:"Areyoucomfortable?"heasked(me).Heasked(me)ifIwascomfortable.Inreportedrequests[>15.24][>16.20]theinclusionornotofanobjectaffectsthemeaning:Sheaskedtogo.(actualspokenwords:"MayIgo?")Sheaskedmetogo.(actualspokenwords:"Willyougo?")Thefollowingreferencesgivefurtherdetailsaboutsay,tellandask:-sayindirectspeechinwriting[>15.2-3][>15.8].-say+that-clause,indirectstatement[>15.9-16].-sayif/whether+indirectYes/Noquestion[>15.18].-say+indirectWh-question[>15.20n.3].-say+to-infinitive[>15.24.1].-tellsomebodyindirectspeechinwriting[>15.2-3][>15.8].-tellsomebody+that-clause,indirectstatement[>15.9-16]-tellsomebody+if/whether+indirectYes/Noquestion[>15.18n.8].-tellsomebody+indirectWh-question[>15.20n.3].-tellsomebody+to-infinitive[>15.23-24][>16.21][>16.25].-ask(somebody)indirectspeechinwriting[>15.2-3][>15.8].-ask(somebody)+if/whether+indirectYes/Noquestion[>15.9][>15.17-18].-ask(somebody)+Wh-question[>15.19-22].
EnglishGrammar:Directandindirectspeech-ask(somebody)+to-infinitive[>15.23-24][>16.20].-askthatsomething(should)bedone[>11.75.2].15.7.2Secondaryusesof"say","tell"and"ask"-sayso:"Themeeting"soff,"Jillsaid."Whosaysso?""Thebosssaysso/saidso,"Jillanswered.-thepassive"Heissaidtobe"[>12.8n.3]doesnothaveanactiveequivalent:Not*Theysayhimto*,but:Theysay(that)heis.-say+objectinfixedexpressions:e.g.sayafewwords,saynomore,saynothing,say(your)prayers,saysomething.-tellsomebodyso:"Youwererightaboutthemeeting,"Isaid."Itoldyouso,"Jillanswered.-tell+objectinfixedexpressions:e.g.(can)tellthedifference,tellalie,tellastory,tellthetime,tellthetruth.-askforsomething:asksomebodyforsomething:Iaskedforaloan.IaskedJimforaloan.-askinfixedexpressions:e.g.askaftersomeone,ask(for)afavour,asktheprice,askaquestion,askthetime.15.8"Say","tell"and"ask"indirectspeechSayiscommonlyassociatedwithdirectspeechinwriting:"It"sraining,"Isaid.Wecanalsousesaywithshort,ordinaryquestionsindirectspeech(notlongandcomplicatedones):"Areyouallright?"hesaid/asked.(Not*toldme*)Say(Not*toldhim/asked*)canintroduceastatementorquestion:Isaid,"It"sraining."Isaid,"Isitready?"Sayortellcanbeusedindirectspeech[>15.2-3]andcanalsointroducedirectcommands:"Don"ttouchthat!"hesaid(tothem)/toldthem.Askisusedindirectquestions:"Howareyou?"sheasked(me)/said.(Not*toldme*)15.9"Say","tell"and"ask"inindirectspeechSayandtellsomeone+optionalthatcanintroduceindirectstatements.Weneveruseacommaaftersayortellsomeone:Hesaid(that)/toldme(that)hislifewasindanger.Ifweneedtomentionthelistener,tell+indirectobjectisgenerallypreferabletosay+tosomeone[>15.7.1].Whenthereportingverbcomesattheendofthesentence,wecannotusethat:Hislifewasindanger,hetoldme/hesaid.Ask(withorwithoutapersonalindirectobject)canreportaquestion.Ask(someone)isfollowedbyif/whetheroraquestion-word:Sheasked(me)if/whetherIwantedanything.Sheasked(me)whatIwanted.Weusesay/telltointroducenounclauses[>1.23.2],nottoreportquestions.Fortheuseofask/telltoreportcommands[>15.23-24].Indirectstatements:reportingverbinthepresent15.10Formwithreportingverbinthepresentactualspokenstatements"I"vereadTony"sbookandIdon"tunderstandit.""I"vereadTony"sbookandIdidn"tunderstandit."indirectstatements:reportingverbinthepresentIfthereportingverbinindirectspeechisinthepresent,thetensesthatfollowareusuallythesameasthoseusedintheoriginalspokenstatement.Thisisoftenthecasewhenwereportwordsthathavejustbeenspoken[compare>9.5.2][>15.14-16]:Jimsays/tellsme(that)he"sreadTony"sbookanddoesn"tunderstandit.Jimsays/tellsme(that)he"sreadTony"sbookanddidn"tunderstandit.15.11Indirectspeechincontext(reportingverbinthepresent)Thereportingverbisofteninthepresentwhenthereferenceisgeneralorto"presenttime"incontextslikethefollowing:-reporting,e.g.arumour:A:Alittlebirdietellsmeyou"reapplyingforanewjob.B:Whotellsyou?A:Neveryoumind!-passingonmessages:A:Comeinnow,Jim.Dinner"sready.
EnglishGrammar:DirectandindirectspeechB:Whatdoesyourmothersay?C:Shesaysyoumustcomeinnow,dad.(Shesays)dinner"sready.-readinganewspaper,etc.andreporting:A:Whatdoesthearticlesay?B:It"saboutthekitchenofthefuture.Thewritersayswe"llhaverobotswhichcanunderstandinstructionsandcarrythemout.-general(nospecialtime):A:Sohowarewesupposedtowirethisplug?B:Theinstructionssaythatthebrownwiremeans"live"anditgoesintotheholemarked"L".Itsaysherethatthebluemeans"neutral"anditgoesintotheholemarked"N".-reportingsomethingsomeonesaysveryoften:Mary"salwaystalkingaboutmoney.She"salwayscomplainingthatthingsareexpensiveandshe"salwaysaskinghowmuchI"vepaidforonethingandanother.Indirectstatementswithtensechanges15.12Formwithreportingverbinthepastactualspokenstatementsinthepresent(simpleandprogressive)TOM:"Ineedtogotothebank."PAM:"I"mwaitingforHarriet."indirectstatements:present=pastTomsaid(that)heneededtogotothebank.Pamsaid(that)shewaswaitingforHarriet.actualspokenstatementinthepresentperfect"I"vemovedtoanotherflat."indirectstatement:presentperfect=pastperfect(pastperfectobligatory)Sylviasaid(that)shehadmovedtoanotherflat.actualspokenstatementsinthepast(simpleandprogressive)"Imovedtoanotherflat.""IwaswaitingforHarriet.""Ihadbeenwaitingforhoursbeforeyouarrived."indirectstatements:past=pastorpastperfect(pastperfectoptional)Shesaid(that)shemoved/hadmovedtoanotherflat.Hesaid(that)hewaswaiting/hadbeenwaitingforHarriet.Hesaid(that)hehadbeenwaitingforhours.(pastperfectdoesnotchange)actualspokenstatementswiththe"present"formofmodals"Icanseeyoutomorrow.""I"llhelpyou."indirectstatements:modal"present"="conditional"or"past"[>11.8.3]Shesaid(that)shecouldseemethenextday.Shesaid(that)shewouldhelpme.actualspokenstatementswiththe"past"or"conditional"formofmodals"Icouldseeyoutomorrow.""IwouldcomplainifIwereyou."indirectstatements:the"past"or"conditional"modaldoesnotchangeHesaid(that)hecouldseemethenextday.Shesaid(that)shewouldcomplainifshewereme.15.13Notesontheformofindirectspeechwithtensechanges1"Rules"inindirectspeechTensechangesoftenoccurinindirectspeechbecausethereisanintervalbetweentheoriginalspokenwordsandthetimewhentheyarereported,butthesechangesarenotalwaysobligatory[>15.10][>15.14-16].Itisthechangingviewpointofthereportingspeakerorwriterthatdecidesthechoiceofappropriateforms,notcomplicatedrules.Thenotesthatfollowarenot"rules",butarebasedonobservationofwhatoftenhappensinpractice.2LinkingphrasesIndirectspeechrarelyoccursinsetsofunrelatedsentences,butisfoundincontinuousparagraphsofreportedlanguage.Continuityisachievedbytheuseoflinkingphrases,suchas:shewentontosay;hecontinued;headdedthat,andbyvaryingthereportingverbs:heobserved,noted,remarked,etc.Suchformsremindthereaderthatthelanguageisreported.Manyfeaturespresentindirectspeech,suchasYes/Noshortanswersandspeech"fillers",suchasWell,etc.,disappearinindirectspeech.3Tensechanges[>9.5]Inindirectspeechwedonotusuallyrepeatthespeaker"sexactwords.Reportingusuallytakesplaceinthepast,sothereportingverbisofteninthepast.Asaresult,thetensesofthereportedclauseareusually"movedback".This"movingback"oftensesiscalledbackshift.Ausefulgeneralruleis"presentbecomespastandpastbecomespastperfect"."Past"modalsandthepastperfectareunchangedwhenreported,sincenofurtherbackshiftispossible[>15.12].Wemustnormallyusethepastperfecttoreportastatementwhoseverbwasinthepresentperfect:"Ihavelivedinthesouthforyears,"MrsDuncansaid.MrsDuncantoldme(that)shehadlivedinthesouthforyears.Iftheverbintheoriginalstatementwasinthesimplepast,wedonotusuallyneedtochangeittothepastperfect(unlesswewishtoemphasizethatoneeventhappenedbeforeanother):
EnglishGrammar:Directandindirectspeech"IlivedinScotlandinthe1970"s,"MrsDuncansaid.MrsDuncansaidthatshe(had)livedinScotlandinthe1970"s.4PronounchangesPronounschange(ornot)dependingontheviewofthereporter:"I"llsendyouacard,Sue."(actualwordsspokenbyAnn)AnntoldSueshe"dsendheracard.(reportedbysomeoneelse)Annsaid/toldmeshewouldsendmeacard.(reportedbySue)ItoldSue(that)I"dsendheracard.(reportedbyAnn)Sometypicalpronounchangesare:I=he/sheme/you=him/hermy=his/herwe=theyus=themour=theirmine=his/hersours=theirsmyself=himself/herself5TimeandplacechangesItisoftennecessarytomaketimeandplacechangesinrelationtotensechanges.Forexample,onTuesday,Asays:"AcardcameyesterdaysayingSuewillarrivetomorrow."B,reportingthisonWednesday,mightsay:Atoldmeacardhadcomethedaybeforeyesterday/onMondaysayingSuewouldarrivetoday/onWednesday.Buttimeandplacechangesarenotalwaysnecessary.If,forexample,itwasstillTuesdaywhenthestatementabovewasreported,Bmightsay:Atoldmeacardcame(orhadcome)yesterdaysayingSuewill(orwould)arrivetomorrow.Examplesofpossibletimeandplacechanges:time:now=immediately/thentwodaysago=twodaysbefore/earliertoday=thatdaytonight=thatnighttomorrow=thenext/thefollowingdayyesterday=thepreviousday/thedaybeforelastnight=thenightbeforeplace:here=therewhenwhatisreferredtoisclearthisplace=thatplacetheseplaces=thoseplacesverbs:come/bring=go/take6Modalverbs"Modalpresent"becomes"modalpast"[>11.8.3]:e.g.canbecomescould;willbecomeswould;maybecomesmight:"Ican/will/mayseeyoulater,"hesaid.Hesaidhecould/would/mightseemelater.shallWhenshallisusedwithfuturereferenceforprediction,speculation,etc.itbecomeswouldinindirectspeech:"IshalltellhimexactlywhatIthink,"shesaid.Shesaidshewouldtellhimexactlywhatshethought.Whenshallisusedinoffers,suggestionsorrequestsforadviceitbecomesshould(evenafterthesecondandthirdpersons):"ShallIspeaktohiminperson?"sheasked.Sheaskedwhethersheshouldspeaktohiminperson.should/shouldn"tWhenshouldorshouldn"trefertodesirability,obligationorlikelihood,theyremainunchangedinindirectspeech:"Youshouldseeaspecialist,"hetoldme.HetoldmeIshouldseeaspecialist.Shouldusedinplaceofwould,e.g.inconditionalsentences[>14.2][>14.11n.1],becomeswould:"IfIwereyou,Ishouldgetanotherlawyer."Shesaid(that)ifshewereme,shewouldgetanotherlawyer.would,could,might,oughtto,needn"thave,usedtoThese(includingnegativeformswhereapplicable)remainunchangedinindirectspeechinallcombinations:"Iwouldlikeanappointmenttomorrow,"Isaidtomydentist.Itoldmydentist(that)Iwouldlikeanappointmentthenextday."Yououghttoslowdownabit,"thedoctortoldhim.Thedoctortoldhim(that)heoughttoslowdownabit."perfect"and"past"modalforms[>11.8.4]Formssuchasmusthaveandcouldhaveremainunchanged:"Imusthavesleptthroughthealarm,"shesaid.
EnglishGrammar:DirectandindirectspeechShesaidshemusthavesleptthroughthealarm.mustWhenreferringtothepast,mustcanremainunchangedinindirectspeechwhenitisusedtoindicateinescapableobligation.Orwecanusehadto(thepastofhaveto)initsplace:"Imustwarnyouoftheconsequences,"hesaid.Hetoldmehemust/hadtowarnmeoftheconsequences.Must,indicatingfuturenecessity,canremainunchanged,orcanbereplacedbywouldhavetoorsometimeshadto:"Wemustgoearlytomorrow,"shesaid.Shesaidtheymustgoearlythenextday.(orShesaidtheywouldhavetogo/theyhadtogo_)Whenmustisusedtoindicatedeductionorpossibility,itremainsunchangedinindirectspeech.Itcannotbereplacedbyhadto:"Georgemustbeafooltobehavelikethat,"hesaid.HesaidGeorgemustbeafoolt,behavelikethat.Mustn"t(prohibition)remainsunchangedorchangestocouldn"t:"Youmustn"t/can"tcrosstheborder,"theguardsaid.Theguardsaidwemustn"t/couldn"tcrosstheborder.needn"tNeedn"t(absenceofnecessity)canremainunchangedorcanbereplacedbydidn"thavetoinindirectspeech:"Youneedn"t/don"thavetocomeintomorrow,"thebosssaid.ThebosssaidIneedn"t/didn"thavetocomeinthenextday.7Conditionalstatements[>14.2]Type1conditionalstatementsarereportedasfollows:"Ifyoupassyourtest,I"llbuyyouacar,"hesaid.HesaidthatifIpassedmytesthewouldbuymeacar.Type2conditionalstatementsarereportedasfollows:"Ifyoupassedyourtest,Iwouldbuyyouacar,"hesaid.HesaidthatifIpassedmytesthewouldbuymeacar.Type3conditionalstatementsarereportedasfollows:"Ifyou"dpassedyourtest,I"dhaveboughtyouacar,"hesaid.HesaidthatifI"dpassedmytesthe"dhaveboughtmeacar.8ExclamationsNotethewordorderinreportedexclamations:"Whatasillyboyyouare!"sheexclaimed.Shetoldhimwhatasillyboyhewas.Shetoldhimthathewasasillyboy.Indirectstatementswithmixedtensesequences15.14FormofindirectstatementswithmixedtensesequencesactualspokenstatementI"vereadTony"sbookandIdon"tunderstandit."indirectstatementswithmixedtensesequencesJimsayshe"sreadTony"sbookanddidn"tunderstandit.Jimsaidhe"sreadTony"sbookanddoesn"tunderstandit.Jimsaidhe"dreadTony"sbookanddoesn"tunderstandit.Jimsaidhe"dreadTony"sbookanddidn"tunderstandit.15.15Indirectspeech:thespeaker"sviewpoint[compare>15.10-11]Aspeakercanchoosetoreportastatementoraquestionusingthetensesthatmatchhisviewpoint,basedonthefactsofthesituationasheseesthematthetimeofspeaking.Notethedifferentviewpointsexpressedinthefollowingexamples:Jimsays(now)he"sreadTony"sbookanddidn"tunderstandit(then,whenhefinishedreading,orthen,whilehewasreading).Jimsaid(then)he"sreadTony"sbook(now)anddidn"tunderstandit(then).Jimsaid(then)he"dreadTony"sbook(then)anddoesn"tunderstandit(now).Jimsaid(then)he"dreadTony"sbook(then)anddidn"tunderstandit(then).15.16Reportingpermanentstates,facts,habitsPermanentstatesandconditionsareoftenreportedinthesimplepresentafterareportingverbinthepasttoshowthattheyaremattersoffactnow[>App45]:Copernicusconcludedthattheearthgoesroundthesun.However,the"proximityrule"[>9.5.2]wouldalsoallowustosay:
EnglishGrammar:DirectandindirectspeechCopernicusconcludedthattheearthwentroundthesun.Achangeintensecanleadtoambiguity.Compare:Hetoldmeheworksasabuilder.(atpresent)Hetoldmeheworkedasabuilder.(atpresentorinthepast?)IndirectYes/Noquestions15.17FormofindirectYes/NoquestionsTherulesabouttensesequences[>9.5][>15.10][>15.12-16]alsoapplytoquestions:actualspokenquestionsindirectquestionsbe:"Areyouready?"Heasked(me)if/whetherIam/wasready.have:"Haveyoufinished?"Heasked(me)if/whetherI(have)/hadfinished.do:"Doyouplaychess?"Heasked(me)if/whetherIplay/playedchess.modals:"CanIhaveit?"Heasked(me)if/whetherhecan/couldhaveit.15.18NotesontheformofindirectYes/Noquestions1QuotationmarksandquestionmarksQuotationmarksandquestionmarksarenotusedinindirectquestionsandthereisachangeinwordorder(notes2and3below).2Wordorder:be,haveandmodalauxiliariesTheinversioninthedirectquestionchangesbacktostatementwordorder(subject+verb)inthereportedquestionand,ifnecessary,thetenseischangedatthesametime.Modalsmaychangefromtheir"present"formtotheir"past"form[>11.8.3]:directstatement:"Heisready."(subject+verb)directYes/Noquestion:"Isheready?"(inversion)indirectquestion:Sheaskedmeifhewasready.(if+subject+verb)3Wordorder:do,doesanddidDo/does/didinYes/Noquestionsdisappearinreportedquestions:directstatement:"Hewenthome."directYes/Noquestion:"Didhegohome?"indirectquestion:Sheaskedmeifhewenthome.or:Sheaskedmeifhehadgonehome.Thisreflectsnormalusage,butineverydayspeechitisnotuncommontoheardirectquestionsembeddedinindirectspeech:Shesaidshewasgoingtotheshopsand(askedme)didIwantanythingwhileshewasout.4ReportingYes/NoquestionsAllkindsofYes/Noquestions[>13.5][>13.14][>13.17-23]arereportedinthesameway.Ifnecessary,phraseslikeinsurprisecanbeaddedtointerpretintonation,etc.[>15.25]:"Doyouplaychess?">"Don"tyouplaychess?">Heaskedmeif/whether"Youdon"tplaychess,doyou?">Iplayedchess."Youplaychess,don"tyou?"etc.>5Ifandwhether[compare>1.24.1][>14.23.4][>16.24]Ifandwhetherareinterchangeableafterask,wanttoknow,wonder,etc.,butwhetherconveysslightlygreaterdoubt.Someverbs,likediscuss[>App45],canonlybefollowedbywhether.IforwhethermustalwaysbeusedwhenreportingYes/Noquestionsandcannotbeomitted(unlikethatinreportedstatements):Tomaskedif/whetheritwasraining.Whetherisusuallypreferredwhentherearealternatives[>13.44-45]:SheaskedmewhetherIwantedteaorcoffee.6ThatandwhetherinshortanswersShortanswerscanbegivenwiththatandwhether/if:Whatdidshetellyou?Whatdidsheaskyou?-Thatshewouldbelate.-Whether/IfIwouldbelate.7ReportingYes/Noquestionswithornot[>1.24.1][>13.44-45][>14.21]"Doyouwantanydinnerornot?"Hewantstoknowif/whetherwewantanydinnerornot.Hewantstoknowwhetherornotwewantdinner.(Not*ifornot*)8IndirectYes/NoquestionswithreportingverbsotherthanaskManyreportingverbscanbeusedotherthanask,wanttoknow,etc.incombinationswithwhetherand(sometimes)if[>App45]:Hedidn"ttellmeif/whetherhewouldbearrivingearlyorlate.Shedidn"tsayif/whethershewascomingtolunch.Idon"tknowif/whetherI"vepassedmyexamyet.Iwonderif/whetherthey"veheardthenewsyet.
EnglishGrammar:DirectandindirectspeechIndirectquestion-wordquestions15.19Formofindirectquestion-wordquestionsTherulesabouttensesequences[>9.5][>15.10][>15.12-16]alsoapplytoquestions:actualspokenquestionsindirectquestionsbe:"Whereareyougoing?"Heasked(me)whereIwasgoing.have:"Whyhaven"tyoufinished?"HewantedtoknowwhyI(haven"t)/hadn"tfinished.do:"Whatdoyouthinkofit?"HewantedtoknowwhatI(think)/thoughtofit.modals:"WhenmustIbethere?"Heasked(me)whenhemustbe/hadtobethere.15.20Notesontheformofindirectquestion-wordquestions1Wordorder:be,haveandmodalauxiliaries[compare>15.18n.2]Theinversionafteraquestion-wordinadirectquestionchangesbacktostatementwordorder(subject+verb)inthereportedquestionand,ifnecessary,thetenseischangedatthesametime.Modalsmaychangefrom"present"formto"past"form[>11.8.3]:directstatement:Wearegoinghome.directWh-question:Whereareyougoing?(Wh-+inversion)indirectquestion:Heasked(us)whereweweregoing.(Wh-+subject+verb)2Wordorder:do,doesanddid[compare>15.18n.3]Do/does/didindirectquestionsdisappearinreportedquestions:directstatement:"IgaveittoJohn."directWh-question:"WhendidyougiveittoJohn?"indirectquestion:HeaskedmewhenIgaveittoJohn.3Indirectquestion-wordquestionswithverbsotherthanaskManydifferentreportingverbscanbeusedotherthanask,wanttoknow,etc.[>App45]:Iknowwherehelives.Shedidn"tsaywhyshewascominghomelate.Hedidn"ttellmehowhedidit.4Question-wordsinshortanswersShortanswerscanbegivenwithWhy,When,etc.:Whatdidshewanttoknow?-Why/Whenwewereleaving.(=Shewantedtoknowwhy/whenwewereleaving.)Indirectsubject-questions15.21Formofindirectsubject-questionsactualspokenquestionsindirectquestionsbe:"Whoisinchargehere?"Heasked(me)whowasinchargethere.present:"Whichfirmmakestheseparts?"Heasked(me)whichfirm(makes)madethoseparts.past:"Whatcausedtheaccident?"Heasked(me)whatcaused/hadcausedtheaccident.modals:"Whosenovelwillwintheprize?"Heasked(me)whosenovelwouldwintheprize.15.22Noteontheformofindirectsubject-questionsTensechangesandchangesinmodalsoccurintheusualway,butthewordorderofthedirectquestionisretainedintheindirectquestion.Reportingverbsotherthanaskcanbeusedtointroduceindirectsubjectquestions[>App45]:Pleasetellmewhodeliveredthispackage.Iwanttoknowwhichpiecefitsinthispuzzle.Usesoftheto-infinitiveinindirectspeech15.23Formoftheto-infinitiveinindirectspeechactualspokenwordsreportedversion"Keeparecordofyourexpenses."Itoldhimtokeeparecordofhisexpenses."Don"tmakeamessinthekitchen."Itoldhimnottomakeamessinthekitchen."HowdoIpreparethesauce?"Hewantedtoknowhowtopreparethesauce."Iwanttospeaktothemanager."Sheaskedtospeaktothemanager.15.24Formanduseoftheinfinitiveinindirectspeech15.24.1Theimperative:affirmativeandnegativeImperatives(usuallyorders,requests,advice,etc.)arereportedwithappropriateverbsfollowedbyato-infinitive.Commonly-used
EnglishGrammar:Directandindirectspeechverbs(alwaysfollowedbyapersonalobjectinindirectspeech)are:advise,ask,instruct,remind,tell,warn,etc.[>App45.3].Ineachcasethereportingverbmustmatchthefunctionoftheimperative(asking,telling,advising,etc.)[compare>16.20-21]"Keeparecordofyourexpenses,"Isaid.tell:Itoldhimtokeeparecordofhisexpenses."Remembertoswitchoffallthelights",shesaid.remind:Sheremindedmetoswitchoffallthelights.Whenanegativeimperative(e.g.Don"tmakeamess!)isreported,notalwaysgoesbeforetheto-infinitive[butcompare>16.14]:Shetold/asked/warnedhimnottomakeamessinthekitchen.Directorderscanalsobereportedwithbeto:"Waitforme."HesaysIamtowaitforhim.HesaidIwasto_Orwecanusethepassivewithverbsotherthansay:Ihavebeentold/wastoldtowaitforhim.Notetheinformaluseofsayin:Hesaid(not)towaitforhim.Ask,whenaspeakerisaskingpermissionormakingarequest,maybefollowedbytheinfinitive:Iaskedtospeaktothemanager.andbythepassiveinfinitive[>12.2]:Heaskedtobekeptinformedaboutdevelopments.Iaskedfortwoitemstobeaddedtothelist.15.24.2Theinfinitiveafterquestion-words[compare>16.24]DirectsuggestionsandrequestsforadviceandinformationwithShallI_?,ShouldI_?,Doyouwantmeto_?etc.(expectingYes/Noanswers)canbereportedintwoways:directrequest:"Shall/ShouldIphoneher?"indirectrequest:Hewantedtoknowif/whetherheshouldphoneher.whether+infinitive:Hewantedtoknowwhethertophoneher.Requests,etc.withquestion-wordscanalsobereportedintwoways:directrequest:"HowshallIpreparethesauce?"indirectrequest:Hewantedtoknowhowheshouldprepareit.question-word+infinitive:Hewantedtoknowhowtoprepareit.Otherexamples:16.38].Manyverbsandadjectives,andsomenouns,canbefollowedbyoneorotheroftheseforms,andinsomecasesbymorethanoneform.Fromthestudent"spointofview,theproblemisknowingwhichformisappropriate.Thismaybebecauseonlyoneformisgrammaticallycorrect,e.g.enjoydoing[>16.42],failtodo[>16.19].Oritmaybebecauseonlyoneformsuitswhatwewanttosay,e.g.rememberdoingorremembertodo[>16.59].16.2Formsoftheinfinitive[>1.56][>16.41]activepassivepresentinfinitive:(to)ask(to)beaskedpresentprogressiveinfinitive:(to)beasking-perfectorpastinfinitive:(to)haveasked(to)havebeenaskedperfect/pastprogressiveinfinitive:(to)havebeenasking-16.3ThebareinfinitiveaftermodalverbsThemainuseofthebareinfinitiveisaftermodalverbs.Allthemodalverbs[>11.6.1n.2]mustbefollowedbyabareinfinitive(exceptinshortresponseslikeYes,Ican):Ican/could/may/might/will/shall/should/mustleavesoon.Dare/need,whentheyaremodal,aresimilar(Dare/Needweask?).Thenegativeisformedbyaddingnotbeforetheinfinitive:Icannot/can"tgo,etc.[>11.5.1].16.4Thebareinfinitiveafter"let"and"make"16.4.1"Let"asanauxiliaryverbWecommonlyusetheimperativeformLet"s(thecontractionofLetus)asanauxiliaryverbfollowedbyabareinfinitivewhenmakingsuggestionsforactionsthatincludethespeaker.Let"sisoftenassociatedwithshallwe?[>11.40]:Let"stakeataxi!Let"stakeataxi,shallwe?Dolet"s_ThenegativeofLet"sinsuggestionsis:Let"snot/Don"tlet"sargueaboutit.Informally,Let"scanrelatetoIine.g.offersandrequests:Let"sgiveyouahand.(=I"ll)Let"shavealook.(=CanI?)Letasanauxiliaryneednotalwaysbefollowedbyus:LetXYZbeatriangle.Letthemeatcake.Lettherebelight.Don"tletme(or,veryformal,Letmenot)interruptyou.16.4.2"Let"asafullverbThebasicmeaningofletisallow,andinthissenseitisafullverb,alwaysfollowedbyanounorpronounobjectbeforeabareinfinitive.Iftheobjectisus,itcannotbereducedtolet"s:Pleaseletushavemoretime,willyou?(=allowusto)Don"tletthechildrenannoyyou.Iwon"tletyouridemybicycle.Letcanbefollowedbyapassiveinfinitive:Heletitbeknownhewasabouttoresign.butisnotnormallyusedinthepassivetomean"beallowed".Compare:Theydidn"tletusspeak.Wewerenotallowedtospeak.16.4.3"Make"(=compel)+bareinfinitiveMake(active)+noun/pronounobjectcanbefollowedbyabareinfinitive.Itmeans"compel"or"causeto":MissProutymadetheboysstayinafterschool.Thatbeardmakesyoulookmucholderthanyouare.However,inthepassive,makeinthesesensesisfollowedbyto:Hewasmadetoworktwentyhoursaday.Unlikelet,make(=compel)canneverbefollowedbyapassiveinfinitive.Butcomparemakeinadifferentsense:Rulesweremade(=created)tobebroken.16.4.4Fixedphraseswith"let"and"make"+bareinfinitiveThebareinfinitiveoccursinanumberoffixedverbphraseswithletandmake:e.g.letfall,letgo,letmesee,letslip,liveandletlive,makebelieve,makedo:Thedog"sgotastickbetweenhisteethandhewon"tletgo.
