实用英语语法讲稿Lecture 16-18 17页

Lecture16SubjunctiveMoodTeachingAims：KnowledgeAims:subjunctivemoodSkillAims:TheusesofsubjunctivemoodEmotionAims:ThemeaningthatsubjunctivemoodexpressesImportantpoints:1.BE-subjunctive2.were-subjunctiveDifficultpoints:Thecasesthatsubjunctivemoodisused.Leading-in:Discussion:1.Howmanytypesofsubjunctivemood?Listthem.2.Inadditiontothebe-subjunctiveandthewere-subjunctivewhatcanweuseforexpressinghypotheticalmeanings?GeneralInformation:MOOD,asagrammaticalcategory,isafiniteverbformthatindicateswhetheranutteranceexpressesafact(indicativemood),acommandorrequest(imperativemood),oranon-factandhypothesis(subjunctivemood).ModernEnglishhasnotadevelopedmoodsystem.Itsindicativemoodisunmarked,andover90%ofEnglishsentencesareexpressedinthismood.Theimperativemoodismarkedonlywhenitoccursinanimperativesentence.Likewise,thesubjunctivemoodismarkedonlywhenitoccursincertaincontexts,andisnotsocomplicatedasdescribedintraditionalgrammars.InmodernEnglish,hypothesiscanbeexpressedbyanumberofgrammaticalconstructions,iebythesimplepast/thepastprogressive/thepastperfective,bythepasttenseofmodalauxiliaries+infinitive/perfectiveinfinitive,orbyaspecialverbformdenotinghypothesis－thesubjunctivemood.Therearetwoformsofthesubjunctive:be-subjunctiveandwere-subjunctive.Thepresentlecturewilldwellontheusesofthesetwosubjunctiveforms.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------16.1BE-subjunctiveThebe-subjunctive,liketheimperative,isrealizedbythebaseformoftheverb.Whateverthepersonofthesubject,thepredicatorinvariablytakesthebaseform.Consequently,wheretheclausehasapluralsubject,thereisnormallynodistinctionbetweenindicativeandsubjunctiveforms,exceptfortheverbbe.Thesubjunctiveformofbeisbeforallpersons.Thebe-subjunctiveisuse:1)Incertainthat-clausesThebe-subjunctiveiscommonlyusedinthat-clausestodenoteacommand,decision,suggestion,etc.Thesethat-clausesusuallyoccur:a)aftersuchverbsasdecide,decree,demand,insist,move,order,prefer,propose,recommend,request,require,suggest,vote,etc.Eg:Heorderedthatallthebooksbesentatonce.Weproposethatsomebodyneutraltakethechair.b)aftersuchadjectivesasadvisable,appropriate,desirable,essential,fitting,imperative,important,impossible,necessary,obligatory,proper,etc.Eg:Itisessentialthatallthefactsbeexaminedfirst.Itisnecessarythathecomebackwithoutdelay.c)aftersuchnounsasdecision,decree,demand,instruction,order,requirement, resolution,etc.Eg:TheboardhasgiveninstructionsthattheagentflytoBoston.Wewerefacedwiththedemandthatthistaxbeabolished.Thisuseofthebe-subjunctiveisquitecommoninformalstyle,especiallyinAmericanEnglish.Thissubjunctiveformcansometimesbereplacedby“should+infinitive”.Eg:Heorderedthatthebooksbesentatonce.→Heorderedthatthebooksshouldbesentatonce.