外显互动任务法学英语语法 56页

中文摘要在长达一个世纪的外语教学历程中，语法教学经历了多次盛衰。自然法不重视语法讲解。起源于自然法，并标志着科学的外语教学开始的直接法提倡采用归纳法教授语法。视昕法提倡用句型取代语法在外语教学中的地位。二十世纪t十年代，意念一功能大纲试图取代语法，但在理论和实践中均以失败而告终。总体上说，外语教学法的变迁呈现出循环式，每种新方法～方面从前一种方法中脱离出来，另一方面，它又吸纳了前一种方法积极可取的东西。每一种方法在一定程度上都存在着一些不足。尽管语法教学在某些方面遭到质疑，比如，有人提出，需要教学生语法吗?对语言学习它是一种阻碍还是一种帮助呢?但是，一直以来，传统观点都认为语法是语者教学的必要条件。长期以来，语法都被认为是课堂语言教学的必不可少的一部分。近年，语法在英语语言教学中的作用又重新受到人们的关注。人们想寻找一种路径，将语法教学与注重交际能力的提高的交际法相结合，集众家之长形成一种综合的，开明的教学路径，而不是单纯的某种方法。交际能力，其中包含了语法运用能力，强调为学习者提供机会用英语进行交际的重要性，并且试图将交际活动与语言教学相结合。而运用外显互动任务法教授语法能将传统的重视语言形式的语法教学法与注重交际能力提高的交际法相结合。作者借鉴REllis于2003年提出的外显意识增强式任务模式，提出外显互动任务法。外显互动任务法是一种帮助学习者提高对目标语言的语法形式或结构的有意识注意，同时，配以真实交际活动练习，提高学习者交际能力的教学策略。作者首先回顾了外语教学法的百年历史和阐述了我国中学语法教学的现状，接着。提出运用外显互动任务法来教授中学英语语法。然后，通过介绍、分析一系列具体实例探讨如何运用外显互动任务法教授中学英语语法。最后，作者在调查、分析实验数据，问卷后，得出结论；运用外显互动任务法教授中学英语语法能产生有效的、生动活泼的教学效果。本文共分为五个章节：，第一章简要回顾外语语法教学法的百年历史，概述我国中学语法教学的现状，介绍外显互动任务法。第二章重点分析外显互动任务法的理论基础。介绍外显知识、外显学习的概念以及什么是课堂互动，概述与语法教学有关的习得理论，探讨互动与可理解性输出以及语言习得的关系。第三章探讨将外显互动任务法运用到中学语法教学的实践意义。 第四章重点分析实验数据，学生对学习的投入程度，学习态度的|j{『后改变，以及将外显互动任务法运用到英语课堂后，学生学习能力的提高。第五章为结束语。总结运用外显互动任务法教授中学英语语法的优点．指出本研究对英语教学可能带来的启示，指出本研究的不足之处，并就以后的研究方向提出了建议。关键词：外显互动任务法英语语法教学中学V AbstractinEnglishInforeignlanguageteaching,grammarhaswitnessednfewupsanddownsduringthepastcentury．TheNaturalMethod，fromwhichtheDirectMethodori【ginated，neglectedgrammarinstruction．TheDirectMethod，markingthebeginningofscientificforeignlanguagepedagogy,adoptedteachinggrammarthroughinduction．TheninAudio—lingualapproach，sentencespatternstooktheplaceofgrammar．Inthe1970s，Notional—functionalSyllabustriedtoreplacegrammarbutfailedintheoryandpractice．Generallyspeaking,theforeignlanguageteachingmethodswaxedandwanedinpopularityEachnewmethodORoneaspectbrokefromtheoldone，butontheother,ittookwithitsomeofthepositiveaspectsofthepreviousones．Atthesametime,eachnewmethodalsohadsomedisadvantages．Traditionally,grammarhasbeenthesinequanonoflanguageteaching,althoughgrammarteachinginsomeaspectsisquestioned，forexample，shouldgrammarbetaughtatall?Isitahindranceratherthanahelp?Foralongperiod，itwassimplytakenforgrantedtobeadesirablepartofclassroomlanguageteaching．RecentyearshavesgenaresurgenceofinterestintheroleofgrammarinEnglishlanguageteaching．Researcherswanttofindoutanapproachthroughwhichweeanreapthebenefitstoformallintegrated，unified，communicativeapproachtogrammarteachingthatisnolongercharacterizedbyaseriesofmethods．Communicativecompetence,includinggrammaticalcompetence，stressestheimportanceofprovidinglearnerswithopportunitiestoUSetheirEnglishforcommunicativepurposesand，characteristically,attemptstointegratesuchactivitiesintoawiderprogramoflanguageteaching．Traditionalgrammarteachingapproacheswhichstressformscouldbecombinedwithcommunicativeapproach．TheauthorputsforwardthetermExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructionborrowedfromREllis’Sexplicitconsciousness—raisingtaskmodel(2003)refertOtheinstructionalstrateglesemployedtoraiselearners’consciousawarenessofformorstructoreofthetargetlanguagewhenimprovingcommunicativeCOmpetence．FirsttheauthorreviewsthehistoryofforeignlanguageteachingandelaboratesthecurrentsituationofgrammarteachinginMiddleSchool，thenexploreshowtoapplyExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructiontotheteachingofgrammarbyanalyzingsedesofcases，atlasttheauthorinvestigates，analyzestheexperimentdata，questionnairesandmakesaconclusionthatⅡ· applyingExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructiontotheteachingofgrammariseffectiveanddynamic．Thethesiscanbedividedintofivechapters，ChapterOnesevelsasareview,whichintroducesmorethan100一year-oldhistoryofforeignlanguageteaching，thecurrentsituationofEnglishgrammarteachinginMiddleSchooland也enitputsforwardExplicitInteractiveTaskInstmction．ChapterTwofoCUSCSontIletheoretiealbasisofExplicitInteractiveTaskInstruction，whichexpoundstheterminologyofexplicitknowledgeandexplicitlearning,whatclassroominteractionis，acquisitiontheoryrelatedtotheteachingofgrammar,therelationshipbetweeninteractionandcomprehensiveoutputandlanguageacquisition．ChapterThreefocusesOCtthepracticalsignificancesof印plyingExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructiontotheteachingofEnglishgrammarinMiddleSch001．ChapterFouranalyzesexperimentdata,student"sengagementandattitudes，andthedevelopmentofstudents’learningcompetenCeaftertheapplicationofExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructioninEnglishclassroom．ChapterFiveisaconclusion．ItsummarizestheadvantagesoftheapplicationofExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructiontotheteachingofEnglishgrammarinMiddleSchool，pointsouttheimplicationsandlimitations,andgivesdirectionsforfutureresearch．Keywords：ExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructiontheTeachingofEnglishGrammarMiddleSchoolIII 独创性声明本人声明所星交的学位论文是本人在导师指导下进行的研究工作及取得的研究成果。据我所知，除了文中特别加以标注和致谢的地方外，论文中不包含其他人已经发表或撰写过的研究成果，也不包含为获得或其他教育机构的学位或证书雨^使用过的材料。与我一同工作的同志对本研究所做的任何贡献均已在论文中作了明确的说明并表示谢意。学位论文作者签名：泛殇签字日期：形衫年／7月／一日学位论文版权使用授权书本学位论文作者完全了解江西师范大学研究生院有关保留、使用学位论文的规定，有权保留并向国家有关部门或机构遥交论文的复印传和磁盘，允诲论文被查阕和借阕。本人授权江西师范大学研究生院可以将学位论文的全部或部分内容编入有关数据库进行检索，可以采用影印、缩印或扫描等复制手段保存、汇编学位论文。(保密的学位论文在解密后适用本授权书)学位论文作者签名：美殇签字日期：“年／／月弦甘 AcknowledgementsIhavereceivedalotgenerousguidanceandvaluableadvicewhilewritingthethesis．Iamhappytohavethisopportunitytoexpressmysincerethankstoallthosewhohaveofferedmehelp，encouragementandsuggestions．MyindebtednessisparticularlyduetomysupervisorProfessorWangSonglin，whoseenlighteningadviceandkindencouragementhelpthethesistocomeintobeing，andwhosegreatpatienceandcarefulscrutinyandconstructivesuggestionshelptoimproveit．MygratitudeiSaswellsenttootherprofessorswhonotonlygavemeinspirationalteachinginmypostgraduatestudiesbutalsoguidedmeincompletingthisthesis．MythanksshouldalsogotoalltheteachersintheforeignlanguagecollegeofJiangxiNormalUniversity,fortheirhelpduringmyyearsofstudythere．Lastbutnotleast．Iamgratefultomyhusbandandmyson．Withoutthekselflesssupportandencouragement，Icouldnotfinishmythreeyears’study,norcouldIcompletemythesis． TheApplicationofExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructiontotheTeachingofEnglishGrammalinMiddleSchoolChapter1Introduction1．1Backgroundt0Research1．1．1TheTerminologyofGrammarAccordingtoLongmanDictionaryofLanguageTeachingandAppliedLinguistics但201)，grammarisadescriptionofthestructureofalanguageandthewayinwhichlinguisticunitssuchaswordsandphrasesarecombinedt0producesentencesinthelanguage．Itusuallytakesintoaccountthemeaningsandfunctionsthesesentenceshaveintheoverallsystemofthelanguage．Itmayoimaynotincludethedescriptionofthesoundsofalanguage．InTransformationalGrammar,grammardescribesthespeaker"sknowledgeofthelanguage．Itlooksatlanguageinrelationtohowitmaybestructuredinthespeaker"smind．andwhichprinciplesandparametersaIcavailabletothespeakerwhenproducingthelanguage．Grammarjsasystemofrulesgovemingtheconventionalarrangementandrelationshipofwordsinasentence．bplaceof‘"words，”Icould，formorespecificity,havesaid“morphemes，”butforthemomentsjustrememberthatthecomponentsofwords(prefixes，SUff"LXeS，roots，verbandnounendings，etc．)areindeedapartofgrammar．And，whenweusethewordgrammar,werefertosentence-levelrules．Becarefulnottoconfusethetermgrammarwithrulesgoverningtherelationshipamongsentences，whichwerefertoasdiscourserules．1．1．2TheBHefHistoryofGrammarTeachingAhistoricalsketchofthelasthundredyearsoflanguageteachingreallymustbesetinthecontextofaprevailing,customarylanguageteaching“tradition．”Forcenturies．therewerefewifanytheoreticalfoundationsoflanguagelearninguponwhichtobaseteachingmethodology．Inthewesternworld，‘‘foreign’’languagelearninginschoolswassynonymouswiththelearningofLatinorGreek．LatinwastaughtbymeansofwhathasbeencaHcdtheClassicalMethod：focusongrammaticalrules，memorizationofvocabularyandofvadousdeclensionsandconjugalions，translationsoftexts，doingwrittenexercises．1 TheApplicationofExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructiontoIheTeachingofEngl{shG[amtoatinMiddleSchoolAsotherlanguagebegantobetaughtineducationalinstitutionsintheeighteeathandnineteenthcenturies，theClassicalMethodWaSadoptedasthechiefmeansforteachingforeignlanguages．Littlethoughtwasgivenatthetimetoteachingsomeonehowtospeakthelanguage．InthenineteenthcenturytheClassicalMethodcametobeknownastheGrammarTranslationMethod．ThereWaSlittletodistinguishGrammarTranslationfromwhathadgoneoninforeignlanguageclassroomforcenturiesbeyondafocusongrammaticalmlesasthebasisfortranslatingfromthesecondtothenativelanguage．Remarkably,theGrammarTranslationMethodwithstoodattemptsattheturnofthetwentiethcenturyto‘"reform”languageteachingmethodology,andtothisdayitispracticedinsomeisolated．or,shallwesay,unenlightenededucationalcontext．PratorandCelce—Murcia(1979：3)listedthemajorcharacteristicsofGrammarTranslation：(1)Classesaretaughtinthemothertongue，withlittleactiveOSeofthetargetlanguage．(2)Muchvocabularyistaughtintheformoflistsofisolatedwords．(3)Longelaborateexplanationsoftheintricaciesofgrammararegiven．(4)Grammarprovidestherulesforputtingwordstogether,andinstructionoftenfocusesontheformandinflectionofWOrds．(5)Readingofdifficultclassicaltextsisbegunearly．(6)Littleattentionispaidtothecontentoftexts,whicharetreatedasexercisesingrammaticalanalysis．(7)Oftentheonlydrillsareexercisesintranslatingdisconnectedsentencesfromthetargetlanguageintothemothertongue．(8)LittleOrnoattentionisgiventopronunciation．Itisironicthatthismethodhasuntilveryrecentlybeansostalwartamongmanycompetingmodels．Itdoesvirtuallynothingtoenhanceastudent’Scommunicativeabilityinthelanguage．Itis“rememberedwithdistastebythousandsofschoolieamers，forwhomforeignlearningmeantatediousexperienceofmemorizingendlesslistsofunusablegrammarrulesandvocabularyandattemptingtoproduceperfecttranslationsofstiltedorliteraryprose"’．(RichardsandRodgnrs，1986：4)Ontheotherhand，GrammarTranslationMethodrequiresfewspecializedskillsonthepartofteachers．Manystandardizedtestsofforeignlanguagesstilldonotattempttotapintocommunicativeabilities，SOstudentshave2 ．．。。．．．T．．．h．．e．．．A．．．p．．p．．．1．i．c，．a．。1．．i．o．1ittlemotivationtogobeyondgrammaranalogies，translations,androteexercises。Anditissometimessuccessfulinleadingastudenttowardareadingknowledgeofasecondlanguage，GrammarTraas}ationMethodemphasizesgrammaticalaccuracy,whilesimulatingthe。"