EnglishGrammar:Theinfinitiveandthe"-ing"formYou"llhavetomakeyourpocketmoneydo.Ican"tgiveyoumore.16.5Thebareinfinitiveafter"wouldrather",etc.Weusethebareinfinitiveafterexpressionsinwhich"dcanbereplacedbywouldorhad[>11.44-47]:1"d=would:"drather,"dsooner.Butnotethathadratherandhadsoonersometimesoccur.2"d=had:"dbetter,"dbest(lesscommonthan"dbetter).I"dratherworkonthelandthanworkinafactory.We"dbetter/bestbegoing.-Yes,we"dbetter/we"dbestbe.Theseformscanoftenbefollowedbythepassiveinfinitive:I"dratherbetoldthetruththanbeliedto.Notcanbeusedafter"drather/sooner/better/best:You"dbetternotgoneartheedge.Informally,betterorsubject+betteroftenoccurwithouthad:MrMurphywillbehereanyminute.-Bettergethisfilethen.Youbetterstoparguinganddoasyou"retold.16.6Thebareinfinitiveafter"Why?"and"Whynot?"ForbareinfinitiveusesafterWhy/Whynot?[>13.37.2-3]Theinfinitivewithorwithout"to"16.7"Help"and"know"+bareinfinitiveorto-infinitiveWemayuseabareinfinitiveorato-infinitiveafterafewverbslikehelpandknow.Theuseofato-infinitiveismoreformal:Motherhelpedme(to)domyhomework.Wedonotusuallyomittoafternot:HowcanIhelpmychildrennottoworryabouttheirexams?Helpcanbeusedwithoutanounorpronounobject:Everyoneinthevillagehelped(to)buildthenewYouthCentre.orwithanounorpronounobject:Cananyonehelpme(to)fillinthistaxform?Inthepassive,toisobligatoryafterhelp:Milliewashelpedtoovercomeherfearofflying.Help+thepassiveinfinitiveispossible,thoughrare:I"msurethistreatmentwillhelphim(to)becured.Know+infinitivenormallyrequiresanounorpronounobject.Theomissionoftoisonlypossiblewiththeperfectformofknow:I"veneverknownher(to)belatebefore.I"veneverknownhernot(to)belate!Inthepassive,toisobligatory;Hewasknowntohave/tohavehadaquicktemperasaboy.16.8Infinitivesjoinedby"and",etc.Infinitivescanbejoinedbyand,but,except,orandthan[>8.4.4].Toisusuallydroppedbeforethesecondinfinitive:Whichwouldyouprefer:towinamillionpoundsor(to)haveabrainlikeEinstein"s?Otherinfinitiveformscancombineinthisway:I"dliketobeflyingovertheAlpsand(tobe)lookingdown/andbelookingdownatthemountains.I"dliketohavebeenofferedthejoband(tohavebeen)given/andbeengiventheopportunitytoprovemyself.Wherethesecondinfinitivefollowsoncloselyfromthefirst,itisnormaltoomittobeforethesecondinfinitive:I"dliketoliedownandgotosleep.(Not*togo*)Thebareinfinitiveorthe"-ing"form?16.9Thebareinfinitiveor"-ing"afterverbsofperception16.9.1Verbswithoutanounorpronounobject+"-ing"Theverbshear,smellandwatchcanbefollowedbythe-ingformwithoutanoun/pronounobjectwhenanactionisperceivedinageneralway;-ingfunctionsastheobjectoftheverb[>16.40.3]:Wecouldhearshoutinginthedistance.Peoplecanstandonthisplatformandwatchbuildinginprogress.16.9.2Verb+nounorpronounobject+bareinfinitiveor"-ing"Theseverbscanbefollowedbyanounorpronounobject+bareinfinitiveorthe-ingform:feel,hear,listento,lookat,notice,observe,perceive,see,smell,watch[compare>16.45.1][>App38.4].Thebareinfinitivegenerallyreferstothecompleteaction:Iwatchedapavement-artistdrawaportraitincrayons.
EnglishGrammar:Theinfinitiveandthe"-ing"form(i.e.probablyfromstarttofinish)The-ingformgenerallyreferstoanactioninprogress:Iwatchedapavement-artistdrawingaportraitincrayons.(i.e.theactionwasprobablyinprogresswhenIarrived)Eitherthebareinfinitiveor-ingcandescribeashortaction:Iheardsomeoneunlockthedoor/unlockingthedoor.Butwedonotusethe-ingformforveryshortactions.Compare:Iheardhimcough.(once)Icanhearhimcoughing.(repeatedly)Foraseriesofactions,wepreferthebareinfinitive:Thecrowdwatchedthefiremanclimbtheladder,breakawindowonthefirstfloor,andenterthebuilding.Thepassive-ingform[>16.41](butnotthepassiveinfinitive)canfollowaverbofperception:Isawhimbeingtakenawaybythepolice.Thepastparticiplecansometimesfollowtheobjectdirectly:Isawhimtakenawaybythepolice.16.9.3Thepassiveofverbsofperception+"-ing"orto-infinitiveTheverbshear,observe,perceiveandseeareoftenusedinthepassivefollowedby-ingorbyato-infinitive:Theywereseenwaitingonthecorner.(actioninprogress)Theywereseentoclimbthroughthewindow.(actioncompleted)16.10"Have"+bareinfinitiveorthe"-ing"form16.10.1"Have"+personalobject+bareinfinitiveWeusethisconstructiontoshowthatonepersoniscausinganothertodosomething[>12.10]:Havethenextpatientcomeinnowplease,nurse.Hewantedajobtodo,soIhadhimpaintthekitchen.Andnotehave+verbslikebelieveandknowin:e.g.Ican"timaginewhathe"llhaveyoubelievenext.I"llhaveyouknowthatI"maqualifiedengineer.16.10.2"Have"+object+"-ing"formWeusethisconstructiontorefertotheresultsweareaimingat:I"llhaveyouspeakingEnglishinsixmonths.Withinfiveminutes,Archiehadusallplayinghide-and-seek.Wecanalsorefertoconsequenceswhichmaynotbeintended:Don"tshout!You"llhavetheneighbourscomplaining!Whenweusethisconstructionwithwon"torcan"t,werefertocircumstanceswearenotpreparedtotolerate:Iwon"t/can"thaveyouspeakinglikethataboutyourfather.Sometimesthisconstructionreferstohappeningsbeyondthespeaker"scontrol.CompareasimilarconstructionwithThere[>10.20]:Wehavesalesmencalling/Therearesalesmencallingeveryday.Sometimes,butnotveryoften,thebareinfinitiveispossible:I"veneverhadsuchathinghappen(ing)tomebefore.16.11"Rather/Soonerthan"+bareinfinitiveor"-ing"Ratherthanandsoonerthancanbefollowedbyabareinfinitiveor-ing.Ratherthanismorecommon:Ratherthanwaste/wastingyourtimedoingityourself,whydon"tyoucallinabuilder?Theto-infinitive16.12Somecommonusesoftheto-infinitive16.12.1"To/inorderto/soasto"toexpresspurpose[compare>1.51.1]Wecanuseto,inordertoorsoastotorefertopurpose:IwenttoliveinFranceto/inorderto/soastolearnFrench.ShewassenttoEnglandto/inorderto/soastobeeducated.Nottocanbeusedtorefertoalternatives:IwenttoFrancenottostudyFrench,buttostudyarchitecture.Weexpress"negativepurpose"withsoasnotto/inordernotto:Ishutthedoorquietly,soasnottowakethebaby.Whenthereisachangeofsubjectwemayusefor_+infinitive:Iboughtasecondcar(inorder)formysontolearntodrive.For+noun/pronoun+infinitiveismoreeconomicalthan[>1.51.2]:Iboughtanewcarinorderthatmywifemightlearntodrive.Otherverbs,e.g.bring,buy,need,take,use,want,oftenintroduceanobject+to-infinitive(butnotanobject+inorderto/soasto).Theinfinitivetellsusaboutthepurposeoftheobject,whichisoftenanindefinitepronounlikesomething[>4.37]:Iwantsomethingtocheermeup.Ineedaspoontoeatthisice-creamwith.Bringmeachairtositon.Ibroughtachairforyoutositon.
EnglishGrammar:Theinfinitiveandthe"-ing"formOtherverbscanbefollowedbyfor+object+to-infinitive,e.g.apply,arrange,ask,call,plan,plead,phone,pray,ring,send,vote,wait,wish.Formarksthesubjectoftheinfinitive:Howlonghaveyoubeenwaitingforthetraintoarrive?16.12.2"(Only)to":sequences[compare>7.55.1]Sometimesato-infinitiveinthesecondpartofasentenceisusedforthe"later"eventinasequence.Theto-infinitive(whichcanbereplacedbyand+verb)describesaneventwhichisunexpected,sometimesunwelcome-especiallywhenonlyisusedinfrontofto:Wecamehomeafterourholidaytofindourgardenneatandtidy.(=andfound)Hereturnedafterthewar,(only)tobetoldthathiswifehadlefthim.(=andwastold)Asimilarconstructionoccurswithnever:Shelefthome,nevertoreturn/nevertobeseenagain.16.12.3Theto-infinitivereferringtothefutureortoanimaginarypastWecanrefertothefuturewithverbslikehope,intend,meanand(would)liketo.Aperfectinfinitiveisoftenusedafterapastverb,butitisnotusuallynecessary.Compare:Iwouldliketoseethatfilm.(now,orinthefuture)Iwouldliketohaveseenit.(beforenow,soIdidnotseeit)Iwouldhavelikedtoseeit.(butdidn"thaveachancethen)Iwouldhavelikedtohaveseenit.(interchangeablewithIwouldhavelikedtoseeit;tohaveseenisunnecessary)16.13Theto-infinitiveastheobjectofaverb[>16.19]Agreatmanyverbsarestronglylinkedwiththeto-infinitive,e.g.decide,need,wish[>App46]:Iwanttoleave.Iwanttobeleftalone.Insuchcasestheinfinitiveservesastheobjectoftheverb.However,someverbslikethinkrequireit+adjective+infinitive:Ithinkitbesttogo(Not*Ithinktogoisbest*)[compare>1.14][>4.15][>16.22].Afewverbslikeappear,seem[>10.23]canalsobefollowedbymorecomplexinfinitiveforms:Heseemstobeleaving/tohaveleft/tohavebeenleaving,etc.16.14Contrastingnegatives[>1.23.5][>13.10][>16.12.1]Weformthenegativeofato-infinitivebyputtingnotbeforeto:Isoonlearntnotto/nevertoswimnearcoralreefs.Compareordinarynegatives:Ididn"tlearn/neverlearnttoswimwhenIwasachild.Withmanyverbs(e.g.advise,ask,instruct,remind,tell,warn)theplacingofthenegativeseriouslyaffectsthemeaning[>15.24.1]:Hetoldmenottofeedtheanimals.(Hesaid,"Don"tfeed_")Hedidn"ttellmetofeedtheanimals.(Hedidn"tsayanything.)Don"taskRextophone.I"llringhimmyself.AskRexnottophone.Idon"twanttobedisturbed.Theplacingofthenegativeshasasimilareffectonmeaningwithadjectivesandnouns+infinitive:Iwasn"tsorrytogo.(=Iwent)Iwassorrynottogo.(=Ididn"tgo)Itwasn"tasurprisetohearfromhim.(Iheardfromhim)Itwasasurprisenottohearfromhim.(Ididn"thearfromhim)Negativesaresometimespossibleinbothpartsofasentence:Ican"tpromisenottobelate.Mycarisveryunreliable.butthiswouldgenerallybeexpressedmoresimply:e.g.Ican"tpromisetobeontime.16.15Thesplitinfinitive"Splittinganinfinitive"(i.e.puttinganadverborpleasebetweentoandtheverb)isusuallyconsideredunacceptableandshouldgenerallybeavoided.Forinstanceclearlycouldnotcomebetweentoandreadinthefollowing:Iwantyoutoreadthatlastsentenceclearly.However,weoftendoseparatetofromtheinfinitiveinspokenEnglish,dependingonwheretheemphasisfalls:IwantyoutoclearlyunderstandwhatI"mtellingyou.Thisisoftenthecasewithadverbslikecompletely,fully,reallyandtruly;sometimesthereisnoothersuitableplacetoputthem:It"sdifficulttoreallyunderstandthetheoryofrelativity.16.16Theusesof"be"+to-infinitiveTheto-infinitivecanbeusedasthecomplementofbe[>10.9.10]:Yourmistakewastowritethatletter.Theverbdocanbefollowedbybe+(optional)to:Whatyoudois(to)mixtheeggswithflour.AllIdidwas(to)pressthisbutton.Theto-infinitivecanbeactiveinformbutpassiveinmeaning:Thishouseistolet/tobelet.Whoistoblame/tobeblamed?Someconstructionscanonlybeinthepassive:He"s(only)tobeadmired/envied/pitied.Allthisistobesold.Forbeto:futureduties,instructions,etc.[>9.47-48].
EnglishGrammar:Theinfinitiveandthe"-ing"form16.17Leavingouttheverbafter"to"Toavoidrepetition,wecanoftenleavetheverboutafterto:Youdon"thavetoeatitifyoudon"twantto.Wouldyouliketocometoaparty?-I"dloveto.Don"tspillanyofthatpaint,willyou?-I"lltrynotto.Sometimeseventocanbedropped:Trytobebackby12,won"tyou?-OK.I"lltry.Withverbsthatarefollowedby-ingbutneverfollowedbyato-infinitive,e.g.enjoy[>16.42],wemustuseanobject:Wouldyouliketocomesailing?-Ohyes.I"denjoyit/that.16.18Theto-infinitiveinfixedphrasesSomefixedphrasesareintroducedbyato-infinitive:e.g.tobehonest,tobeginwith,tocutalongstoryshort,toget(back)tothepoint,nottomaketoomuchofit,toputitanotherway,totellyouthetruth:Totellyouthetruth,I"veneverheardofMaxwellMontague.Verb(+noun/pronoun)+to-infinitive16.19Verb+to-infinitive(not+"-ing"or"that_")[compare>16.42]Wecansay:Ican"taffordacar.Shehesitatedforamoment.Butifwewanttouseaverbaftercan("t)affordorhesitate,thisverbcanonlybeintheformofato-infinitive:Ican"taffordtobuyacar.Ihesitatetodisagreewithyou.Otherverbslikecan("t)affordandhesitateare:aim,apply,decline,fail,hasten,hurry,long,manage,offer,prepare,refuse,seek,shudder,strive,struggle.Formoreexamples[>App46].Theperfect/pastformoftheinfinitive(e.g.tohaverun)israreaftersuchverbs.16.20Verb+optionalnoun/pronoun+to-infinitiveSomeverbscanbeusedwithorwithoutanounorpronounbeforeato-infinitive:ask,beg,choose,expect,hate,help,intend,like,love,need,prefer,prepare,promise,want,wish[>App46.1].(Troublecanalsobeusedinthisway,normallyinquestionsandnegatives.)Notehowthemeaningchanges:Iwanttospeaktothemanager.(=Iwillspeak)Iwantyoutospeaktothemanager.(=youwillspeak)Promiseisanexception:thereisadifferenceinemphasisbutnotinmeaningbetweenIpromisetoandIpromiseyouto.Like,love,hateandpreferareoftenusedinthesimplepresenttorefertohabitualpersonalchoiceandpreference[compare>16.58]:Iliketokeepeverythingtidy.(referstomyactions)Ilikeyoutokeepeverythingtidy.(referstoyouractions)Theseverbscanalsobeusedafterwouldtomakespecificoffers,requestsetc.[>11.35][>11.37-39]:I"dliketofindyouajob.(referstomypossiblefutureaction)I"dlikeyoutofindhimajob.(yourpossiblefutureaction)16.21Verb+compulsorynoun/pronoun+to-infinitiveSomeverbsmustnormallyalwaysbefollowedbyanounorpronounwhenusedwithato-infinitive:advise,allow,assist,bribe,cause,caution,challenge,charge,command,compel,condemn,dare(=challenge),defy,direct,drive(=compel),enable,encourage,entitle,forbid,force,impel,implore,incite,induce,instruct,invite,oblige,order,permit,persuade,press(=urge),recommend,remind,request,teach,tell,tempt,urgeandwarn.Alltheseverbscanbeusedinthepassiveaswellastheactive:Iadviseyoutoleave.Youwereadvisedtoleave.Ittakes/took+object+to-infinitiveoftenreferstotimeinrelationtoactivity.Anindirectobjectisoptional:Ittakes/took(me)tenminutestowalktothestation.Thesameideacanbeexpressedwithapersonalsubject:Itake/tooktenminutestowalktothestation.16.22Verb+object+"tobe"andotherinfinitiveformsSomeverbscanbefollowedbyanobject+tobe(andbyafewstativeverbs[>9.3]liketohave):acknowledge,assume,believe,calculate,consider,declare,discover,estimate,fancy,feel,find,guess,imagine,judge,know,maintain,proclaim,prove,reckon,see,show,suppose,take(=presume),think,understand:Iconsiderhimtobeoneofthebestauthoritiesinthecountry.Sheisknowntohavethebestcollectionofstampsintheworld.Otherinfinitiveformsaresometimespossible:Sheisbelievedtobegoing/tohavegonetotheUSA.Theseverbsareveryfrequentlyusedinthepassiveandcanoftenbefollowedbypassiveinfinitives:Heisthoughttohavebeenkilledinanaircrash.
EnglishGrammar:Theinfinitiveandthe"-ing"formAlltheseverbs(excepttake-Itakeit(that)_)canalsobefolloweddirectlybythat-clauses(Iassume(that)_).[>App45]Afewverbslikebelieve,expect,intend,like,love,mean,prefer,understand,wantandwishcanbefollowedbytheretobe:Iexpecttheretobeabigresponsetoouradvertisement.Verb+to-infinitiveor(that-)clause16.23Verbsfollowedbyato-infinitiveorathat-clauseManyverbscanbefolloweddirectlybyato-infinitiveorathat-clause:agree,arrange,beg,(not)care,choose,claim,contrive,decide,demand,determine,expect,hope,intend,learn,plan,prefer,pretend,promise,resolve,swear,threatenandwish:Idecidedtoaskformymoneyback.IdecidedthatIwouldaskformymoneyback.Mostoftheseverbspointtothefuture,sotheyarenotnormallyfollowedbytheperfectformoftheinfinitive.However,verbsreferringtointentions,hopes,etc.canbefollowedbyaperfectinfinitive,paralleltotheuseofthefutureperfect[>16.12.3]:Ihope(d)(etc.)tohavefinishedby12.Someoftheseverbs(mostcommonlyagree,arrange,decide)areusedinthepassiveafterIttointroduceathat-clause[>12.8n.1]:Itwasagreed/arranged/decidedthatweshouldmeetagainlater.16.24Verb+question-word+to-infinitiveoraclauseAllquestion-wordsexceptwhycancomebeforetheto-infinitivewith"verbsofasking"[>15.24.2]andthefollowing:consider,decide,discover,explain,findout,forget,hear,(not)know,learn,observe,perceive,remember,see,understandandwonder:Idon"tknowwhat/which/who(m)tochoose.Iwonderedhow/when/wheretogetintouchwiththem.Theaboveverbscanalsobefollowedbyaclauseintroducedbyanyquestionword(includingwhy)orthat:Idon"tknowwhytheaccidenthappened.Ididn"tknowthattherehadbeenanaccident.Whenwearediscussingalternativesorexpressingdoubt,wecanusewhether_shouldorwhethertoaftermostoftheaboveverbs:Ihaven"tdecidedwhetherIshouldgo/whethertogotoSpain.Wecansometimesuseifasanalternativetowhetherbeforeaclause,butnotbeforeaninfinitive[compare>15.18n.5][>15.24.2].Rememberandforgetcanbefolloweddirectlybyato-infinitive:Irememberedto/forgottoswitchoffthelights.[>16.59]Learncanbefollowedbytoorhowtowithoutanychangeinmeaningwhenitreferstoacquiringaskill:Ilearntto/howtorideabicyclewhenIwasfour.However,learnmustbefollowedonlybyto(Not*howto*)whenitconveystheideaoflearningfromexperience:WesoonlearnttodoasweweretoldinMrSpinks"class!16.25Verb+object+question-word+to-infinitiveoraclauseAdvise,instruct,remind,teachandtellcanhaveanobject+-ato-infinitive[>15.24.1]:Hetoldustorun.Mysistertaughtmetoswim.-anyquestionword(exceptwhy)+to-infinitive:Thereceptionisttoldmewheretowait.-aclause[>15.24.2]:Theunionleadertoldthementhattheyshouldgobacktowork.Theunionleadertoldthemenwhentheyshouldgobacktowork.Persuadeandwarncanhavetoorthatbutnotaquestion-word:Hewarnedmetostayaway.Hewarnedme(that)Iwasindanger.Theverbshowcanbeusedliketheverbsabove,exceptthatitalwaysrequiresaquestion-wordbeforetheto-infinitive:Pleaseshowmehowtostarttheengine.Object+whether+to-infinitivecanbeusedafter:advise/notadvise,ask/notask,show/notshow,notteach,nottellandinquestionswiththeseverbs:Canyouadvisemewhethertoregisterthisletter?Youhaven"ttoldmewhethertosignthisform.Adjective+to-infinitive16.26Formoftheto-infinitiveafteradjectivesManyadjectivescanbefollowedbyto-infinitives:I"mpleasedtomeetyou.Canyoudomeafavour?-I"dbegladto.[compare>16.17]Otherinfinitiveforms[>16.2]arepossible,e.g.sorrytohavemissedyou;pleasedtohavebeengiventhisopportunity;nicetobesittingbythefire.Forcontrastingnegativeswithadjectives[>16.14].16.27Pattern1:Hewaskindtohelpus.
EnglishGrammar:Theinfinitiveandthe"-ing"formWeusethispatternanditsvariations(seebelow)whenwearepraisingorcriticizingpeople.(NotalladjectivesinthispatterncombinewithIorwe.)Thesubjectofthemainverb(be)andthesubjectoftheinfinitivearethesameperson,andsometimeswecanexpressthesameideawithanadverb[>7.16.2]:Hewasverykindtohelpus./Heverykindlyhelpedus.Herearesomeadjectiveswhichareusedinthispattern:brave,careless,butnotcareful[>16.28],clever,foolish,generous,good,(un)kind,polite,right/wrong,rude,(un)selfish,silly,wicked[>App44].16.27.1Subject+"be"+adjective+to-infinitiveThegovernmentwouldbebravetocallanelectionnow.Joanwasfoolishnottoaccepttheiroffer.Variationsonthispatternwithsomeoftheadjectiveslistedabovearepossiblewithso_asto(whichisformal)and,lessformally,withenough:Wouldyoubesogoodastoletmeknowassoonaspossible?Wouldyoubegoodenoughtoletmeknowassoonaspossible?16.27.2"It"+"be"+adjective+"of"noun/pronoun+to-infinitiveThisuseofItas"preparatorysubject"[>4.13]ismuchmorecommonthanapersonalsubject.Itoccurswithalltheadjectiveslistedin16.27aboveandwithsome-ingadjectiveslikeannoying,boring,trying.Ifitisobviouswhoisreferredto,theof-phrasecanbeomitted:Itwaskindofhertohelpus.Itwassilly(ofus)tobelievehim.Itwasmostselfishofhimnottocontributeanything.ItwasannoyingofJohntolosemykeys.Verbslikeseem/look[>10.23-25]canbeusedinthispattern:Itwouldlookrudetorefusetheirinvitation.16.27.3Adjective+to-infinitiveinexclamationsExclamationsinthispatternareverycommon:Howkindofhimtohelpus!Wasn"thekindtohelpus!Wasn"titkind(ofhim)tohelpus!16.28Pattern2:Heiseagertoplease.AsinPattern1,thesubjectofthemainverb(beorsometimesfeel,look,etc.)andthesubjectoftheinfinitivearethesameperson.Whenusingthispattern,weareoftenconcernedwithpeople"sfeelingsaboutanactionorsituation,andI/wefitnaturally.ThereisnoalternativestructurewithIt.Herearesomeadjectiveswhichareusedinthispattern:afraid,anxious,ashamed,careful,butnotcareless[>16.27],curious,determined,due,eager,fit,free,frightened,glad,keen,prepared,quick,ready,reluctant,slow,sorry,willing[>App44]:Heisalwayspreparedtotakealotoftrouble.Sheisdeterminednottooffendhermother-in-law.For+noun/pronouncanbeusedafteraverylimitednumberofadjectives,suchasanxious,determined,eagerandkeen,referringtosituationsthathavenotyetoccurred:She"sanxiousforherdaughtertowinthecompetition.Veryoccasionally,thispatternhasaninanimatesubject:Mycarisreluctanttostartincoldweather.Ourboilerisslowtogetgoinginthemornings.Afewadjectivesreferringtopossibilityandprobabilitycanbeincludedhere:bound/certainto,(un)likelytoandsureto:Heisbound/certain/likely/suretosignthecontract.Itcanbeusedasapreparatoryoremptysubject[>1.23.1][>4.12-13]:It"scertain/likely/unlikelythathe"llsignthecontract.It"sbound/suretorainonourweddingday.16.29Pattern3:Heiseasytoplease.Theinfinitiveinthispatternusuallyreferstothingsdonetosomeoneorsomething.Thesubjectofthesentenceisalsotheobjectoftheinfinitive;theItstructureisverycommonhere:Heiseasytoplease./Itiseasytopleasehim.Adjectiveslikethefollowingfitintothispattern:agreeable,amusing,boring,difficult,easy,hard,impossible,nice:Sheisamusingtobewith.Polyesteriseasytoiron.Anegativeinfinitive(notto)israreafterhe/she,butpossibleafterit:ItisimpossiblenottooffendMrsRumbold.16.30Pattern4:Itisgoodtobehere.Averylargenumberofadjectivesfitintothispattern.TheinfinitivesubjectisnormallyreplacedbyIt[compare>16.47]:Toaccepttheirofferwouldbefoolish.Itwouldbefoolishtoaccepttheiroffer.Nottoaccepttheirofferwouldbefoolish.Itwouldbefoolishnottoaccepttheiroffer.Comparetheusesofitinthesetwosentences:Haveadriveinmynewcar.It(=thecar)iseasytostart.It[>4.13]iseasytostartit.(thecar)
EnglishGrammar:Theinfinitiveandthe"-ing"formFor+noun/pronouncanoccuraftermanyoftheseadjectives:Itwon"tbeeasyforTomtofindanewjob.The-ingformcanoccuraftersomeoftheseadjectives[>16.47]:Itishardspeakinginpublic.Anumberofadjectivesusedinthispattern(e.g.advisable,important,necessary,vital)refertoadvice,necessity,duties,andcanalsobefollowedbythat_should[>11.75.3]:It"simportanttoreplytoherletter.It"simportantthatwe(should)replytoherletter.16.31Pattern5:Heisthefirsttoarrive.Thefollowingcanbeusedinthispattern:thefirst,thesecond,etc.;thenext/thelast;andsuperlativeslikethebest,themostsuitable.Thesecanbefollowedoptionallybyanounorone(s):She"salwaysthefirst(guest)toarriveandthelasttoleave.Isasolicitorthebestpersontoadvisemeaboutbuyingahouse?Theonlymustalwaysbefollowedbyanounorone(s):You"retheonlyperson(theonlyone)tocomplain.16.32Adjectivepatternswith"too"and"enough"16.32.1"Too"+adjective+to-infinitiveToocomesbeforetheadjectiveandhasthesenseof"excessive";comparevery,whichmerelystrengthenstheadjective[>7.48].Inpatternswithto-infinitives,toooftencombinesnegativeideas:Heisn"tstrong.Hecan"tliftit.=Heistooweaktoliftit.Intheaboveexample,thesubjectofthemainverbisalsothesubjectoftheinfinitive.Inthefollowingexample,thesubjectofthemainverbistheobjectoftheinfinitive:He"stooheavy.Ican"tlifthim.>Heistooheavy(forme)tolift.Notetheoptionalfor-phrase,andnotethatweneverputanobjectaftertheinfinitiveinsentenceslikethis(Not*Thisbreadistoostaleformetoeatit*).Generally,-edadjectives[>6.15]haveapersonalsubject+too:I"mtootiredtostayuplonger.and-ingadjectiveshaveanimpersonalsubject+too:Theracewasalmosttooexcitingtowatch.16.32.2Adjective+"enough"+to-infinitiveEnoughcomesaftertheadjectiveandmeans,e.g."tothenecessarydegree".Into-infinitivepatternsitcombinestwoideas:He"sstrong.Hecanliftit.->He"sstrongenoughtoliftit.He"sweak.Hecan"tliftit.->Heisn"tstrongenoughtoliftit.Intheaboveexamples,thesubjectsofthemainverbandoftheinfinitivearethesame.Inthefollowingexample,thesubjectofthemainverbistheobjectoftheinfinitive:Thepearisripe.Icaneatit.>Itisripeenough(forme)toeat.Thefor-phraseisoptionalandwedonotrepeattheobjectinthistypeofsentence.(Not*formetoeatit*).For+noun/pronouncancombinewithtoomuch/little,notenough,etc.:Thebaby"stoomuchforhertocopewith.There"stoolittlework/notenoughworkformetodo.Noun+to-infinitive16.33Theto-infinitiveafternounsrelatedtoverbs1Somenounsareoftenassociatedwiththeinfinitive:Ourdecisiontowaitwaswise.Suchnounsmaycorrespondtoverbs[compare>16.13][>16.19]:Wedecidedtowait.Anounmayhavethesameformasaverboradifferentform:Theywishtosucceed.It"stheirwishtosucceed.Sherefusedtohelp.Herrefusaltohelpsurprisedus.2Notallsuchnounscanbefollowedbyaninfinitive.Somearefollowedbyapreposition+the-ingform[>16.53]:Wecannothopetofindhim.There"snohopeoffindinghim.Somenounscanbefollowedbyaninfinitiveorbyapreposition:It"sapleasuretobewithyou.There"snothingtocomparewiththepleasureofbeingwithyou.3Somenounscombinewithotherinfinitiveforms[>16.2],e.gasurprisetobe/tohavebeeninvited,achangetobesittinginthesun.Forcontrastingnegativeswithnouns[>16.14].16.34Theto-infinitiveafternounsrelatedtoadjectivesManyoftheadjectiveswhichcanbefollowedbyto-infinitiveshaveequivalentnouns(usuallydifferentinform,e.g.brave/bravery).