→Heorderedthebookstobesentatonce.2)IncertainadverbialclausesThebe-subjunctiveisalsousedinadverbialclausesintroducedbyif,though,whatever,solongas,whether,lest,etc.Eg:Iftherumorbetrue,everythingispossible.Quietlywesatontheriverbanklestthefishswimaway.Whateverbehisdefense,wecannottoleratehisdisloyalty.Thisuseofthebe-subjunctiveislimitedtoformalstyle,whileininformalstyletheindicativemoodor“should/may+infinitive”areusedinstead.Cf:Iftherumoristrue,everythingispossible.Hehidhimselfinthebushlestheshouldbeseen.Whateverhisdefensemaybe,wecan’ttoleratehisdisloyalty.3)IncertainformulaicexpressionsThebe-subjunctiveisalsousedinsomeformulaicexpressionstoexpressawish,prayer,curse,etc.Theformulaicuseofthebe-subjunctivetendstobeformalandold-fashionedinstyle.Eg:LonglivethePeople’sRepublicofChina!Godblessyou!Sobeit.Farbeitfrommetospoilthefun.16.2WERE-subjunctiveThewere-subjunctivehasonlyoneformwere,whichappliestosubjectsofallpersons,butwhichformallycontrastswiththeindicativeformwasonlywhenitisusedwithfirstandthirdpersonsingularsubjects.Thewere-subjunctiveishypotheticalorunrealinmeaningandisused.1)IncertainadverbialclausesThewere-subjunctiveiscommonlyusedinadverbialclausesintroducedbyif,ifonly,asif,asthough,though,etctodenoteanunrealconditionorconcession.Eg:IfIwereyou,Ishouldwaittillnextweek.IfonlyIwerenotsonervous.Hebehavesasthoughhewerebetterthanus.Thoughthewholeworldwereagainstme,IwoulddowhatIconsiderasright.2)IncertainnominalclausesThewere-subjunctiveisalsousedinnominalclausesafterverbslikewish,wouldrather,suppose,imagine,etctodenoteahypotheticalsituation.Eg:Iwishitwerespringalltheyearround.I’dratherIwerenotatthesiteoftheaccident.Supposetheearthwereflat. Itmustbenotedthatinpresent-dayEnglish,thewere-subjunctivewithfirstandthirdpersonsubjectsisoftenreplacedbytheindicativewasinlessformalstyle.Cf:Iwishitwasspringalltheyearround.I’dratherIwasn’tatthesiteoftheaccident.Thewere-subjunctiveisobligatory,however,inthesetexpressions“asitwere”(=sotospeak)and“ifIwereyou”,aswellasinnon-introducedconditionalclauseswithinvertedwordorder,Eg:Heismybestfriend,mysecondself,asitwere.WereItodoit,Ishouldrelyonyou.16.3SomefewnotesonwaysofexpressinghypotheticalmeaningsModernEnglishhasanumberofdevicesforexpressinghypotheticalmeanings.Inadditiontothebe-subjunctiveandthewere-subjunctive,wecanusepasttenseformsofverbsandpasttensemodalsforthesamepurpose.1)UseofpasttenseformsofverbsThepasttenseformsofverbsareusuallyusedtoexpresshypothesisinthefollowingcontext.a)Itistime(that)…:Eg:Itistime(that)weleftthisplace.Itishightime(that)youmadeupyourmind.b)Iwouldrather(that)you/he…:Eg:I’msureheiskeepingsomethingback.I’dratherhetoldmethetruth.Theyofferedmethisexpensivewine,butfranklyI’drathertheyhadofferedmesomebeer.c)Ifonly…:Eg:IfonlyIknewheraddress.Ifonlyshehadlistenedtomyadvice.d)…asif/asthough…:Eg:Hebehavesasifheownedthisplace.Thewomantalkedeloquentlyabouttheaccidentasthoughshehadwitnessedthewholething.TheyarestaringatmeasifIwas/werecrazy.e)Iwish(that)…:Eg:Iwishthesunwasshiningatthismoment.IwishIhadn’teatensomuchlastnight.2)UseofpasttensemodalsThepasttensemodalsarecommonlyusedtoexpresshypothesisinthefollowingcontexts.a)Inconditionals:Eg:IfIwereyouIwouldnotmissthisopportunity.Ifhebefoundguiltyhewouldbesenttoprison.Ifshehadbeeninvited,shewouldhaveattendedthemeeting.Iftheyhadcaughttheearlytrain,theywouldhavebeenherebynow.Ifyoushouldchangeyourmind,doletmeknow.Ifheshouldrefusetoappearincourt,hemightbeheldguilty.b)Inimpliedconditionals:Eg:Butforhishelp,Icouldn’thaveachievedanything.Anyonewhoshoulddothatwouldbelaughedat. Indifferentcircumstances,Imighthaveagreed.Thissamethinghappeninginwartimewouldamounttodisaster.a)Inothercontexts:Eg:Thatsheshouldforgetmetsoquicklywasratherashock.ThatIshouldseeacollegestudentarrestedforstealing!OhthatIcouldseehimagain!