natural’’wayinwhichchildrenleantfirstlanguage--thebasicpremiseoftheDirectMethod．namely,thatsecondlanguagelearningshouldbem泔铀likefirstlanguagelearning-⋯lotsoforalinteraction，spontaneoususeofthelanguage，nOtranslationbetweenfirstandsecondlanguages,andlittleoruoanalysisofgrammat／ca}rules。．TheDirectMethodadvocatestheimportanceofOrsllanguageandbelievesthatlangnageshouldbelearnedthroughdirectassociationofformandmeaning,TheDirectMethodmainlyusessuchtechniquesasquestion-and-answer,dictationandconversationpracticewhichalestillwidelyusedinforeignlanguageteachingclassroomstoday．Theuseofthetargetlanguageasameansofinstructionandcommunicationintheclassroomcontributesgreatlytoformingthehabitofthinkinginthetargetlanguage，whichisnecessaryinefficientrealcommunication．TheemphasisOilpracticewithnewlangnaguitemsandOnlanguageskills，ratherthanonlanguageknowledge，isimportantinachievingautomaticityofusingthetargetlanguage。Theemphasisonspokenlanguageconformstotheobjectivesofmodemlanguageteaching．SpecialaHenfionpaidtopronunciationandintonation／sdesirableinteachingspokenlanguage．Regardinglisteningandspeakingasthebasisofreadingandwritingisstrategicinfosteringthefourskills．UsingfullSentencesasteachingunitsmakesforeignlanguagelearningtllOranaturalandefficientforstudentstounderstandanewtextandacquirealanguage．ButTheDirectMethodrequiresnmive—speakerteachersorteacherswhohavenative-speaker-likefluencyinthetargetlanguage．IntheDirectMethodclassroonl,thcteachershouldpresentsectionsofatextofthewholetextbyditectassociationbetweenthetargetlanguageandmeaning．11lcteachershoulddealwithspecificlanguageitemswhichthestudentsaskher10explain．Theteachershouldaskcomprehensionquestionaboutthetext．makingsurfthatstudentshaveathoroughunderstandingofthetext．Theteachershouldaskstudentsquestionsabouteverydaylife，etc．Inawo斌intheDirectMethodclassroom，teachersshouldhaveahiI曲abilitytousethetargetlanguageorganizingtheclassroomactivities，TheDirectMethodplaceahi曲demandOBtheteachers。弧didnottakewell迹publiceducationwherethe3 TheApplicationofExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructiontotheTeachingofEnglishGrammarinMiddleSchoolconstraintsofclassroomsize，time，andteacherbackgroundmadesuchamethoddifficulttouse．Inthe1950s，theAudio-lingualMethodoriginatedintheUSAandbecameveryfashionable．劝eAudio-lingualMethodisamethodofforeignorsecondLanguageteachingwhichemphasizestheteachingofspeakingandfisteningbeforereadingandwriting．IntheAudio—lingualMethod，mothertongueisdiscouragedintheclassroom．ThehallmarkofAudio·lingualteachingisemphasisonpresentationofthelanguageinitsspokenformfirst．Onlyafterpracticeintheaural-oralmode(firstlistening，andthenproducingutterances)arcstudentspresentedwiththewriRenmaterialofwhattheyhavebeenlearning．Theythenreadbeforetheywrite．Audio-lingualreacheditsperiodofmostwidespreadUSeinthe1950s．Bytheendofthe1960s，theAudio-lingualMethodbecamethetargetofcriticismfromallsides．Chomskyholdsthatsentencesarenotlearnedbyimitationandrepetition，but“generated"’fromthelearner’sunderlying“competence．”11letheoreticalbasisoftheAudio-lingualMethodwagfoundtobeweak．Thebehaviouristtheorycouldnotpossiblyseryeasamodelofhowhumanslearnlanguage，sincemuchofhumanlanguageisnotimimledbehaviour,butiscreatednnewfromunderlyingknowledgeofabstractmles．Techniquessuchasparentpractice．drilling,memorization，etc．mightleadtolanguagelikebehaviour"buttheyatcnotresultingincompetence．Teachemcomplainaboutthelackofeffectivenessofthetechniquesinthelongrun，andstudentscomplainabouttheboredomcausedbyendlesspattemdrills．Learnersplayareactiverolebyrespondingtostimuli，andthushavelittlecontroloverthecontent，paceorstyleoflearning．Theyarenotencouragedtoinitiateinteraetion．becausethismaylcadtomistakes．neteacher"sroleiseentralandactiveintheAudio．1ingualMethod．Itistheteacherwhoalwaysdorainatestheclass．仙eteachermodelsthetargetlanguage，controlsthedirectionandpaceoflearning，andmonitorsandcorrectsthelearner’aperformance．MaterialsintheAudio-lingualMethodarcprimarilyteacher-oriented．Theteacher’sbookcontainsthestructuredsequenceoflessonstobefollowed，thedialogues，drills，andotherpracticeactivities．neAudio·lingualhereignoresthefactthatlearningcanbefacilitatedifallthechannelsareopentostudents．Inthe1970s，manyforeignlanguageacquisitionresearchersbecamemoreandmoreinterestedinthelanguageusedinvarioussocialandcultumlsettings．Asaresult，therehas4 塾!墅擅塑!坚壁!!垂照!塑鲤鲢墼!蹬鹜墅!篓塑麓堂墼浆!!i堕熊至罂墨苎竺垫垡幽翌墅翌!beenarapidshiftofr蹴archandpracticefromAudio*lingualandGrammarTransLationMethodtotheexplorationofcommunicativelanguageteaching．-TheCommunicativeApproachisallapproachtotbrcignorsooondlanguageteachingwhichelphasizcsthatthegoaloflanguageteachingiscommunicationcompetence．TeachingmaterialsusedwithaCoaanunicationApproachoftenteachthelanguageneededtoexpressandunderstand’differentkindsoffunctions，_suchasrequesting,deseribing,expressinglikesanddislikes．TheCommunicafionApproachfollowsaNotionalSyllabusorsomoothercommunicatively,-organizedsyllabmandemphasizestheprocesses醚communication，suchasusinglanguage=appropriatelyindifferentkindsoftasks,e，吕tosolvepuzzles,togetinformation,andnsing。languageforsocialinteractionwithotherpeople．弧oCommunicativeApproachisoowacceptedbymany獬liedlinguistsandclassroomteachersasthemosteffectiveapproachamongthoseingeneraluse。It雠firstjincludewiderconsiderationsofwhatisappropriateItswellaswhatisaccmate；itea藏handleawiderrangeoflanguage．coveringtextsandcooveIsafionsaswellassentences；thecommunicativeApproachcanproviderealisticandmotivatinglanguagepractice；ituseg．whatlearners“know。aboutthefunctionsoflangangefromtheirexperiencewiththeirwithownmothertongue。TheComrannieativeApproachemphasizeslearner"sneeds+Buthow10identifythoseneedsquicklyandcheapi弘andtowhatextentalllearners∞besaidtohave8commonneedisstill鑫ma“erofdisagreement。Itrcmaiusvagueabouthowcloseitispracticallytotailor3syllabusto}em"ners"neeaJsandabouttherelativeimportanceofaccuracyandfluency．1．1,3TheRoleofGrammarinEnglishLanguageTeachingOverthepast30years,theroteofgrammarinstructionhasbeenofgreatinteresttoprofessionals趣l孰fieldofsecondlanguageandforeignlanguageacquisition．Inthewidelyaccepteddefinitionofcommunicativecompetence,grammaticalcompetenceoccupiesaprominentpositionas鑫majorcomponentofcommunicativecompetence．Organizationalcompetenceisallintricate，complexarrayofrules，someofwhichgovernthesentence(grammar)，whileothersgovernhowwestringserltenoestogether(discourse)．WithoutthestructurethatorganizationalconstraintsimposeORourcommunicativeattempts,OUrlanguagewouldsimfIlybechaos．S ．．—T．．h．e。A——p—p—li—c—a—ti—o．n—o．—f—E—x—p—l—ic—i—t—I—n—te—r—a—c—t—iv—e——T—askInstructiontotheTeachingofEn—gli—sh—G—ramrmrinMiddleSchool———Grammaticalcompetenceisnecessaryforcommunicationtolakeplace，butnotsufficienttoaccountforallproductionandreceptioninlanguage．AsLarsenFreeman(1991)pointedout，gTammargivesUStheformorthestructuresoflanguagethemselves，butthoseformsareliterallymeaninglesswithoutaseconddimension，thatofmeuning／semantics，andathirddimension．pragmatics．Inotherwords，grammartellsushowtoconstructasentence(wordorder,verbandnounsystems，modifiers，phrases，clauses,etc．)．SemanticstellsUSsomethingaboutthemeaningofwordsandstringsofwordsor,Ishouldsay,meanings,becausetheremaybeseveral．Thenpragmaticstells∞aboutwhichofseveralmeaningstoassigngiventhecontesterasentence．Contexttakesintoaccountsuchthingsas,九whothespeaker／writeris．九whotheaudienceis，Xwherethecommunicationtakesplace，九whatcommunicationtakesplacebeforeandafterasentenceinquestion，XimpliedVS．1itcralmeanings，九stylesandregistets．九thealternativeformsamongwhichaproducercanchoose．Itisimportanttograspthesignificanceoftheinterconnectednessofallthreedimensions：rloonedimensionissufficient．So，noonecantellyouthatgrammarisirrelevant，orgrammarisnolongerneededinaCLTframework．Noonedoubtstheprominenceofgrammar∞anorganizationalframeworkwitlainwhiehcommunicationoperates．1．2GrammarandLanguageTeaching0bjectivesThedebateabouttheroleofgrammarinlanguageteachinghasbeenadebateaboutthevalueofovertgrammaticalknowledgefortheacquisitionofproficiency．Butasweknow,grammarmayalsohe∞objectiveinitsOWUright．Wemast,therefore,distinguishbetweengrammarasameanstotheachievementofproficiency,andgrammarasanend·Today,thereisnosingleprescdbedformulafortheattainmentofproficiency．Itisrecognizedthathowmuchemphasiswegivetogrammardependsonthespecificproficiencyobjectivethatisaimedat。Celce—Marcia(1985：∞hastabulatedsomedifferencesinproficiencyobiectivesandcorrespondingdegreesofimportanceofafocusOn6 grammaticalform：LearnerImportanceofafocusonform缸ctorsLessimportantModeratelyMoreimportantLearningstyleHolisticMixedAnalyticSⅪnListeningSpeakingWritingReadingRegisterIIlf01TflalConsultafiveFomalNeed／aseSurvivalVocationalProfessionalAccordingtothisfigure，thereceptiveskillsrequirelessknowledgethantheproductiveonesand，betweenthetwoproductiveskills，writingismoregrammaticallydemandingthanspeaking．Ininformalexchangeslapsesalelessseriousthaninaformalletterorspeech．Forsomeollewholearnsthelanguagejusttogetbyandmeetday-to—day‘survival’needs．grammaticalaccuracyislesscriticalthanforanotherpersonwhoneedstheL2forvocationalorprofessionalpurposes．Ifproficiencyisthegoal，thedemandforaccuracyisnotaIlabsolute，andteachersmustilsetheirjudgmentandadias／theirdemandstotheestimatedneedinthisrespect．However,wemustnotoverstatethesedistinctionsinthedemandforaccuracy．Learnersmustbeabletoidentifyessentialstructuralclueswhentheyarelisteningandreading,eventhoughtheymaynotneedtoknowthemsowellthattheycanproducethemwithoutbeingprompted．ItwouldalsobemisleadingtothinkthatininformaltalkCfl"Ol"Sdonotmatterata11．Thefrequentlyexpressedviewofsomestud∞t9一‘lonlywanttobeabletotalkinformally，ldon’treallyneedanygrammar"--igaoresthelinguisticcomplexitieswhichareoftenfargreaterintherapidgive—and-takeofinformalconversation(quiteapartfromthesociolinguisticandpragmaticcomplexities)thaninthemoreexplicitformaluseofwrittenlanguage．AlthoughCeleeMurcia’stablemakesavalidpointabouttherelativeimportanceofgrammar,the7 TheApplicationofExplicilInteractiveTaskInstructiontoIheTeachingofEnglishGrammarinMiddleSchooltabulationmastnotbeinterpretedtooliterally．Nowadays，itisSOmuchtakenforgrantedthattheinterestofthelearneriSdirectedonlytoproficiencythatthepossibleteachingofgrammarasanobjectiveisentirelyoverlooked．