EnglishGrammar:Theinfinitiveandthe"-ing"formHowever,notallsuchnounscanbefollowedbyto-infinitives.Wecanusenoun+to-infinitivehere:She"sdetermined/eager/willingtohelp.Thankyouforyourdetermination/eagerness/willingnesstohelp.Butwemustusenoun+preposition+-ingformhere:Itwasgenerous/kind(ofyou)tocontributesomuch.Thankyouforyourgenerosity/kindnessincontributingsomuch.Noun/adjectiveequivalentsdonotalwayshavethesamemeaning:It"sfuntobehere.Itwasfunny(=odd)ofSamtodothat.It"sapitytoleavesoearly.Hersobswerepitifultohear.16.35Noun+to-infinitivetoexpressadvisability,etc.Theto-infinitiveisoftenusedafteranountoconveyadvice,purpose,etc.Thisconstructionislikearelativeclause[>1.33-34]:ThepersontoaskisJan.(=thepersonwhomyoushouldask)I"vegotanessaytowrite.(=anessaywhichImustwrite)Sometimesactiveandpassiveinfinitivesareinterchangeable:Afterthefire,therewassomere-decoratingtodo/tobedone.Whenthesubjectofthesentenceisthepersonwhoistodotheactiondescribedbytheinfinitive,wedonotnormallyusethepassive:Ihaveamealtoprepare.(Not*tobeprepared*)16.36Theto-infinitiveafternouns,"something","alot",etc.Theto-infinitivecanbeusedafternounsandwordsusedinplaceofnouns,suchassomething,someone,alot[compare>16.12.1]:Iwantamachine/somethingtoanswerthephone.Activeandpassiveinfinitivesaresometimesinterchangeable:Therewasalottodo/alottobedone.ortheycanhavedifferentmeanings:Therewasnothingtodosoweplayedcomputergames.(i.e.wewerebored)He"sdead.There"snothingtobedone.(i.e.wecan"tchangethat)Sometimesafor-phraseisincluded:Hetalksasifthere"snothingleftinlifeforhimtodo.16.37Adjective+noun+to-infinitiveHerearesomeexamplesofstructureswithadjective+noun+to-infinitive:-withtooandenough[compare>16.32]:Notethepositionofa/an:He"stoocleverapoliticiantosayathinglikethatinpublic.Heisn"tacleverenoughpoliticiantohaveanyoriginalideas.InsentencesbeginningThere,thequantifierenoughcangobeforeorafterthenoun:Thereisenoughtimetotakecareofeverything.Thereistimeenoughtotakecareofeverything.(moreformal)-withso_astoandsucha/an_asto[compare>16.27.1]:I"mnotsostupid(afool)astoputitinwriting.I"mnotsucha(stupid)foolastoputitinwriting.-inexclamations[>3.13]:Whatanunkindthingtosay!Sometimestheadjectiveisomittedifwearecriticizing:Whatathingtosay!Whatawaytobehave!The"-ing"form16.38Thetwofunctionsofthe"-ing"formGerundsandpresentparticiplesareformedfromverbsandalwaysendin-ing.Thereforewordslikeplaying,writing,etc.canfunctionasgerundsorasparticiples.The-ingformisusuallycalledagerundwhenitbehaveslikeanounandaparticiplewhenitbehaveslikeanadjective.However,thereissomeoverlapbetweenthesetwomainfunctionsanditisoftendifficult(andunnecessary!)tomakeformaldistinctions.Thetermthe-ingformisusedheretocovergerundandparticipleconstructionsandtheterm"participle"isusedin"Thesentence"[>1.56]torefertopartofaverb.Inbroadterms,thegerundcantaketheplaceofanoun,thoughitcan,likeaverb,haveanobject:Johnlikes6.2][>6.14]:Thisisastream.16.39The"-ing"form:gerundorpresentparticiple?
EnglishGrammar:Theinfinitiveandthe"-ing"form16.39.1The"-ing"formasgerundAsagerund,the-ingformoftenfunctionsingeneralstatementsasanuncountablenounwithnoarticle.Itcanalsobereplacedbyit:Dancingisfun.Iloveit.[>3.26.2]Sometimesthe-ingformfunctionsasacountablenounwhichcanbereplacedbyit(singular)orthey(plural)[>2.16.5]:Dickensoftengavereadingsofhiswork.Theywereverypopular.Wecanuseagerundafterdeterminerslikea,the,this,alotofandsome,orafterpossessivesandadjectives:Brendelhasmadeanewrecording.Therecordingwasmadelive.ThesinkingoftheTitanichasneverbeenforgotten.IenjoyalittlelightreadingwhenIgoawayonholiday.What"sallthisarguing?Ididsome/alotof/alittleshoppingthismorning.Iappreciateyourhelpingme.Yourquickthinkingsavedusall.Thegerundalsohassomeofthecharacteristicsofaverb:e.g.-itcanbefollowedbyanadverboradverbialphrase:Walkingquickly/Walkinginstepisdifficult.-anditcantakeanobject:Washingthecarseemstobeyourmainhobby.-anditcanhaveaperfectformandevenapassive[compare>1.56]:I"msorryforhavingwastedyourtime.Ican"tforgivemyselfforhavingbeentakenbysurprise.16.39.2The"-ing"formaspresentparticipleParticiplesareassociatedwithverbswhentheyrefertoactionsinprogress,e.g.inprogressivetenses[>9.2].Participlephrasesalsocommonlystandforclauses[>1.58]:Walkingintheparktheotherday,Isawabirdbuildinganest.(=Iwaswalking,thebirdwasbuilding)16.39.3Thegerundinnouns;thepresentparticipleasadjective[>2.7]Hereareyourrunning-shoes.(shoesforrunning:gerund)Ilovethesightofrunningwater.(waterwhichisrunning:adjective)16.40Somecommonusesofthe"-ing"form(gerund)The-ingformcanbeusedintheactiveorpassiveinalargenumberofdifferentways.Herearesomeexamples(notetheformationofthenegativewithnot+-ing):16.40.1Asanouncomplementtotheverb"be"Myfavouritepastimeisbird-watching.Asfarashe"sconcerned,it"snotdoingsomethingwrongthatmatters,butnotbeingcaughtdoingsomethingwrong.16.40.2AsthesubjectofaverbBeforebe:Joggingisn"tmuchfun.Beinglostcanbeaterrifyingexperience.Notbeingtallisnotaseriousdisadvantageinlife.Beforeverbsotherthanbe:Rowingkeepsyoufit.Notbeingpunctualmakeshimunreliable.16.40.3AstheobjectofaverbIenjoydancing.Hedoesn"tlikenotbeingtakenseriously.Ihearshouting.[>16.9.1]Shetaughtusdress-making.16.40.4After"do"+"the"referringtojobs[>10.44.4]Whodoesthecooking/theshopping/thewashing-uphere?16.40.5"The"+"-ing"form+"of"Withoutanarticle,the-ingformcanhaveadirectobject:LightingthefireusedtobeadailychoreinVictoriantimes.Afteranarticle(orotherdeterminer),the-ingformcannotbedirectlyfollowedbyanobject.Wemustuseof:Thelightingoffiresisforbidden.Aringingofbellsmarkedtheendoftheoldyear.16.40.6"Theartofwriting",etc.Manycombinationsarepossible,e.g.theactoflistening;theartofwriting;theskillofspeaking,etc.:Theskillofspeakingaforeignlanguagetakestimetoacquire.16.40.7After"No"inprohibitionsThisiscommoninpublicsigns:e.g.Nosmoking,Noparking.16.40.8After"like"(=forexample)[>App25.25]Whydon"tyoufindsomethingtodo,likecleaningthecarforme?
EnglishGrammar:Theinfinitiveandthe"-ing"formIfyouwanttogeton,there"snothinglikebeinghard-working.16.40.9After"for"(thepurposeof)[>App25.20]What"sthat?-It"satoolformakingholesinmetal.Thisisatoolthat"susedforcuttinghedges.Compareaparalleluseoftheto-infinitivein:e.g.What"sthatfor?-It"stomakeholesinmetal(with).16.40.10The"-ing"formafteradjectivesandpossessivesSlowcookingmakestoughmeattender.Yourdenyingeverythingwillgetyounowhere.Jenny"snothavingbeentrainedasadancerisheroneregret.16.40.11The"-ing"formafter"Whatabout_?","Howabout_?"[>13.40.6]Whatabout/Howaboutsendingthemapostcard?Verb+"-ing"form16.41Formof"-ing"afterverbs[compare>1.56]Verbslikeenjoy,denycanbefolloweddirectlybythe-ingform:active:Ideny/deniedtakingit.passive:Heresents/resentedbeingaccused.Andnotetheperfectorpastform:having+pastparticiple:active:Ideny/deniedhavingtakenit.passive:Heresents/resentedhavingbeenaccused.Contrastingnegatives[>16.14]arepossiblewiththeseforms:e.g.Idon"tenjoyhavingto_:Ienjoynothavingto_16.42Verb+"-ing"form(not+to-infinitive)[compare>16.19][>App45]Whenwewanttouseanotherverbimmediatelyafterthefollowingverbs,thesecondverbcanonlybean-ingform,neverato-infinitive:admit,appreciate,avoid,celebrate,consider,contemplate,defer,delay,deny,detest,discontinue,dislike,dispute,endure,enjoy,itentail(s),escape,excuse,explain,fancy,feellike,finish,forgive,can"thelp,hinder,imagine,itinvolve(s),keep,loathe,itmean(s),mention,mind(=objectto),miss,itnecessitate(s),pardon,postpone,practise,prevent,recall,report,resent,resist,risk,suggest,understand:Idon"tfancygoingforawalkintherain.Imaginenotknowingtheanswertosuchaneasyquestion!Denyandregretareoftenfollowedbyhaving+apastparticiple:Susandenies/regretshavingsaidanything.16.43The"-ing"formafter"come"and"go"The-ingformrelatingtooutdooractivities(e.g.climbing,driving,fishing,riding,sailing,shopping,skiing,walking,water-skiing,wind-surfing)isoftenusedaftergoandcome,e.g.whenweare:-makingsuggestions:Whydon"twegoswimming?-inviting:Comedancingthisevening.-narrating:Yesterdaywewentsight-seeing.Comparego/comeforawalk,etc.andhavebeen+-ing[>10.13.4].16.44The"-ing"formafter"need"and"want"The-ingformcanfollowneed,want(andlesscommonly)requireHeneeds(alotof)encouraging.Thefrontgateneeds/wants/requiresmending.The-ingformhasapassivemeaninghereandcanbecomparedtothepassiveinfinitive(Heneedstobeencouraged).16.45Verb(+accusativeorpossessive)+"-ing"formWithsomeoftheverbswhichcanbefollowedbyan-ingform,wecanputanotherwordbetweentheverband-ing.Sometimesthiswordmustbeanaccusative(e.g.anobjectpronounlikeme,anamelikeJohn);sometimesitmustbeapossessive(i.e.apossessiveadjectivelikemy;or"s,e.g.John"s);sometimesitcanbeeither.16.45.1Verb(+accusative)+"-ing"Afterthefollowingverbs,the-ingformfunctionsasaparticiple.Wecanincludeanaccusative(e.g.me,John)betweentheverbandthe-ingform:hear,keep,smell,start,stopandwatch.Compare:Whenareyougoingtostartworking?Whenareyougoingtostarthimworking?Thefollowingmustalwayshaveanaccusativebefore-ing:catch,find,leave,notice,observe,perceiveandsee[>App38.4]:
EnglishGrammar:Theinfinitiveandthe"-ing"formI"dbetternotcatchyoudoingthatagain!Verbsofperceptionlikehearandseecanalsobefollowedbyanobject+bareinfinitive[>16.9.2]:Isawhimclimbthetree.16.45.2Verb(+possessive)+"-ing"Thefollowingverbscanbefollowedbythe-ingformonitsownorbyapossessive(e.g.my,John"s)+-ing.Herethe-ingformfunctionsasagerund(i.e.anoun),sowecanuseapossessiveform(referringtopeople,butnotthings)infrontofit:appreciate,avoid,consider(usuallyinquestionsandnegatives),defer,delay,deny,enjoy,postpone,riskandsuggest:Idon"tthinkthechildrenenjoyyour/his/John"steasing.16.45.3Verb(+accusativeorpossessive)+"-ing"Hereisaselectionofverbsthatcanbefollowedby-ingonitsownorbyanaccusativeorapossessivebefore-ing:anticipate,contemplate,detest,dislike,dispute,endure,escape,excuse,(can"t)face,fancy,forgive,hate,hinder,imagine,itinvolve(s),like,love,mention,mind(=objectto),miss,itnecessitate(s),pardon,prevent,resent,resist,understand,can"tbear,can"thelp,can"tstand.Ineverydayspeech,theaccusativeisgenerallypreferredtothepossessive,thoughnotallnativespeakersapproveofitsuse:informal(accusative)formal(possessive)Ican"timaginemymotherapproving!_mymother"sapproving!Pleaseexcusehimnotwritingtoyou._hisnotwritingtoyou.Fancyyouhavingnoticed!_yourhavingnoticed!The"scanbeincludedoromittedwithpeople"snames:Ican"tunderstandJohn/John"smakingsuchafuss.However,withmorethanonename"sisunlikely:Ican"timagineFrankandMabelpayingsomuchforapiano.Adjectivesandnouns+"-ing"form16.46Formof"-ing"afteradjectivesandnounsManyadjectives,nounsandexpressionscanbefollowedby-ingformsactiveandpassive[>16.41],e.g.It"sniceseeinghimagain;It"sfunbeingtakentothezoo.Contrastingnegatives,e.g.notfunhavingto_;funnothavingto_[>16.14]arepossible.16.47The"-ing"formwithadjectivesLiketheto-infinitive,the-ingform(gerund)canbeusedasthesubjectofasentenceandcanbereplacedbyaconstructionwith"preparatoryit"[>4.13].Thereisnotmuchdifferenceinmeaningbetween-ingandtheto-infinitive:-ingmayrefertoanactioninprogress,whereastheto-infinitivemayimply"ingeneral":It"sdifficultfindingyourwayaroundinastrangecity.It"sdifficulttofindyourwayaroundinastrangecity.Werarelybeginstatementswiththeto-infinitivebutoftenbeginwith-ing,particularlywhenwearemakinggeneralstatements:Findingworkisdifficultthesedays.Wind-surfingispopular.Comparethe-ingform(participle)[>1.58]afteradjectivessuchasbored,busy,fed-up,frantic,happy,occupiedandtiredwithapersonalsubject(Not*it*):Sylviaisfranticgettingeverythingreadyforthewedding.(=Sylviaisfrantic.Sheisgettingeverythingready_)Adjectivescanbefollowedbytheaccusative(me,you,him,etc.)orthepossessive(my,his,John"s,etc.):It"sstrangehim/hisbehavinglikethat.Normallyonlyapossessiveispossiblewhen-ingbeginsasentence:HisknowingIhadreturnedhomeunexpectedlyisstrange.Either-ingorato-infinitivecanfollowit"s/itwas+adjective+of(him)withoutmuchdifferenceinmeaning[>16.27.2]:Itwasrudeofherinterrupting(tointerrupt)youallthetime.16.48The"-ing"formafternounsManynouns,bothcountableanduncountable,canbefollowedbythe-ingformafter"preparatoryit"[>4.13].Examplesare:acatastrophe,adisaster,fun,hell,luck,amistake,apain,apleasure,arelief,atragedy:It"sanightmareworryingwherethechildrenmightbe.It"satediousbusinessattendingsomanymeetings.Ifwewanttouseanotherwordbeforethe-ingform,apossessiveispreferabletoanaccusative(thoughbotharepossible):It"sacatastrophetheir/themshuttingallthosefactories.16.49Commonexpressionswith"-ing"Typicalexpressionsthatcanbefollowedbythe-ingformare:it"snogood;it"snouse;it"slittleuse;it"shardlyanyuse;it"snotworth;it"shardly/scarcelyworth;it"sworthwhile;spendmoney/time;there"sno;there"snopointin;there"snothingworsethan;what"stheuse/point:It"snogoodcomplaining.Thisclockishardlyworthrepairing.There"snotellingwhatwillhappen.Don"twastetimetalking.
EnglishGrammar:Theinfinitiveandthe"-ing"formSomeexpressionscanbefollowedbyapossessiveoraccusative:It"snogoodhis/himapologizingnowthedamagehasbeendone.Prepositions+"-ing"form16.50Formof"-ing"afterprepositionsPrepositionscanbefollowedbyall-ingforms,activeandpassive[>16.41],e.g.withouteatingbreakfast;withoutbeingtold;withouthavingbeentold.Contrastingnegativese.g.notsorryfortellinghim;sorryfornottellinghim[>16.14]arepossible:16.51The"-ing"formafterprepositions[compare>1.60][>1.62.2]Wemayusethe-ingform(notato-infinitive)afterprepositionssuchasabout,after,by,for,insteadof,to[>16.56],without:Ihavelearntalotaboutgardeningfrommyfather.Afterchangingsomemoney,Iwentsight-seeing.[>1.58.2][>8.4.4]Youopenthisdoorbyturningthekeytwiceinthelock.TheteacherpunishedJimmyfortalkinginclass.Insteadofmakingafuss,youshouldhavecomplainedquietly.Youshouldn"ttrytoleavetherestaurantwithoutpaying.[>App25.36]Prepositionscansometimesbefollowedbyanaccusativepronoun,byanameoranoun;orbyapossessiveadjectiveornoun+"s:Youshouldoffertohelpwithoutme/myhavingtoask.16.52"Therebeing"and"itbeing"afterprepositionsThereis/Therewillbeanditis/itwillbecanbereplacedbytherebeinganditbeingafterprepositions[compare>10.20].Therebeingcanoftenbeomitted:Isthereanychanceof(therebeing)avacancyinthishoteltomorrow?(=willtherebeavacancy)IfIbringinmysuitfordry-cleaning,isthereanychanceofitbeingreadybytomorrow?(=willitbeready)16.53The"-ing"formafteradjectiveornoun+prepositionManyadjectivescanbefollowedbyprepositions[>App27],e.g.afraidof,boredwith,fondof,goodat,happyabout,interestedin,keenon,sorryfor,(be)usedto,etc.The-ingform(notato-infinitive)maybeusedafterthem:I"minterestedinacting.He"sgoodatski-ing.Possessiveand/oraccusativeformscanbeusedbefore-ing:Youcan"tbetoosureofhis/himagreeing.I"msurprisedatyour/younothavingnoticed.The-ingformmaybeusedafternoun+preposition,e.g.concernabout,fearof,interestin:Ericacouldneverovercomeherfearofflying.Hisinterestinhang-glidingprovedtobefatal.Accusative(informal)andpossessiveformscanbeused:Mymaininterestatpresentisinhim/hisdoingwellatschool.16.54The"-ing"formafterverb+prepositionManyverbsarefollowedbyprepositions,e.g.apologizefor,insiston,preventsomebody/somethingfrom,thanksomebodyfor.The-ingformmaybeusedafteraverb+prepositionandmaybeprecededbyanobject(informal),orapossessive:Imustinsistonpaying.Imustinsistonhim/hispaying.16.55The"-ing"formafterverb+particleAnadverbparticlemaybefollowedbythe-ingform:Everyoneburstoutlaughing.I"vegivenupsmoking.Wecanuseapossessivebeforeagerund:We"llhavetoputofftheircomingbyanotherweek.Wecannotuseapossessivebeforeaparticiple:We"llhavetoputthemoffcoming.(=Theyarecoming.We"llhavetoputthemoff.)16.56The"-ing"formafter"to"asaprepositionToiseitheraprepositionorapartoftheinfinitive.ItispartoftheinfinitiveinIwanttogohome,butaprepositiongoverninganoun/gerundinIobjecttonoise,Iobjecttosmoking.Inthefollowingexpressions,toisapreposition,sowemayusethe-ingformafterit:accustom(oneself)to,beaccustomedto,faceupto,inadditionto,lookforwardto,objectto,bereducedto,resignoneselfto,beresignedto,resortto,sinkto,beusedto:Iobjecttobeingkeptwaiting.I"musedtodoingtheshopping.Accusativeandpossessiveformsarepossible:Iobjecttopeople/him/hissmokinginrestaurants.
EnglishGrammar:Theinfinitiveandthe"-ing"formSomenounsandadjectivescanalsobefollowedbyto+-ing:e.g.alternativeto,close/closenessto,dedication/dedicatedto,opposition/opposedto,similarity/similarto.Theto-infinitiveorthe"-ing"form?16.57Verb+to-infinitiveor"-ing":nochangeinmeaningSomeverbscanbefollowedbyato-infinitiveorby-ing.Sometimesthereislittleornochangeinmeaning;sometimesthereis.Theseverbscanbefollowedbyato-infinitiveor-ingwithoutanychangeinmeaning:attempt,begin,can"tbear,cease,commence,continue,intend,omitandstart:Ican"tbeartosee/seeingpeoplesuffering.Aftercan"tbeartheaccusativecanbeusedbeforetheinfinitive;theaccusativeorpossessivecanbeusedbeforethe-ingform:Ican"tbearyoutoshoutinthatway.Ican"tbearyou/yourshoutinginthatway.Wedonotnormallyusethe-ingformaftertheprogressiveformsofbegin,cease,continueorstart.Thisisbecausetherepetitionofthetwo-ingformssoundsawkward:Hewasbeginningtorecoverwhenhehadanotherattack.However,wecanuse-ingaftertheprogressiveformsofverbswhichcannotbefollowedbyato-infinitive[>16.42]:Wewereconsideringcatchinganearliertrain.Stativeverbslikeknowandunderstandcannotnormallybeusedwithan-ingformafterbegin,ceaseandcontinue:Isoonbegantounderstandwhatwashappening.Someverbssuchasallow,advise,permitandforbid,whichcanbefollowedbyato-infinitiveafteranobject[>16.21],canalsobefolloweddirectlyby-ing.Wouldyouadvisephoning,orshallIwaitabitlonger?Wouldyouadvisemetophone,orshallIwaitabitlonger?16.58Verb+to-or"-ing":somechangesinmeaningTheseverbscanbefollowedbyato-infinitiveor-ing:dread,hate,like,love,prefer.Weoftenuseato-infinitiveaftertheseverbstorefertoaspecifiedfutureeventandthe-ingformtorefertoanactivitycurrentlyinprogressorexistingingeneral.Someexamplesare:acceptableexamplescomment1aIlove/liketowatchTV.Same(general)meaning.bIlove/likewatchingTV.2aIhatetodisturbyou.(butIamjustabouttodoso).bIhatedisturbingyou.(=I"mdisturbingyouandI"msorry)orgeneraluse.3aIdreadtothinkwhathashappnedtohim.(soIdarenottryto).*Idreadthinking*isunacceptable.bIdreadgoingtothedentist.(=wheneverIgo,I"mterrified).*Idreadtogo*isunacceptable.4aIprefertowaithere.(soI"llwaithereifyoudon"tmind).bIpreferwaitinghere.(=I"mwaitinghereandIpreferdoingthat).cIpreferswimmingtocycling.Nottheinfinitivehere.5aWouldyouliketoeatout?Notthegerundhere.bI"dliketo.I"dloveto.Or:I"dlikeit.I"dloveit.cI"dlovesailingifIcouldaffordit.I"dlovetosailifIcouldaffordit.Alsoacceptable.dI"dhatetodisturbhimifhe"sbusy."I"dhatedisturbinghimif_"isdoubtful.eYou"dhatetoliveonadesertisland.You"dhatelivingonadesertislandisalsoacceptable.6aIwouldn"tlikeyoutothinkI"dforgottenyou."Iwouldn"tlikeyouthinking_"isdoubtful.bIlikehim/hisplayingtheguitar.Ilikehimtoplaytheguitarisalsoacceptable16.59Verb+to-or"-ing":differentmeaningsTheto-infinitiveand-ingnevermeanthesamewhenusedaftertheseverbs:remember,forget,regret,try,stopandgoon:Remember+to-infinitivereferstoanactioninthefuture(ortoa"future"actionasseenfromthepast):Remembertoposttheletters.(=don"tforgetto)Irememberedtoposttheletters.(=Ididn"tforgetto)Remember+-ingreferstothepast:Irememberposting/havingpostedtheletters.(=IpostedthemandIremembertheaction)Forget+to-infinitivereferstofutureactions(ortoa"future"actionasseenfromthepast):Don"tforgettoaskTom.IforgottoaskTom.Forgot+-ingreferstothepast:Haveyouforgottenmeeting/havingmether?(i.e.youmether)
EnglishGrammar:Theinfinitiveandthe"-ing"formRegret+to-infinitivereferstofutureorpresent:Weregrettoinformyouthatyouraccountisoverdrawn.Regret+-ingreferstopresentorpast:Iregret(ted)leavingthefirmaftertwentyyears.(Iregret(ted)havingleftwouldrefertothepastonly.)Try+to-infinitivemeans"makeaneffort":Youreallymusttrytoovercomeyourshyness.Try+-ingmeans"experiment":Tryholdingyourbreathtostopsneezing.Stop+to-infinitivereferstopurpose[>16.12.1]:OnthewaytothestationIstoppedtobuyapaper.Stop+-ing:-ingistheobjectoftheverb,[compare>16.42][>16.45.1].Whenhetoldusthestory,wejustcouldn"tstoplaughing.Goon+to-infinitivereferstodoingsomethingdifferent:Afterapprovingtheagenda,wewentontodiscussfinance.Goon+-ingmeans"continuewithoutinterruption"[>App32.9.1]:Wewentontalkingtillaftermidnight.16.60Adjective/noun+to-or+preposition[compare>8.20]Someadjectivesandnounscanbefollowedbyato-infinitiveorbyapreposition[>App27].adjective+"to-"adjective+prepositioninterestedto(do/be)interestedin(doing/being)sorryto(disturb)sorryfor(disturbing)noun+"to-"noun+prepositionchanceto(meet)chanceof(meeting)opportunityto(buy)opportunityof(buying)Oftenthereislittledifferenceinmeaningbetweentheto-and-ingstructures:I"msorry(not)tomentionit.(morelikely)I"msorryfor(not)mentioningit.(lesslikely)Icouldn"tresisttheopportunitytogreetsuchagreatactor.Icouldn"tresisttheopportunityofgreetingsuchagreatactor.Sometimestherearedifferencesinmeaningbetweentheto-and-ingstructures:I"minterestedtohearyouropinion.(itinterestsme)I"minterestedinemigratingtoCanada.(Imightdothis)I"msorrytointerrupt.(=I"msorry,butI"mgoingtointerrupt)I"msorryforinterrupting.(=I"msorryforwhathashappened)
EnglishGrammar:AppendixAppendixAppendix1[>1.9][>1.10][>1.12][>4.16.2]Transitiveandintransitiveverbs1.1Verbswhicharealwaystransitive:afford,allow,blame,bring,contain,deny,enjoy,examine,excuse,fetch,fix,get,greet,have,hit,inform,interest,let,like,love,make,mean,name,need,omit,owe,prefer,prove,put,question,remind,rent,rob,select,wrap.1.2Verbswhicharealwaysintransitive:faint,hesitate,lie(lied),lie(lay/lain),occur,pause,rain(it),remain,sleep,sneeze.1.3Verbswhicharetransitive/intransitive:answer,ask,begin,borrow,choose,climb,dance,eat,enter,fail,fill,grow,help,hurry,jump,know,leave,marry,meet,obey,pull,read,see,sell,touch,wash,watch,win,write.Appendix2[>2.2]Somecommonnounendings2.1Peoplewhodothings:e.g.-ant:assistant;-ar:beggar;-eer:engineer;-ent:president;-er:driver;-ian:historian;-ist:pianist;-or:actor.2.2Peoplewhocomefrom,etc.:e.g.-an:Roman;-er:Londoner;-ese:Milanese;-ian:Athenian;-ite:Muscovite,socialite.2.3Nounsderivedfromverbs:e.g.-age:postage;-al:arrival;-ance:acceptance;-ence:existence;-ery:discovery;-ion/En/:possession;-ment:agreement;-sion/ZEn/:decision;/SEn/:extension;-tion:attention.Andnotethe-ingform:running,etc.[>16.39.1]2.4Nounsrelatedtoadjectives:e.g.-ance/ence:abundance,absence;ancy/-ency:constancy,consistency;-ety:anxiety;-ity:activity;-ness:happiness.2.5Nounsderivedfromothernouns:e.g.-cy:lunacy;-dom:kingdom;-ful:mouthful;-hood:boyhood;-ism:sexism.2.6Nounsusedtomean"small":e.g.-en:kitten;-ette:maisonette;-ie:laddie;-let:booklet;-ling:duckling;-y:dolly.Appendix3[>2.3]3.1Nouns/verbsdistinguishedbystress:"abstract/ab"stract"imprint/im"print"conduct/con"duct"permit/per"mit"contest/con"test"produce/pro"duce"desert/de"sert"rebel/re"bel"dispute/dis"pute"record/re"cord3.2Nouns/verbs:samespellingandpronunciation:e.g.act,attempt,blame,book,call,climb,copy,cost,dance,drink,drive,fall,fear,help,joke,kiss,laugh,try,vote,wait,walk,wash,wish.Noises:bang,bark,buzz,grunt,hiccup,moan.Jobsctions:butcher,judge,model,nurse.Appendix4[>2.17]NounsnotnormallycountableinEnglish:accommodation,advice,anger,applause,assistance,baggage,behaviour,bread,business(=trade),capital(=money),cardboard,cash,chaos,chess,china,clothing,coal,conduct,cookery,countryside,courage,crockery,cutlery,damage,dancing,dirt,education,evidence,flu,flood,fruit,fun,furniture,garbage,gossip(=talkaboutotherpeople),grass,hair(hairs=separatestrandsofhair;hair=allthehairsonthehead),happiness,harm,help,homework,hospitality,housework,information,jealousy,jewellery,knowledge,laughter,leisure,lightning,linen,luck,luggage,macaroni,machinery,meat,money,moonlight,mud,music,news,nonsense,parking,patience,peel,permission,poetry,thepost(=letters),produce,progress,rubbish,safety,scaffolding,scenery,seaside,sewing,shopping,smoking,soap,spaghetti,spelling,steam,strength,stuff,stupidity,sunshine,thunder,timber,toast(=bread),traffic,transport,travel,underwear,violence,vocabulary,wealth,weather,work,writing.Appendix5[>2.18.2][>2.32]5.1Partitive:specificitemsoramounts:abarofchocolate/soap,ablockofcement,abookofmatches/stamps,acakeofsoap,acloudofdust,aflashoflightning,aheadofhair,anitemofnews,ajetofwater,aloafofbread,apealofthunder,apileofearth,aportionoffood,arollofpaper,asliceofmeat.