=IwishthatIcouldseehimagain.Wouldthatshecouldseehersonnow!=Ifonlyshecouldseehersonnow!Wouldthatthefloodmightnevercomeagain!Tothinkthatheshouldhavedesertedhiswifeandchildren!Tothinkthathewouldmarrysuchanastywoman!Whowouldhavethoughtthatthingsshouldcometosuchatragicend?Whowouldhavethoughtthatthemanlivingnextdoorshouldbeahiddenterrorist?Thedoorwaspushedopen;whoshouldcomeinbutthewomantheyweretalkingabout.Hesteppedintoacaveandwhatshouldheseebutatigresswithherbabytigers. Lecture17&18AuxiliariesTeachingaims:KnowledgeAims：auxiliariesSkillAims：TheusesofauxiliariesEmotionAims：Epistemicandnon-epistemicuseofmodalsImportantpoints:ModalsandSemi-auxiliariesDifficultpoints:Semi-auxiliariesLeading-in:Discussion1.Whataremodalmeanings?2.Whataresemi-auxiliaries?GeneralInformationAshasbeenpointedoutbefore,Englishverbs,intermsoftheirfunctionsinformingverbphrases,fallintotwomajorcategories:mainverbsandauxiliaries.Auxiliariescanagainbedividedintoprimaryauxiliaries,modalauxiliaries,andsemi-auxiliaries.Thefunctionofprimaryauxiliaries(he,do,have)istocombinewithmainverbstoformcomplexverbphrases,andthishasbeendealtwithinthepreviouslectures.Thepresentlecturewillconcentrateontheuseofmodalauxiliariesandthenextonsemi-auxiliaries.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Lecture17Auxiliaries(I)Ashasbeenpointedoutbefore,Englishverbs,intermsoftheirfunctionsinformingverbphrases,fallintotwomajorcategories:mainverbsandauxiliaries.Auxiliariescanagainbedividedintoprimaryauxiliaries,modalauxiliaries,andsemi-auxiliaries.Thefunctionofprimaryauxiliaries(do,have,be)istocombinewithmainverbstoformcomplexverbphrases,andthishasbeendealtwithinthepreviouslectures.Thepresentlecturewillconcentrateontheuseofmodalauxiliariesandthenextonsemi-auxiliaries.17.1ModalauxiliariesItisgenerallyacknowledgedthatEnglishhas13modalauxiliaries(or“modals”forshort).Theyarecan,could,may,might,will,would,shall,should,must,oughtto,dare,need,usedto.Morphologically,modalshavenonon-finiteforms,nor-sformforthirdpersonsingularpresenttense.Syntactically,modalscanonlybetheinitialelementofafiniteverbphraseandareinvariablyfollowedbyabareinfinitive.Intermsofsemantics,modalshavelexicalmeaningsandnotwomodalscanco-occurinaverbphrase.Thetensedistinctionsofmodalsarenotthechiefmarkersoftimereference,thatistosay,theirpresentformsdonotnecessarilyrefertopresenttime,nordotheirpastformstothepast.Whatismore,mostmodalsarepolysemous,andtheybehavedifferentlyinaffirmative,negative,andinterrogativesentences.Hereisasurveyoftheusesofthemodals.1)Can/could/(beableto)denoting“ability”Totalkabout“ability”,wecanusecan,could,andbeableto.Caniscommonlyusedtodenotepresentability,butinspecificcontexts,itmayalsorefertoabilitywithfuturetimereference.Inthesenseof“ability”,canmaydenoteasingleinstanceofability,thatis,theabilityofdoingsomethingonaparticularoccasion(“IsthereanythingIcandoforyou?”);itmayalsorefertosomegeneralabilitywithpresenttimereference(“Hecandriveacar”). Canandbeabletoaresynonymousandareinterchangeableinmanycases.Buttotalkaboutfutureability,thenormalformtouseis“will/shallbeableto”,thoughcanisalsopossibleinspecificcontexts.Totalkaboutpastability,wecanusecouldandwas/wereableto.Inpositivestatements,couldonlyreferstosomegeneralabilityinthepast(“Shecouldplaythepianowhenshewassix”).Ifwewanttodenoteasingleinstanceofpastability,wewillhavetousewas/wereableto.