Admittedly,itismorecommontofindthatstudentsregardgrammarpurelyfromtheinstlmmentalpointofviewandwouldliketohaveaslittleaspossibleofit．Butitshouldnotbeoverlookedthatallinterestingtreatmentofgrammarcanawakenallintellectualcuriosity,andchangenegativeattitudes．1．3TheCurrentSituationofGrammar1bachinginChiuaTherehavebeenmanymethodologi％througIlouttheagesofforeignlanguageteaching,andmanyevenseemtorepeatthemselves．Thiscyclicalpatternoflanguageteachingmethodologieswascalled“thechangingwindsandshiftingsands．’’Thereisstillagooddealofcurrentdebateontheparticularapproachthatteachersshouldtakeinofferinggrammaticalinstruction．Fourprimaryissuescharacterizethisongoingprofessionaldiscussion：1．Shouldgrammarbepresentedinductivelyordeductively?DolearnersbenefitfromaninductiveapproachwherevariouslanguageformsalepracticedbutwherethelearnersarelefttodiscoverorinducemlesandgeneralizationsOntheirown?OrwouldtheybebetteroffbeinggiVeilarule／generalizationbytheteacherortextbookandthenallowedtopracticevariousinstancesoflanguagetowhichtheruleapplies7Thesetwoapproachesareoftencontrastedwitheachotherwhenquestionsaboutgrammarteachingarise．Generally,allinductiveapproachiscurrentlymoreinfavorbecause(a)itismoreinkeepingwithnaturallanguageacquisition(whererolesareabsorbedsubconsciouslywithlittleornoconsciousfocus)，(b)itconformsmoireeasilytotheoonceptofinterlanguagedevelopmentinwhichlearnersprogressthroughpossiblestagesofruleacquisition，(e)itallowsstudentstogetacommunicative“feel’’forsomeaspectoflanguagebeforegettingpossiblyoverwhelmedbygrammaticalexplanations，and(d)itbuildsmoreintrinsicmotivationbyallowingstudentstodiscoverrulesratherthanbeingtoldthem．8 ．．．．T——h——e——A——p—pl—ica—tion——o——f—E——x—p——l—ic—i—t——I—n—l—c—r—a——c—t—lv——c——T—a—s——k——I、n—s。t—r，u——c、t—io．．n．．t．o。—t．h．e．．T．．e—a—c—．h。i—n．g、——o—f．，E——n—g—l—i．s．h——G—．r．a．．m——m—．a．r．．i—n——M———id——d—l—e——S—．c．h—o——o—l———Theremaybeoccasionalmoments，ofcoupe，whenadeductiveapproachorablendbetweenthetwoisindeedmoreappropriate．inpractice，thedistinctionisnotalwaysapparent．Considerthefollowingexcerptfromalowintermediateclassroom(S1isconcludinganaccountofarecentunpleasantairplaneride)：S1：Andso，yousee，Itellthe，ch，uh，stewardess，tobringmehottea!Well，shedoesn’t!S2：Yes,eh，well，Iamalsovery,eh，fi"ustmtedlastweek．WhenLeh，travelintheairplane,IgetnosleepT：Okay,Kamal，beforeyougoon，sinceweneedtoreviewthepasttenseanyway,trytorisethepasttense-soyouwanttosay"’1wasfrustrated．’’“Igot110sleep．⋯‘Itoldthestewardess．”Okay,elass，let"slookatsomeverbs．Thetcacherthenpatthoseandafewotherverbsoiltheboard,listedtheirpasttenseforms，andhadstudentspracticethem．EventuaHy,theteachercamebacktoKamalandhadhimfinishhisstory,Whileyoumightquestiontheappropriatenessoftheinterruptionbore，thepointisthattheteacher"sfocusonthepasttensewasdeductivebyvirtueofthewayshepresentedit．Butitwasinductiveinthatthefocusonthepastactuallywastriggeredbystudents’meaningfulperformance．2．ShouldweusegrammaticalexplanationsandtechnicalterminologyinaCLTclassroom?Ourhistoricalroots(inGrammarTranslationmethodology)placedastrongemphasisongrammaticalexplanations(inthemothertongue)andontheterminologynecessarytocarryoutthoseexplanations．ManyforeignlanguagelearnersintheUnitedStateshaveremarkedthattheirfirstandonlyencounterwithgrammaticalconceptswasnotinEnglish(1anguageartsclasses)butinaforeignlanguageclass．Itwastherethattheylearnedaboutsubjectsandpredicatesanddirectobjectsandintransitiveverbs．InCLAclassesnow,theuseofgrammaticalexplanationandterminologymustbeapproachedwithCAU"e．WeteachersaresometimessoeagerIodisplayourhard-earnedmetalinguisticknowledgethatweforgetthatoilystudentsaiebusyeuoughjustgellingthelanguageitselfthattheaddedloadofcomplexrulesandtermsistoomuchtobear．Butclearly,adultscanbenefitfromanbitofexplainingfromtimetotime．Followingafewsimple(butnotalwayseasilyinterpreted)mlesofthumbwillenhanceanygrammaticalexplanationsyouandertake：9 (a)Keepyourexplanationsbriefandsimple．UsethemothertongueifstudentscannotfollowaIlexplanationinEnglish．(b)Usechartsandothervisualswheneverpossibletographicallydepictgrammaticalrelationships．(c)illustratewithclear,unambiguousexamples．(d)Trytoaccountforvaryingcognitivestylesamongyourstudents(forexample，analyticallearnerswillhaveaueasiertimepickingupongrammaticalexplanationsthanwillwholisticlearners)．(e)Donotgetyourself(andstudents!)tieduDinknotsoverso-called““ceptions”torules．(f)Ifyoudon’tknowhowtoexplainsomething(e⋯gifastudentasksyouaboutapointofgrammarandyouargnotsureoftherule)，donotriskgivingfalseinformation(thatyoumayhavetoretractlater,whichwillcauseevenmoreembarrassment)；rather,tellstudentsyouwillreseamhthatpointandbringallanswerbackthenextday．2．Shouldgrammarbetuughtinseparate“grammaronly”classes?ThecollectiveexpedenceofthelasttwodecadesorsoofCLTpracticecombinedwiththeresearchontheeffectivenessofgrammaticalinstructionindicatestheadvisabilityofembeddinggrammaticaltechniquesintogenerallanguagecourses，ratherthansinglinggrammaroutasadiscrete“skill”andtreaaingitinaseparatecoarse．Grammaticalinformation，whetherconsciouslyorsubconsciouslylearned，isanenablingsystem,acomponentofcommunicativecompetencelikephonology,discourse,thelexicon，etc．Therefore，ascourseshelpstudentstopUrsuerelevantlanguagegoals，grammarisbestbroughtintothepictureasacontributortowardthosegoals．Insomecurricula，howeve％certainclasshours，workshops，orcoursesaresetasideforgrammarinstruction．Inalanguageteachingparadigmthatstressestobeanachronisms．However,undercertainconditions，theyCallprovideausefulfunction，especiallyforhighintermediatetoadvancedlearners，whereamodicumoffluencyisalreadyinplace．Thoseconditionsarc：(a)Thegrammarcourseisexplicitlyintegratedintothetotalcurriculum80thatstudentscallreadilyrelategrammaticalpointerstotheirotherworkinErl加sh．(b)Therestofcurriculum(orthebulkofstudents’useoflanguageoutsideofthe grammarclass)controlsthecontentofthecourse，andnotviceversa．Thatis，thecourse“serves”(enhances)thecurriculum．Forexample，asignificantportionoftheagendafortheclassshouldcomefromstudents’workinothercourses．(c)Orammariscontextualizedinmeaningfullanguageuse．@Thecourseistailoredasmuch舔possibleforparticularindividualproblemsstudentsareexperiencing．Forexample，grammar‘"work—shops’’forintermediateandadvancedstudentsateofteneffectivewaystoindividualize。grammarinstruction．Insuchworkshops，grammaticaltopicscomefromthestudents’ownperformanceinotherclasses，ratherthanbeingpre-setbyacurriculumortextbook．(e)Sometimesmodulesinastandardizedtestpreparationcourseserveashelpfulreviewsofcertaingrammaticalprinciplesthatmaybeincorporatedintothetest．(f)Theultimatetestofthesuccessofsuchoonlseisintheimprovementofstudents’performanceoutsideoftheclass，notintheirscoreondiscrete·pointtests．Undertheseconditions，then，grammarassumesitslo垂colroleasOReofseveralsupposingfoundationstonesforcommunication．3．ShouldteachersconBcIgrammaticalenors?Manystudentcrmrsinspeechandwritingperformancealegrammatical．Interestingly,wehavelieresearchevidencethatspecificallyshowsthatovertgrammaticalcorrectionbyteachersintheclassroomisofanyconsequenceinimprovinglearners’language．ButwedohaveevidencethaivariousotherformsofattentiontoandtreatmentofgrammaticalerroBhaveallimpactonlearners．Therefore，itisprudentforateachertoengageinsuchtreatment。aslongasateacheradherestoprinciplesofmaintainingcommunicativeflow,ofmaximizingstudentself-correction，andofsensitivelyconsideringtheaffectiveandlinguisticplacethelearnerisin．Long(1977：28鼬suggestedthatthequestionofwhentotreatallerror(thatis．whicheⅡorstoprovidesomesortoffeedbackon)hasnosimpleanswer．Havingnoticed[ine玎0‘thefirst(and，1wouldargue，crucial)decisiontheteachermakesiswhetherornottotreatitata11．Inordertomakethatdecisiontheteachermayhaverecoursetofactorswithimmediate．temporarybearing,suchastheimportanceoftheerrortothecurrentpedagogicalfocusonthelesson，theteacher’spereeptionofthechanceofll TheApplicationofExplicitInteractiveTaskInsmactiontotheTeachingofEnglishGrammarinMiddleSchoolelicitingcorrectperformancefromthestudentifnegativefeedbackisgiven，andsoon．Considerationoftheseephemeralfactorsmaybepreempted，however,bytheteacher"sbeliefs(consciousorunconscious)astowhatalanguageisandhowanewoneislearned．Thesebeliefsmayhavebeenformedyearsbeforethelessoninquestion．Inamostpracticalandclearlywrittenarticleonerrorcorrection，Hendrickson(1980)advisedteacherstotrytodiscernthedifference,inlearners7language，between“global’’and“local”errors．Globalerrorshindercommunication；theypreventthehearerfromcomprehendingsomeaspectofthemessage．Localerrors，becausetheyusuallyonlyaffectasingleelementofasentence，donotpreventamessagefrombeingheard；contextprovideskeystomeaning．OncealearnerofEngiishwasdescribingaquaintoldhotelinEuropeandsaid，“ThereisaFrenchwidowineverybedroom．”Thelocalerrorisclearly,andhumorously,recognized．Hendricksonrecommendedthatlocalerrorsusuallyneednotbecorrectedsincethemessageisclearandcorrectionmightinterruptalearnerintheflowofproductivecommunication．Globalerrorsneedtobecorrectedinsomewaysineethemessagemayotherwiseremaingarbled．ASpanish—speakingstudentwhosaid．“Isawtheirdepartment”(andmeant“apartment”)wouldmostlikelyneedcorrectingifthehearerisconfusedaboutthefinalwordinthatsentence．Manyerroneousutterancesfallsomewherebetween酉obalandlocal，anditisdifficulttodiscernthenecessityforcorrectivefeedback．Alearneroncewrote，“Thegrammaristhebasementofeverylanguage．”WhilethiswittylittleproclamationmayindeedsoundmorelikeChomskythanChoreskydoes，itbehoovestheteachertoascertainjustwhatthelearnermeanthere(nodoubt“basis”ratherthan“basement")．andtoprovidesome：feedbacktoclarifythedifferencebetweenthetwo．Thebottomlineisthatwesimplymustnotstifleourstudents’attemptsatproductionbysmotheringthem研thcorrectivefeedback．Thematterofhowtocorrectersorsgetsexceedinglycomplex．Researchonerrorcorrectionmethodsisnotatallconclusiveonthemosteffectivemethodortechniqueforerrorcorrection，Itseemsquiteclearthatstudentsintheclassroomgenerallywantandcxpecterrorstobecorrected．However,somemethodsrecommendnodireettreatmentoferrorata11．In“natural，’’untutoredenvironmentsnonnativespeakersgenerallygetcorrectedbynativespeakersononlyasmallpercentageoferrorsthattheymake；nativespeakerswillattendbasicallyjusttoglobalerrorsandthenusuallynotintheformofintermptionsbutat TheApplicationofExpllchInteractiveTaskInstructiontotheTeachingofEnglishGrammarinMiddleSchooltransitionpointsinConversation．