EnglishGrammar:Appendix5.2Partitives:"containers":e.g.abarrelofbeer,abasketoffruit;abottleofmilk,acanofbeer,acartonofcigarettes,aflaskoftea,aglassofwater,ajugofwater,amugofcocoa,atinofsoup,avaseofflowers.5.3Partitives:smallquantities:e.g.abladeofgrass,abreathofair,acrustofbread,adashofsoda,agrainofrice,alockofhair,apatofbutter,ascrapofpaper.5.4Partitives:measures:e.g.agallonofpetrol,alengthofcloth,alitreofoil,anounceofgold,apintofmilk,apoundofcoffee,aspoonfulofmedicine,ayardofcloth.5.5Partitives:"agameof":e.g.billiards,bridge,cards,chess,cricket,darts,squash,table-tennis,tennis,volleyball.5.6Partitives:abstract:e.g.abitofadvice,abranchofknowledge,afitofanger,apieceofresearch,aspotoftrouble.5.7Partitives:types/species:e.g.abrandofsoap,akindofbiscuit,aspeciesofinsect,atypeofdrug,avarietyofpasta.5.8Partitives:"apairof":e.g.boots,braces,glasses,knickers,pants,pliers,pyjamas/pajamas,scissors,shears,shoes,shorts,skates,skis,slippers,socks,stockings,tights,tongs,trousers.Appendix6[>2.19]Collectivenounsfollowedby"of":e.g.abandofsoldiers,abouquetofflowers,abunchofgrapes,acircleoffriends,aclumpoftrees,acollectionofcoins,acolonyofants,acrewofsailors,acrowdofpeople,adeckofcards,adroveofcattle,afleetofships,agangofthieves,agroupofpeople,aherdofcattle,ahiveofbees,ahordeofchildren,amassofpeople,amobofhooligans,apackofcards,apanelofexperts,apartyofvisitors,aplagueoflocusts,aschooloffish,asetofteeth,ashelfofbooks,astringofpearls.Appendix7[>4.35]Usesof"this/that"and"these/those"7.1IdentificationThings:Thisismyroom.People:Thereheis.That"shim.(Not*he*)7.2IntroductionsThisisMrsAinsworth.ThisisTomSmith,andthisisJaneMills.ThisisMrandMrsAinsworth.(i.e.oneunit)7.3TelephoningThisisTomhere.Isthatyou,Elizabeth?7.4"This"="here"Inthisschool/firm/housewelikepunctuality.7.5"Pointing"topeople,etc.:contrastThisboywantsteaandthatonewantsmilk.Theseboysareinclass1andthosearein2.TakethishomeandgivethesetoCaroline.7.6Demonstrating(withgestures)Hewentthatway.Doitlikethis/that.7.7ForwardandbackwardreferenceOnlythiscanbeusedforforwardreference:Thisishowyoudoit.Pressthisbutton_Comparebackwardreference:Hewasverylate.This/Thatdelayedus.Theseandthoseareneverused,evenifmorethanoneeventisreferredto:Ibrokemylegandmysister"shouseburntdown.-Whendidthis/thathappen?7.8Story-telling,narration(informal)Thissometimesreplacesa/antomakeastorysoundmoreamusingorinterestingandtoshowthatthenarratorwillexplainmore:TherewasthisFrenchmanwhowenttoacricketmatch.7.9Timereferences[>App48]I"llseeyouthisafternoon.
EnglishGrammar:AppendixThesedayslifeishardforoldpeople.Iwasbornin1935.InthosedaystherewasnoTV.Atthattimemyfatherwasaminer.7.10Comparisons$500?Itcostalotmorethanthat!Informaluse,thatofandthoseofsometimesreplaceanounwithof:TheareaoftheUSAislargerthanthatofBrazil.Tom"sessaysarebetterthanthoseoftheotherboys.7.11ContrastThisismycarandthatisJohn"s.7.12ClarificationIsthisthemanyousaw,theonehere?Ididn"tmeanthatTom,buttheonenextdoor._thatisisoftenusedtoclarify:I"llarriveonthe2nd,thatisonFriday.7.13"This"/"that"+"wh-"/"how"clausesYou"relate.That"swhywe"rewaiting.Suelentme50p.This/ThatishowIgothome.7.14"Derogatory"referencewith"that"It"sthatmanagain.(let"savoidhim)7.15"That"inadvertisements,etc.Thatissometimesusedcolloquiallytopointtocommon"shared"knowledge:Bovrilpreventsthatsinkingfeeling.7.16"This"and"that"with"kind"and"sort"Ilikethis/thatkind(orsort)ofperson/bicycle.7.17"These"and"those"with"kinds"/"sorts"Ienjoythese/thosekinds(orsorts)offilms.However,ineverydayspeechweoftenhear:Ienjoythese/thosekind(orsort)offilms.Wecannotusetheseandthoseafterofin,e.g.Ienjoyfilmsofthis/thatkind(orsort).7.18"This"and"that"toindicate"degree"Veryinformallythisandthatcanbeusedlikesoasintensifiers[>6.30.2][>7.51.1]:It"saboutthis/thatbig.(+gesture)Doesitreallycostthis/thatmuch?Ican"twalkthis/thatfar!Let"sgetataxi!7.19Someexpressionswith"this"and"that"Wediscussedthis,thatandtheother.What"sallthis?(=What"sgoingon?)Iknowyou"retiredandallthat,but_That"sthat!We"vefinished!Appendix8[>6.2]8.1Adjectivesformedwithsuffixes:e.g.-able(capableofbeing,abletobe):changeable;-ible(like-able):possible;-ful(fullof,having):beautiful;-ful/-less:careful-careless;i(a)n(historicalperiod,etc.):Victorian;-ish(havethe-sometimesbad-quality):foolish;(colour):reddish;(age):thirtyish;-ive(capableofbeingordoingthis):attractive;-less(without):lifeless;-like(resembling):businesslike;-ly(havethisquality):friendly;(howoften):hourly.Others:-al:mechanical;-ant:hesitant;-ar:circular;-ary:visionary;-ate:affectionate;-ent:sufficient;-eous:gorgeous;-esque:picturesque;-ic:energetic;-ic/-ical:economic-economical;-ious:glorious;-ist:sexist;-ory:sensory;-ous:humorous;-some:fearsome.8.2Adjectivesformedwithprefixes:e.g.dis-:dishonest;il-:illegal;im-:impossible;in-:indifferent;ir-:irresponsible;non-:non-stick;un-:unthinkable.Others:a-:amoral;anti-:antiseptic;hyper-:hyperactive;mal-:maladjusted;over-:overdue;pre-:prewar;pro-:pro-American;sub-:subnormal;super-:superhuman;under-:undercooked.Appendix9[>6.12.2]"The"+adjective:e.g."theyoung"9.1"Thegroupasawhole":e.g.theaged,theblind,thedead,thedeaf,thedumb,theelderly,theguilty,thehandicapped,thehealthy,thehomeless,theinnocent,theliving,themiddle-aged,theold,thepoor,therich,thesick,theunemployed,theyoung.
EnglishGrammar:Appendix9.2Abstractcombinations:e.g.fromthesublimetotheridiculous,taketheroughwiththesmooth.Appendix10[>6.15][>7.51]Somemore"-ed/-ing"adjectivalparticiples:alarmed/alarming,amused/amusing,appalled/appalling,astonished/astonishing,bewildered/bewildering,confused/confusing,depressed/depressing,disgusted/disgusting,distressed/distressing,embarrassed/embarrassing,exhausted/exhausting,frightened/frightening,horrified/horrifying,irritated/irritating,moved/moving,relaxed/relaxing,satisfied/satisfying,shocked/shocking,suprised/suprising,terrified/terrifying,worried/worrying.Appendix11[>6.19]Commonadjectiveseasilyconfused11.1"Fat/thin":people/animalsafat/thinman,afat/thinwoman,afat/thincat11.2"Thick/thin":usuallyapplytothingsathick/thinbook,thick/thinmaterial11.3"Fat"forafewnamesofthingsafatbook,afatdictionary11.4"Thick"(="stupid"-people)Someofmystudentsarereallythick.11.5"Tall/short":people/heightatall/shortman,atall/shortwoman,etc.11.6"Tall":buildings,mountains,trees,etc.theoppositeissmall:atallbuilding/mountain/tree,asmallbuilding/mountain/tree.11.7"High/low":buildingsandthingsahigh/lowbuilding,ahigh/lowstool.Highformountains,butlowforhills:ahighmountain,alowhill.Highandlowcanalsorefertosound:ahigh/lowvoice;ahigh/lownote.11.8"Long/short":length,time,distancealong/shortskirt,along/shorttime,walk,etc.11.9"Loud/soft";"hard/soft"aloud/softknock,aloud/softthud.Soft(oppositehard)alsoappliestotexture;ahard/softapple,ahard/softmattress.11.10"Old/young":peopleanold/youngman,anold/youngwoman.11.11"Old/new":thingsanold/newhandbag,anold/newhouse.Newisusedforapersonwhoisa"newcomer":anewboss,anewsecretary.11.12"Large/big/great":peopleorthingsLargeandbiggenerallyrefertosize:alarge/bigmanorwoman,alarge/bigbox.Greatgenerallyreferstoimportance:agreatman,agreatcathedral,agreatidea.11.13"Small/little"Smallistheoppositeoflarge/big,smallisgradableandisattributive/predicative:asmallboy,asmallhouse.(attributive)Myhouseisverysmall.(predicative)Littleisusuallyattributiveandcanreplacesmallinmanycontexts(alittleboy,alittlehouse);itisalsoaquantifier(alittlesugar=asmallamountof).Littleisusedparticularlytoexpresslove,pity,etc.:yoursweetlittlebaby.Appendix12[>6.24][>6.29]Comparatives/superlativesconfusedandmisused:e.g.12.1"Better/worse"Betteristhecomparativeofwell;worseisthecomparativeofillwhenreferringtohealth:
EnglishGrammar:AppendixHow"sLiz?-She"s(much)better/nearlywell.How"sBob?-He"sstillill-muchworse.12.2"Little"Weusethecomparative/superlativeofsmall:asmall/littleboy,asmaller/thesmallestboy.Theformslittler,thelittlestaretypicalofchildren"sspeechandrefertosizeandage:Don"thithim.He"slittlerthanyouare.I"m7.Susie"s6,andJimmy"sthelittlest.He"s4.12.3"Elder/eldest":"older/oldest"Elderandeldestareused(attributiveonly)withreferencetopeopleinafamily;elderisthereforeneverfollowedbythan:myelderbrother/son,theeldestchild.Thenounisoftendeletedaftertheeldest/youngest.I"mtheeldestandPam"stheyoungest.Theelderispossiblein:e.g.I"mtheelder.12.4"Old/older/oldest"Theseareusedattributivelyandpredicativelywithreferencetopeopleandthings:myolderbrother,myoldestson/oldestchildMybrotherisolderthanIam.Tomistheoldestinourfamily.anoldertree/book,theoldesttree/book.Thisoaktreeisolderthanthatyewtree.Thisbookisolderthanthatone.It"stheoldestbookIhaveinmylibrary.Appendix13[>6.30.1]Expressionswith"as"+adjective+"as":asblindasabat,asboldasbrass,asbrightasabutton(=intelligent),ascheapasdirt,asclearasabell,ascoolasacucumber,asdeafasapost,asdryasdust(=boring),aseasyaspie,asfatasapig,asfreeasabird,ashardasnails,askeenasmustard,aslargeaslife,asmadasahatter,aspleasedasPunch,asprettyasapicture,asquickaslightning,asrightasrain,assafeashouses.Appendix14[>6.6][>7.3.2][>7.5][>7.13]AdjectivesandadverbswiththesameformTheadjectivaluseisgivenfirst:airmail:airmailletter;senditairmailallday:analldaymatch;playalldayallright:I"mallright;you"vedoneallrightbest:bestclothes;doyourbestbetter:abetterbook;speakbetterbig:abighouse;talkbigcheap:acheapsuit;buyitcheapclean:cleanair,cutitcleanclear:aclearsky;standclearclose:theshopsareclose;stayclosecold:acoldperson;runcolddaily:adailypaper;theydeliverdailydead:adeadstop;stopdeaddear:adearbouquet;sellitdeardeep:adeephole;drinkdeepdirect:adirecttrain;godirectdirty:dirtyweather;playdirtydowntown:adowntownrestaurant(AmE)duty-free:aduty-freeshop;buyitduty-freeearly:anearlytrain;arriveearlyeasy:aneasybook;goeasyeveryday:myeverydaysuit;workeverydayextra:anextrablanket;chargeextrafair:afairdecision;playfairfar:afarcountry;gofarfarther:onthefartherside;walkfartherfast:afastdriver;drivefastfine:afinepencil;cutitfinefirm:afirmbelief;holdfirmfirst:thefirstguest;firstI"llwashfree:afreeticket;travelfreefurther:furtherquestions;walkfurtherhard:ahardworker;workhardhigh:ahighnote;aimhighhome:homecooking;gohomehourly:hourlybulletin;phonehourlyinside:theinsidestory;stayinsidekindly:akindlyman;actkindlylast:thelastguest;comelastlate:alatetrain;arrivelatelong:longhair;don"tstaylong
EnglishGrammar:Appendixloud:aloudnoise;talkloudlow:alowbridge;aimlowmonthly:amonthlybill;paymonthlyoutside:anoutsidelavatory;waitoutsideoverseas:overseastravel;traveloverseaspast:thepastweek;walkpastquick:aquickworker;comequickquiet:aquietevening;sitquietright:therightanswer;answerrightsharp:sharpeyes;looksharpslow:aslowtrain;goslowstraight:astraightline;thinkstraightsure:I"msure;Sure,I"lldoit(AmE)thin/thick:athin/thickslice;cutitthin/thickthrough:athroughtrain;gothroughtight:atightfit;sittightweekly:weeklypay;payweeklywell:Iamwell;dowellwide:awideroom;openwideworse:worsemarks;doworsethan_wrong:awrongguess;answerwrongyearly:ayearlyvisit;gothereyearlyAppendix15[>7.13][>7.14]Adverbswithtwoforms15.1Twoformsusedinthesameway:Allformswithout-lycanalsobeusedasadjectives[compare>App14].cheap/cheaply,clean/cleanly,clear/clearly,close/closely,dear/dearly,fair/fairly,fine/finely,firm/firmly,first/firstly,loud/loudly,quick/quickly,quiet/quietly,slow/slowly,thin/thinly.15.2Twoformsusedindifferentways:e.g.deep/deeply:drinkdeep;deeplyregretdirect/directly:godirect;I"llcomedirectlyeasy/easily:goeasy;wineasilyflat/flatly:fallflat;flatlyrefusefree/freely:travelfree;freelyadmitfull/fully:fullintheface;fullyrealizehard/hardly:workhard;hardlyanyfoodhigh/highly:aimhigh;thinkhighlyofyoujust/justly:justfinished;dealjustlywithlast/lastly:arrivelast;lastly,Ithink_late/lately:arrivelate;latelyI"veseennear/nearly:gonear;nearlyfinishedpretty/prettily:sitpretty;smileprettilyreal/really:realglad(AmE);Ireallylikerough/roughly:sleeprough;roughlytwentysharp/sharply:10amsharp;speaksharplyshort/shortly:stopshort;seeyoushortlystrong/strongly:goingstrong;stronglyfeelsure/surely:Isureamlate(AmE);surelywide/widely:openwide;widelybelievedAppendix16[>7.53]Some"-ly"intensifiers:typicalcombinationsabsolutelydelicious;Iabsolutelylovepeaches;amazinglygoodat_;amazinglywell;awfullynice;dosomethingawfullywell;badlymistaken;Ibadlywant_beautifullysimple;beautifullyorganized;bitterlycold,bitterlydisappointed;brilliantlyclever;brilliantlydesigned;completelysuccessful;completelyfinished;considerablybetter;considerablycheaper;cruellydisappointed;cruellyafflicted;dangerouslyill;dangerouslywounded;dearlyloved;I"ddearlyliketo_;deeplysorry;deeplyhurt;definitelymistaken;I"mdefinitelyleaving;dreadfullylate;dreadfullyannoyed;entirelyirresponsible;Ientirelyagree;(e)speciallynice;I(e)speciallyenjoyed_;exceedinglygood;doitexceedinglybadly;extremelyinteresting;extremelysurprised;fearfullyboring;fearfullyconfused;fullysatisfied;Ifullyappreciate;gravelyill;gravelyworried;greatlyimpressed;Igreatlyappreciate;hideouslyugly;hideouslyexpensive;highlyintelligent;Ihighlydisapprove;hopelesslybadly;hopelesslyconfused;horriblypainful;horriblywounded;immenselyrich;Iwasimmenselypleased;incrediblybeautiful;incrediblysurprised;intenselycold;intenselyconcerned;keenlycompetitive;keenlyinterested;largelycompatible;largelyaltered;lightlysalted;lightlycooked;literallyamazing;heliterallybelieves_;madlyexciting;theyclappedmadly;mortallyill;mortallyoffended;outstandinglygood/well/original;painfullyshy;painfullyembarrassed;particularlyclever;Iparticularlyenjoyed_;perfectlysweet;Iperfectlyunderstand;pleasantlyagreeable;pleasantlysurprised;richlydeserved;richlyrewarded;seriouslyupset;seriouslydepressed;severelyill;severelycriticized;sharplyaccurate;sharplycritical;simplywonderful;Isimplylove_;strikinglyattractive;strikinglyobvious;superblyfit;superblycooked;terriblyrude;driveterriblyfast;thoroughlyfed-up;Ithoroughlyenjoyed_;totallyidiotic;Itotallyagree_;utterlystupid;Iutterlyagree;violentlyill;violentlyopposedto_;wonderfullyclever;doitwonderfullywellAppendix17[>7.57]Someviewpointadverbs17.1="I"msureofthefacts":e.g.
EnglishGrammar:Appendixactually,asamatteroffact,certainly,clearly,definitely,honestly,inactualfact,naturally,obviously,really,strictlyspeaking.17.2="I"mlesssureofmyself/thefacts":apparently,arguably,asfarasIknow,ataguess,byallaccounts,evidently,maybe,perhaps,possibly,probably,quitelikely.17.3="I"mmakingageneralization":e.g.asa(general)rule,basically,byandlarge,forthemostpart,ingeneral,inprinciple,inaway,normally,onthewhole,toagreatextent.17.4="I"mgoingtobebrief":e.g.anyhow,briefly,inbrief,ineffect,inafewwords,inshort,toputitsimply.17.5="I"mexpressingmyopinion":e.g.asfarasI"mconcerned,frankly(speaking),inmyopinion,inmyview,personallyIthink_,inallfrankness,inallhonesty,toputitbluntly.17.6="Idon"twantyoutorepeatthis":e.g.betweenourselves,betweenyouandme,confidentially,instrictconfidence.17.7="Youwon"tbelievethis":e.g.amazingly,astonishingly,curiously,funnilyenough,incredibly,oddlyenough,strangely,surprisingly,tomyamazement,tomysurprise.17.8="It"sjustasIexpected":e.g.characteristically,inevitably,logically,naturally,needlesstosay,notsurprisingly,ofcourse,plainly,predictably,typically.17.9="I"mpleased/I"mnotpleased":e.g.agreeably,annoyingly,foolishly,fortunately,happily,ideally,interestingly,luckily,mercifully,preferably,regrettably,sadly,unfortunately,unhappily,unwisely,wisely.Appendix18[>1.17][>7.58]Connectingwordsandphrases18.1Enumerating/stressingfacts:e.g.aboveall,chiefly,(e)specially,finally,first(ly)/second(ly),inthefirstplace,last(ly),mainly,primarily,principally,tobeginwith,then.18.2Makinganaddition;reinforcing:e.g.additionally/inaddition,again,also,anotherthingisthat_,apartfromthis,asidefromthat,aswellasthat,besides,forthatmatter,furthermore,indeed,moreover,whatismore.18.3Statinganalternative:e.g.alternatively,apartfromthis,conversely,exceptfor,excepting,instead,sofaras.18.4Givinganexample:e.g.accordingto,asfaras_isconcerned,forexample,forinstance,namely,suchas.18.5Makingacomparisonoracontrast:ascomparedto,by/incomparisonwith,conversely,equally,however,incontrast,inreality,inthesameway,likewise.18.6Makingaconcession:e.g.admittedly,afterall,allthesame,anyhow,anyway,atallevents,atanyrate,atleast,atthesametime,despitethis,however,Igrantyou,insofaras,nevertheless,nonetheless.18.7Makingsomethingclear:e.g.Imean_,inotherwords,putanotherway,toputitdifferently,thatistosay.18.8Timereferences:e.g.afterwards,atthesametime,concurrently,inthemeantime,meanwhile,subsequently.18.9Showingresults/causes:e.g.accordingly,asaresult,becauseofthis,bythismeans,consequently,forthisreason,hence,intheevent,inthisway,onaccountofthis,owingtothis,so,therefore,thus.18.10Summarizing:e.g.allinall,alltold,andsoforth,andsoon,essentially,inbrief,inconclusion,ineffect,inshort,toallintentsandpurposes,toconclude,tosumup,tosummarize,ultimately.18.11Movingtoadifferenttopic:e.g.asfaras_isconcerned,asfor,asregards,astothat,bytheby,bytheway,coincidentally,funnilyenough,incidentally,inpassing,toreturnto,Well_,withreferenceto.