(“Hewasabletoswimhalfwaybeforehecollapsed”)Thiscontrast,however,isneutralizedinnegativestatements,et:Hegotsodrunkthathecouldn’t/wasn’tabletofindthedoor.2)Can/could/may/mightdenoting“possibility”Totalkabout“possibility”,wecanusemay,might,canandcould.Usedinthissense,mayandmightareinterchangeableandsuggestnodifferenceintimereference;onlytheuseofmightconveysgreateruncertaintyintone,Itshouldbenotedthatmayinthesenseof“possibility”occursonlyinstatements,whereasinquestionscanisusedinstead,eg:Wherecanhebe?Hemaybeintheoffice.Maynotinwrittenformmaymeanverydifferentthings:“impossibility”or“prohibition”.Inthesenseof“impossibility”,stressnormallyfallsonmay;indenoting“prohibition”,stressfallsonnot.(Thusinwrittenlanguage,can’tisoftenpreferabletomaynotinthesenseof“impossibility”),eg:Hemaynotgotomorrow.(prohibition)Hemaynotgotomorrow.(impossibility)Canandcouldinthesenseof“possibility”areinterchangeablewithnodifferenceintimereference.Onlytheuseofcouldsuggestsgreateruncertaintyand,therefore,soundsmorepolite.Buttheuseofcanisusuallyrestrictedtonegativestatementsandquestions,whilenosuchrestrictionexistswiththeuseofcould,eg:Ifyoudon’thaveaguide,youcouldloseyourway.Can/Couldthenewsbetrue?Itcan’t/couldn’tbetrue.Notethedifferencebetweenthe“possibility”expressedbycanandthatbymay.Inpositivestatements,canusuallyexpresses“theoreticallypossibility”,whilemayexpresses“factualpossibility”,eg:Mr.Reedisinpoorhealth.Hecanbeillatanytime.Mr.Reedlookspaletoday.Hemaybeill.Thiscontrast,however,isneutralizedinnegativestatementsandquestions.Instatements,“may/mighthave+-ed”iscommonlyusedtospeculateaboutpastevents.Here,too,theuseofmightsuggestsnodifferenceintimereference;itonlyimpliesgreateruncertaintyaboutwhatwaspossibleinthepast.Speculationsaboutpasteventscanalsobeexpressedby“can/couldhave+-ed”,but“canhave+-ed”onlyappearsinnegativestatements,eg:Shecan’t/couldhavemissedthetrain.Notethat“might/couldhave+-ed”issometimesusedtotalkaboutanunrealizedpossibilityinthepast,aboutsomethingthatwaspossiblebutdidnothappen,eg:Youmighthavefinishedtheworklastweek,butyoudidn’t. 3)Can/could/may/mightdenoting“permission”Toaskforpermission,wecanusecan,could,may,might.Comparedwithcan/could,may/mightsoundsmoreformal;comparedwithcan/may,thepastformssoundmorepolite,implyingnodifferenceintimereference.IncolloquialEnglish,canisveryfrequentlyusedtoaskforpermission,eg:CanIsmokeinhere?Togivepermission,wenormallyusecanandmayratherthancouldormight;thepastforms,however,arepossiblewhenoccurringinpasttimecontexts,eg:CouldIuseyourphone?Yes,ofcourseyoucan.Inthosedaysanyonemight/couldenrollforthiscourse.Torefusetogivepermission,wecanusemaynot(withstressonnot)orcannot,eg:CanIgooutforamoment?No,youcan’t.MayIuseyourcarforafewdays?No,youmaynot.Inimpersonalstatements,maynotcanalsobeusedtoindicatewhatisnotpermittedbyrulesorregulations,eg:Borrowersmaynottakeoutofthelibrarymorethantwobooksatatime.Notethatthepastformofmaynot(inthesenseofrefusaltogivepermission)isnotmightnot.Thenotionofrefusingtogivepermissioninthepastisusuallyexpressedbyotherforms,eg:Hewasnotallowedtogo.Ididn’tpermithimtogo.4)Will/woulddenoting“volition”Thesenseof“volition”expressedbywill/wouldincludesweakvolitionandstrongvolition.a)Weakvolitionor“willingness”iscommoninsecondpersonrequests“Willyou….?”,which,infact,isapolitesubstituteforanimperative.Buttherearepoliterwaysofmakingarequest,andso“Willyou…?”tendstobetoneddownbyothermarkersofpoliteness,eg:Willyoukindly…?Wouldyouplease…?Wouldyoubegood/kindenoughto…?Notethatinanswertoahypotheticalrequestwenormallyusethecorrespondingnon-hypotheticalforms,eg:Wouldyouletmehearfromyousoon?Yes,Iwill.Anothertypeofweakvolitionis“intention”usuallyexpressedbywillwithafirstpersonsubject.Willinthissenseisgenerallycontractedto’llandcannotbereplacedbywouldwould,eg:I’llwritetoyouassoonasIarrive.b)Strongvolitionor“insistence”isexpressedbystressedwill,whichcannotbecontractedto‘ll.Stressedwillwithafirstpersonsubjecttypicallyexpressesthespeaker’sinsistenceorobstinatedeterminationtodosomething,eg:Iwillmarryheralthoughmyparentsstronglyobjecttothismarriage. Stressedwillwithasecondorthirdpersonsubjectexpressesthespeaker’sfeelingofexasperationatsomeoneelse’sobstinacyorinsistence,eg:Hewillgooutwithoutanovercoatalthoughitisfreezingoutside.Inpasttimecontexts,stressedwouldcanexpressstrongvolitioninthepast,andthenegativeformswon’tandwouldn’twithstresscanexpressadamantrefusals,eg:Iwon’thaveanybackchatfromyou.5)Will/woulddenoting“predictability”“Predictability”denotedbywillandwouldcanbeclassifiedintospecificpredictability,habitualpredictability,andtimelesspredictability.a)Will/woulddenotingspecificpredictabilityiscloselyrelatedtothemeaningofshould,oughttoandmustdenotingprobabilityorlikelihood.Herethespeakermakesaforecastaboutapresenteventnotdirectlyobservable,eg:A:There’ssomeonecomingupthestairs.B:Thatwill/wouldbeMary.b)Habitualpredictabilityreferstopredictiononthehappeningofanhabitualaction.Herewillandwouldbehavelikethesimplepresentandthesimplepastinhabitualuse,eg:Everymorninghewillhurrytothestationandcatchtheearlytrain.Willandwouldinthissenseareusuallyunstressed;withstrongstresstheyoftensuggestafeelingofannoyanceordispleasureonthepartofthespeaker,eg:Everymorninghewillsitintheofficeforhoursdoingnothing.c)Timelesspredictabilityreferstopredictionontheappearanceofaphenomenoninanobjectiveprocess.Thisuseofwillisthesameasthe“timelesspresent”,eg:Oilwillfloatwhenpouredonwater=Oilfloatswhenpouredonwater.6)Shallhastwovolitionalmeaningscorrespondingtothoseofwilldescribedabove.A)Withafirstpersonsubject,shalldenotes“intention”(weakvolition)andisinterchangeablewithwillinthesamesense.Here,shall,justlikewill,isunstressed.Inquestions“ShallI…?”and“Shallwe…?”itisthelistener’s,ratherthanthespeaker’sintentionthatisconsulted.b)Withasecondorthirdpersonsubject,theunstressedshallindicates‘willingnessonthepartofthespeaker.Thisisalsoakindofweakvolition,eg:Youshallstaywithusaslongasyoulike.