Balancingthesevariousperspectives，lthinkweCallsafelyconcludethatasensitiveandperceptivelanguageteachershouldmakethelanguageclassroomahappyoptimumbetweensomeoftheoverpolitenessoftherealworldandtheexpectationsthatleamersbringwiththemtotheclassroom．Asinteraalinna]communicationincreasesinthetrendtowardsglobalization，therear-eincreasingdemandforcommunicativecompetenceinEnglishinChina．neteachingof：EnglishinChineseschools，however，failstodevelopEnglishproficiency，for‘communication．Inmyview．communicativecompetencemayberegardedasonewhichembodiesasynthesisofknowledgeofbasicgrammaticalprinciples，knowledgeofhowtlanguageisusedinsocialcontextstoperformcommunicativefunctions，andknowledgeofhowutterancesandcommunicativefunctionscanbecombinedaccordingtotheprincipleofdiscourse．GrammaticMaccuracy,thesinequaDonofcommunicativecompetenceshouldbedevelopedintheclassroomaftercommunication．InChinatheteachingofgrammarisanareaofsomecontroversyanddebate．Inthegrammarteachingclassroom，someteachersexcessivelypayattentiontotheimportanceofteachingrulesandgrammaticalstructures，however，therearenotmanygrammarrulesthat：c∞beclearlyformulatedandeasilytaughtOrlearned．Somerulesareeasytoformulateand、somearerelativelydifficolt．Hardrulesar"etooabstracttobedescribedandcannotbeappliedmechanically．Thesemoredifficultmlesarenotalwaysgovernedbytheimmediate’linguisticenvkonmentandthusaredifficulttopracticeinsimplecontexts．SothestudentsgraduallyarenotinterestedinlearningEnglish．Theynegativelyacc￡pt，processandstorethegrammarknowledge．TheyaresuccessfulinmasteringonlysmallamountofstructuralformswhichareuselessinimprovingtheirintegrativeCommunicativecompetence．Someotherteachersexcessivelypursuethecommunicativefunction，emphasizethenotional·function，andtotallyreiectgrammarinstruction．Themethodofignoringstructureisasputtingthecartbeforethehorse．Theresultislearners．whoinRichard’swords(1985：152)age‘"successfulbutgrammaticallyinaccuratecommunicators，’’ItisnotsurprisingthataChinesesludentcall’texpresshimselffluentlyandaccuratelyafterspendingmorethantenyearsinlearningEnglish．1．4ResearchAims TheApplicationofExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructiontotheTeachingofEnglishGrammariaMiddleSchoOlOverthepast30years，theroleofgrammarteachinghasbeenofgreatinteresttoprofessionalsandnumerouslanguageteachersinthefieldofsecondlanguageacquisition．Languageteachersurgentlyneedagrammarteachingmodelbuiltupontheoreticalinsightsandresearchfindingsfromsecondlanguageacquisition．Itmustbecompatiblewithacommunicativeframeworkthatstressesmeaningfulinteraction．Itshouldemphasizenotonlytheexplicitgrammaticals|ructaresbutalsothecommunicativecompetence．1putfoiwardthetermExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructionborrowedfromEllis’sexplicitconsciousness-raisingtaskmodel(2003)refertotheinstructionalstrategiesemployedtoraiselearners’consciousawarenessofformorsHueluroofthetargetlanguagewhenimprovingcommunicativecompetence．FirSt，letusreviewthehistoryofgrammarteaching．Inthe1960s，secondlanguageacquisitionw∞defined∞masteryofgrammaticalrulesofthetargetlanguage．GrammarTranslationMethodwasadoptedtoteachsecondlanguage．Inthisteachingmethod，teachemfocusedonformsandoil"lphasizedgrammaticalaccuracy．Theypresentedthelearnerswithgrammaticalstructuresofthetargetlanguageandrequiredthemtopractisethesestructuresbytranslatingtheirfirstlanguageintosecondlanguageandvicevm"sa．Ontheotherhand，thosewhoemphasizedoralfluencyinsecondlanguagereplacedtheGrammalTranslationMethodwiththeAudio-lingualMethod"whichfocusedondevelopinglearners’oralmanipulationofgrammaticalrulesbymimicrymemorizationofexamplesentences∞llis,1991)．Audio—lingualMethodaimedtomasterthegrammaticalknowledgenotinwrittenformbutspokenformofthetargetlanguage．Inthe1970s,scholarsandlanguageteachersbecamemoreandmoreinterestedintheteachingof‘reallanguage’usedinvarioussocialandculturalsettings．Theycriticizedtheinstructionsthatfocusedontheteachingofgrammaticalstructuresandemphasizedtheimportanceoflearners’abilitytocommunicateinsecondlanguage．Lotsofresearchersarguedthatsecondlanguagelearnersneedtoknownotonlygrammaticalrulesbutalsoitsfunctionsinvarioussituationswheresecondlanguageisusednaturallyinordertoacquirethetargetlanguage．Asaresult．therehasbeenarapidshiftofresearchandpracticefromAudio·lingualandGrammarTranslationMethodstotheexplorationofCommunicativeLanguage"leaching．AccordingtoWiddowson(1989),“CommunicativeLanguageTeachingseekstopromoteinterpretation，expression，andnegotiationofmeaning”(P．64)aswellasgrammatical14 TheApplicationofExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructiontotheTeachingofEnglishGrammarinMiddleSchoolcompetenceinthetargetlanguage．Whatkindofgrammarteachingmethodcallwechoose,toincludegrammaticalcompetenceintothemodelofcommunicativecompetence?ThosewhoareagainsttheGrammarTranslationMethodclaimedthatexplicitgrammarteachingisnotenoughformasteryofsecondlanguage．Inmyopinion，CommunicativeLanguageTeachingisalsonoteuoughformasteryofsecondlanguage．Muchattentionshouldbepaidtofocusingonglobalintegrativetasksratherthanondiscretestructur％．Appliedlinguistist,Savignonmakesclearthat‘"communicationcannotlakeplaceintheabsenceofstructure，orgrammar⋯”．0．79)Ontheonehand，manyaspectsofthetargetlanguagedonothaverulesthatcanbe—cleadyformulatedandeasilytaughtorlearned．Krashen0992：409)sharesthisviewsaying．thatonlyasmallportionofthetotalgrammaticalpropertiesofa．1anguagecmbeconsciouslylearned．Bymeasuringlearners’abilitytoformulaterules,GreenandHocht‘(1992：180)foundthatsomerulesareeasytoformulateandSOmea∞relativelydifficult．Hardrules，intheirview,atetooabstracttobedescribedandcannotbeappltedmechanically．Thesemoredifficultrulesarenotalwaysgovernedbytheimmediatelinguisticenvironmentandthusaredifficulttopractiseinsimplecontexts．Practisingcommunicativeactivitieswiththefocusonmeaningweuldbeabetteruseofclasstime．Ontheotherhand，discreteexplicitgrammarinstructionistheinsufficiencytodeveloppragmaticcompetence．Sorace(1985：250-52)studiedagroupofnon—beginnerslearningItalianwithexplicitfocusongrammarinacquisition-poorenviromllen￡s．Theresultsshowthattherewas“hi曲lysignificantcorrelationbetweenknowledgeandBSe,"’butlearnerscouldonlyproduce“alimitedrange’’ofcommunicativefunctionsand“theircommunicativecompetencewasrestricted．”Ifexplicitgrammarinstructionaimsatdevelopingcommunicativecompetence，thetraditionalconceptofgrammarshouldberedefined．Grammarrulesshoaidnotbeperceivedaslimitedtothedescriptionsofthewayinwhichwordscombinetoforillsentences．Rulesofdiscourseandrulesofpragmaticappropriatenessshouldbeincluded．AccordingtoCorder(198s),alearnernotonlyneeds“native—speakinginformation．”butalsorequiresplentiful“contextualizedlanguagedata’’toacquirerulesoflanguageUSe，especially,rulesofpragmaticappropriateness．Corder’ssuggestionacknowledgestheimportanceofusingauthenticmaterialthataccuratelyreflectscontemporarynative—speakerdiscourseandtheneedforengaginglearnersinauthentic TheApplicationofExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructiontotheTeachingofEnglishGrammarinMiddleSchoolcommunicationtOpreparelearnersfortllekindsofdiscoursetheywillencounteroutsidetheclassroom．Moreover，theassumptionthatgrammaticalaccuracycallbedevelopedintheclassroomaftercommunicationhasbeenachievedisrerutedbyimmersionresearchfindings．Hammerley(19871rcviewedsixstudiestoevaluatetheeffectoftheimmersionapproachbasedonacquisition／naturalapproaches．HeconcludedthatthegrammaticalcompetenceofimmersionstudentsischaracterizedbyfossilizationOrclassroompidginasaresultoftheirtryingtocommunicatefreelybeyondtheirlimitedlinguisticcompetence．Hecriticizedanymethodfailingtoemphasizestructurebeforecommunicationasputtingthecartbeforethehorse．Theresultislearners．whoinRichard"swords(1985：152)are‘"successfulbutgrammaticallyinaccuratecommunicators．”ItisnoteasytOsolvethisproblem．butincorporatingexplicitgrammarinstructionwithinacommunicatively-orientedsituationmaybchelpful．nisproposalisvalidatedbyLiglItbrownandSpada"sstudy(1990)ofform-focusedinstructionandcorrectivefeedbackprovidedinaprimarilycommunicativeprogram．Theyfoundthatthelearnerswere1]loreaccurateinsomeaspectsofgrammar,ifprovidedwithinstructionthatexplicitlydealtwithgrammarandcorrectionincontexLToaddressdiscfctcinstruction’Spragmaticweakness．explicitgrammarshouldbetauglItincontextofcommunicativeactivities．ⅡtheultimategoalofmostEFLcoUrseSistoenablelearnerstoUSeEnglishinrealcommunication，Ellis(1994a：110)urgesthatexplicitgrammarinstructionbecomplementedbya“functionalortaSk-basedsyllabus，”Explicitgrammarinstructionandcommunicativelanguageteachingcansupplementeachothertoprovideanewperspective：ExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructionforteachinggrammar．JsuggestthatExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructioneaubesucoessfulinpromotingthegoalofcommunicativecompetenceifatleasttwoessentialcharacteristicsofthecommunicativeapproachareapplied．First,thelanguagecodecanbeinternalizedbytaSk-baSedlanguageteachingwhichfocusesonactivelanguageusethroughcommunicativetasksratherthanmechanical，me．inglesslanguagemanipulationtasks．AnexploratorystudybyFotosandEllisdemonstratedthattheadoptionofatask-basedapproachtocommunicateaboutgrammarisconducivetobothlearningandcommunication．Theyfoundthatcommunicativegrammar-basedtaskshelpedJapanesecollege-levelEFLlearnersincreasetheirknowledgeofdifficultgrammarrulesandfacilitatetheacquisitionofimplicit knowledge．Second，commnnicafioninreallifesituationstakestheformoftransmissionofideasfromoneparticipanttoanother．CompulsoryinformationexchangeactivitiesprovidelearnerswithODportunitiestoleamhowtheirutterancesarelinkedstructurallyinaccordwithrulesofdiscourse．Groupworkolltasksinvolvingcompulsoryexchangeofinformationsthnulatesnegotiatedinteractionformessage-meaningandgeneratesmotemodifiedinputthanactivitiesinwhichexchangeofinformationisoptional(Ooughtyand+Pica1985)．Ifweteachgrammarforeommtmieativecompetence，wewouldbewelladvisedtoapplyExplidtInteractiveTaskInstructiontothegrammarteaching．Theproposedmodel，forgrammarteachingiscompatiblewithresearch．WitMnthismodel，explicitgrammar：knowledgewillberealizedthmrlghcontextoalizedlanguagepracticeincommunicative3acfivitieainwhichrulesofusearepresentedindiscoursecontexts．