EnglishGrammar:AppendixAppendix19[>7.59.3]Somenegativeadverbs/adverbphrasesbarely,hardly_when,hardlyever,leastofall,little,never,neveragain,neverbefore,atnotime,bynomeans,in/undernocircumstances,innoway,onnoaccount,onnocondition,nosooner_than_,neither_not,nota_,notonly_but_,notuntil/till,nowhere,onlyafter,onlyatthatmoment,onlyby,onlyif,onlyinsomerespects,onlylater,onlyonrareoccasions,onlythen,onlywhen,onlywith,rarely,scarcely_when,scarcelyever,seldom.Appendix20[>1.23.3][>8.2][>8.4][>8.22]Somecommonprepositions20.1Single-wordprepositions:e.g.*=cannotbeseparatedfromthewordstheyreferto[>8.22]:about,above,across,after,against,along,alongside,amid(st),among(st),around,asat,*bar,before,behind,below,beneath,beside,*besides,between,beyond,*but(=except),by,*despite,down,*during,*except,for,from,in,inside,into,like,*minus,near,of,off,on,onto,opposite,out(AmE,informalBrE),outside,over,past,*per,*plus,round,*since,than,through,*throughout,till,to,towards,under,underneath,*unlike,until,up,upon,*via,with,within,without,*worth.20.2Single-wordprepositionswith"-ing":barring,concerning,considering,excepting,excluding,including,regarding.20.3Prepositionsoftwoormorewords:accordingto,aheadof,alongwith,apartfrom,asfor,asfrom,asregards,asaresultof,asto,aswellas,awayfrom,becauseof,butfor,bycomparisonwith,bymeansof,dueto,exceptfor,forthesakeof,fromamong,fromunder,inadditionto,inbetween,incaseof,inchargeof,incommonwith,incomparisonto/with,inconnexionwith,infavourof,infrontof,inlinewith,inplaceof,inspiteof,insteadof,inviewof,nearto,nextto,onaccountof,onbehalfof,ontheleft/rightof,outof,owingto,regardlessof,togetherwith,upto,withtheexceptionof,withreferenceto,withregardto.Appendix21[>3.20][>3.28.3][>8.9.1][>10.13.4]"to"+noun;"at"+noun(He"sgoneto/beento_He"sat,He"sbeenat)21.1Social/businessactivities:ataconcert,aconference,adance,adinner(formal),afuneral,ameeting,awedding.21.2Publicplaces/buildings:theairport,LondonAirport,thestation,WaterlooStation,thebusstation,thebusstop;the/anartgallery,theTateGallery,the/amuseum,theBritishMuseum,thezoo,LondonZoo;thecarpark,the/afillingstation,the/agarage;theshops,Harrods,thebutcher"s,thechemist"s,theshoeshop,thesupermarket,thebank,thelibrary,thepolicestation,thetownhall;theconsulate,theembassy;the/ahotel,theGrandHotel,the/arestaurant;thedentist("s),thedoctor("s),thehospital.21.3Zeroarticle+noun:gohome/beathome,church,college,school,university,HighfieldSchool,BristolUniversity.21.4"Addresses":hissister"s,24CedarAvenue,RoseCottage.21.5Pointsinsideabuildingorarea:thebookingoffice,Reception,theCustoms.aliftmaybeatthefirst/secondfloor;apersonisonthefirst/secondfloor.Appendix22[>3.20][>3.28.3][>8.9.2][>10.13.4]"to"+noun;"in"+noun(He"sgoneto/beento_He"sin,He"sbeenin)22.1Largeareas,countries,states:Europesia,Texas/Kent,theAndes,theAntarctic,theSaharaDesert,theMediterranean,thePacific.22.2Towns/partsoftowns,exceptwhenwethinkofthemaspointsonaroute[>8.6]:Canterbury,Chelsea,Dallas,Manhattan,NewYork,Paris,theEastEnd.22.3Outsideareas(gointoispreferablewithe.g.garden,street):thegarden,thepark,HydePark,thesquare,thestreet,BondStreet,theoldtown;thedesert,theforest,thejungle,themountains.22.4Rooms(gointoorgoto)thebathroom,hisbedroom,thegarage,thekitchen;MrJones"soffice,thewaitingroom;thebar,thecloakroom,thelounge,theGents".22.5Zeroarticle+noun:bed,chapel,church,hospital,prison.Appendix23[>3.20][>3.28.3][>8.9.3][>10.13.4]"to"+noun;"at"or"in"+noun
EnglishGrammar:AppendixWeuseatwhenwethinkofaplacease.g.ameetingpoint;inwhenwethinkitis"enclosing":theairport,thecinema,thetheatre,thezoo;thecarpark,thegarage,theoffice;thechemist"s,theflowershop,thebank,thelibrary,thepostoffice,thehotel,theGrand(Hotel),therestaurant.at/inchurch(e.g.topray);at/inthechurch(forsomeotherreason);atschool(asapupil);at/intheschool(ase.g.ateacher);inprison(asaprisoner);at/intheprison(ase.g.avisitor);inhospital(asapatient);at/inthehospital(ase.g.anoutpatient).Appendix24[>2.13.1][>3.21][>8.12-13]24.1DaysoftheweekSundaySun.ThursdayThur(s).MondayMon.FridayFri.TuesdayTue(s).SaturdaySat.WednesdayWed.24.2Monthsandseasons[>App47.4.2]monthsseasonsJanuaryJan.(the)SpringorspringFebruaryFeb.(the)SummerorsummerMarchMar.(the)AutumnorautumnAprilApr.(orAmE(the)fall)May-(the)WinterorwinterJune-July-AugustAug.SeptemberSept.OctoberOct.NovemberNov.DecemberDec.Appendix25[>8.10][>8.15]Particularprepositions,particlesandcontrasts[seealso>App32]25.1"about","on"and"over"Aboutandoncanbeusedtomean"concerning"or"relatingto"asubject.Ontendstobeusedinmoreformal,academiccontextsthanabout:HaveyouseenthisarticleontheAntarctic?I"vereadlotsofbooksaboutanimals.About(Not*on*)isusedafterverbssuchasknow,read,tell,think,andadjectivessuchasanxious,concerned,worried.Aboutoronareusedafternounssuchasidea(s),opinion(s).Overisoftenusedinthesenseof"about",particularlyinnewsreportsonradio/TVaftere.g.argue,argument,concern,dispute,oftenwheresomesortofconfrontationisinvolved.25.2"accordingto"and"by"Accordingtocanmean"asshownby":Accordingtotheforecast,it"llbewet.and"asstatedby":AccordingtoDrPim,theseaisrising.Accordingtoisusedtorefertoinformationcomingfromotherpeopleorsources(accordingtohim,accordingtothetimetable,etc.),butnottoinformationcomingfromoneself.(Not*accordingtome*).Accordingtocannotbeusedwithopinion;inmustbeused:Inmyopinion,noneofthisistrue.Bycanonlyreplaceaccordingtowhenthereferenceishighlyspecific,e.g.toaclockortimetable,etc.,butnevertopeople:It"snowtenpastby/accordingtomywatch.Accordingtocanalsomean"dependingon":Igettoworkatnineorjustafteraccordingtotheamountoftrafficontheroad.25.3"across"and"over"Boththeseprepositionscanbeusedtomean"fromonesidetotheother"ifwearereferringtoaline(e.g.aroad,ariver,afrontier,etc.)Whencombiningwithverbslikerun,walk,(runacross/over,walkacross/over)theycanexpressthesameideaastheverbcross:Childrenaretaughtnottorunover/acrosstheroadwithoutlooking.(i.e.nottocross)There"sanewsagent"sover/acrosstheroad.However,overcannotbeusedwhenwearereferringtothesurfaceofawidearea:They"relayingapipelineacrossSiberia.Withverbswhichcansuggest"aimlessmovement"(stroll,wander,etc.)overcanbeusedtodescribemovementinsideanarea(notnecessarilyfromonesidetoanother)suggesting"hereandthere":Wewanderedoverthefields.Weskatedoverthefrozenlake.Acrossmustalsobeusedwhenwearereferringtomovementthroughwater:ErnaHartswamacrosstheChannel.Acrosscannotbeusedwhenwewishtoexpress"goupandcomedownagain"(fromonesideofsomethinghightotheother):Theyescapedbyclimbingoverthewall.25.4"across"and"through"
EnglishGrammar:AppendixAcross,meaning"fromonesidetotheother",canrefertoasurface:Weskatedacrossthefrozenlake.Through,meaning"fromonesidetotheother",or"fromoneendtotheother"cansuggestmoreeffortthanacross.Throughrefersto-ahollow:Waterflowsthroughthispipe.-somethingthree-dimensionalwhich"encloses"(e.g.acountry,acrowd,aforest,longgrass,mud):Itwasdifficulttocutthroughtheforest.-a"barrier"(e.g.theCustoms,adoor,anet,aroadblock,awindow):Lookthroughthewindow.Theuseofacrossandthroughdependsonthesortofthingyouaretalkingabout.InLet"swalkacross/throughthepark.theyareinterchangeablebecauseinthespeaker"smind,acrossreferstoasurfaceandthroughtoathree-dimensionalarea.25.5"after"and"afterwards"Boththesewordsmean"later",butaftercanbeapreposition(followedbyanobject)andaconjunction(followedbyaclause).Whenthisisthecase,afterwardscannotreplaceafter.Comeandseemeafterwork.Comeandseemeafteryou"vefinished.Afterwardscanonlybeusedasanadverb(thatis,withnonounorpronounobject):Wemadethehousetidyandourguestsarrivedsoonafterwards.Wecanalsouseafterasanadverbintheabovesentence(ourguestsarrivedsoonafter).Orwemayuseandthenorandsoonafterthat(andthen/andsoonafterthatourguestsarrived).Afterasanadverbisoftenmodifiedbysoonorshortlyandoccursinexpressionslikehappilyeverafter.Itcannotbeusedinaninitialpositiontorefertothesecondoftwodistinctevents:Wehadaswiminthesea.Afterwardswelayonthebeach.25.6"(a)round"and"about"(A)round/aboutareinterchangeablewhenthey:-refertolackofpurposeorlackofdefinitemovementorposition:Westoodabout/(a)roundwaiting.-refertomindlessactivity:Iwishyou"dstopfoolingabout/around.-areusedtomean"approximately":Thetelexwasreceived(at)around/about8.-areusedtomean"somewherenear":Ilostmypurseabout/(a)roundhere.Aboutcannotreplacearoundtoreferto-circularmovement:Millie"shavingacruise(a)roundtheworld.-distribution:Wouldyouhandthesepapers(a)round?-"everypart":Letmeshowyou(a)roundthehouse.-"intheareaof":Helivessomewhere(a)roundManchester.25.7"at"[fortimephrases>App47.5]Atcommonlyfollows:-adjectivesassociatedwithskill:good/bad/clever/better/worseatI"mnotverygoodatfigures.-afewnounsassociatedwithskill:adunceat,ageniusatI"madunceatarithmetic.-verbsusedtosuggestactiondirectedtowardsatargetordestination(oftensuggestingaggression),suchasaim,laugh,shout,stare,strike,talk,throw.Atoftensuggests"takingaim".Compare:Throwtheballtome.(formetocatch).Thatboyisalwaysthrowingstonesatbirds.(aimingatthemtoharmthem)Sheshoutedtousacrossthevalley.(tocommunicatewithus)Thechildrengotverydirtyandsheshoutedatthem.(toscoldthem)Against(butnotat)canbeusedafterverbslikefight,throw,wherethereisnoideaoftakingaim:Hethrewtheballagainstthewall.Wefoughtagainsttheenemy.-adjectiveswhichindicateareactiontocircumstances,events,etc.:amazed,annoyed,astonished,surprised,etc.+at[>App10]:I"msurprisedatallthecallswe"vehad.Atcanoftenbereplacedbyby(surprisedby)afterwordslikesurprisedwhentheseareusedaspastparticiplesinthepassive[>12.7].Atisalsousedwithreferencetoprice/speed:Wehavesomecombsat$2each.(Thisuseofatissometimessymbolicallyrepresentedby"@"inpricelists,etc.)
EnglishGrammar:AppendixRonisdrivingat100milesanhour!25.8"away"[>8.4.3]Awayisanadverbparticleandisneverfollowedbyanobject.Itcommonlycombineswiththeadverbfar(faraway)andtheprepositionfrom(awayfrom)andverbswhichconveytheideaof"distance":Iseestormcloudsfarawayinthedistance.Ilivetwentymilesawayfromhere.Noteuseswithverbs(e.g.fireaway=beginanddon"tstop;putaway=putsomethinginitsplace;workaway,i.e.withoutinterruption).25.9"because"and"becauseof"Because(conjunction)introducesaclause:Icouldn"tdotheworkbecauseIwasill.Becauseof(preposition)takesanobject:Ican"tdotheworkbecauseofmyillness.Onaccountof+objectcanbeusedinplaceofbecauseofinformalcontexts.Farmsaregoingbankruptonaccountofthecrisisinagriculture.25.10"before"and"infrontof"Beforeisnormallyusedtorefertotime:Makesureyou"retherebefore7.Beforecanrefertospacewhenusedwithverbslikecome,go,lie,stand,andinfixedexpressions,suchasappearbeforethemagistrate,before(orinfrontof)yourveryeyes,comebeforethecourt(before="inthepresenceof"insomeoftheseexpressions).Infrontof(anditsopposite,behind)referstopositionorplace.Beforeisnotpossibleinmostordinarycontextstorefertoposition:I"llwaitinfrontoftheshop.(Not*before*)Before(likeafter)combineswithe.g.come/goandisinterchangeablewithinfrontof:Youcomebefore(after)meinthequeue.Whydon"tyougobefore(after)me?Beforeandinfrontofareinterchangeablewhenwerefertobiggeographicalareas.There,before/infrontofus,laythedesert.orwhentheyareusedmetaphoricallytorefertobigstretchesoftime,etc.:Yourwholelifeliesbefore/infrontofyou.25.11"behind","attheback(of)","back"Behindcanbeusedasapreposition:There"sabiggardenbehindthehouse.orasanadverb:There"sagardeninfrontandonebehind.Behindcanbereplacedbyattheback(of):There"sagardenatthebackofthehouse.There"sagardenattheback.Backisanadverbandoftencombineswithverbslikekeep,put,standandstay:Iwishyou"dputthingsbackintheirplaces.Keepthisbook.Idon"twantitback.Backmustnotbeconfusedwithagainin,e.g.Ourneighboursinvitedustodinneramonthagoandwemustinvitethemback.(returntheirhospitality)Weenjoyedhavingourneighbourstodinnerandwemustinvitethemagain.(onanotheroccasion)Whentheideaofbackiscontainedintheverb,theadverbbackmustnotbeused:Wehadtogobackearly.Wehadtoreturnearly.(Not*returnback*)Backcanalsobeusedinthesenseof"ago":Isawhimfouryearsback/ago.25.12"beside"and"besides"Besideisaprepositionmeaning"nextto":Comeandsitbesideme.Besidesisaprepositionoranadverbmeaning"inadditionto"or"aswellas":Thereweremanypeopletherebesidesus.Thisvehicleisveryfast.Besides,it"sgotfour-wheeldrive.Besidesshouldnotbeconfusedwithexcept.AllofuswentbesidesBill.(=Billwentandwewenttoo.)AllofuswentexceptBill.(=Billdidn"tgobutwedid.)25.13"between"and"among"Betweenismostcommonlyusedtoshowadivisionorconnexionbetweentwopeople,thingsortimes:Divideitequallybetweenthetwoofyou.There"sagoodservicebetweenhereandtheisland.We"llbetherebetween6and6.30.
EnglishGrammar:AppendixItcanalsooccasionallybeusedtorefertomorethantwothings,etc.whentheyareviewedseparatelyandtherearenotmany:Pleasedon"tsmokebetweencourses.SwitzerlandisbetweenFrance,Germany,AustriaandItaly.Betweenisoftenusedincomparisonsanddifferenceswhentherearetwothings,etc.:Whatisthedifferencebetweenthesetwowatches?Itcanalsobeusedtoreferto"sharedactivity"whentherearetwoormorethantwo:Thescoutscollectedmoneyfortheblind.Between(orAmong)themtheygot£800.Among(andthelesscommonamongst)+pluralnounreferstoamassofthings,etc.whichcannotbeviewedseparately.Wereyouamongthememberspresent?Itisoftenusedtorefertothreeormore:ProfessorWebsterisamongtheworld"sbestauthoritiesonEtruscancivilization.25.14"but(for)"and"except(for)"Butforintroducesacondition[>14.22]:Wewouldhavebeenabletogethereontimebutfortheheavysnow.Exceptformeans"withtheexceptionof":Everyonehashelpedexceptforyou.Butandexceptareusedwithoutfortomean"withtheexceptionof",especiallyafterevery/any/nocompounds.However,wecannotusebutandexceptasprepositionswithoutfortobeginasentence:Everyonebut/exceptyouhashelped.Exceptutforyoueveryonehashelped.Wecanonlyuseexcept(notexceptfor)infrontofaprepositionalphrase:Wegotobedbefore10,exceptinthesummer.Weusebut(notexcept)inquestionslike:WhobutJohnwoulddoathinglikethat?Forbutandexceptasconjunctions[>8.4.4].25.15"by","near"and"on"Thesewordscanbeusedtomean"notfarfrom":Bycanmean"rightnextto"or"beside"aperson,objectorplaceandisinterchangeablewithbesideandnextto:Isatbythephoneallmorning.Nearusuallysuggestsa"ashortwayfrom"ratherthan"rightnextto":WelivenearLondon-just20milessouth.Near(notby)isassociatedwithnotfarfrom:Welivenear/notfarfromthesea.Theoppositeofnearisalongwayfromor(quite)farfrom:Welivealongwayfrom/(quite)farfromthesea.Near(butnotby)canbemodifiedbyvery:Theplayisveryneartheend.Bycanbemodifiedbyrightandcloseforemphasis[>8.21]Thehotelisrightby/closebythestation.Oncanmean"rightnextto"or"beside"whenwerefertoaline:Ourhouseisrightontheroad/ontheriver.OnmyrightIhaveFrankMilliganandonmyleftIhaveFrankMulligan.Onisoftenfoundinplace-namesfortowns,etc.bytheseaoronrivers:Southend-on-sea,Stratford-(up)on-Avon.25.16"by"and"past"Bothwordsareofteninterchangeablewithverbsofmotion(go,run,walk,etc.)tomean"beyondapointinspaceortime":Hewentrightby/pastmewithoutspeaking.Severaldayswentby/pastbeforeIhadnews.25.17"by","with"and"without"Byandwithcanbeusedtomean"bymeansof"buttheyarenotgenerallyinterchangeable.Byoccursinfixedphrases[>App26.2]likebybus,andinpassiveconstructions[>12.5]:Ourdogwashitbyabus.By(often+-ing)canreferto"method":Youcanlockthiswindowbymovingthiscatchtotheleft.(thatishowyoumustdoit)Bycanrefertotime,measureorrate:I"mpaidbythehour/day/week.Youcanonlybuyeggssingle,notbythepound.Wealsouseitwhenreferringtoanykindofmeasurementagainstascale:He"sshorterthanIambysixinches.Interestrateshavegoneupby3percent.Weusebytomean"via"whenreferringtoroutes:Wedrovetothecoastbythemainroad.Withandwithoutrefertothings(especiallytools/instruments)whichweuseorneedtouse:Youmightgetitopenwithabottle-opener.(i.e.thatiswhatyouneedtouse)
EnglishGrammar:AppendixItwon"topenwithoutabottle-opener.Withcanalsoreferto"manner":Paulreturnedmygreetingwithanod.25.18"down","up","under"and"over"Downistheoppositeofupandindicatesdirectiontowardsalowerlevel:Let"sclimbupthehill,thenclimbdown.Thoughdownismostcommonlyusedwithverbsofmovement,itcan(likeacross,alongandup)beusedwithpositionverbstoindicateaplaceawayfromthespeaker.Thereisnosuggestionof"atalowerlevel"inthisuse:Welivedownthestreet.Underconveystheideaof"beingcovered":Let"ssitunderthistree.Therearealotofmineralsunderthesea.Overcanhavethemeaning"covering":Keepthisblanketoveryou.25.19"dueto"and"owingto"Somegrammarsdrawadistinctionbetweenthesetwoprepositionsonthegroundsthatdueisanadjectiveandmustthereforebeassociatedwithanoun+be.Itcanbereplacedbycausedby:Ourdelay(noun)wasdueto/causedbyheavytraffic.Owingtoisassociatedwithaverb.Itcanbereplacedbybecauseof:Thebroadcastwascancelled(verb)owingto/becauseofthestrike.Inpractice,thisdistinctionisignoredbymanyeducatedspeakerswhouseduetointhesamewayasowingtoorbecauseof:Helosthisjobdueto/owingto/becauseofachangeinmanagement.25.20"for"[>7.32][>16.40.9]Commonuses:-purpose:Thebestmanforthejob.-+ing:Ineedthisforsewing.-destinationThisisthetrainforYork.-"recipient":Here"sagiftforyou.I"vegotnewsforyou.-reason:Ididitforthemoney.-duration:He"sbeenawayfordays.-exchange:Iboughtitfor£5.-meaning:What"sFrenchfor"cat"?-(=as):Ididitforajoke.-(=insteadof):I"lldoitforyou.[>1.13.3]-(=infavourof):Areyouinfavourofthis?-Yes,I"mallforit.Theoppositeisagainst:I"magainsttheidea.-intention:Let"sgoforaswim.(Aftergoandcome,forisnotfollowedby-ing.)-specifictimereference(not"periodoftime"):I"llorderataxifor11.I"llorderataxifor11.-forandto:Forisnotusedinfrontofato-infinitive,butcanbefollowedbyagerundtoexpresspurposeorreason:Iusedthistooltodrillahole.Thistoolisusedfordrillingholes.Hewaspraisedforbeingpunctual.25.21"from"[>8.9]Fromisoftenusedtoindicateorigin.Thereferencecanbeto:-aplace:GerdaisfromBerlin.-aperson:Who"sthatletterfrom?-agroup:We"refromthecouncil.-aquotation:Thislineisfrom"Hamlet".-distance:She"sawayfromwork.-abstract:Hediedfromastroke.Iactedfromself-interest.25.22"in"and"out"Usedinparticles,inandoutoftenreferto"entrance"and"exit",asinWayInandWayOut,orsimplyinandOut.Themeaningcanbeextendedtocoverincomingandoutgoingmail,asinthenounsin-trayandout-tray.25.23"inspiteof",etc.(Al)thoughisaconjunctionandintroducesaclause.Bycomparison,inspiteof(alwaysthreewords),despiteandnotwithstandingdonot,andareveryformal.Hereisa"scale":Thetemperaturehasdropped,butitisstillwarm.Itisstillwarm,(al)thoughthetemperaturehasdropped.Itisstillwarm,inspiteofthedropintemperature.
EnglishGrammar:AppendixItisstillwarm,despitethedropintemperature.Itisstillwarm,nothwithstandingthedropintemperature.Notwithstandingcanbeusedattheendofasentencetoconveyevengreaterformality:Itisstillwarm,thedropintemperaturenotwithstanding.Inspiteof,despiteandnotwithstandingareoftenfollowedbythefactthat.Inspiteofthefactthathehasfailedsooftenhehasenteredfortheexamagain.Inspiteof/despitecanbefollowedby-ing:Inspiteoflosingafortune,he"sstillrich.Forallconveysthesameidealessformally:Forallhermoney,MrsHopperisn"thappy.Comparewithall(=takingintoaccount):Withallthisrain,there"llbeagoodcrop.25.24"instead"and"insteadof"Insteadisanadverb;insteadofisacomplexpreposition.Wheninsteadisusedasanadverb,itisusuallyplacedattheend:Ifyoudon"twantaholidayinWales,whydon"tyougotoScotlandinstead?Weuseinsteadof+noun,pronounor-ing:Weeatmargarineinsteadofbutter.Whycan"tMariondriveyouintotowninsteadofme?Insteadofmoaning,whydon"tyouact?25.25"like"and"as"[>1.47][>6.30.1][>16.40.8]Likeasaprepositionisfollowedbyanoun,pronounor-ing:There"snobusinesslikeshowbusiness.(=tocomparewith)There"snoonelikeyou.(=tocomparewith)Whydon"tyoutrysomethinglikedoingabitofworkforachange?(=suchas)Therewerelotsofpeopleweknewattheparty,liketheSmithsandtheFrys.(=suchas/forexample)Likecansometimesbereplacedbysuchas(notbyas).Likecanconveytheideaof"resemblance":Itwaslikeadream.(=similarto)Theoppositeisunlike:Theholidaywasunlikeanyother.Likecansuggest"inthemannerof":Heactslikeaking.(=inthesamewayas)As(=inthecapacityof)canbeusedasaprepositionandshouldnotbeconfusedwithlike(=resemblance).Itcanrefertopeopleandthings:Iworkasahotelreceptionist.Asalawyer,thiswouldbemyadvice.Who"susedtheknifeasascrew-driver?Ascanbeaconjunctionintroducingaclause:Asthelastbushadleft,wereturnedonfoot.Usedasaconjunction,ascanconveysimilarity:She"smusical,aswashermother/ashermotherwas.Like(=as/asif)isoftenusedasaconjunction,especiallyininformalAmEwhichisinfluencingBrEinthisrespect.ThisusehasnotgainedfullacceptanceinBrE:LikeItoldyou,it"sanofferIcan"trefuse.(i.e.asItoldyou_)She"sspendingmoneyliketherewasnotomorrow.(i.e.asif)Likeandunlikecanbehavelikeadjectiveswhenweusethemaftervery,moreormost.He"smorelikehismotherthanhisfather.-Idon"tagree.They"reveryunlike.25.26"of","outof","from","with"Alltheseprepositionscancombinewithmade(of,outof,from,with)toindicatethematerialsoringredientsoutofwhichsomethingiscreated.Madeofandmadeoutofareusedwhenwecanactuallyrecognizethematerial(s):madeofwood,iron,etc..Yourarelyfindtoysmade(out)ofsolidwood.Madefromisusedwhentheingredientoringredientsarenotimmediatelyobvious:Beerismadefromhops.Bronzeismadefromcopperandtin.Madewith,tosuggest"contains",isoftenusedtoidentifyoneormoreoftheingredientsused:Thissauceismadewithfreshcream.Theseprepositionscanfollowthepastparticiplesofotherverbs,e.g.built/constructedof/outof/from/withandoccurinexpressionssuchaspavedwithtiles,loadedwithhay,etc.25.27"of"and"off"Of/offarenotinterchangeable,buttheirsimilarspellingscauseconfusion.Ofneveroccursasaparticle;offisbothprepositionandparticle.OfForpossessiveuses[>2.47].Otherusesare:-origin:MrsRayofWorthing.-direction:north/south/west/eastof_-institutions:TheUniversityofLondon
EnglishGrammar:Appendix-age:Awomanof50.Off-separation:It"sjustoffthemotorway.Takethetopoff(thisjar).-departure:Wesetoffatdawn.-disappearance:Hasherheadachewornoff?25.28"on"and"in"Onandinareoftenusedwithreferencetothebody.Onreferstopositiononasurface:There"sablackmarkonyournose.TheX-rayshowsaspotonthelung.Inisusedinrelationtospaceorareatosuggest"embedded":I"vegotaspeckofdustinmyeye.andtoreferto:-pains:I"vegotapaininmyback/ear/stomach.-deepwounds:I"vegotacutinmyfoot.Superficialwoundscantakeon:I"vegotascratchonmyarm.25.29"on"and"off"Onandoffaregenerallyusedasprepositionsorparticlestorefertothesupplyofpower,especiallyelectricityandwater:Turnthelight/tapon/off.Theyarealsousedinconnexionwithfeelings:Rayturnshisaffectionsonandoff.Bothprepositionsareoftenfoundonswitches,appliances,etc.:ON/OFF.25.30"opposite(to)"Oppositecanbeusedasanadverb:Where"sthebank?-It"sopposite.Oritcanbeusedasapreposition,withorwithoutto(thoughtoisoftenunnecessary):There"sabankopposite(to)myoffice.Oppositecanbeusedasapredicativeadjective:Thehouseoppositeisupforsale.andasanattributiveadjective:Theybothhaveoppositepointsofview.25.31"outof","outside","out"[>8.4.3][>8.9.6]Outofistheoppositeofintowhenwearedescribingmovement:Weranoutoftheburningbuilding.Compare:Wegotintothecarinahurry.Outofistheoppositeofinwhenthereisnomovementinvolved:MrRayisoutoftheoffice.(=Heisnotin.)MrRayisinhisoffice.(=Heisnotout.)Outissometimesusedinformallyasapreposition:Don"tthrowyourbusticketoutthewindow.(=outofthewindow)Outsidecansometimesreplaceoutoftodescribemovement:Weranoutsidetheburningbuilding.But,withoutfurtherinformation,thiscanalsobetakentomeanthatwewerealreadyoutsideitwhenwebegantorun.Insideandintostandinthesamerelationship:Weraninsidetheburningbuilding.canalsobetakentomeanwewerealreadyinsideitwhenwebegantorun.Withoutmovement,outsidecannotreplaceoutof:Heisoutsidehisoffice.means"heis(standing)immediatelyoutsideit".Heisoutofhisoffice.means"heisnothere;heissomewhereelse".Outsideandinsidecanbeusedasadverbs;intoandoutofcanonlybeusedasprepositions[>8.9.5-6]:Heisinside/outside.Werushedinside/outside.Itisalwayssafertouseintoandoutofasprepositionsratherthanoutsideandinsidetomean"fromoneplacetoanother".In/outcanbeusedasadverbs[>App25.22]:He"sin/out.25.32"over","above","ontopof"Overcanhavethesenseof"covering"(andsometimes"touching"),anditsoppositeisunder(=coveredby).Abovestressestheideaof"atahigherlevel"(i.e.nottouching):Keeptheblanketsoveryou.Ican"tsleepwithalightonabovemyhead.
EnglishGrammar:AppendixOntopofgenerallysuggests"touching":Don"tputanythingontopoftheTVplease.Foracrossandover[>App25.3].Aboveandovercanoftenbeusedinterchangeablywithverbsofmovement:I"dliketoflyabove/overtheAmazon.Overandabovecanbeusedinterchangeablyinthesenseof"verticallyatahigherlevel":Thehelicopterwasover/abovethelifeboat.Mybedroomisover/abovethekitchen.However,theyarenotinterchangeablewhenallweareconcernedwithis"ahigherlevel"(notverticallyatahigherlevel).If,forexample,wewerereferringtotwocatsonatreewewouldsaythatAwasaboveB,notoverit.Ingeneralterms,overandunderindicateverticalrelationships,whileaboveandbelowrefersimplytolevels.Overandabovehavedifferentfigurativeuses.Overmeans"inchargeof":Wedon"twantanyonelikethatoverus.Abovecanmean"ahigherrank":MajorisabovetherankofCaptain.Over(andlesscommonlyabove)canmean"morethan":Heisn"tover(above/morethan)ten.Above(notover)isusedtomeasureonascale:Hisworkisaboveaverage.Bothoverandabovecombinewithsee:seeover(=lookatthenextpage);seeabove(=lookfurtherupthesamepage/refertothepreviouspage).Overcancombinewithturn,inturnover(apage),anditsoppositeisturnback.25.33"to"[>8.9]Whentoisassociatedwiththeinfinitive,itisnotapreposition:Iwanttogo.Shebegantocry,etc.However,afterverbssuchasobjectoradjectivessuchasaccustomed,toisapreposition.Thismeansitcanbefollowedbyanounoragerund[>16.56].I"maccustomedtohardwork.I"maccustomedtoworkinghard.25.34"towards"ToinIgofromXtoYcoversthewholemovement,startingatXandarrivingatY.Towardsindicatesgeneraldirectionanddoesnotcoverthewholemovement.Itcanconveythefollowing:-direction/movement:Walkslowlytowardsme.-"inthedirectionof":Thechurchlookstowardstheriver.-"near":Ifeeltiredtowardstheendoftheday.-"inrelationto":Hisattitudetowards_-"forthepurposeof":Paytowardsapension.TowardismorecommoninAmEthantowards.25.35"under","underneath","beneath","below"Undermeans"coveredby"(andsometimes"touching")and"atalowerplacethan"(not"touching"):There"snothingnewunderthesun.Itcanalsobeusedwithverbsofmovement:Wewalkedunderthebridge.Undercanhavethemeaningof"lessthan":Ithinkshe"sunderseventeen.Belowisalsopossibleincertaincontexts:Milliecan"tbebelow40.Underneathmeans"completelycoveredby"(touchingornottouching):Putamatunderneaththathotdish.Beneathislesscommonandmoreliterary,butitcanreplaceunderandunderneath:Ourpossessionsliebeneaththerubble.Belowistheoppositeofabove.Itisinterchangeablewithunderandunderneathwhenitmeans"atalowerlevel":Heswamjustbelowthesurface.Wecampedbelow/under/underneaththesummit.Butitisnotgenerallyinterchangeablewhenreferringtoplaceorposition:Thestonehitmejustbelowtheknee.Undercanbeusedtomean"commandedby":Ourforemanhastenpeopleunderhim.Belowcanbeusedfigurativelytorefertorank:What"stherankbelowCaptain?25.36"with"and"without"[>1.60][>16.51]Withandwithoutcanbeusedtomean"accompaniedby"or"notaccompaniedby":Iwenttothezoowithmysister.Whatwasyourlifelikewithoutanysisters?Ican"tmanagewithoutyou.Withcanbeareplacementfor"having"in:e.g.Hestoodwithhishandsinhispockets.
EnglishGrammar:AppendixWithhisbackground,heshouldgofar.Withoutcansuggest"andnotdosomething":Wemustgetinsidewithoutwakingher.Withcansuggest"takingintoconsideration":Withthecostoflivingsohigh,wearecuttingdownonluxuries.Withsomanyaccidentsontheroad,theuseofseat-beltswasmadecompulsory.With(butnotwithout)followscommonadjectivestoexpressfeelings:angry,annoyed,furious,etc.(withsomeone,butatsomething).Andnote:bluewithcold,greenwithenvy,etc.Withalsofollowsverbs,e.g.cope,fight,quarrel.25.37"with","without","in","of"Withandwithoutcanbeusedtomean"carrying"or"notcarrying".[>10.31.4]:Who"sthewomanwiththegreenumbrella?I"mwithoutanymoney.oritcanmean"(un)accompaniedby":Thecameracomeswith/withoutacase.Withandwithoutcanbeusedtomean"having"or"nothaving"physicalcharacteristics:He"samanwithabignoseandredhair.Thiscanbeextendedtoexternalcharacteristicssuchashairstylesandmake-up,ine.g.thewomanwithpinklipstick.Incanbeusedtomean"wearing":Who"sthewomaninthegreenblouse?andcanrefertovoice-quality:Hespokeinalow/loudvoice/inawhisper.Ofcanbeusedtodescribe:-personalqualities:He"samanofcourage.-age:He"samanofabout40.-wealth:He"samanofmeans.25.38"withregardto",etc.Anumberofprepositionscanbeusedwhenwewishtomakeformalreferencesorfocusattention,e.g.asfaras_isconcerned,asfor,asregards,asto,regarding,withreferenceto,withregardto:Asregardsyourrecentapplicationforajob,wehaven"tmadeupourmindsyet.Wehaven"thadareplyfromourneighboursregardingtheirproposaltobuildagarage.IamwritingtoyouwithreferencetoyourinquiryofNovember27th.However,informalusescanoccur:Ididn"tasktoomanyquestionsastohiswhereabouts.Asforyourinterestinthisbusiness,Ihavenocommenttomake.AsfarasI"mconcerned,youcandoasyouplease.Appendix26[>7.11][>8.17]Someprepositionalphrases26.1Somephraseswith"at"at+meals(lunch,etc.)atlengthat+placeatalossat+pointsoftime[>8.11]atthemomentatalleventsatmostatalltimesatonceatanyrateatpainsatbest/worstatpeace/atwaratfaultatplay/atworkatfirstatpresentatfirstsightataprofitathandatseaat_kmperhouratsightatlastattableatleastatthetimeatleisureattimes26.2Somephraseswith"by"by+bus,etc.[>3.28.4]byhandby+time[>7.34]byheartby+weightbyland/sea/airbyaccidentbyluckbyairbymarriagebyallmeansbymeansofbyany/nomeansbymistakebybirthbynamebychancebypostbycheque/creditcardbyright(s)byday/bynightbystagesbydegreesbysurprisebydesignbyvirtueofbyfarbythewaybyforcebywayof
EnglishGrammar:Appendix26.3Somephraseswith"for"and"from"for+periodoftime[>7.32]fromAtoZforthebetter/thebestfrombadtoworseforachangefromthefirstforeverfromgoodtobadforoncefromtheheartforsalefromnowonforawalk,etc.[>10.13.4]fromthenon26.4Somephraseswith"in"in+place[>App22-23]intheendin+time[>8.13-14]infactinactioninfullinadditioningeneralinallinhalf/inhalvesinanycase,inanyeventinahurryinbriefinink/inpencilinbusinessinloveincaseofinaminuteincashinnotimeinthecircumstancesinorderincomfortinpainincomparisoninpersoninconclusioninpracticeincontrolinpublicindangerinreturnindebtinshortindemandintearsindepthintimeindetailinturnindoubtinviewof26.5Somephraseswith"off"offdutyofftherecordoffone"sheadofftheroadoffthepointoffschool,offwork26.6Somephraseswith"on"on+day/date[>8.12]onholidayonaccountofonthehouronapprovalonthejobonaverageonajourneyonbehalfofonloanonbusinessonnoaccountonconditiononofferonthecontraryonone"sownoncreditonpurposeondemandontheradio/TVondisplayonsaleondutyonstrikeonfireonthe(tele)phoneonfootontimeonguardonavisitonhandontheway26.7Somephraseswith"outof"Thosemarked*formtheiroppositewithin.outofbreathoutoftheordinary*outofcharacter*outofpain*outofcontrol*outofplace*outofdanger*outofpocketoutofdate*outofpractice*outofdebtoutofreach*outofdoors*outofseason*outoffashion*outofsight*outoffavour*outofstep*outoffocus*outofstock*outofhand*outofstyleoutofhearing*outoftouchoutofhumour*outoftune*outoflove*outofturn*outofluck*outofuse*outoforder*outofwork26.8Somephraseswith"past"and"to"pastbelieftoadvantagepastcaretoagreatextent
EnglishGrammar:Appendixpastcontroltohandpasthopetothepoint26.9Somephraseswith"under"underageunderordersundercontrolunderpressureundercoverunderrepairunderone"sfeetundertherulesundertheimpressionundersuspicionunder(no)obligationundertheweather26.10Somephraseswith"upto","with","within","without"uptodatewithinthelawuptomischiefwithinrange(not)uptomuchwithinreachuptonogoodwithoutbotheringuptoone"searswithoutceremonyupto(you)withoutdelaywithregardtowithoutadoubtwithrespecttowithoutexceptionwiththeexceptionofwithoutfailwithinone"sincomewithoutprejudiceAppendix27[>4.29][>6.8.4][>8.19][>8.20][>16.53][>16.60]Someadjectivesandrelatednouns+prepositionsKey:sby=somebody;stg=somethingadjectivenounabsentfromaplaceabsencefromafraidofsby/stgfearofsby/stgamazedat/bysby/stgamazementatangryat/aboutstgangerat/aboutstgangrywithsbyangerwithsbyannoyedat/aboutannoyanceat/abtannoyedwithsbyannoyancewithanxiousabout/oversby/stganxietyabout/overashamedofsby/stgshameatstgawareofsby/stgawarenessofawfulat(doing)stg-badat(doing)stg-boredby/withsby/stgboredomwithbusyatorwithstg-capableof(doing)stgcapabilityforcarefulof/withsby/stgcarefulnesswithcarelessofdangercarelessnessofcertainof/aboutfactscertaintyof/aboutcleverat(doing)stgclevernessat/incontentwithstgcontentmentwithcontrarytoadvice-curiousaboutsby/stgcuriosityaboutstgdifferentfrom/tosby/stgdifferencefrom/toeagerforstgeagernessforstgeasy(=notworried)about-excitedabout/at/by/overexcitementabt/atfaithfultosby/stgfaithfulnesstofamousfor(doing)stgfameas_fondofsby/stgfondnessforfreefromdangerfreedomfromfreeofchargefreedomofspeechfullofstg-gladaboutstggladnessaboutgood/nogoodat(doing)stg-goodwithone"shands-gratefultosbyforstggratitudeto/forhappyabout/at/over/withhappinessat/overinterestedin/bysby/stginterestinsby/stgjealousofsby/stgjealousyofsby/stgkeenon(doing)stgkeennessonkindtosbykindnesstosbylateforworklatenessforworkmarriedtosbymarriagetosbynervousofsby/stgnervousnessaboutobligedtosby/stgobligationtopleasedabout/withsby/stgpleasureaboutreadyforsby/stgreadinessforstgrightaboutsby/stg-sadaboutsby/stgsadnessaboutsafefromstg/forsbysafetyfromstgsatisfiedwithsby/stgsatisfactionwithseparatefromstgseparationfrom
EnglishGrammar:Appendixslowat(doing)stgslownessatsorryabout/for(doing)stgsorrowfor(doing)sorryforsby-surprisedabout/at/bysurpriseabout/atterribleat(doing)stg-thankfultosbyforstgthankfulnessto/forworriedaboutsby/stgworryabout/overwrongaboutsby/stg-Appendix28[>1.9][>4.29][>8.20][>8.27][>12.3n.7][>16.53-54]Type1[>8.27.2]:Verb+prepositiontransitive(non-idiomatic)Relatednouns+mostcommonprepositionsNounscanbeformedwith-ing[>2.16.5][>16.39.1].Verbsmarked*areoftenpassive.Key:sby+somebody;stg=somethingverbnoun*adviseagainstdoingstgadviceagainstagreeaboutstgagreementabout*agreetoaproposalagreementtoagreewithsbyagreementwithaimat/foratargetaimat/forapologizetosbyforstgapologytosby*applytosbyforstgapplicationto*approveofsby/stgapprovalofarriveat/in[>8.9.3]*askforsby/stg-becomeofsby-beginwithstg/bydoing-believeinsby/stgbeliefinsby/stgbelongtosby/stg-*borrowfromsby-choosebetweenchoicebetweenconfesstosby/tostgconfessionto*dealwithsby/aproblem-*dependonsby/stgdependenceondifferfromsby/stgdifferencefrom/todreamabout/of(doing)dreamofemergefromaplaceemergencefromfailinanexamfailurein*guessatthetruthguessatidentifywithsbyidentificationwithinsiston(doing)stginsistenceonknockatthedoorknockat_*knowof/aboutknowledgeof*laughat/aboutsby/stglaughteratstg*listentosby/stg-*lookaftersby/stg-*lookatsby/stg-lookforsby/stg-meetwithsby(AmE)meetingwith*objecttosby/stgobjectionto*payforsby/stgpay(ment)forquarrelwithsby/aboutstgquarrelwith/about*readaboutstg-reasonwithsby-*refertosby/stgreferenceto*relyonsby/stgrelianceon*replytosbyreplytosby*reportonsby/stgtosbyreportonresignfromajobresignationfromretirefromone"sjobretirementfrom*searchforsby/stgsearchfor(it)smellofstgsmellofstgsucceedin(doing)stgsuccessin(doing)sufferfromanillness-*talktosbyaboutstgtalktosbyabout(it)tasteofstgtasteofstgtradewithsby/instgtradeinstgtrustinsby/stgtrustinsby/stg*votefor/againstsby/stgvotefor/againstwaitforsby/stg(long)waitfor*wishforwishfor*writetosby/aboutstg-Appendix29[>1.9][>4.29][>8.20][>8.27][>16.53-54]Type1[>8.27.3]:Verb+object+prepositiontransitive(non-idiomatic)Relatednouns+mostcommonprepositions
EnglishGrammar:AppendixNounscanbeformedwith-ing[>2.16.5][>16.39.1].Aprepositionalphraseisnotalwaysobligatoryaftertheobject.Nounscanbefollowedbyof(=belongingto).Alltheseverbs(notabsentoneself)canbeusedinthepassive.Key:sby=somebody;stg=somethingverbnounabsentoneselffromworkabsencefromaccusesbyofstgaccusationofadaptstgtostgadaptationtoaddstgtoadditiontostgadmiresbyforstgadmirationforadvisesbyaboutstgadviceto/aboutappointsbyas/toapostappointmentas/toarrangestgforsbyarrangementforassessstgatapriceassessmentof/atassociatesby/stgwithassociationwithattachstgtostgattachmenttobetrayasecrettosby.betrayalofblamesbyforstgblameforstgchargestgtomyaccountchargetochargesbywithacrimechargeagainstclaimstgfromsbyclaimtostgcombinestgwithstgcombinationof/withcomparesby/stgwithcomparisonwithcompensatesbyforstgcompensationforcongratulatesbyonstgcongratulationsonconnectsbywithstgconnexionwithconvertsbytostgconversiontodefendsbyfromstgdefenceagainstdescribestgtosbydescriptionofdiscussstgwithsbydiscussionwithdivideanumberdivisionbyexcusesbyforstgexcuseforstgexplainstgtosbyexplanationofforgivesbyforstgforgivenessof/forhidestgfromsby-identifystgwith/asstgidentificationwithincludestginstgelseinclusionofstgininformsbyof/aboutstginformationaboutinsuresbyagainststginsuranceagainstinterestsbyinstginterestinstginvestmoneyinstginvestmentinlendstgtosbyloantosbyneglectsby/stgforsby/stgneglectofrefersby/stgtosbyreferencetoremindsbyofsby/stgreminderofstgrepeatstgtosbyrepetitionofstgreservestgforsbyreservationforreturnstgtosbyreturnofstgtorobsbyofstgrobberyofsearchsbyforstgsearchforstgsharestgwithsbyshareof/withstealstgfromsby(theft)of/fromstopsbyfromdoingstg-tellsbyaboutstg-translatestgfrom/intotranslationintoturnstginstgelse-usestgforstgelseuseofstgforAppendix30[>1.9][>8.27][>16.54]Type1[>8.27.4]:Verb+prepositiontransitive(idiomatic)Verbsmarked*cangointothepassive.eggsdon"tagreewithme(=haveabadeffect)youanswertohim(=explainyourself)appearformeincourt(=represent)you"reaskingfortrouble(=seeking/invitingit)youcan"tbankonhishelp(=relyon)*Ididn"tbargainforthis(=notpreparedfor)pleasebearwithme(=listenpatiently)she"sbrokenwithhim(=partedfrom)sheburstintotheroom/burstintotears*pleasecallformeat6(=comeandcollect)canIcallonyoutomorrow?(=visityou)Icameacrossthisoldbook(=foundit)hecameatmewithaknife(=attacked)*wheredidyoucomebythis?(=obtain)hecameintoalotofmoney(=inherited)
EnglishGrammar:Appendixwhatcameoveryou?(=affected)*canIcountonyouforhelp?(=rely)*myauntdescendedonme(=visited)*youcan"tdictatetome(=givemeorders)he"sdyingforadrink(=wantsonebadly)stopdiggingatme(=findingfaultwithme)thisdresswilldoforJane(=beallrightfor)shallIdoforyounow?(=cleanyourroom)Icoulddowithadrink(=wantonebadly)Ican"tdowithoutyou(=managewithout)*billsareeatingintomysavings(=usingup)*he"senteredforanexam/intoadiscussionhe"sfallenforher(=falleninlovewith)Iwon"tfallforthattrick(=bedeceivedbyit)hefellonhisfood(=ateitgreedily)she"sfinishedwithhim(=partedfrom)sheflewintoarage(=becameveryangry)IgatherfromJohnthat_(=understand)pleasegatherroundmenow(=support)*stopgettingatme(=constantlycriticizing)hegotintotrouble/debt/difficultiesshe"sgotoverherillness(=recoveredfrom)*youcan"tgetroundme(=persuade)*howdowegetroundthisproblem?(=solve)I"mgoingaboutmybusiness/worklet"sgoafterhim(=tryandcatch)thedogwentforthepostman(=attacked)thepicturewentfor£1,000(=wassoldfor)*I"llgointothematter(=consider,investigate)thehousegrewonme(=becameattractive)Imusthandittoyou(=praiseyouforit)ithangsonthisagreement(=depends)stopharpingonit(=alwaysreferringto)heheadedforhome(=went)Iwon"thearofit(=refusetoconsiderit)helphimtosomepotatoes(=servehimwith)Ihitonthisidea(=had/gotthisidea)*youmustholdtoouragreement(=keeptoit)*hejumpedattheidea/suggestion/opportunity*don"tjumponmeforthis(=blamemeforthis)keepatit(=workpersistently)*youcan"tkeepasecretfromme(=nottell)*whokeepshiminmoney?(=supplieshim)I"mkeepingofftobacco(=notindulgingin)*pleasekeeptothepoint/plan,etc.hekickedupafuss/anoise*someonelandedmeintotrouble*I"vebeenlandedwiththis(=givenabadtask)pleaselayoffhim(=stopattackinghim)*leaveittome(=givemetheresponsibility)*leavehimtoit(=lethimgetonwithit)helivesonfruit(i.e.that"swhatheeats)heliveswithher(i.e.butisnotmarriedtoher)*we"llhavetolookintothis(=investigateit)youcanlookoverthehouse(=inspectit)shelookedrightthroughme(=ignoredme)Ihopewecanlooktoyouforhelp/support*Ican"tmakeanythingofthis(=understandit)youwon"tpassforanun(=beacceptedas)*let"spassoverthat(=avoidthesubject)don"tpick/peckat(=eatwithoutappetite)heplaysatbeingateacher(i.e.he"snotserious)don"tplayonmyfeelings(=trytogainmysympathy)*I"llpressforariseinpay(=tryhardfor)*howmuchdoyouputitat?(=valueit)*putsomemoneyonahorse(=makeabet)*I"llputmoneytowardsit(=contributemoney)she"sreadingforadegree(=studying)*canyoureadmuchintothis?(=understand)he"srollinginmoney(=hasalotofmoney)
EnglishGrammar:Appendixwe"llberootingforyou(AmE)(=supporting)hesuddenlyroundedonme(e.g.inanger)Iranacross/intoher(=metbychance)willherunforpresident?(=trytobeelected)we"dbetterrunforit(=escapequickly)*abusranintomycar(=hitit)we"verunintodifficulties/trouble/problemsthecostrunsintomillions(=reaches)heranthroughafortune(=spentquickly)Ican"truntoanewcarthisyear(=afford)*don"trushintoit(withoutconsideration)I"llseeaboutfixingthatfence(=arrange)canweseeoverthehouse?(=examine)*Isawthroughit(=understoodthetruth)*willyouseetothesupper?(=attendtoit)*hesatonmyapplication(=didnothing)wesatthroughaboringfilm/lecture,etc.I"llsleeponyoursuggestion(=decidelater)Ihopeyou"llstandbyme(=supportme)she"sstandingforparliament(tobeelected)Iwon"tstandforyourrudeness(=tolerateit)don"tstandoverme(=superviseme)wemuststeponit(=hurryup)Ihopeyou"llstickbyme(=remainloyal)Iswearbythismedicine(=haveconfidence)hetakesafterhisfather(=resembles)hetooktoEnglishquickly(=founditeasy)workistellingonhim(havingabadeffect)*hedidn"ttouchonthesubject(=mentionit)*I"mtoyingwithit(=consideringlightly)he"sturnedagainstus(=becomehostile)*I"vebeenturnedoffit(=lostinterest)itturnsonthisletter(=dependson)*youcanturntomeforhelp(=askmefor)Iwadedthroughit(=finishedwithdifficulty)*who"swaitingonyou?(=serving)Iwalkedintoajob(=gotajobeasily)Iwalkedintoatrap(i.e.carelessly)ArsenalwalkedoverChelsea(=beateasily)Appendix31[>2.9][>2.11][>8.28.1]SomenounsformedfromType2verbs:e.g."breakdown"Onlynounsactuallyderivedfromverb+particlearegiveninthislist,notnouns(likehangover)whichappeartoderivefromverbs,butinfacthavenoverbequivalents.aback-up,ablow-up,abreakdown,acleanout,acover-up,afill-up,afollow-up,afoul-up,aget-up,agiveaway,ahandover,ahold-up,aknockout,alayoff,alayout,aletdown,alet-out,amarkdown,amarkup,amix-up,aputdown,aput-on,arip-off,arun-through,asend-up,asetback,ashake-up,ashutdown,atake-off,atakeover,atip-off,aturn-off,aturn-out,awashout,awrite-off.Appendix32[>1.9][>8.28.2][>8.28.4][>8.29.2][>16.55]Type2[>8.28.4]:Verb+particle(transitive)Particlesstrengthenorextendtheeffectoftheverb.Asterisksindicatethattheobject(usuallypersonal)doesnotnormallyfollowtheparticle.Key:sby=somebody;stg=something32.1"about"/"around"(=hereandthere)*blowstgabout/around,*carrystgabout/around,*followsbyabout/around,*kickstgabout/around.32.2"across"(=fromonesidetotheother)*allowsbyacross,*bringsby/stgacross,*helpsbyacross,*leadsbyacross,*letsbyacross,*pullsby/stgacross,*pushsby/stgacross.32.3"along"32.3.1(=inaforwarddirection)*carrystgalong,*helpsbyalong,*hurrysbyalong,*leadsbyalong,*passstgalong.32.3.2(reinforcing"inviting","sending",etc.)*asksbyalong,bringsby/stgalong,*getsby/stgalong,sendsby/stgalong.32.4"away"
EnglishGrammar:Appendix32.4.1(=distance)*callsbyaway,*carrysby/stgaway,clearstgaway,drivesby/stgaway,frightensbyaway,hidestgaway,*pushsby/stgaway.32.4.2(=detachment)breakstgaway,cutstgaway,knockstgaway,pullstgaway,snatchstgaway,takestgaway.32.4.3(=disappearance)eatstgaway,filestgaway,sweepstgaway,washstgaway,wearstgaway,wipestgaway.32.4.4(=replacement/tidying)filestgaway,(=putinafile),foldstgaway(e.g.atent),lockstgaway,packstgaway,putstgaway,shutstgaway,storestgaway.32.5"back"32.5.1(=returning)*asksbyback,claimstgback,*getsby/stgback,givestgback,paysby/stgback,*phonesbyback,putstgback,*ringsbyback.32.5.2(=inabackwardsdirection)cutstgback,foldstgback,*movesby/stgback,*pushsby/stgback,tiestgback.32.5.3(=retaliation)*hitsbyback,*kicksbyback32.5.4(=preventfromcomingforwards)holdsby/stgback,keepsby/stgback.32.5.5(=repetition)playstgback,readstgback32.6"down"32.6.1(=downwards(orsoutherly)direction)bringsby/stgdown,dropstgdown,*getsby/stgdown,*helpsbydown,*invitesbydown,pressstgdown,putstgdown,*sendsby/stgdown,throwstgdown.32.6.2(=totheground-oftenintendingdestruction)breakstgdown,burnstgdown,cutstgdown,knocksby/stgdown,*pullsby/stgdown,*pushsby/stgdown.32.6.3(=securingfirmly-often"downwards")fixstgdown,gluestgdown,nailstgdown,pinstgdown,screwstgdown,strapstgdown.32.6.4(=reduction)boil(aliquid)down,let(tyres)down,turn(theheating)down,wear(one"sheels)down.32.6.5(=completeness)close(ashop)down,drinkstgdown,huntsby/ananimaldown,washstgdown,wipestgdown.32.6.6(=writing)copystgdown,notestgdown,writestgdown.32.6.7(=preventfromrising)holdsby/stgdown,*keepsby/stgdown.32.7"in"32.7.1(=movementfromoutsidetoinside)*bringsby/stgin,collectstgin,drive(acar)in,give(homework)in,*letsby/ananimalin.32.7.2(=arrival/location)*booksbyin,*findsbyin(athome).32.7.3(=confinetoanarea)fencestgin,keepsby/stgin,*locksby/stgin.32.7.4(=inclusion/addition/attachment)addstgin,fitsby/stgin,leavestgin,paintstgin,plugstgin,typestgin,writestgin.32.7.5(=inwards-oftenintendingdestruction)beat(adoor)in,drive(anail)in,smashstgin.