=Iamwillingtoletyoustay…Inquestions,“Shallyou…?”and“Shallhe…?”,itisthelistener’s,ratherthanthespeaker’swillthatisinquired,eg:Shallmydaughterdotheshoppingforyou?=Areyouwillingtoletmydaughter…?c)Thestrongvolitionalshallwithasecondorthirdpersonsubjectexpressesinsistenceordeterminationonthepartofthespeaker.Itsuggeststhatthelistener’swillisentirelysubservienttothespeaker’s.Shallinthissensenormallycarriesstrongstress,eg:Youshallobeymyorders.=Iinsistthatyouobeymyorders.Thenegativeformshallnotexpresses“prohibition”or“threat”,eg:Nooneshallstopme.=Idon’tallowanyonetostopme.Occasionallywecanalsouseshouldwithafirstpersonsubjecttoinquirethelistener’sopinion.Here“ShouldI…?”or“Shouldwe…?”isjustatentativesubstitutefor“ShallI/we…?”,havingnopasttimereference,eg:Whatshouldwedonow?ShouldIturnoffthelight? 7)Should/oughtto/must(haveto)denoting“obligation”Totalkabout“obligation”,wecanuseshould,oughttoandmust.Usedinthissense,thesethreemodalsvaryslightlyintone.a)Shouldandoughttoareusedtoadviseorurge.Thesetwomodalsareinterchangeableinmostcases.Thereis,however,averyslightdifference:Shouldisusedwhenwegiveourownsubjectiveopinion;oughttohasarathermoreobjectiveforce.Consequently,should,ratehrthanoughtto,isusedtogivestrongadvice,eg:Youshoulddowhatyourteacherstellyouto.Totalkaboutthingswhichdidnothappenthoughtheyweresupposedto,wecanuse“should/oughttohave+ed”,eg:Youshould/oughttohaveaskedmypermissionfirst.b)Mustisevenstrongerthanshould.Usedinthesenseof“obligation”,mustusuallyimpliesthatthespeakeristhepersoninauthority,theonewhogivestheorders,bindingbothonthelistenerandonthespeakerhimself,eg:Youmustbebackbyteno’clock.Ireallymuststopsmoking.“Obligation”withfuturetimereferenceisnormallyexpressedby“will/shallhaveto”,eg:We’llhavetodoitagain.Asmusthasnotapastform,“obligation”withpasttimereferenceisusuallyexpressedbyhadto,thoughinpasttimecontexts,mustcanalsobeusedtodenoteanobligationinthepast,eg:Ihadtoleaveat6.30yesterday.Itoldhimthathemustmindhisownbusiness.c)Musthastwonegativeforms:mustnot/mustn’tandneednot/needn’t.Mustnot/Mustn’tdenotesprohibition.Itssemi-auxiliaryformis“benotto”or“was/werenotto”forpasttimereference,eg:Youmustn’ttalklikethat.=Youarenottotalklikethat.Itoldhimthathewasn’ttotalklikethat.Neednot/needn’tdenotesabsenceofobligationornecessity.Alternativeformsofneedn’tare“don’tneedto”,“don’thaveto”,and“haven’tgotto”withcorrespondingpastforms“didn’tneedto”and“didn’thaveto”,eg:A:Mustyouleavesosoon?B:No,Ineedn’t.Hedidn’tneedtodoitatonce.d)Bothmustandhavetocanbeusedtodenote“obligation”,buttheuseofmustoftenimpliesthattheobligationisimposedbythespeaker,whilehavetousuallyimpliesthattheobligationcomesfromobjectivecircumstances,eg:HemustsayitinEnglish.(Iwanthimtodoso.)HehastosayitinEnglish.(becausehedoesn’tknowChinese)8)Should/oughtto/mustdenoting“logicalnecessity”a)Shouldandoughttocanbeusedtodenoteassumptionsarrivedatbyinference,notbydirectexperience,eg:ThatshouldnotbeadifficultproblemforMary.Theseyoungtreesoughttoprovideshadeintenyears.b)Oughttointhissenseissynonymouswithmustdenoting“necessity”,onlyitsounds lesscertainthanmust,eg:Bobmustbehomebynow.Boboughttobehomebynow.c)Mustdenoting“necessity”isgenerallyusedinpositivestatements,whileinquestionsandnegativestatements,canandcan’tshouldbeusedinstead,eg:Youmusthavedifficultygettingthetickets.Canyouhaveanydifficultygettingthetickets?Youcan’thaveanydifficultygettingthetickets.