11Iisinstructionenableslearnerstoattendtogrammaticalformsandlanguagecodetoresolvethecommunicationdilemma．Itisrelativetothelearner"sage，cognitivematurity,proficiencylevel，andtypeofeducationalinstitutionwherehe／sheisstudying．17 TheApplicationofExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructionIotheTeachingofEnglishGrammarinMiddleSchoolChapter2ExplicitGrammarInstructionandClassroomInteraction2．1ExplicitknowledgeandexplicitlearningAccordingtoMichaelSharwoodSmith，explicitknowledgeinvolvesaconsciousandanalyticalawarenessofformalpropeaiesinlanguage．Itfacilitatestheintakeanddevelopmentofimplicitlanguage．Itiseasiertoteachandithelpsyoumonitorlanguageoutput．However，itdoesnotconvertdirectlytoimplicitknowledgebecausethepartsofbrainthatStOreexplidtandimplicitknowledgearetotallydifferent．Implicitknowledgeshowsintuitivefeelingforwhatmayhecorrectoracceptable．Itisautomaticandeasilyaccessed，andneedstobedevelopedtobuildcommunicativeskills．Implicitknowledgeisseefla5acomplexnetworkofneuralconnectionsthatstorechunksoflanguage．Hearguesthateventhoughimplicitknowledgeisthelearningobjective，explicitknowledgeplaysimportantroleinlanguageacquisition．Theteachingofexplicitknowledgeisconsciousness-raising．Thatistosay,wecarltelllearnersthemle，orwecallgivelearnersthedataandlearnersdiscovertherulethemselv惦．ToelaborateShagword-Smith’swork,lrefertoKrashen’sMonitorTheory,or“Mr’inwhichhebelieveslearningandacquisitionagetwoentitieswithriointerface，Iargueifthisistrue，thenconsciousness-raisinghasnorelationshiptothistheory．McLaughlin(1983)tookacriticallookattheMonitorTheoryandchallengesthattheprocesshastwotypes，onebeingcontrolledandtheotherbeingautomatic．Atfirst，theprocessisarather。stop-and·go”pace．butgraduallybecomes“automized”throughtheuseofconsciousness—raising．hresponsetothis．Kxasbenarguesthailanguagecomesbeforeacquisitionbecausehismonitoristheknowledgemediator．HebelieveshisfindingsalebasedOilempiricalevidenceratherthan，whathereferstoas，“purespeculation．’’Shagwood—Smithoffersacompromiseofthetwo，withhismodel．Hestatesthateitherexplicit0Iimplicitutterancescanbeprocessedintoviablelinguisticoutput．Tof"mallzehisviewonempiricalevidence，hegoesontosaythattheEFL／ESLacquisitiondeviseisseenasimpermeable．However，viapractice，explicitknowledgemayindeedaidtheacquisitionprocess．Forthisreason，consciousness-raisingshouldnotandcannotbedealtwithinasimplisticway．Fromthisresearch，itseemsclearthatleacher-basedconsciousness-raising TheApplicationofExplicitImeractiveTaskInstructiontotheTeachingofEnglishGrammarinMiddleSch∞landstudent-basedconsciouslearning．．Canbecriticallyinvestigatedinahigher,morecomplex—modelguide．IagreewiththisandmRutherford’s(1987)belieftohelpthelearnersbuildan“explicit-interactive”modelofthetargetlanguage，whichcanleadtothedirectmechanicalperformanceofthatlanguage．2．2ClassroomInteractiol五Interactionisallimportantwordforlanguageteachers．Intheeraofcommunicativelanguageteaching,interactionis．infact,theheartofcommunication；itiswhat-communicationisallabout．Wesendmessages；wereceivethem；weinterpretthemina．context；wenegotiatemeanings；andwecollaboratetoaccomplishcertainpurposes．Andafterseveraldecadesoffesearchonteachingandlearninglanguages,wehavediscovered：thatthebestwaytolcamtointeractisthrough-interactionitself．Interactionisthecollaborativeexchangeofthoughts，feelings，01"ideasbetweentwoormorepeopleresultinginareciprocaleffect：offeachother．Theoriesofcommunicativecompetenceemphasizetheimportanceofinteractionashumanbeingsuselanguageinvariouscontextsto“negotiate"meaning,orsimplystated，togetoneideaofyourheadandintotheheadofanotherpersonandviceversa．．Manyresearchersconsiderinterpersonalinteractionafondamentalrequirementofsecondlanguageacquisition．Kramseh(1986)claimsthatlanguageinstructionrequiresthedevelopmentofinteractionalcompetence，andsuggestsathree—stepapproachtoimprovenaturaldiscourscandtobutIdinteractionalcompetenceintheclassroollLThefhststepistoworkouteacher／studentorientedinteraction，duringwhichthestudentspracticethetargetlanguagewiththeirteacherasaconversationalpartner．7nlcsecondstepjspartnercenteredInteraction，duringwhichstudentslearntonegotiatemeaningwithpartue璐intheclassroomaswelleshowtogeneratemeaning．Inthet】lirdstepoftheinteractionalapproach．studentspracticewaystointeractwithoutviolatingsocialandculturalconstraintsthatlearnersmeetinnaturalconversations．Richards(1986)treatsinteractionasthekeytolanguageteachingforcommunication．Shedefinesinteractionasthefacilityinusingalanguagewhentheirattentionisfocusedonconvcyingandreceivingauthenticmessages．Shesuggestswaystopromoteinteractioninthelanguageclassroomsuchas，forexample，avoidingteacher-dominatedclassrooms，19 beingcooperativeandconsideringaffectivevariables．EllisalsostatesthatclassroomsecondlanguagedevelopmentCallbesuccessfulwhenateachernotonlyprovidesaninputwithfeaturesofatargetlanguage，butwhenthereeiprocalinteractionoccursaswell．Recently,‘genuine’or‘natural’discoursehasbecomeagoalofcommunicativeapproachesinthesecondorforeignlanguageclassroom．gramsch(1986)suggeststhatcommunicativecompetencemustincludetheabilitytoexpress，interpretandnegotiatemeanings．Sheadvocatesthat，forasnaturalacommunicativesituationaspossible，studentsmustbegivenopportunitiesintheclassroomtointeractwithboththeteacherandfellowstudentsthroughrum—talking,givingfeedbacktospeakers,askingforclarification，andstartingandendingconversations．Nunan(1989)alsosuggeststhat‘‘genuinecommunicationischaracterizedbytheuuevendistributionofinformation，thenegotiationofmeaningthroughclarificationrequestsandconfirmationchecks，topicnominationandnegotiationbymorethanonespeaker，andtherightofinterlocutorstodecidewhethertocontributetoaninteractionornot．”Genuineconversations，however,rarelyappearintypicalChille∞classroomsofL2learning．Typicalclassroomexchangesaledescribedasthesequenceoftheclassroomlesson，teacherinitiation，studentresponse，andteacherfollowupORF)(Nunan，1989)．AccordingtoNunan，therepetitionoftheIRFcycleisamajorreasonfortheabsenceofgenuinecommunicationinclassroomlanguagelessons．Onthewhole，intraditionalL2classrooms，individuallanguagelearnersreceivelimitednumberofspeakingturns，partlybecauseinmostclassroomsalargenumberoflanguagelearnershavetosharespeakingturns．Especially如classroomswheretheteachermonopolizesthediscourseandinwhichtheinformationpredominantlyflowsinonedirection(fromteachertostudentlealners)，thelessassertiveandlessproficientlearnersreceiveminimaloutputopportunities．Inparticular,languagelearnersalerarelypushedthroughnegotiationofmeaning．Theteacher"sroleinthesecondlanguageclassroom，therefore，istoconstructaninteractivelearningenvironmentinwhichlearnerscanassociatewitheachotherandgeneratemeaninginthetargetlanguage．2．3AcquisitionTheoryRelatedtotheTeachingofGrammarChomsky’sargumentfortheexistenceofaUniversalGrammar(UG)(Chomsky 1981)andaLanguageAcquisitionDevice(LAD)(Chomsky，1986)changedthoughtabouthowchildrenlearntheirnativelanguage(L1)．AccordingtoChumsky’stheories，insteadoflanguagebeinga‘"systemofhabits”(Lado，1957)，aninnategrammarexistsinallhumansfrombirthfUG)asdopowerfultoolsinoursubconscious(theLAD)thatenableustoworkoutpaRems，or‘parametersettings’withinthespecificactualizationofthatuniversal；languagethatOtltrgroupofhumanshappenstoinheritandfmthercreate．Evidenceforthe“existenceofUGisthestructuraldependenceofallhumanlanguagesandtheexistenceof∞LADissupportedtheabilityofchildrentocreateaninfinitevarietyoflanguagefromalimitedamountofexamplesinspiteeralackofnegativeevidence．Inotherwords，children，arenevergivenexamplesofwhattheycan’tsayinalanguage，theyalejustgivensamplesofwhatispossibleandfrom．thistheyareabletopiecetogetherutterances．orevenconstructionsthattheyhaveneverheard．Morespecificallyrelatedtotheteachingofgrammar,Krashen’s‘InputHypothesis’(Krashen，1982)positsthatforeign／secondlanguageacquisitionoccursinmuchthesameway,viaunconsciousaocesstotheLADdrivensolelybycomprehemibleinput．Furthermore，the‘Acquisition—Learning’hypothesissees‘acquiredknowledge’fabankofknowledgeunconsciouslygatheredandprocessedbytheLAD)and‘learnedknowledge’(explicit，consciousawarenessofgrammarandstructurerules)嬲beingmutuallyindependentsystemshavingnointerface．Inotherwords，‘classroomlearning’．mexplicitknowledgeofgrammaticalruleshas1110effectonthereal．timeabilltytospeakandunderstandexceptasanafter-the—fact‘monitor’ofspontaneousutteranceswhichalloriginateexclusivelyfromacquiredknowledgeandcomprehensibleinputaloneconstitutesboththenecessaryandsufficientconditionsforthedevelopmentofthisacquiredknowledge．Evidenceforthiswasfoundinthefactthatlearnerscouldoftenrecitearulecorrectly，butweren’tabletooorrecflyapplyitwhenthrownbackonspontaneouscommunicationtasb，and，outhereversesideofthecoin，wereabletomanipulatecertainformswithoutbeingabletocorrectlyrecitetherule．TofurtherdownplaytheroleofexplicitruleknowledgeinSL～the‘NaturalOrderHypothesis’(Krashcn，1985)positsthatformsareacquiredinapredictableorderdeterminedbytheLAD．Inotherwerds，theLADhasitsownagendaintermsofwhatorderstructuresareassimilatedintoacquiredknowledgeandthisorderisincapableofbeingalteredbypedagogicinterventionorovertteachingofstructures；teachingprograms ．．．—T—．h．e——A——p—p——l—ic——a—t。io——n．—o．f—，E——x—，p—l—i，c．i—t—I—n，—te——r—a—c—t—i—v—e——T——a—s—k———I—n—s—t—r—u—c—t—i—o—n—totheTeach—ingo—fEn—gl—is—h—G—r—ammarinMiddleSchool，——onlyadvancethelearners’interlanguagetotheextentthattheyprovidecomprehensibleinputfortheLADandthuswhatisfocusedoninagrammaractivityisnotnecessarilywhatislearnedfromit．Thishypothesiswassappoaedbymorphemeacquisitionstudiesofchildren’ssecondlanguage(L2)．DeterminingfactorsputforthfortheorderofacquisitionvaryfromⅡ1ercfrequencyininputto‘processability’，orlevelofcomplicationinvolvedinmanipulatingtheL2morphemewithinasentenceorphrase．However,thelastingclaimwasthatregardlessofnativelanguageoIlearningcontext(formalofinformallearning),“theredidseemtobeacommonorderofacquisitionforcertainstrucmresinL2acquisition．”，andlevelofdevelopmentwasonlyobservedtocorrespondtolengthofresidence(inotherwordsamountofcomprehensibleinput)．(Dulay＆Burr,1973，p．256)．