EnglishGrammar:Appendix32.8"off"32.8.1(=detachment/removalfromasurface)blow(ahat)off,brushstgoff,cutstgoff,knockstgoff(ashelf),*letsbyoff(abus),pullstgoff,takestgoff(asurface),washstgoff.32.8.2(=distance)beat(ananimal/insects)off,frightensby/ananimaloff,keepsby/stgoff,*takesbyoff(toaplace).32.8.3(=division/disconnection)dividestgoff,fencestgoff,shut(astreet)off,switch(thelights)off,turn(thelights)off.32.8.4(=completion)finishstgoff,readstgoff(alist),roundstgoff(=completesstg).32.9"on"32.9.1(=attachment/connection/continuity)fitstgon,*get(alid)on,havestgon(wear),keep(alight)on,put(acoat)on,screw(alid)on,stickstgon,switch(alight)on.32.9.2(=inaforwarddirection)passstgon,*sendsby/stgon,windstgon.32.10"out"32.10.1(=movementinsidetooutside)drive(acar)out,*helpsbyout(ofacar),put(acat)out,spitstgout,throwstgout(ofa_).32.10.2(=generalideaofmovement"out")call(adoctor)out,*findsbyout(notathome),pay(money)out,picksby/stgout(choose).32.10.3(=exclusion/prevention)fence(animals)out,leavestgout(notinclude).32.10.4(=removal/disappearance/disconnection)clean(astain)out,cross(aline)out,cut(apicture)out,shake(dust)out,turn(lights)out.32.10.5(=extension)hold(ahand)out,open(anewspaper)out,put(yourhand)out,reach(yourarm)out,roll(amap)out.32.10.6(=makingsomethingaudibleorclear)beat(arhythm)out,callstgout,copystgout,readstgout,shoutstgout,writestgout.32.10.7(=thoroughly)checkstgout,cleanstgout,emptystgout,*hearsbyout,sortstgout,wash(abasin)out.32.10.8(=distribution)dividethingsout,givethingsout,pass(exercisebooks)out,serve(food)out,sharethingsout.32.10.9(=toaconclusion)*arguestgout,*talkstgout,*thinkstgout.32.11"over"32.11.1(=fromonesidetotheother)*carrysby/stgover,*helpsbyover.32.11.2(withverbsof"inviting",etc.)*asksbyover,*bringsby/stgover,*fetchsby/stgover,*run(=drive)sbyover.32.11.3(thoroughness:verbsof"checking")checkstgover,*dostgover(=again),*readstgover(=again),*think(aproblem)over.32.11.4(=totheground)*knocksby/stgover,*pushsby/stgover.32.12"round"32.12.1(=circularmovement/direction)*drive(acar)round,*wavestground.32.12.2(=enclosing)
EnglishGrammar:Appendixfence(agarden)round,*put(things)round.32.12.3(withverbsof"inviting",etc.)*asksbyround,fetchsby/stground,*havesbyround,invitesbyround,*showsbyround.32.12.4(=distribution)passstground,sharethingsround.32.12.5(=changingposition)*changethingsround,*movethingsround.32.13"through"32.13.1(=fromoneside/placetoanother)*drive(acar)through,knockstgthrough,*letsbythrough,*sendsby/stgthrough,*showsbythrough.32.13.2(=toaconclusion/thoroughly)*arguestgthrough,*heatstgthrough,*planstgthrough,sortstgthrough,*thinkstgthrough.32.13.3(=intwopieces)cutstgthrough,sawstgthrough,slicestgthrough.32.14"up"32.14.1(=inanupwards/northerlydirection)bring*sby/stgup,*getstg/sbyup,keep(yourhand)up,pull*sby/stgup,turn(thesound)up.32.14.2(=fromoffasurface,floor,etc.)cleanstgup,collectstgup,pickstgup.32.14.3(=completely)add(numbers)up,coversby/stgup,drinkstgup,eatstgup,fillstgup,hurrysby/stgup,loadstgup,mix(twothings)up,openstgup.32.14.4(=forapurpose)learnstgup(foratest),measuresby/stgup(foradress),phonesbyup,start(acar)up.32.14.5(=intosmallerpieces-destruction)breakstgup,burnstgup,chopstgup,cutstgup,ripstgup,sawstgup,smashstgup.32.14.6(=outofbed)*findsbyup,*getsbyup,*letsbyup.32.14.7(=confining/fastening/mending,etc.)bank(ariver)up,board(awindow)up,button(acoat)up,closestgup,lockstgup,packstgup,sewstgup,stickstgup,wrapstgup.Appendix33[>1.9][>8.28.5][>16.55]Type2[>8.28.5]:Verb+particletransitive(idiomatic)Verbsmarked*taketheobjectbeforetheparticle.he*answeredmeback(=contradicted)blowtheballoonup(=inflate)theyblewitup(=destroyedbyexplosion)shebroketheengagementoff(=ended)whobroughtitabout?(=causedtohappen)theybroughtdowntheruler(=defeated)we"llbringthejoboff(=succeedindoingso)they"llbringyourarticleout(=publish)*bringhimround(=toconsciousness)Ibroughtuphersonwell(=rear,educate)don"tbringthatupagain(=mention)hetriedtobuymeoff(=e.g.bribeme)callthemeetingoff(=cancel)callupyourmother(=phoneher)he"sbeencalledup(i.e.formilitaryservice)hecarrieditoff(=manageditsuccessfully)we"llcarryoutatest(=conduct)he*cleanedmeout(=wonallmymoney)she"scookedupanexcuse(=invented)they"recoveringthefactsup(=concealing)I"vebeencutoff(=interruptedonthephone)
EnglishGrammar:Appendixplease*cutitout(=stopbeingannoying)I"lldashoffaletter(=writeonequickly)dishouttheseleaflets(=distribute)he*dideverybodydown(=cheatedthem)shallIdoyourroomout?(=cleanit)we"vedonethehouseup(=decorated)helpmedrawupthisdocument(=draftit)she*dressedthemdown(=rebukedthem)Idressedmyselfup(=putonfancyclothes)dropheroffhere(=lethergetoutofthecar)don"texplainawaythefacts(=findexcuses)fillthisformin/out(=supplydetails)they"ll*findhimout(thathe"sbeendishonest)fitmein(=givemeanappointment)let"sfixadateup(=makearrangements)thepolicefolloweditup(=investigatedit)he*gothismessageacross(=conveyed)thenews*getsmedown(=depressesme)getabuilderin(=e.g.todothejob)*gethimroundhere(=persuadehimtovisit)yougaveawaythesecret(=revealedit)I*gavemyselfaway(=showedI"dbeenlying)who"llgivethebrideaway?(atthewedding)I"vegivenupsmoking(=stoppedthehabit)willthey*givethemselvesup?(=surrender)he"s*havinguson(=deceivingasajoke)*haveitoutwithhim(=discussgrievance)they"ve*hititoff(=theygetonwelltogether)wewereheldupinthefog(=delayed)he"skeepinguson(=continuingtoemploy)heknockedbacktwopints(=drankquickly)*knockhimdown(=makehimcuttheprice)*knockhimout(=makehimunconscious)I"velaidoff100men(=stoppedemploying)Ican"tlayoutmore(=spendmoremoney)he"sbeen*laidupayear(=e.g.byillness)he"sletusdown(=notfulfilledexpectations)pleaseletthechildrenoff(=don"tpunish)someone"sletthesecretout(=revealedit)pleaselookoverthisessay(=scrutinize)lookthewordup(=i.e.inthedictionary)lookmeupwhenyou"reback(=contactme)Ican"tmakehimout(=understandhim)Icanjustmakehimout(=seehim)you"vemadethatstoryup(=inventedit)you"vemadeyourselfup(=usedcosmetics)you"vemissedoutmyname(=notincluded)I"mpackinginsmoking(=stopping)shewas*passedover(=notchosen)I"llpayyoubackforthis(=getmyrevenge)pointitouttome(=showorexplain)we"vepulledoffadeal(=beensuccessful)hecan"tputtheideasacross(=communicate)theyhadto*puthimaway(=e.g.inprison)canweputoffthemeeting?(=postponeit)she*putsmeoff(=discourages,repels)I"veputoutmyhip(=dislocated)putmeup(=givemeaccommodation)I"vebeenrippedoff(=overcharged)healwaysrunsherdown(=criticizesunfairly)hewasrunoverbyacar(=knockeddown)comeand*seemeoff(=saygoodbyetome)he"ssendingmeup(=ridiculebyimitating)thestrikesetusback(=delayed/costusmoney)hesetupthewholescheme(=organizedit)Ican"tshakethiscoldoff(=getridofit)*shuthimup(=makehimstoptalking)sortthiscompanyout(=organizeit)I"llspellitout(=makeitabsolutelyclear)wemuststepupproduction(=increase)
EnglishGrammar:AppendixI"mnottakeninbythis(=deceived)howmanyaretheytakingon?(=employing)he"sgoingtotakemeout(=e.g.forameal)Ican"t*tellthemapart(=distinguishbetween)you"realwaystellingmeoff(=reprimanding)topupthebattery(=fill)they"returningusout(=makingusleave)winhimover(=persuadehimtoagree)itwipedoutthevillage(=destroyed)wemustworkthisproblemout(=solveit)hiscarwaswrittenoff(=unrepairable)Appendix34[>8.28.5]Somefixedexpressionswithverbs:e.g."makeupyourmind"Typicalverb+particlecombinationsare:biteone"stongueoff,canceleachotherout,cryone"seyesout,eatone"sheadoff,eatone"sheartout,getamoveon,getone"sownback,getawordin(edgeways),givethegameaway,haveone"sheadscrewedon,keeponestepahead,keepyourhairon,laughone"sheadoff,liveitup,pullone"ssocksup,putthebootin,putone"sfeetup,putone"sfootdown,puttwoandtwotogether,stickone"sheelsin,taketheeasywayout,talkone"sheadoff,throwone"sweightabout.Appendix35[>2.9][>2.11][>8.29.1]SomenounsformedfromType3verbs:e.g."break-up"Onlynounsactuallyderivedfromverb+particlearegiveninthislist,notnouns(likebackchat)whichappeartoderivefromverbs,butinfacthavenoverbequivalents.abackdown,ablowout,acarry-on,aclimb-down,acutback,adropout,aflare-up,aget-away,aget-together,goingson,ahangout,akickoff,alie-in,alift-off,make-up,anonlooker,anoutbreak,apile-up,asellout,ashow-off,aslip-up,asplit-up,asumming-up,atouchdown,awalkout,awarm-up,washing-up.Appendix36[>1.9][>8.29.3]Type3:Verb+particleintransitive(idiomatic)thatboy"sactingup(=behavingbadly)allthisdoesn"taddup(=makesense)she"sjustblownin(=arrivedunexpectedly)pricesbottomedout(=reachedbottom)mycar"sbrokendown(=itwon"tgo)theprisonersbrokeoutofgaol(=escaped)I"llcallby/in/roundtomorrow(=visitbriefly)pleasecalmdown(=don"tpanic)sorry,Idon"tcatchon(=understand)cheerup!(=changeyourmood,becheerful)whendoyouclockin/out?(=start/finish)howdidthatcomeabout?(=happen)priceshavecomedown(=beenreduced)myplancameoff(=succeeded)thesubjectcameupagain(=wasmentioned)you"dbettercoughup(=pay)pleasedon"tcutin(=interrupt)myengine"scutout(=stoppedworking)thesounddiedaway(=becamefainter)thatcustomhasdiedout(=becomeextinct)let"sdressup(=putonbest/fancyclothes)I"lldropby/inonthewayhome(=visityou)dad"sjustdroppedoff(=fallenasleep)youshouldeaseoff(=worklesshard)wherewillweendup?(=finishourjourney)wefellabout(=collapsedwithlaughter)hisargumentfelldown(=failedtoconvince)therooffellin(=collapsed)Jimandhiswifehavefallenout(=quarrelled)myplanfellthrough(=wasunsuccessful)youreallygetabout/around(=travel)don"tyouwanttogetahead?(=succeed)hegotoff(=wasn"tpunished)wereallygeton(=haveagoodrelationship)it"stimeyougotup(=rosefrombed)I"llnevergivein(=surrender)thebombwentoff(=exploded)what"sgoingon?(=happening)willthisfoodgoround?(=beenough)
EnglishGrammar:Appendixhehunguponme(=putthephonedown)don"tholdbacknow(=hesitate)it"shardtokeepon(=continue)Ican"tkeepup!(=stayatyourlevel)I"mgoingtoknockoff(=stopwork)Iwishyou"dlayoff(=stopbeingannoying)pleasedon"tleton(=revealthesecret)Ilovetoliein(=stayinbedlate)I"dliketolookon(=beaspectator)lookout!(=takecare!i.e.danger)thingsarelookingup(=improving)hetookitandmadeoff(=e.g.ranaway)hemessesabout(=actsinalazyfashion)mindout!(=becareful!i.e.danger)later,heopenedup(=talkedmorefreely)comeon,ownup(=confess)hepassedaway/on/overlastyear(=died)whenIheardit,Ipassedout(=fainted)yourschemedidn"tpayoff(=succeed)trade"spickingup(=improving)thecar"splayingup(=notworkingproperly)pullinhere(=stopthecarattheroadside)youpulledupsuddenly(=usedthebrakes)we"dbetterpushon(=continueourjourney)I"vegottoringoff(=endthephonecall)oursupplieshaverunout(=beenusedup)we"resellingup(=sellingallwehave)winterhassetin(=begunandwillcontinue)whendoyousetout?(=startyourjourney)weallsetto(=beganworkingenergetically)I"vesettleddown(=gotusedtoasituation)whenwillhesettleup?(=payhisbills)don"tshowoff(=actboastfully)heshowedupat1(=arrived(probably)late)shutup!(veryinformal)(=bequiet!)thenewshassunkin(=beenunderstood)slowdown!(=livelessenergetically)speakout!(=makeyourviewspublic)hisworkstandsout(=isofhighquality)theyarestayingout(=remainingonstrike)didyoustayupallnight?(=notgotobed)whoheardthemstealaway?(=leavequietly)you"dbetterstepinandhelp(=intervene)I"veswitchedoff(=I"mnotlistening)didtheplanetakeoff?(=leavetheground)whendidtheplanetouchdown?(=land)I"mgoingtoturnin(=gotobed)howdidthingsturnout?(=finish)lookwho"sturnedup(=suddenlyappeared)don"twaitupforme(=notgotobed)don"twalkout(=stopworkbecauseofdispute)who"sgoingtowashup?(=washthedishes)watchout!(=becareful!i.e.danger)thepain"swornoff(=disappeared)theeveningworeon(=passedslowly)hecan"twinddown(=relaxaftereffort)howdidyourplanworkout?(=develop)Appendix37[>8.30.3]Type4:Verb+particle+preposition(idiomatic)itbacksontotherailway(=overlooks)itboilsdowntothis(=canbesummarizedas)he"sbrokenoutinarash(i.e.onhisskin)ImustbrushuponmyEnglish(=improve)I"mburstingoutofmyclothes(=amtoofat)cashinontheprice-rise(=takeadvantageof)comeacrosswiththemoney(=provideit)itcomesdowntothis(=meansthis)hisworkhascomeinforcriticism(=received)canIcomeinonyourplan?(=beincluded)
EnglishGrammar:Appendixthebillcomesoutat$100(i.e.asatotal)hecameupwithagoodidea(=produced)wecriedoutagainsttheidea(=protested)he"scryingoutforhelp(=isingreatneed)theydidawaywiththebadlaw(=abolished)faceuptoit(=acceptitwithcourage)wefellbackonoursavings(=hadtouse)Idon"tfeeluptoit(=feelcapableofit)canyoufillmeinonthis?(=informme)getawaywithit(=managetodeceive)hegotbackatmeintheend(=retaliated)Igotdowntowork(=begantotackle)I"llgetontohim(=contacthim)he"sgettinguptosomething(=e.g.mischief)ourhousegivesontotheriver(=overlooks)Iwon"tgobackonmyword(=failtohonourit)he"sgoneinforpainting(=startedashobby)can"tgothroughwithit(=finishdifficultthing)he"sgrownoutofhiscoat(=gottoobigfor)hehasitinforme(=isveryhardonme)don"tholdoutonme(=keepsecretfromme)keepinwithhim(=stayongoodterms)letmeinonit(=letmeshare,e.g.thesecret)Ican"tliveuptoit(=maintainhighstandard)helooksdownonus(=considersusinferior)Ilookforwardtoit(=expecttoenjoy)lookoutformybook(=keepconstantwatch)shelooksuptoyou(=admires,respects)thiswon"tmakeupforit(=compensatefor)whatdoyouputitdownto?(=howexplain?)putinforarise(=makeaformalrequest)whoputyouuptothis?(=gaveyoutheidea)Iwon"tputupwithit(=tolerate)readuponitshistory(=improveknowledge)hisluckrubbedoffonme(=benefited)we"verunoutofrice(=usedupallwehad)she"srunoutonhim(=abandonedhim)I"mrunningupagainstproblems(=meeting)I"vesetupinbusiness(=startedabusiness)he"sshownmeupasaliar(=revealedtruth)speakupforhim(=stateyoursupport)I"llstandinforyou(=actinyourplace)standupforyourprinciples(=defend)don"tstartinonhim(=criticizehim)stickoutformore(=insistonreceiving)we"llstickupforyou(=supportyou)don"ttakeitoutonme(=treatmeunfairly)I"lltakethematterupwithJim(=discussit)she"stakenupwithJim(=becomefriendly)talkhimoutofit(=persuadehimnottodoit)don"tthrowthatbackatme(=remindmeof)thattiesinnicelywithmyplan(=fits)Appendix38[>6.17][>9.3][>10.24][>10.31][>12.3n.05][>16.9.2][>16.45.1]Somestativeverbs*=thesehavenon-stativemeanings/uses38.1Feelings,emotions("Ilike",etc.):e.g.*admire,adore,*(it)appealto,*appreciate,(it)astonish,*(it)attract,believein,careabout,*dare,detest,dislike,doubt,envy,esteem,fear,*hate,*hope,*(it)impress,*(it)interest,*like,*love,*mean,*mind,(it)please,prize,*regret,*respect,(can"t)stand,*swearby,trust,*value.38.2Thinking,believing("Iknow",etc.):e.g.agree,*appreciate,*assume,believe,*bet(informal),(can"t)comprehend,(can"t)conceiveof,*consider,(can"t)credit,disagree,disbelieve,*estimate,*expect,*feel,figure(AmE),*find,*gather,getit(=understand,informal),*guess(AmE),*hear(=betold),hearabout(=gettoknow),hearof(=knowabout),*hope,*imagine(=think),know,*presume(=suppose),*realize,*recognize,*recollect,*regard,*see(=understand),*seethrough,*suppose,*suspect,*(can"t)tell,*think(=believe),understand,*wonder.38.3Wantsandpreferences("Iwant",etc.):desire,fancy,need,prefer,require,want,wish.
EnglishGrammar:Appendix38.4Perceptionandthesenses:e.g.*catch(=understand),(can)*distinguish,(can)*hear,(can)makeout,notice,*observer,perceive,(can)*see,(can)*smell,(can)*taste.38.5Being,seeming,having,owning,etc.:addup(=makesense),(can)afford,*appear(=seem),belong,belongto,*chance,comeabout,comefrom(yourplaceoforigin),comprise,(it)concern,consistof,constitute,contain,*correspondto/with,*cost,*count,*depend,deserve,differfrom,equal,*exceed,excelin,*feel,*fit,happento,have/havegot[>10.27],*hold(=contain),*(it)include,*(it)involve,keep-ing,knowsby,*lack,*look(=appear),(it)matter,(it)mean,*measure,merit,*number(=reachtotal),own,possess,*prove,*(it)read,*represent,resemble,(it)resultfrom,(it)say,seem,signify,*(it)smell(of),*(it)sound(=seem)*(it)standfor,(it)suit(=besuitable),*(it)taste(of),*tend,*weigh.Appendix39[>9.13-14][>9.22][>12.3n.1]SomecommonregularverbsKey:bold=spellingchangefrombaseform.39.1Pronounced/d/inthepast:e.g."b":bribed,described,robbed,rubbed"g":begged,dragged,plugged,tugged"ng":banged,belonged,longed"nge":arranged,changed,exchanged"dge":damaged,emerged,judged,managed"l":called,filled,pulled,smiled,travelled"m":assumed,claimed,combed"n":cleaned,explained,listened,openedvowel+"r":answered,appeared,dared"v":arrived,lived,loved,moved,proved"z":accused,closed,excused,refused"th":bathed,lathed"ay":delayed,obeyed,played,weighed"ee":agreed,freed,guaranteed"oy":annoyed,destroyed,employed,enjoyed"cry":cried,denied,dried,fried,qualified,replied,satisfied,terrified,tried"bury":buried,carried,hurried,married,worried"o/ow":borrowed,followed,showed,videoed"ue":argued,continued,rescued,reviewed39.2Pronounced/t/inthepast:e.g./k/:asked,liked,locked,looked,picked,talked,thanked,walked,worked/s/:addressed,crossed,danced,discussed,faced,guessed,missed/tS/:matched,reached,switched,touched/S/:crashed,finished,pushed,washed/f/:coughed,laughed,stuffed/p/:camped,developed,dropped,helped,hoped,jumped,shopped,stopped/x/:axed,boxed,foxed,relaxed,waxed39.3Pronounced/Id/inthepast:e.g.baseformendingin/d/:added,afforded,attended,avoided,decided,ended,handed,included,mended,minded,needed,provided,reminded,skiddedbaseformendingin/t/:admitted,attempted,collected,completed,counted,dated,educated,excited,expected,greeted,hated,insisted,invited,lifted,painted,posted,printed,rested,shouted,started,tasted,visited,waited,wanted,wastedAppendix40[>9.14.1][>9.15][>9.22][>12.3n.1][>12.11n.1]Somecommonirregularverbsverbpasttensepastparticiplearisearosearisenawakeawokeawokenbewas/werebeenbearboreborne;bornYbeatbeatbeatenbecomebecamebecomebeginbeganbegunbendbentbentbetbet/bettedbet/bettedbid(money)bidbidbindboundboundbitebitbitten/bitbleedbledbledblowblewblownbreakbrokebrokenbreedbredbredbringbroughtbroughtbuildbuiltbuiltburnburned/burntburned/burntburstburstburst
EnglishGrammar:Appendixbustbust/bustedbust/bustedbuyboughtboughtcast_castcastcatchcaughtcaughtchoosechosechosenclingclungclungcomeYcamecomecostQcostcostcreepcreptcreptcutcutcutdealdealtdealtdigdugdugdivedived(doveAmE)diveddoRdiddonedrawVdrewdrawndreamdreamt/dreameddreamt/dreameddrinkdrankdrunkWdrivedrovedrivendwelldwelt/dwelleddwelt/dwelledeatXateeatenfall[fellfallenfeedfedfedfeelfeltfeltfightfoughtfoughtfindfoundfoundfleefledfledflingflungflungflyflewflownforbidforbadeforbiddenforgetforgotforgottenforgiveforgaveforgivenforsakeforsookforsakenfreezefrozefrozengetgotgot(gottenAmE)givegavegivengoY_wentgonegrindgroundgroundgrowYYgrewgrownhangY_hung/hangedhung/hangedhavehadhadhearYYheard/h"8d/heard/h"8d/hewhewedhewn/hewedhidehidhidden/hidhithithitholdYQheldheldhurthurthurtkeepkeptkeptkneelknelt/kneeledknelt/kneeledknitYRknit/knittedknit/knittedknowknewknownlayYVlaidlaidleadYW/li8d/led/led/led/led/leanleant/leanedleant/leanedleapleapt/leapedleapt/leapedlearnlearnt/learnedlearnt/learnedYXleaveleftleftlendlentlentletletletlieY[(liedown)laylainlightlit/lightedlit/lightedlose/lu8z/lost/l_st/lost/l_st/make__mademademean/mi8n/mean/ment/meant/ment/meetmetmetmowmowedmown/mowedpay_Ypaidpaidproveprovedproved,provenputputputquitquit/quittedquit/quittedread__read/red/read/red/ridrid/riddedrid/riddedride_Yroderiddenringrangrungriseroserisenrun_Qranrunsawsawedsawn/sawedsay/seI/said/sed/said/sed/
EnglishGrammar:Appendixsee_Rsawseenseeksoughtsoughtsell_Vsoldsoldsendsentsentset_Wsetsetsewsewedsewn/sewedshakeshookshakenshearshearedshorn/shearedshedshedshedshine_Xshoneshoneshoot_[shotshotshowshowedshown/showedshrinkshrank/shrunkshrunkY_shutshutshutsingsangsungsinksanksunkYYsitsatsatslayslewslainsleepY_sleptsleptslideslidslidslingslungslungsinkslunkslunkslitslitslitsmellsmelt/smelledsmelt/smelledsowsowedsown/sowedspeakspokespokenspeedsped/speededsped/speededspellYYspelt/spelledspelt/spelledspendYQspentspentspillspilt/spilledspilt/spilledspinspun/spanspunspitspat(spitAmE)spatsplitsplitsplitspoilspoilt/spoiledspoilt/spoiledspreadspreadspreadspringsprang/sprungsprungstandYRstoodstoodstealstolestolenstickstuckstuckstingstungstungstinkstank/stunkstunkstrewstrewedstrewn/strewedstridestrodestriddenstrikestruckstruckYVstringstrungstrungstrivestrove/strivedstriven/strivedswearsworeswornsweepsweptsweptswellswelledswollen/swelledswimswamswumswingswungswungtakeYWtooktakenteachtaughttaughtteartoretorntellYXtoldtoldthinkthoughtthoughtthrowY[threwthrownthrustthrustthrusttreadtrodtrodden/trodunderstandQ_understoodunderstoodwakewoke/wakedwoken/wakedwearworewornweavewovewovenwedwed/weddedwed/weddedweepweptweptwetwet/wettedwet/wettedwinwonwonwindQY/waInd/wound/waUnd/woundwringwrungwrungwriteQ_wrotewritten1Also:forbear,overbear.She"sbornetensons.Iwasbornin1960.2Also:broadcast,forecast,miscast,recast3Also:overcome,comparebecome.4Noteregularverbcost:I"vecostedthework.5Also:outdo,overdo,redo,underdo,undo6Also:overdraw,withdraw
EnglishGrammar:Appendix7Notetheadjectivedrunken:adrunkenman.8Also:overeat9Also:befallNoteregularverbfell:We"vefelledthattree.10Also:forego,undergo11Also:outgrow,overgrow12Also:overhang,overhung,overhungNotehanged(=puttodeath).13Also:overhear,mishear,rehearNotehear/hIE/andheard/h"8d/14Also:behold,uphold,withhold15Noteknit(=makefromwool)isregular.16Also:inlay,mislay,relay,waylayNotethepresent,lay,(laid,laid),shouldnotbeconfusedwiththepastoflie,(lay,lain).17Also:mislead.Comparepronunciationoflead/li8d/(verb)andlead/led/(noun).18Notetheadjectivelearned/l"8nId/[>6.14].19Notelie,(lied,lied)(regular)(=tellalie).20Also:remake,unmake21Also:overpay,repay,underpayNotespellingofpaid,laid,compareplayed.22Also:misread,re-readNotethepronunciationofthepresentread/ri8d/andthepastread/red/23Also:override24Also:outrun,overrun,re-run25Also:foresee,oversee.Compare:see,saw,seenandsaw,sawed,sawn/sawed.26Also:outsell,resell,undersell27Also:beset,reset,upset28Also:outshine.Shine(=polish),canberegular,especiallyinAmE.29Also:overshoot30Comparetheadjectiveshrunken.31Comparesunken:asunkenship.32Also:oversleep33Also:misspell34Also:overspend,underspend35Also:withstand;compareunderstand.36Compareawestruck,poverty-stricken.37Also:betake,mistake,overtake,retake,undertake38Also:foretell,retell39Also:overthrow40Also:misunderstand41Also:rewind,unwind.Noteregularverbs:wind/wInd/:Iwaswindedbytheblow.wound/wU8nd/Hewaswoundedinthewar.42Also:rewrite,underwriteAppendix41[>10.11]Somewordswhichcombinewith"be"todescribetemporarybehaviour41.1Adjectives(He"sbeingnaughty)amusing,awful,babyish,bad(=naughty),boring,brave,careful,careless,cautious,childish,critical,daring,difficult,extravagant,foolish,frank,friendly,funny,greedy,helpful,idiotic,impatient,impossible,ironic,just(=fair),kind,lazy,mean,naive,nasty,naughty,nice,obedient,obliging,odd,patient,peculiar,pedantic,polite,practical,rough,rude,sensible,silly,sincere,snobbish,stupid,tactful,tedious,tiresome,tiring,ungrateful,unpleasant,vain,wasteful.41.2Nouns(He"sbeingababy)ababy,abore,abrute,abully,acoward,adarling,adevil,afool,a(good)friend),hell,anidiot,aliar,amiser,anuisance,aproblem,ashow-off,asilly,asnob,athreat,aworry.Appendix42[>3.28.2][>10.37]"Have","give","take":somecommoncombinations42.1"Have"+noun42.1.1Eating/drinking(Havebreakfast/adrink)breakfast/lunch/tea/supper/dinner,ameal,asnack,adrink,a/somecoffee,asandwich.42.1.2Rest/sleep(Havearest)arest/asleep/alie-down/anap,adayoff,aholiday,adream,anightmare.42.1.3Washing,etc.(Haveabath)abath/awash/ashower,ashave,ahaircut/ashampoo/aset/aperm/atint,amassage.
EnglishGrammar:Appendix42.1.4Appointments,etc.(Haveadate)anappointment,adate,aninterview,ameeting,alesson,agame,abreak,agoodtime,fun,aniceday,aride,awalk[>10.38].42.1.5Travel(Haveatrip)atrip,adrive,alift,agoodjourney/flight.42.1.6Theweather(Wehadsome/alotofrain)good/badweather,rain,fog,alovelyday.42.1.7Illnesses/medical(Haveacold)acold,acough,aheadache,atemperature,flu,measles,apain,ababy,abreakdown.42.1.8Personalqualities(Haveabadtemper)abadtemper,(no)brains,acheek,aneyefor,greenfingers,guts,noconscience,sense,asenseofhumour,asweettooth.42.1.9Relationships,opportunities,etc.anadvantage,anaffair,anargument,achat,achoice,difficulty,adiscussion,aneffect,aguess,ahandin,influence,luck,anerve,nobusiness,the/anopportunity,aproblem,areason,arow,sex,atalk,thetime.42.1.10Emotional/mentalstates,reactionsabrainwave,aclue,coldfeet,havehadenough,afeeling,afit,anideathat,thefaintestidea,agoodlaugh(aboutsomething),alottobegratefulfor,alottoputupwith,amindto,anopinion,aplan,apointofview,secondthoughts,ashock,asuggestion.42.2"Give"+noun(Giveadvice)42.2.1"Give"(somebody)+nounadvice/information/news,ananswer,one"sattention,abath,acall/aring,achance,adescription,anexplanation,aguess,help,akiss,alead,lessons,alift,anopportunity,permission,thesack,ashock,asurprise,thetime,trouble,awarning,awelcome.42.2.2Afewverbphraseswith"give"givebirthto,giveevidence(incourt),givethegameaway(=revealasecret),giveheedto,givethelieto,giveone"slifefor,giveaparty/adance,giveplaceto,giveashout,givethanksfor,givethoughtto,giveway(=collapse),givewayto(=allowtogofirst).42.3"Take"+noun(Takeaction)action,advice,aim(at),abath/ashower,toone"sbed,somethingtobits,abreak,care,thechair(atameeting),chargeof,aclass,courage,somebodytocourt,adecision,effect,anexam,exceptionof(=disapprove),fright,heart(fromsomething),a/thehint,aholiday,ajoke,liberties,alook,one"smedicine,noteof,offence,theopportunityto,painsto,partin,aphotograph,pity,place(=happen),possessionof,pridein,arest,risks,root,aseat,shape,thestrain,aturn,awalk.Appendix43[>10.45]"Do"and"make":somecommoncombinations43.1Somecombinationswith"do":e.g.43.1.1AsinDo(somebody)afavour.damage,good,nogood,harm,noharm,aninjury,justice,akindness,aservice.43.1.2(=beengagedinanactivity)business,adeal(with),one"sduty,ajob,somethingforaliving,one"sjob/work.+householdtasks:thecooking,thegardening,theironing,theshopping,thewashing,thewashing-up.+places:thesights,Rome(inaday).+speed,distance:Thiscardoes100milesanhour,thirtymilestothegallon.+subjects,etc.:Art,French,anexperiment,one"shomework,alesson,research.=arrange,clean,etc.:thebeds,theflowers,thekitchen,one"shair,one"snails,one"steeth.43.2Somecombinationswith"make":e.g.anaccusation,anagreement,anapology,anapplication,anattempt,abargain,abed,a(phone)call,achange,achoice,aclaim,acomment,acontribution,acriticism,adecision,adeduction,ademand,adiscovery,aneffort(to),anescape,anexcuse,afortune,aguess,ahabitofsomething,history,animpression,aninquiry,ajourney,alaw,aloss,love,amess,amistake,money,amove(=starttogo),anameforoneself,anoise,anoffer,aprofit,progress,apromise,aproposal,arecord,areference,aremark,areport,arequest,room(for),rules,sense(of),astart,asuccessof,atrip,trouble,useof,war,one"swaytoaplace(=gothere),awill.Appendix44[>1.23-24][>4.13][>11.75.3][>15.6][>16.27-28]SomeadjectivalcombinationsKey:I"m:personalsubject:He"sabletodrive.I"mafraid(that)he"sout.I"mbusycleaningthehouse.It"s:preparatory"it":It"sadvisabletobookinadvance.