Theseobservationsmadequestionablethevalueoflearninggrammarrulesasagoaloflanguageteachingandbroughttolighttheinefficiencyofthegrammar-translationmethodwhichwas，accordingtoSharwoodSmith09S1)，flawed(andinefficient)inthatitdemandedthelearnersdevelopthe‘speciallinguisticability’ofdescribingexplicitlylanguagefeaturesusingabstractgrammarterminology,allofwhichdoesnotenablethelearnertouseorcomprehendthelanguageanymoreefficiently让thereisnointerfacebetweenlearnedknowledgeandacquisition，andacquisitionissolelyguidedbyadiscreteLAD．Also。theassumedavailabilityofChomsky’sUGtoforeign／secondlanguagelearnerswouldrenderpedagogicalgrammaticaldescriptionsredundanttotheextentthattheyassumedlearnerslackedtheabilitytoinfergrammarmlesor‘resetparameters’forthemselvesviapositiveevidencealone．Insomestylesoflanguageteachingthisledtowhatmanylabelusinganumbrellaterm,“theZeroposition"’whichrejeetsallovertgrammarinstructionorfocusinisolationandinsteadreplacessuchdassroomtimewithacquisitionfosteringactivitieswhichprovidecomprehensibleinputand／orchancesforcommunicativeUSeoflanguage．Theroleofexplicit，orlearnedknowledgeintheacquisitionprocessremainshotlydebated，butmanyofthepropositionsregardingacquisitionoutlinedaboveserveasabackdropfortheongoingdiscussionofwhat，ifany，kindofgrammarfocusshouldbeincludedinforeign／secondlanguagepedagogy．ManyofthediscussioncentarsaroundwhetherornotaninterraceexistsbetweentheconsciousandUIICA311SciOUS，referredtoinlanguagepedagogyliteratureaslearnedknowledgeandacquiredknowledge。explicit knowledgeandimplicitknowledge，ordeclarativeandproceduralknowledge．2．4TheRelationshipbetweenInteractiveInputandComprehensionItisself．evidentthatL2acquisitioncallonlytakeplacewhenthelearnerhasaccesstoinputi丑theL2．Thisinputmaycomeinwrittenorspokenform．Inthecaseofspokeninput，itmayocctwinthecontoxtofnegotiableinteraction(i．e．theleamer"sattemptst0conversewithanativespeaker,ateacher,oranotherJeamer)oi"inthecontextofnon·reciprocaldiscourse(forexample，listeningtotheradioorwatchingafilm)．Thestudyofinputandnegotiableinteractionhasinvolvedthedescriptionoftheadjustmentswhicharefoundin‘languageaddressedtolearners(i．e．foreignertalkandteacher协lk)andalsotheanalysisofdiscourseinvolvingL2learners．ThereislittleagreementabouttherolethatinputplaysinL2acquisition．Behaviouristtheoriesemphasizeitsimportance，claimingthatthewholeprocessofacquisitioncanbecontrolledbypresentinglearnerswithinputintheright—sizeddosesandthenreinforcingtheirattemptstopractisethem．Accordingtothisviewoflearningthereislittleroomforanyactiveprocessingbythelearner．Inthe1960s，however,behaviouristaccountsoflearningwe[echallenged，mostnotablybyChomsky．Itwaspointedoutthatinmanycasestherewasaverypoormatchbetweenthekindoflanguagefoundintheinputlearnersreceivedandthekindoflanguagetheythemselvespfoduced．ItwasarguedthatthiscouldbebestexplainedbyhypothesizingasetofmentalprocesseswhichtookplaceinsidethemindofthelearnerandwhichConvertedthelanguageintheinputintoaformthatthelearnercouldstoreandhandleinproduction．Thismentalistviewofinputhasitselfbeenchallengedbyresearchersonanumberofgrounds．Forexample，ithasbeenshownthatnegotiableinteractionmprovidelearnerswith‘scaffolding’thatenablesthemtoproducestructuresthatwouldbebeyondthem，iflefttotheirownresources．ResearcherswhoemphasizetheimportanceofinputandnegotiableinteractionsuggestthatlearnersacquirealanguagetlⅡoughtheprocessoflearninghowlocommunicateinit．Therehasalsobeenconsiderableinterestinclassroomnegotiableinteractiononthegroundthattheopportunitiesforlearningwhichitaffordsconstitutethemajordeterminantofacquisitioninthissetting(Allwfight198∞．MuchoftheresearchhasbeenbasedonKrashen"sandLong’sviewabouttheimportanceofcomprehensibleinput．Inparticular, researchershavesonghttoestablishwhatclassroomconditiensresultinthekindsofconversationaladjustmentsthatLonghypothesizesareimportantforacquisition．Tothisend，theyhavecomparedthenegotiableinteractionthattakesplaceinsmall—groupworkwiththatoccurringinteacher-ledlessons(forexample,PicaandDoughty1985aand1985b)．Theyhavealsoinvestigatedtheeffectoftaskdesignonnegotiableinteraction．Certainkindsoftasksappeartoresultinmoremodifiednegotiableinteractionthanothers．Forexample，tasksthatinvolveatwo·wayexchangeofinformationsuchaswhenlearnerseachholdpartoftheinformationwhichtheyneedtosolveaproblemjointlyhavebeenshownpromoteextensivemeaningnegotiation．hIthecaseofinteractivediscourse．twovadableshavebeenfoandtoinflaencecomprehension：theamountandtypeofinformation，andtheextenttowhichtheparticipantsengageinnegotiationofmeaning．Derwing(1989、arguedthat,somenativespeakersattemptedtoincludemuchmoIeinformationthantheyusedwithnativespeakerinterlocutorsaboutafilmtheyhadseen,withtheresultthattheirnon-nativespeakerinterlocutorsfailedtounderstandtheirnarratives．Thenativespeakerswhoweresuccessfulincommunicatingdidnotdiffelinthekindsofinformationthattheyusedwhentalkingtonativespeakersandnon-nativespeakers．11lisstudysuggeststhatredundancyinvolvingincreaseduseofbackgrounddetailisnothelpfultocomprehension，althou曲，aSDerwingnotes，thisdoesnotmeanthatotherkindsofredundancy(suchasrepetition)arenothelpful．Ehrlich，Avery,andYorio(198外alsoreportthattheir‘embroiderers’createdproblemsforthenon-nativespeakersbymakingitdifficultforthemtoidentifyessentialinformationandthesour∞ofcommunicationproblems．Comprehensionalsoappearstobenefitfromopportunitiesfornegotiationofmeaning．Pica，Young,andDonghtycomparedtheeffectofthreetypesofinputontheabilityofsixteenlow-intermediateESLlearnerstocomprehendoralinstructions．m”threetypeswere(1)unmodifiedinput(i．e．inputofthekindthatnativespeakersUSewhenaddressingeachother)，(2)premodifiedinput(i．e．inputthathadbeensimplifledandmademoreredundant)，and(3)negotiableinteractionallymodifiedinput(i．e．thesubjectslistenedtonnmod砸edinstructionsbutwere西Ventheopportunitytoseekclarification)．Theresultshowedthat(3)resultedinthehi曲estlevelsofcomprehension．SubsequentstudiesbyLoschky(1989)andTanaka(1991)confirmtheseresults．However,itshouldbenotedthat -manthesestudiestheopportunityfornegotiationledtoconsiderablerepetitionandrephrasingswiththeresultthat(3)providedthelearners谢tllmuchmoreinputthanwasavailablein(1)and(2XItisnotclear,therefore，whethertheadvantagefoundforthenegotiableinteractionallymodifiedinputarisesfromgreaterquantityofinputorbetterquality(i．e．inputmaderelevantthrou曲thenegotiationofmeaning)．2．5ComprehensibleOutputintheContextofInteraction，WhereasKrashentookthepositionthatcemprehensibleinputisanecessaryconditionforSLA"Swmn(1985；249)proposedthe‘ComprehensibleOutputHypothesis’，arguingthatcomprehensibleinputisinsufficientforsuccessfulSL九andthatlearnersmustalsobetgiventheopportunitytoproduce’compressibleoutput．AccordingtoSwain(1985：2521，theroleofoutputis“toprovide“opportunitiesforcontextualized，meaningfulu∞，totestouthypothesisaboutthetargetlanguage，andtomovethelearnerformapurelysemanticanalysisofthelanguagetoasyntacticanalysisofit．’’ThishypothesishasbeenrefinedanddevelopedbySwainandLapkinwhoclaimthattheactivityofproducingthetarget。languageisamechanismthatenableslearnerstonoticeagaphlinguisticproblem)hatheirexistinginterlanguagecapacity．Thisnoticingpushesthemtoconsciouslyreprocesstheirperformanceinordertoproducemodifiedoutput．Swainarguesthatlanguageproductiongiveslearnerstheopportunitytoreprocessandmodifytheirperformancetowardcomprehensibleoutputandpromptslearnerstostretchtheircurrentinterlanguagucapacityinordertofillthegap．andthathavingtoactuallyproducelanguageforceslearnerstothinkaboutsyntax．VanLier,L(1988)studiedtheeffectsofnegotiationonlanguagelearner"soutput．Theresultsofthisstudyrevealedtheextenttowhich，andthewaysinwhich，theparticipantsinteractionallymodifiedtheiroutputduringnegotiationsweredeterminedbythetypeofnegativefeedbacktheyreceived，andthatnegotiationsalsohadsignificantdelayedeffects．FromtheseresultsVanLier,L(1988)arguesthat1．2learnersenhancedperformanceisprimarilydeterminednotbytheirleveloflanguageproficiency,hutbythefrequencyofnegotiationroutinesthattheyaleengagedin．Heemphasizesthatnegotiationspushesthelearners’productionlevelsignificantlyhigher．Accordingtohisclaim，duringnegotiationslearnerscanbepushedtotheproductionofoutputthatismorecompleteandaccurate，far TheApplicationofExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructiontotheTeachingofEnglishGrammarinMiddleSchoolmorethanmerelycomprehensible．Ontheotherhand，Stern(1989)investigatedtheroleofNNS·NNSinteractionand，moreimponantly，theroleofself-initiationinprovidingopportunitiesfortheproductionofcomprehensibleontput．HeexaminedtheabilityofNNSstomodifytheiroutputtowardcomprehensibilityinthecontextofNS—NNSandNNS-NNSinteractionsandthedegreetowhichsuchmodifiedcomprehensibleoutputwasotherorselfinitiated．ThcresultsshowedthatmostrepaiBwereselfinitiatedandthatNNS—NNSinteractionsproducedmoreotherinitiationsandotherinitiatedmodifiedcomprehensibleoutputs．Heclaimsthatthefrequenciesofthesemodifiedcomprehensibleoutputssupporttheimportanceofmodificationtowardcomprehensibleoutput"aprocessofSLA．Inaddition．hemaintainsthattheNNSsabilitytoaccomplishselfadjustedcomprehensibleoutputratherthanotheradjustedcomprehensibleoutputisevidencethatsupportsSwain"sclaimthatthecomprehensibleoutputforcesthelearnertomovefromsemanticanalysisofthetargetlanguagetoasyntacticanalysisofit．Fromthesefindings，Stem(1989)suggestsimportantpedagogicalimplicationsthat“theroleofL2learner"soutputshouldbeextendedbeyondjustbeingasourceofobtainingfeedbackinordertogeneratemorecomprehensibleinput”’andthatlearnerbasedadjustments(modificationlshouldbeencourageo-v"erteacherorpeerbasedndJustments．BasedoHtheoutputhypothesis，itwouldsPagnlthat，forinteractiontofacilitateSL～learnersneedtohaveopportunitiesforoutputduringinteraction．inmanysecondlanguageciassroomsaswellasnaturalisticcontexts,however,learnersoften0bservetheoutputwithoutproducingtheirownoutpnt．Takingalltheresultsfromtheaforementionedempiricalstudies,whethertheysupportSwain"soutputhypothesiswhollyorpartially,itseemsthatopportunitiestoproduceoutputarecrucialinimprovinglearner"sUSeofthetargetstructure．andnegotiationpromotesoutputproduction．1rhcpedagogicalimplicationofthesefindingsforlanguagelearningwillbethatlearnersneedtoparticipateininteractionthatoffersopportunitiesfornegotiationtotakeplace．2．6TheRelationshipbetweenInteraetionalModificationsandAcquisitionAfewstudieshaveattemptedInestablishamoredirectrelationshipbetweeninteractionalmodificationsandacquisition．Picaillustrateshowthenegotiationofmeaning TheApplicationofExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructiontotheTeachingofEnglishCaammatinMiddleSchoolprovideslearnerswithinformationaboutthesemanticandstructuralpropertiesofthetargetlanguage．Nativespeakers(Ns)respondedtoroB—nativespeakers’(NNS)tdggembymodifyingtheirutterancessemanticallyorformallyfhrou曲thesegmentationandmovementofinputconstituents，asinthisexample：NNS：Ok,youhaveahousewhichhasthirdfiooLNS：Threefloorsright．NNS：Threefloors．However,asHeaadmits,itisnotclearfromsuchdatak,hetherleamersUSetheinformationsuppliedbysuchexchangestoadjusttheirintedanguagesystems．AJnumbetofexperimentalstudies，however,havebeencarriedouttodiscoverwhethernegotiationleadstointerlanguagedevelopment．Althoughtheresultsofthesestudieshavemixed，theygive,somesupporttotheclaimthatFLmodificationshelpacquisition，atleastwherevocabularyisconcerned．Thesestudiesgivesupporttotwogeneralconclusions．First,Li’s(1989)studysuggeststhatprovidinglearnerswithcontextualcuesthathelpthemtounderStandthemeaningsofwordsresultsnotonlyinberetcomprehensionbutalsoinbcttcrretentionofthe‘words．Second，Tanaka"s(1991)studyindicatesthatprovidinglearnerswithopportunitiestomodifyinput．ThesefindingsaugurwellforLong"sclaimsregardingtheimportanceofinteractionallyadjustedinput．，一TheinputhypothesisandLong"sclaimsabouttheroleofnegotiableinteractionhavemotivatedasubstantialamountofresearch．Inthecaseofnon·interactiveinput,speechgate．elaborativemodifications，andbimodalinput(i．e．bothoralandwritten)havebeenfoundtoaidcomprehension．hIthecaseofnegotiableinteractiveinput．theamountofinformationandtheextenttowhichmeaningisnegotiatedthroughinteractionaladjustmentshavebeenshowntobesignificantvariables．Wehavesomeunderstandingofhowinteractionalmodificationaffectsthecomprehensibilityoftexts．Itisalsobecomingapparentthatdifferentkindsinputandinteractionsareneededtofacilitateacquisitionatdifferentstagesoflearners翟evelopment． TheApplicationofExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructiontotheTeachingofEnglishGrammarinMiddleSchoolChapter3Methodology3．1ResearchApproachThequalitativequantitativedistinctionisnotalwaysclearcutinpractice，asappliedtoeducationresearch；thedistinctionismoreonthecontinuumthauthedichotomy．Itisoftenusefult0drawonncombinationofmethodsthatmayComplementoneanotherandprovideamorecompletepictureoflanguage．Fromtheviewpointofmixedmethods,thisstudyemployedaquasi—experimentandobservationsasamajorsourcefordatacollection，alongwithquestionnairesasanauxiliarymethodforthefollowingreasons．First，aquasiexperiment,asMcDonoLlgJl(1997)explmns，yieldsvaluableinformationandenablesateachertoanswersomespecificquestionsarisingfromhisorherexperience．Second，asMcDonough(1997)duscfbes，observationisa“pivotalactivitywithacrucialroletoplayinclassroomresearch”0101)．ItisinteⅡelatedtothe“researchintheinterestsofincreasingknowledgeandunderstandingaphenomennn’’and‘"whetherthatknowledgeaspirestobeidiographicandparticular，oltransferableandgeneral”(McDonougIl，1997：194)1rhisapproachisconsideredthebesttocollectrequiredinformation．whentheresearcherismoleinterestedinthebehaviorthanintheperceptionsoftheindividuals．Third，thequestionnaireisoneofthemostcommonlyuseddescriptivemethodsinedueationalresearchanditspurposeistoobtainasnapshotofconditionsandattitudes，Itcanaffordprecisionandclaritybecausetheknowledgeneedediscontrolledbythequestions．Inaddition，questionnairescanbeusedonasmallscaleandintheclassroomenvironment(McDonough，1997：171)．Thisresearch，asstatedearlier,aimstoinvestigatewhetherExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructionbestfacilitateslearningintheMiddleSchoolclassroom，andtoinvestigatethestudents’attitudestowardsExplicitInteractiveTaskInstruction．Thesemethodsofcollectingdata，thus，stronglysupporttheaimsofthisresearch．3．2TheSettingTheplaceusedforthisstudywasajuniolhi曲schoolinGanzhou，Thesecondaryschoolsaredividedintotwogroups，i．e．juniorhighschoolandseniorhighsch001．Studentsenrolledinjnniorhighschoolsarefromtwelvetofifteenyearsold．Theystudytwelvesubjects，English，asakeysubject，istaughtforsix45一minuteclassesaweek．Classes TheApplicationofExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructiontotheTeachingofEnglishGrammarinMiddleSchoolconsistofapproximatelysixty-eightstudents,whohaveawiderangeofEnglishproficiency．3．3ParticipantsandPre-testlIItheexperiment，Iadoptedonegrammaritemsastargetlanguagegrammarpoint，itis：theuseofthepresentsimpletense．Theparticipantsinthisstudycamefromeightclassesofthesecondgrade．550studentstookpartinthepre-testofthetargetlanguagegrammarpoint．111etotalscoreis100．Thecontentsofthetestwereatrandom．11lestudentswererequiredtofinishthetestindividuallywithinanhour．TheylearnedthegrammarpointinGrade1，soaccordingtothescores，Ichose75studentswhosescoreswerebelow30(include30)a．sparticipants．Itisthoughtthattheyhaven’tmasteredthetargetlanguagegrammarpointandtheirEnglishproficiencylevelwasalmostthesanle．Then75participantswerearrangedinthreeclassesandtheystirindividuallearnedintheirownclasses．AllparticipantswerenativespeakersofChinesewhowereintheirsecondyearlearningEnglishasaforeignlanguageandwerereceivingsix45-minuteclassesofEnglishinstructionweekly．Theiragesrangefrom13to14years．Theyvolunteeredtoparticipateinthisresearchproject．22studentswereinClass1．22wereinClass2and31inClass3．Iappliedthreegrammarinstructionsinthethriceclasses．inClass1，IappliedExplicitGrammarInstruction，sotheparticipantsinClass1werecalledexplicitgroup．InClass2，lappliedInteractiveInstruction，SothepattieipantsinClass2werecalledinteractivegroup．InClass3(experimentulclass)．IappliedExplicitInteractiveTaskInstruction,∞theparticipantsinClass3werecalledintegrativegroup．1usedMicrosofl-ExceltodoZ-test．p=0．05．Itmeansthereisnoobvinnsdifferencebetweenthreegroups．GroupNumberMeanSDZ，testExplicitgroup2220．1860’6．9049Interactive2220．82846．0531-0．4499groupInte掣ative3120．75876．7245grouP(thenumber，mean，SD，Z-testofpre-test) TheApplicationofExplicitIntelactlveTaskInstructiontotheTeachingofEnglishGrammarinMiddleSchool3．4ProceduresandAnalysis1willmainlyelaboratetheprocedureabouthowlappliedExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructiontotheteachingofEnglishgrammarintheexperimentalclass．Thegrammaritem：theUSeofthepresentsimpletense3．4．1Step1：ExplicitgrammarinstructionIputupsomepicturesontheblackboard，askstudentstomakeupasentenceaccordingtoeachpicture．Ihelpthemanswer：11Jget_upat6everyday，2、．Mymotherworksinafactory。3、．Theearthgoesaroundthesnu．4、．MyfriendsplayfootballOilSundays．5)．Theyridebicyclestosch001．f11lesubjectsareinbold)Turn1：I：NOW,1wantyoutolookattheboard．Youwillseesdceralsentences．ThesentenogstructureisSubject+Verb4"--·，itisthepresentsimpletense．Pleasepaymoreattentiontotheverbsinthesentences．InsomeofthemWeadd“．sI，totheVelb．iIIsomnwedonot．InsentenceswhereWedon’thave“-S”(pointsat1and51theunderliningshowswhereitcouldbe．ThesubjectsinbolddeterminewhetherWeshouldadd“《’’toverbsornot．YourtaskwillbetothinkwhyWesometimesuseandSometimesdon’tUSe“-s”wjthverbs．Imagineyourselvesbeingteacherswhoagefindingthepatternormakinganewrule．Doyousecanysequence?Turn2：ChenJian：becauseofthe⋯howd0yousaythe⋯thenounsinthefirst．Turn3：I：OKSOWedonotuseending《with⋯I’，rigllt?Turn4：ChenJian：YeS．Turn5：I：Ok．Wedon’tUSeitwithⅫ一I’．DoWeuseitwith“mother"’?Turn6：ChenJian：Ycah．Turn7：I：Isitonlywith“mothe，’orwithanynoun?Turn8：⋯I：Ok．1s“mother"’singularorplural?Turn9：ZhongFang：Singular,right? Turn10：I：lfinsteadof“mother”WeUSeadifiel"entwold，such弱“father"’0r“son”willwcputending‘‘s”ornot?11：ZhongFang：Yeala．becausethatsingular,right，lfitissingularweshouldput“s．’’12：I：1But“I”isalsoinsingular．13：ZhongFang：Yeala．Tum14：I：And“mother"’isinsingular．15：ZhongFang：Yeala．16：I：So．whydOweadd“s”totheverbUSedwith‘"mother"’anddon’tadd‘‘s”with“I’’?Twml7：ZhongFang：⋯“Turn18：LiLingli：BecauseIisafirst⋯whatistlaat?TurlLlg：I：Firstperson．20：LiLingli：Yeah，andthat’sthethirdperson．21：I：Thatisathirdperson．Rigllt．So，wedonotadd“s”withthenoulllSinthethirdperson．Good，咄ifwepassto‘叮heearthgoesaroundtheslln”．Whatishere?22：FangYuan：We11Se-sOr--eSinsingular,right，andthatisathirdperson。nonotathirdperson．．．Tuna23：FangYuan：11l砷pe[sorl?Yeah．24：I：n硼person．natiscorrect．ok,IIOWlet’sgototheexamplesnumber4andnumber5．Heremhave‘"fi"iendsplay’’and“theyride．”Turrr25：ⅪaYi：Thatisplural，right7Myfriendsplayfootball，thatisrightbecausethat’stheplural，right?26：I：EnEnn．27：IJLingli：Andtheyridebicycles．That"sri曲t，becauseitisoluraltOO．28：I：Good．So,canyouformulatearule?Tum29：ChenJian：Yes,youmean?30：I：Inwhatcssesweadd31：XiaYi：．saltheendoftheverbs?32：l：Yeah．33：LanYun：Ifthenounissingularandthirdpersonandthisispresentsimple自enseweadd"-Sattheendoftheverbs． Turn34：I：Andifitisinplural?35：LanYun：wedon’tput-s．Analysis：1beginthelessonbyintroducingthetopicforgrouplearningandthendrawstudents’attention．Theway1givethetaskinturn1isactuallyamazingandpotentiallyverypowerful：“Imagineyourselvesbeingteacherswhoarefindingthepatternsormakinganewrule．Doyouseeanysequence?”Thisinvitationtoparticipatehadatremendouseffectonthestudents．Itcontainedseveralimplicitmessages．Onewasthaibecause“makingnewrules”isadiscovery，itisacceptabletomakemistakes；studentsneednottobeafraidoftalkingandexpressingthethoughts．Anotherwasencouragingconfidenceandstudents’potential，whichwcrcresponsibleforinvestigationandparticipationinthelearningprocess．Theclassroominteractionisgovernedbytheteacherandbythestudents，asituationwhichcreatesoptimalconditionsforlearning．Thus，inturn2，ChenJiandoesnotknowhowtocall“I”fromthefirstsenteflceandasksmetohelphim‘"becauseofthe⋯howdoyousaythe⋯lhenounsinthe丘rst．”RespondingtoChenJian7srequest．IdonotgivehimthegrammaticaltermChenJianisexpectinginordernottoconfusetheotherstudentswithterminology．Howcvel,itmighthavebeendone．Bymyanswerinturn3，“0K∞wedonotUSeending—swith‘L”’insteadofsayingtheword“pronoun，”Igiveacluetothegroupthataninductivestyleoflearningismoreimportantthantheuscofterminologyandthattheyareexpectedtosaywhattheyseeinawaythatmakesthemfeelcomfortable．Theywereencouragednottoworryaboutthemetalunguage．However,theinteraetionalsequence(teacher-studentcommunication)establishedatthebeginning，breaksseveraltimesinto“student-student”interaction．Thus，inturn18,LiLinglianswersthequestion，whichwasinitiallyexpectedfromChenJian．sang“Becauseitis⋯whatthatis⋯’’HeknowstheanswcI-butdoesnothavethelexicalcompetencetorespondimmediately．