EnglishGrammar:AppendixIt"slikely(that)he"llarrivetomorrow.I"m/It"s:personalsubjectorpreparatory"it"He"skindtohelp.It"skind(ofhim)tohelp.(S):that-clausewith"should"+verb:It"sadvisablethatheshouldphone.or:subjunctive[>11.75.1]:It"sadvisablethathekeepintouch.or:present/pasttense:It"sadvisablethathekeepsintouch.(sh):that-clauseoftenwith"should",butnotwithsubjunctive:It"sodd(that)youshouldsaythat.thatnotusuallyomittedinthat-clause:It"scruelthatheshouldbepunished.adjectiveto-infinitive(that)"-ing"able/unableI"m--absurdI"m/It"s*It"s(sh)I"m/It"sadvisableIt"s*It"s(S)-afraidI"mI"m-alarmedYI"mI"m(sh)-alarmingYIt"s*It"s(sh)-angryI"m*I"m(sh)-anxiousI"m*I"m(S)-ashamedI"mI"m(sh)-aware_-I"m-awfulI"m/It"sIt"s(sh)I"m/It"sbadI"m/It"s*It"s(sh)It"sbetter/bestIt"sIt"s(S)It"sbraveI"m/It"s-I"m/It"sbusy--I"mcarefulI"m*I"m(sh)I"mcarelessI"m/It"s-I"m/It"scertainYI"m/It"sI"m/It"s-cheapIt"s-It"sclearQ-*I"m/It"s-cleverI"m/It"s-I"m/It"scontentI"m*I"m(sh)I"mcruelI"m/It"s*It"s(sh)I"m/It"sdangerousIt"s-It"sdeterminedI"mI"m(S)-difficultI"m/It"s-It"sdueI"m--eagerI"m*I"m(S)-easyI"m/It"s-It"senjoyableIt"s-It"senoughIt"s*It"s(sh)-essentialIt"s-It"sfairI"m/It"s--first,etc.I"m--fitI"m--foolishI"m/It"s-I"m/It"sfortunateI"mIt"s(sh)I"m/It"sfreeI"m/It"s--friendlyI"m/It"s-I"m/It"sfunnyRI"m/It"sIt"s(sh)I"m/It"sgladI"mI"m-goodI"m/It"s*It"sI"m/It"snogood--It"sgratefulI"m*I"m-greatIt"sIt"sIt"shappyI"mI"mI"mhard(=difficult)It"s/I"m-It"s(=unfair)-*It"s(sh)It"shelpfulI"m/It"sIt"sIt"s(dis)honestI"m/It"s-I"m/It"shopeful-I"m-hopelessIt"s-It"shorribleI"m/It"s*It"s(sh)I"m/It"simportantVIt"sIt"s(S)-justI"m/It"s*It"s(S)-keenI"m*I"m(S)-(un)kindI"m/It"s-I"m/It"slastI"m--liableI"m--(un)likelyI"mIt"s-lovelyIt"s*It"sIt"s(un)luckyI"m/It"sI"m/It"sI"m/It"s
EnglishGrammar:Appendix(un)naturalIt"sIt"s(sh)-(un)necessaryIt"s*It"s(S)-niceI"m/It"s*It"sI"m/It"sobligedI"m--obvious-It"s-oddI"m/It"sIt"s(sh)I"m/It"spleasantIt"s*It"s(sh)It"spointlessIt"s-It"s(im)politeI"m/It"s--(im)possibleIt"s*It"s-preparedI"m--quickI"m-I"m/It"sreadyI"m--rightI"m/It"s*It"s(S)-rudeI"m/It"s-I"m/It"ssadI"m/It"sI"m/It"s(sh)I"m/It"ssafeI"m/It"s-I"m/It"ssillyI"m/It"s*It"s(sh)I"m/It"sslowI"m-I"m/It"ssorryI"mI"m(sh)-strangeI"m/It"sIt"sI"m/It"sstupidI"m/It"s-I"m/It"ssure(=likely)I"m--(=certainW)-I"m-thankfulI"mI"m-(un)trueIt"sIt"s-useful/lessIt"s-It"svitalIt"s*It"s(S)-(un)wiseI"m/It"s-It"sworth--It"swrongI"m/It"s*It"s(sh)I"m/It"s1Alsoadjectivalparticiples[>App10]2Alsoawarehowto,whento,etc.3Also(not)certainwhether/wh-to;(not)certainwhether/wh-+clause4Also(not)clearwhetherto;(not)clearwhether/wh-+clause5Alsofunnywhen,where,etc.+clause6Alsonotimportantwhether/wh-+clause7Also(not)surewhether/wh-to;(not)surewhether/wh-+clauseAppendix45[>1.23.2][>11.75][>15.3][>16.22]Somereportingverbs45.1Somereportingverbs(1)Key:that=thatisnotusuallyomitted(sby)=optionalpersonalobjectbeforeclause:Hewarned(me)thatI"dbettergo.Q=verbmaybefollowedbyquestionclauses:HeaskedwhenIwouldbeready.if=verbcanbefollowedbyiforwhetherHeaskedif/whetherJimhadarrived.*=verbcanreportdirectspeechinwritingwithinversionusuallypossible:"I"mready,"Johnsaid/saidJohn.acceptthatfancy(=imagine)acknowledgethatfear*addthatfeel(=think)*admitQfindout;Q;if/whetheradvertisethatfollow:itfollowsthataffirmthatforecastthat/Q*agreeQ;(if/whether)forget;Q;if/whetherallegethatgather;Q;if/whetherallow(=admit)thatguess;Q;if/whether*announcehappen:it_that*answerthathopeappear;itappears_imagine(=think);Qappreciatethatimplythat*arguethat,aboutQindicatethat;Q*ask(sby)if/whether;Q*inquireif/whetherQassertthatknow;Q;if/whetherassumelearn;Q;if/whetherbelievelook:itlooksasifIbet(=I"msure)maintain*boast;aboutQmatterthat;if/wh/Q(not)careif/whether;Qmean*caution(sby)mindif/whether/Q
EnglishGrammar:Appendixcertifythatnotethat;Qchance;itchancedthatnotice;Q;if/whetherchargethatobservethat(=say)checkthat;if/whether;Qplan;Qchoose;Q;whether*pointout;Qclaim*predictthat/Q*complainpretend*conclude*promise(sby)*confess;Q;whetherprove;Q;whetherconfirmthat;Q;whetherquestion(sby)Qonlyconsider;Qrealize;Q(I)daresay(presentonly)recordthat/Q/ifdecide;Q;if/whetherregret*declare*remark(=say)thatdeny*repeatthatdependonwhetherQ*replythatdescribeQonly*reportthat;Qdisagreethat*respondthatdiscussQ;whetheronly*say;Q;if/whetherdoubt;if/whethersee;if/Qdreamthatshowthat;Q;ifemphasizethat;Q*statethat;Qensurethat*suggest;Qestimatethat;Qsuppose*exclaimthatsuspect;Qexpectteachthat;Q/whether*explain;Q;whether(not)tellif/whether/Q*think;Q;whether*warn(sby)understand;Q;if/whetherwishvotethatwonderif/whether/Q*wanttoknowthat;if/Qwrite(sby)that45.2Somereportingverbs(2)ThesehaveapersonalobjectbeforeaclauseHetoldme(that)hewouldbelate.assure;convince;inform;instructsbythat;notifysbythat;remindsbythat;tellsbythat45.3Somereportingverbs(3)Mostofthefollowingcanbeusedtoreportcommandswithato-infinitive.Thosemarked*canalsobefollowedbythat_should;thosemarkedthat_shouldcannotbefollowedbyto.*advisesbyto;*asksbyto;*begsbyto;*cablesbyto;causesbyto;commandsbyto;compelsbyto;*demandto;*directsbyto;forbidsbyto;getsbyto;insistthat_should;*instructsbyto;obligesbyto;*ordersbyto;*persuadesbyto;proposethat_should;*recommendsbyto;*requestsbyto;suggeste.g.whereto/that_should;*tellsbyto;*urgesbyto;wantsbyto;wishsbytoAppendix46[>16.13]46.1Someverbsfollowedbyato-infinitivesby/stg=objectrequiredbeforeto(sby/stg)=optionalobjectallowsby,appointsby,assistsby,attempt,begin,bribesby,bringinsby,bringupsby,can"tbear,care(=want),cease,commence,compete,condemnsby,consent,continue,dare(=bebraveenough),daresby,deserve,dislike(sby/stg),electsby,employsby,enablesby,encouragesby,fail,get(sby/stg),grow,hasten,hate,have(got)[>11.47],help(sby),hurry,leadsby,like(sby/stg),long,love(sby),manage,need(sby/stg)[>11.1],neglect,offer,pay,prefer(sby/stg),refuse,relyonsby/stg,scheme,seek,selectsby/stg,send(for)sby/stg,start,stop,struggle,train(sby),try,unite,(can"t)wait,want(sby/stg),wish(sby/stg)46.2Verb+to-infinitiveorQ-word+to-infinitiveAlltheseverbsarealsocommonlyfollowedbythat-clausesorquestion-wordclauses.agreeto/Qto;askto/Qto;chanceto;considerQto;decideto/Q;discoverQto;forgetto/Qto;happento;hear(=learn)Qto;hopeto;knowQto;learnto/Qto;meanto;noticeQto;observeQto;occur;itoccurstosbyto;planto/Qto;pretendto;professto;promiseto;proveto;realizeQto;reckon(=expect)to:regretto;rememberto/Qto;showsbyQto;teachsbyto/Qto;wonderQto46.3Verb+clauseorobject+"tobe"Ideclarehimtobethewinner.accept,arrange(for),believe,calculate,certify,consider,declare,deny,discover,estimate,fancy,feel(=consider),find(=consider),guess,hold,imagine,infer,intend,judge,know,mean,perceive,prefer,presume,recognize,remember,report,request,require,sense,suppose,suspect,take,understandAppendix47[>2.37][>3.1][>3.11][>5.9]Numbers47.1NumeralsWordsinbolditalicscausespellingproblems.cardinalnumbersordinalnumbers0-1one1stfirst
EnglishGrammar:Appendix2two2ndsecond3three3rdthird4four4thfourth5five5thfifth6six6thsixth7seven7thseventh8eight8theighth9nine9thninth10ten10thtenth11eleven11theleventh12twelve12thtwelfth13thirteen13ththirteenth14fourteen14thfourteenth15fifteen15thfifteenth16sixteen16thsixteenth17seventeen17thseventeenth18eighteen18theighteenth19nineteen19thnineteenth20twenty20thtwentieth21twenty-one21sttwenty-first22twenty-two22ndtwenty-second23twenty-three23rdtwenty-third24twenty-four24thtwenty-fourth25twenty-five25thtwenty-fifth26twenty-six26thtwenty-sixth27twenty-seven27thtwenty-seventh28twenty-eight28thtwenty-eighth29twenty-nine29thtwenty-ninth30thirty30ththirtieth,etc.40forty40thfortieth,etc.50fifty50thfiftieth60sixty60thsixtieth70seventy70thseventieth80eighty80theightieth90ninety90thninetieth100onehundred100thone/thehundredth101onehundredandone101stone/thehundredandfirst200twohundred200ththetwohundredth1,000onethousand1,000thone/thethousandth1,001onethousandandone,etc1,001stone/thethousandandfirst,etc.10,001tenthousandandone,etc.10,001stone/thetenthousandandfirst,etc.100,000onehundredthousand,etc.100,000thone/theonehundredthousandth,etc.1,000,000onemillion1,000,000thone/themillionthNOTES10(nought/zero)Thespokenformof0is:a)nought(AmEzero)oroh.Ohisusedespeciallywhengivingtelephonenumbers[>App47.2],andoftenwhensayingtheyear:e.g.1906canbesaidnineteenohsix;inthe24hourclock,e.g.0903canbespokenasnineohthreehours.b)Whentalkingscientifically,e.g.whengivingtemperatures,0ispronouncedzero,e.g.-20_=twentydegreesbelowzero.c)Whengivingthescoresofmostgames,e.g.football,0ispronouncednilornothing:Hull6,Leeds0issaidHullsix,Leedsnil(ornothing).Whengivingthescoresofafewothergames,e.g.tennis,weuselovefor0:Beckerleadsbytwosetstolove(2-0).2-teenand-tyendings:pronunciationEvennativespeakerssometimesfindithardtohearthedifference.Didyousaythirteenorthirty?Notethestress:Isaidthir"teen./"thirty.3onehundred,onethousand,onemillion,etc.Inordinaryspeech,aisoftenusedinsteadofone.However,oneispreferableincalculations,etc.becauseitsoundsmoreaccurate.Fornumbersbetween1,000and1,900itiscommontosayelevenhundred,etc.insteadofonethousandonehundred.4WritingnumbersofmorethanfourfiguresWeseparatelargenumberswithcommas,notstops.Commasmaybeomittedfromfour-figurenumbers,buttheyareimportantinnumberswithfiveormorefigures,sincetheymakethestructureoflargenumbersclear.5andinnumbersover100InAmEthiscanbeomitted,e.g.sixhundredsixty-eightinsteadofsixhundredand_6Numbersafterpeople"snamesWhenwritingthenamesofkings,weuseRomannumerals:WewriteGeorgeIV(no-th),butwesayGeorgetheFourth.SomerichAmericanfamiliesdothesame:HenryFordII.7Adozen(i.e.twelve)Certainthings,e.g.eggs,breadrolls,oranges,areoftenboughtindozens:A/One/Twodozeneggsplease(No-s)8UncertainnumbersThewordoddmaybeusedwithroundnumbersovertwentytogiveanapproximatefigure:It"sahundredoddpounds.(i.e.about)She"ssixtyodd.(i.e.about60yearsold)-ish,_orsoandorthereaboutscanalsobeusedwhengivingapproximatenumbers:He"ssixtyish.I"llmeetyounineish.Itcostahundredpoundsorso.He"sarrivingontheseventhorthereabouts.
EnglishGrammar:Appendix47.2TelephonenumbersTelephonenumbersarewrittenwithgapsbetweeneachgroupofnumbers,notusuallywithdashesorfullstops:e.g.013394867.Thefirstgroupisusuallythediallingcodeforaparticularplaceandisofteninbrackets:(01)3394867.0inphonenumbersispronouncedoh.Numbersarepronouncedseparatelyanddoublefiguresareusuallygivenase.g.doublethree:ohone,doublethree(orthreethree)nine,foureightsixseven.Treblefiguresarenormallyspokenasfollows:6222:sixtwodoubletwo.Anumberlike2222wouldbespokendoubletwodoubletwo.Otherlongnumbers,likebankaccountnumbers,nationalinsurancenumbersandsoonareusuallyspokeninthesameway.47.3Mathematicalsymbols,fractions,decimals47.3.1Mathematicalsymbols=("theequalssign")Thisisspokenasequalorequals,isequaltoor(lessformally)is/areormake/makes,so2+2=4couldbespokenas:2and2(or2plus2)equal4.2and2equals4.2and2isfour.2and2are4.2and2make4.2and2makes4+("theplussign")Thisisspokenasplusorand:2plus2makes4.2and2make(s)4.-("theminussign")Thisisspokenasminusor(lessformally)takeawayorfrom:9-3=6couldbespokenas:9minus3equals6.9takeaway3equals6.3from9equals/is/makes6.+("themultiplicationsign")Thisisspokenasmultipliedbyortimes:9+3=27couldbespokenas:9multipliedby3equals27.9times3is27.Threenines(orninethrees)are27._("thedivisionsign")Thisisspokenasdividedbyorover:9_3=3couldbespokenas:9dividedby(orover)3equals3.3intonineis/goes3.%("thepercentagesign")Thisisusuallysaidpercent:3%=threepercent3+%=threeandahalfpercent3.5%=threepointfivepercent47.3.2Fractions[>5.9.3]Fractionsareusuallyprintedandwrittenwithahorizontalline,notadiagonalline.+=a(orone)quarter,2+=twoandaquarter+=a(orone)half,2+=twoandahalf9=threequarters;3+=threeandthreequarters47.3.3Decimals[>5.9.4]Thedecimalpointisusuallyraised:i.e.itisnotwrittenasifitwasafullstop.Acommaisneverused.Wesayeachnumberafterthedecimalpointseparately:45.987=fortyfivepointnineeightseven.47.4Dates[>3.21.4][>8.12][>8.13]47.4.1Centuries,years35B.C.("BeforeChrist");A.D.100="A.D.onehundred"(i.e."AnnoDomini","intheyearofourLord"inLatin).A.D.isnotusuallynecessary,exceptwiththeearlycenturiestoavoidpossibleconfusion.B.C.isusuallynecessary:Pompeydiedin48B.C.TiberiusdiedinA.D.37.The11th_the20thcenturywillalwaysbetakentomeanA.D.Thenameofthecenturyis"oneahead"ofthewaytheyearsinitarewritten/said:e.g.1500-1599isthesixteenthcentury.Wecanrefertothefifteentwenties,etc.andinthiscenturytothefifties,thesixties.Wereferto1900-1910asthenineteenhundreds.Yearsaresaidintwoparts:1066:tensixty-six,1917:nineteenseventeenTheearlyyearsofacentury,e.g.from(19)01to(19)12,havetwoforms:nineteenhundredandone,ornineteen-(oh)-one.Yearsendingin"00"aresaidwith"hundred":1900:nineteenhundred,butnote2,000:theyeartwothousand.47.4.2ThedateWecanwritethedateindifferentways:e.g.Day/month/year:6thJanuary,1990(or"90)
EnglishGrammar:AppendixMonth/day/year:January6th,1998(or"98)Thelettersthatfollowthenumbers(-st,-nd,-rd,-th)maybeomitted,ascanthecommabeforetheyear.Abbreviationscanbeusedformonths[>App24].Thedatecanalsobewrittenentirelyinfigures:6.1.90,or06.01.90.InBrEthismeansJanuary6,1990.InAmEitmeansJune1,1990sincethenumberofthemonthiswrittenbeforetheday.Whenwesaythedateweaddthe:Januarythesixth,orthesixthofJanuary(BrE);butJanuarysixth(AmE).47.5Thetime[>7.21][>8.11]47.5.1TellingthetimeineverydayspeechIfaclockshows(say)10.00,thefullestanswertothequestion"What"sthetime?"is:It"steno"clock.ButwecanalsosayTen(veryinformal)orIt"sten.Thewordo"clockisusedonlywithexacthours,neverwithothertimes:It"sfivepastten,etc.Wherethehourisknown,wecanjustsay(It"s)fivepast,(It"s)fiveto,etc.Forpastthehourwesay:e.g.(It"s)fivepast(ten),(a)quarter(Not*fifteen*)past(ten),ten/twentypast(ten),twenty-fivepast(ten).Forbeforethehourwesay:e.g.(It"s)twenty-fiveto(eleven),twentyto(eleven),(a)quarterto(eleven),ten/fiveto(eleven).Withallothercombinationsbeforethehourandpastthehour,wesayminutes,e.g.threeminutestoten,twenty-twominutestoeleven.InAmEafteriscommonlyusedinplaceofpastandofinsteadofto:aquarterofeleven.Informally,wesometimessay,e.g.halfteninsteadofhalfpasttenandtenfifteen,tenthirtyinsteadofusingaquarterandhalf.Sometimeswesaya.m.(=antemeridiem,i.e.beforemidday)orp.m.(=postmeridiem,i.e.aftermidday)fortimesbeforeandafter12noon:I"llmeetyouat5p.m.Wealsosometimessayatnoonoratmidnightfor12a.m.or12p.m.47.5.2ThetimeinschedulesandtimetablesThetwenty-fourhourclockisgenerallyusedfor,e.g.railwaytimetables.Thesearewrittenandspokenasfollows:09.00ninehundredhours21.00twenty-onehundredhours09.03nineohthree21.03twenty-oneohthree09.10nineten21.10twenty-oneten09.15ninefifteen21.15twenty-onefifteen09.30ninethirty21.30twenty-onethirty09.36ninethirty-six21.36twenty-onethirty-six09.45nineforty-five21.45twenty-oneforty-fiveWhichtraindoyouwanttocatch?-IthinkI"lltrytogettheteneighteenAppendix48[>2.13][>3.21][>3.27.3][>3.28][>7.21][>8.12][>9.4][>9.18][>9.25.1][>9.38]Someadverbsofdefinitetime:"pointsoftime"yesterdaytodaytomorrowyesterdaymorningthismorningtomorrowmorningyesterdayatnoonatnoontomorrowatnoonyesterdayafternoonthisafternoontomorrowafternoonyesterdayeveningthiseveningtomorroweveninglastnighttonighttomorrownightthedaybeforeyesterdaythedayaftertomorrowthenightbeforelastthenightafternextthedaybeforeyesterdayinthedayaftertomorrowinthemorning/afternoon/eveningthemorning/afternoon/eveninglastMondaythisMondaynextMondaytheMondaybeforelasttheMondayafternextlastJanuarythisJanuarynextJanuarytheJanuarybeforelasttheJanuaryafternextlastChristmasthisChristmasnextChristmastheChristmasbeforelasttheChristmasafternextlastweekthisweeknextweektheweekbeforelasttheweekafternextlastmonththismonthnextmonththemonthbeforelastthemonthafternextlastyearthisyearnextyeartheyearbeforelasttheyearafternextlastcenturythiscenturynextcenturythecenturybeforelastthecenturyafternextthistimenextweek/nextyear,etc.thistimelastweek/lastyear,etc.todayweek=aweekfromtodayaweek(orafortnight,twoweeks,amonth)tomorrow=aweek,etc.fromtomorrowaweek(orafortnight,twoweeks,amonth)yesterday=aweek,etc.fromyesterdayaweek/twoweeks/afortnightfromyesterday,fromtoday,fromtomorrow,etc.amonth/twomonthsfromtoday,fromtomorrow,fromMonday,etc.amonth/twomonthslastTuesday,etc.
EnglishGrammar:Appendixamonth/twomonthsnextTuesday,etc.NOTES1Lastnightisusuallypreferableto"yesterdaynight".2Ineverydayspeech,daysoftheweekareoftenreferredtowithoutthis,last,nextoron:I"mseeinghimMonday.(i.e.this,next,on)IsawhimMonday.(i.e.last,on)3Whenwewishtodrawattentionto"approachingtime",wemayusetheexpressionthiscoming:ThiscomingweektherearethreegoodfilmsonTV.4Thismorning,thisafternoon,thiseveningandtonightcanreferto:a)now:Ifeelterriblethismorning/tonight,etc.b)themorningwhichispassingorhasjustpassed:Ispoketohimthismorning.(=earlier)c)laterontoday:I"llspeaktohimthismorning.5ThisMonday,etc.referstothenearestMondayfromnowandcanbereplacedbynextMonday:I"mseeinghimthisMonday/nextMonday.6Thisweek,thismonth,thisyearreferto:a)thepartoftheweek,etc.whichhaspassed:Isawhimthisweek/earlierthisweek.b)thepartoftheweek,etc.whichisstilltocome:I"mgoingtoMajorcathisweek.7ThisJanuary,etc.referstotheonethatisnearesttousandcanbereplacedbynext:We"respendingthis/nextJanuary,Christmas(etc.)inSwitzerland.8Theother+day,Monday,morning,etc.referstoonethathasrecentlypassed;everyother+day,Monday,morning,etc.referstoalternatingones:IgotaletterfromJilltheothermorning.[compare>5.27]MrsMoppcomesinandcleansthehouseeveryotherday.[compare>5.23]9Todayweekcanbereplacedbythemoreformalthisdayweek.10One+day,Monday,morning,etc.isoftenusedinnarrative.[compare>3.11]11Fortimereferencesinindirectspeech[>15.13n.5].Appendix49[>2.27][>3.9.3][>3.19.2][>6.12.2][>6.20.3]Somenationalitywords49.1Group1:Identifyingcharacteristics1Theadjectiveandnounhavethesameform:adjective:theJapaneselanguage.noun:Nakamurasanis(a)Japanese.2Thereisnodifferencebetweensingularandpluraladjectives/nouns:singular:NakamurasanisJapanese.plural:NakamurasanandSanseidosanareJapanese.3Whenreferringto"allthepeople",theisalwaysrequired.TheJapaneseareverycleverpeople.countryadjectivecountablenounpluralorcollectivenounJapanJapaneseaJapanese(man/woman);theJapanesetwoJapanese(men)Similarly:e.g.Burmaurmese;China/Chinese;Lebanon/Lebanese;Malta/Maltese;Portugal/Portuguese;Sudan/Sudanese;Surinam/Surinamese;Taiwan/Taiwanese;Switzerland/Swiss.49.2Group2:Identifyingcharacteristics1Theadjectiveandsingularnounhaveexactlythesameform:adjective:anItaliancar.noun:Mariois(an)Italian.2Thepluralnounadds-s;theisoptionalintheplural:(The)Italiansareverycreative.[>3.19.2]countryadjectivecountablenounpluralorcollectivenounItalyItaliananItalian(man/woman);twoItalians(men)(the)ItaliansSimilarly:e.g.a)-ianendings:add-ntocountriesendingin-ia:Algeria(n),Asia(n),Australia(n),Austria(n),Colombia(n),Indonesia(n),Nigeria(n),Russia(n),Scandinavia(n),Syria(n),Tanzania(n),Tunisia(n).other-ianendings:Argentinargentinian;Belgiumelgian;Brazilrazilian;Canada/Canadian;Egypt/Egyptian;Hungary/Hungarian;Iran/Iranian;Jordan/Jordanian;Norway/Norwegian.b)generallyadd-nor-an:Africa(n),America(n),Chile(an),CostaRica(n),Cuba(n),Korea(n),LatinAmerica(n),Libya(n),Mexico/Mexican;Paraguay(an),Uganda(n),Venezuela(n),Zimbabwe(an).c)otherendings:Cyprus/Cypriot;Germany/German;Greece/Greek;Iraq/Iraqi;Kuwait/Kuwaiti;Oman/Omani;Pakistan/Pakistani;Qatar/Qatari;SaudiArabia/Saudi/SaudiArabian;Thailand/Thai.49.3Group3:Identifyingcharacteristics1Theadjectiveandsingularnounaredifferent:adjective:Finnishtimber.noun:HeisaFinn.2Thesingularnounadds-stoformtheplural;theisoptionalintheplural:(The)FinnsoftenvisitSweden.countryadjectivecountablenounpluralorcollectivenArabic(lang.)anArab(man/woman);twoArabs(men)(the)ArabsArabian(desert)DenmarkDanishaDane(man/woman);twoDanes(men)(the)DanesortheDanFinlandFinnishaFinn(man/woman);twoFinns(men)(the)FinnsortheFinPhilippinesPhilippineaFilipino(man/woman);twoFilipinos(men)(the)FilipinosPolandPolishaPole(man/woman);twoPoles(men)(the)PolesSpainSpanishaSpaniard/twoSpaniards(men);aSpanishwoman(the)SpaniardsortheSwedenSwedishaSwede(man/woman);twoSwedes(men)(the)Swedes/theSwediTurkeyTurkishaTurk(man/woman);twoTurks(men)(the)Turks
EnglishGrammar:Appendix49.4Group4:Identifyingcharacteristics1Theadjectiveandpluralnoun(meaning"allthepeople")arethesame;theisalwaysrequired:adjective:Englishcustoms.noun:TheEnglishareveryinventive.2Thesingularnouniscomposedoftheadjective+-manor-woman.countryadjectivecountablenounpluralorcollecEnglandEnglishanEnglishman/-woman;twoEnglishmen/-womentheEnglish(alsFranceFrenchaFrenchman/-woman;twoFrenchmen/-womentheFrench(alsoHolland(ortheNetherlands)DutchaDutchman/-woman;twoDutchmen/-womentheDutch(also:IrelandIrishanIrishman/-woman;twoIrishmen/womentheIrish(also:WalesWelshaWelshman/-woman;twoWelshmen/-womentheWelsh(also:49.5Group5:TwoexceptionsBritainBritishaBriton(man/woman);Britons(fairlyrare)theBritishaBritisher(AmE)Britishers(AmE)ScotlandScottishaScot(man/woman);aScotsman/-woman(the)ScotstwoScotsmen/-women(andnoteScotchwhisky)
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