h】tum23．FangYuan，breakingthestudent-teachersequence，entersthediscussionandhelpswithZhongFang’sconfusion"Weuse-8insingular,right，andthatisathirdperson，nonotathirdperSOn⋯，”bysaying‘"Thirdperson，yeah．”ThisapproachismotivatedbytheInteractionHypothesis，whichholdsthatsecondlanguageacquisitionisaprocessexplicablebyneitherapurelylinguisticnativityneeapurelyenvkonmentalisttheory．AccordingtotheInteractionHypothesis，acrucialsiteforlanguagedevelopmentis, interactionbetweenlearnersandotherspeakers，especially，hatnotonly,betweenlearnersandmoreproficientspeakersandbetweenlearnersandcertaintypesofwrittentexts，especiallyelaboratedones．Particularlyimportantisthenegotiationformeaningthatmoccurmoreorlesspredictablyincertaininteractions，forexample，accordingtothekindsoftasksinwhichspeakersareengagedandtheprevailingtaskconditions．Withmyhelpthey--improvetheirknowledgeofgrammaticalslmcture．Assoonastheyreachacertainlevelonwhickthey(oratleastsomcofthem)feelconfident．theyarceagertoshowtheirlunderstandingofthesubjectmanetby,forexample，breakingintothestudent-teacher’dialogue．ItcompletelyagreeswithEllis(1993)whoemphasizesthat．explicitconsciousness-raisingtasklmodel(ECDisnegotiatedbetweentheteacherandfile，‘student(s)．Whenthestudentshaveconfusions，insteadofgivingfileexplicitanger,Iemploydifferentstrategiestohelpthemdiscovertheanswerbythemselves．Inrum7，Isay，“Isitonlywith‘mother’orwithanyothernoun?”and．notgettinganyanswerfromthegroup,Irephrasethequestioninrum8：“is‘mother’singularolplural．”Thus．1givecontextualcluesastowhatisexpected．Theclueturnsouttobeessentialandinturn9，ZhongFangentersthediscussion，saying“Singular,right?”intum-28，Iaskstudents“Ok，caIlyouformulatetherule?”ChenJianwaseagertospeakbutdidnotunderstandthequestion,whichexplainshiswordsCyes，yonmean?”ltom29】)．Thatmademebecomesmoredetailedingivingthetask．“Inwhatcasesweadd．”inturn30,wasenoughfor)(jaYitogTaspwhatisexpected；moreover,hecontinuedfortheteaeher=⋯s’or‘es’attheendoftheverbs?”Inevitably,atleastatthebeginningofintegrativegrammarteaching，studentslookt0andaskmeforclarificationandconfirmationthattheyaresayingtherightthings．Vividillustrationsofthiscanbefoundinturns3，9，23，25，31，wheneitherbyrisingintonationorwiththehelpoftheclarifyingword“ri曲t??’studentsexpectedapprovalonbehalfofmc．1donotgivedirectapproval，butrathercatchestheCorrectideafromastudent，extendsitandkeepsthediscussiongoing．Theanalysisofthetypesofquestionsusedbymeintheactivityisreflectedbystudents’participation．1rbeactivitystallswithYes／Noquestions(turns1，3，5，and8)．Theyareprimarilyusedwhenstudentsparticipateonlyslowly．Thus，toensuretheyal"enotlost，Isay，“OkWedon’tuseitwith‘I，’doweuseitwith‘mother’?”Iturn5】．Whenthestudents’participationdecreases，alternativequestionsare TheApplicationofExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructiontotheTeachingofEnglishGrammarinMiddleSchoolused舔Ireinforceandencouragestudents．Theremaybeseveralexplanationstostudents’slowingdown．Thefirstmaybethattheinstructionalmethodwasnewandeventhoughstudentsweretoldwhatwasexpectedofthem，theywerenotsureaboutwhattodo．Thesecondmayhcinthenatureofeachnewtask．Atfirst,whenstudentswereintroducedtotheunknownformat．itWillsnewandtookmuchtimetofigureouthowtheyweresupposedtobehave．However，whenthelearnersgraspedtheideaabouttheformationofthetenseandwereactiveintheirresponses，Iusedwh—questions，whichchallengedthem10thinkanddirectedthemintherightway【turns21，30，34]．Thisclassroomparticipationstrnctarefollowstheinteractionalsequence．Atthebeginning,attm-n1．studentsarewaitingformet0initiatethediscussionby酉ringⅫassignment．Then，starlingfromtam2，oncestudentsareaskedaquestion，theyreceivetheresponsibilityforcompletingtheinformationcyclebyinterpretingwhattheyscetomakeupgrammaticalroles．Asitwasstatedabove．insomeeasessomeqtudentsbreaktheestablishedrulebyansweringtheirpeer’squestionswithoutwaitingfof．．Aswesaw，Isupportedsuchbreak-ups，sinceitinvolvedseveralstudentsinthediscussion，thusgivingequalopportunitiesforinteraction．3．4．2Step2：InteractivegrammarpracticeIendthefirststepandtellthestudentstheexplicitgrammaticalrules．1：Verygood．Youprovedtobeverygoodteachersandfoundtherulecorrectly．Youwereright，Wecall115ePresentSimpletensetodescribewhatyouorothersusually／often／sometimesdo．Forexample．“Mywife’snameisLinda．SheworksattheGiant．Sheisacashier．Shelikestotaiktopeople．’’andso0n．Orwecanusethistensetotalkaboutfactsthatrepresentauniversaltruth．Forexample，‘"ThesunrisesintheEast．Waterboilsat100C．”Inusingthepresentsimpletense，weaddendings(-es)totheverbinthethirdpersonsingular,thatis，whenitrefersto‘he，～she，’and‘it,’likeinourexamples：‘Mymotherworksinafactory,’and‘TheearthgoesaroundtheSUB．’(showsOntheboard)．hltheothercases．1ikeyoucansgghere(pointsattheotherexamples)wedon’taddendings(-cs)totheverbinplural．Nowpleaselookatthechartandreadthesentences，thenchoosetheappropriateadverboffrequency．Forexample，Nol：KeiKoalwaysworkshard． neVerseldomsometimesoftellusuallyAlwaysVSl：Sheoftengo∞tosehoolontime．S2：Myparentssometimesgofishingonweekends．S3：Theyusuallyhelpdo,qomehouseworkaftersch001．S4：JimneverdoeshisbesttolearnEnglish．S5：Iseldommakemistakeswhentyping．S6：MrSmithsometimesaskhiswifesomesillyquesIious．S7：Annoftenteacheshersistertodohomework．S8：Heusuallystaysaloneintheroom．S9：．1ackalwaysreadnewspaperaftersupper．Analysis：Eventhoughusingcharttopractisethepresentsimpletensesoundssimple，thisapproachhasagreateffectoRlearners．Itselvesasabridgebetweenwhatstudentscousider“theory，”orwhatisusuallygiveuintextbooks，ontheonehand，and“practicaluse，’’whatstudentshavediscovered．ontheother,itisimportanttomakeaconnectionbetweentheexamplesandtheexplicitgrammarrules．Thisconneclionwillhelplearnersbuildonwhattheyalreadyhavediscovered．Aftertheexplanationoftheexplicitrules，Iagaingivestudentsmeaningfulexamplesofhowandinwhatsituationsthetensecallbeused．Forexamplgthespecificexampleabouttheteacher’swifeillustratestherulesina —．—T—h—e．A—p—p—l—ic—a—ti—on——o—f—E—x—p—lic—i—t—Im——er—a—ct—iv—e——Ta—s—k—I—n—st—ru—c—t—io—n—totheT—eachingofEnshshGrammarinMiddleSchool—一COntent-baseduRerance．whichcanbeagoodtechniqueformodeling．Afterdiscoveringtherulesandprovidingstudentswithmodelsofthekusage．itwillbeinterestingtoscehowlearnersaregoingtousetheirknowledgeintheactilalinteraction．3．4．3Step3：Simulatereal-iifesituationsIdividestudentsintopairsandgivethemthetask．Turnl：I：Nowsplitintopairsandtellyourpartnerabouteachofyourfamilymembers，friendsandrelatives：wheretheylive，wheretheyWOrk，whattheyliketodo，andSOOil．Youcanimaginesomethings．ifyouwant．Likeifyoudonothaveabrother,imaginethatyoudoandthinkwhathedoes．Afteryoulistentoeachother’Sstories，youwillbeaskedtoreportt0thewholegroupaboutyourpartner’SfamilyOrfriends．Ok?Doyouhaveanyquestions?Turn2：Ss：⋯(Studentssplitintopairsandbeganworkinginpairs．IjoininapairwhichincludesLiLingliandDingDing．)Turn3：LiLingli：Sowhatweneedtodo"Turn4：DingDing：1willtcnyouaboutmyfamilyandyoutellmeaboutyour．Then1willtellthemaboutyouandyouaboutme．Turn5：LiLingli：SoI⋯nottellthemaboutme?Turn6：DingDing：No．Youwilltenthemaboutmeand1willtellthemaboutyou．Isitok7"rum7：LiLineli：yc．Turn8：DingDing：Ok．Myfamilyisverybig．1havemother，father，twosistersandabrother．Turn9：LiLinIgii：WOW．Howoldarethey?Turn10：DingDing：1don’tknowaboutparents．DillgNing,mysisteris12，Dingling．anothersisteris16，andDingDong．．．mybrotheris14．Turn11：LiLingli：Theyaresmallerthanyou．Turn12：DirlgDing：Yes．So，nOW1willtellyouaboutthem·Turn13：LiLingli：OKTurn14：DirIgDing：DingNinggo⋯goestosch001．Shelikestoreadbooksaboutlove·Turn15：LiLingli：WOW．Ilikeabout10realso． 堡!生￡!!竺!堡!堕曼!￡!!!!坐!竺!!!!旦壁!!!!型坐!竺!!!旦坐!!墨!!呈!型堡!璺!!竺竺!!垫坚塑!!!!!!竺!一Turn16：DingDiog：DingJingplaysonthepiano．Shegoestothemusicalschoolinmytown．Sheplaysverygood．MybrotherDingDonglikescomputergames．Andmyparentsworks．．．ohworkatsch001．Turn17：I：HowⅪeyoudoinghere?Doyouhz-Jeanyquestions?Tam18：DillgDing：No．it’sok．Taml9：LiLingli：it’sok．Turn20：I：Ok．Turn21：LiLingli：Yourparentsteach?Turn22：DingDingYes，theyamteachersandtheyteachmathematics．Now，whataboutyou?。Turn23：LiLingli：Ok．Myfamilyissmall．Mymother，myfatherandI．Mymotherworkatfactory．Turn24：DingDing：Yonmustsay‘"works”-Turn25：LiLingli：Ok．Worksatfactory．Why?Tam26：DingDing：becausemotherisone，singularandthirdperson，remember7．Tam27：“LjngU：oh,yes．Iforgot．Myfatherworksinhisoffice．Heisabusinessman．He-like．．sstoreadnewspapersaboutpoliticsandlikestoeattastyfood．Turn28：DingDing：Doesyourmothercookoryougototherestaurants?Turn29：LiLingli：Yes．Turn30：DingDing：whatyes?Turn31：“Ijngli：All?Tam32：DingDing：Doesyourmothercookandyoueatathomeoryougotoarestaurant7(moreemphatically)Tam33：LiLingli：Oh，sthome．Weeatathome．Yes，mymothercook．．∞goodfood．Turn34：DingDing：So，whatdoweneedtodonow?Turn35：LiLingli：Teacherwillaskmetotellaboutyouandyouwilltellhimaboutme．Turn36：LiLingli：Ye，ye，ye．Turn37：I：Ok．Nowyourtimeisup．Noweveryonewillneedtotellthewholeclassaboutyourpanner．Whowantstostart．Turn38：I：OK．Now．itisyourturn．Whowouldliketobegin，LiLingliorDingDing?Turn39：DingDing：1want． TurIl40：I：Ok．Tum41：DingDing：HereisLiLingli．Herfamilyissmall．Hermotherworksatthefactoryandherfatherisabusinessman．Helit：estastyfood．andhe⋯goestotherestaurants．Andhermothercooksgoodfood．AndLiLinglistudiesEnglish．hehe．Turn42：I：Verygood．Itissoniceifawomancookswell．Right?Ok．Whataboutyou，“Ⅱn酉i?TelliisaboutDingDing’sfamily．Turn43：U工jngli：DingDin91sfamilyisbig．HerfatherworkandmotherworkImeanherfatherandmotherworkatsch001．Theyteachmathematics．Hersisterplaysonthepiano，andanothersisterreadsbooksaboutlove，hehe．Turn44：l：So．DingDinghastwosisters．?Andoneplaysthepiauo．Turn45：I．iLingli：Yes，shehastwosisters．Andshehasonebrother．Helit1．96,p<0．05)．Afterfurtheranalysis．wealsofindoutthemeaninExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructionishighthanthatinExplicitInstructinnandInteractiveInstruction，whiletheSDinExplicitlnstruelionandInteractiveInstructionishigllthanthatinExplicitInteractiveTaskInstruction．ThehiIghSDmeanstheSPOresinthisgrouparenotbalance，thatistosay,somestudentsgethighscores,butsomegetlowsixties．ThelowSDmeanstheSCOreSinthisgrouparebalance．Nowadaysqualityeducationfocusesonfaireducationandbalanceddevelopment，soweshouldaimtogetlowSD．Accordingtodiagram3，theExplicitInteractiveTaskInstructionisalsosuperiortotheExplicitInstructionandInteractiveInstruction(z≈2．3140>1．96，p