=Yououghtn’ttohaveanydifficultygettingthetickets.Thisisalsotrueof“musthave+-ed”,eg:Youmusthaveleftyourhandbaginthetheatre.Youcan’thaveleftyourhandbaginthetheatre.Canyouhaveleftyourhandbaginthetheatre?9)Otherusesofshould/wouldShouldandwouldcanalsobeusedinthefollowingsenses:a)Inspecificcontexts,Shouldcandenoteemotionalfeelingsofsorrow,joy,displeasure,surprise,wonder,etc.Shouldinthissenseisespeciallycommonincertainthat-clauses,inrhetoricalquestionsandinsomeidiomaticexclamations,eg:It’sunbelievablethatheshouldhavefinishedtheworksosoon.HowshouldIknow?Thatheshoulddaretoattackme!Insomeothercontexts,shouldcanfunctionasasubstituteforbe-subjunctive,inwhichcaseshouldiswithoutanydefinitemodalmeaning,eg:Iinsistedthathego/shouldgowithme.Thisuseofshouldisalsofoundinadverbialclausesintroducedbyforfearthat,sothat,andlest(=forfearthat),eg:Heranawaylestheshouldbefoundbypeople.Theevasiveuseofshouldisfoundinexpressionslike“Ishouldsay”,“Ishouldthink”,etc.Thehypotheticalformhereissimplytoindicatethespeaker’sreluctancetocommithimselfonmattersofpersonalfeelingorjudgement,eg:Ishouldsayheisjusttherightmanforthejob.Fortheuseofshouldinconditionals,see34.2.2.b)Wouldcanbeusedtomakeatactfulstatement,apoliterequest,andatentativesuggestion,eg:Itwouldbeashametostopourworkhalfway.Wouldyouliketostayhereforthenight?Wouldn’titbebetterforustostartoffalittleearliertomorrowmorning?Fortheuseofwouldinconditionals,see34.2-4.10)Usesofdare/need/usedtoDare,needandusedtofitthemarginalmodalcategory.Theycanacteitherasmainverbsorasmodals.a)Asamodal,dare(exceptin“Idaresay”)isrestrictedtoquestionsandnegativestatements.Modaldarehasnopastform.Itmayappearinpresenttimeaswellasinpasttimecontexts.Likewise,daren’t,thenegativeformofdare,toocanbeusedfor bothpresentandpasttimereference,eg:Idarenotgothere.Howdarehesaysuchrudethingsaboutme?Mybrotherwentalone,butIdaren’t.Asamainverb,dareoccasionallyoccursinpasttenseform－dared,eg:Iwonderhowhedared(to)saythat.b)Needasamodalorasamainverb,onlyoccursinquestionsandnegativestatements.Notethatinanswertoaquestionintroducedbyneed,weshouldusemustinapositiveresponseandneedn’tinanegativeresponse,eg:Needweworklatetoday?No,weneedn’t,butwemusttomorrow.Wheninquiringaboutthenecessityofdoingsomething,eithermustorneedcanbeused.Iftheanswerisnegative,wecanonlyuseneedn’tor“don’thaveto”ratherthanmustn’t,eg:Need/MustIseeadoctoratonce?No,youneedn’t/don’thavetoforthetimebeing.“needn’thave+-ed”impliesthatsomethingwasdonebutitwasunnecessary.Thisisdifferentfrom“didn’tneedto”,whichimpliesthatitwasunnecessarytodosomething,andsoitwasnotdone,compare:Ididn’tneedtogotothestation.Ineedn’thavegonetothestation.c)Usedtoiscommonlyusedtodenoteapasthabitualactionoranexistenceinthepast.Theuseofthismodalstressesthenotionthatthehabithasbeengivenuporthestatenolongerexists.Thenegativeformofusedn’tto,eg:HeusedtoliveinShanghai,usedn’the?Innegativestatementsandnegativequestions,wemayeitheruse“didn’tusedto”or“usedn’tto”,eg:Hedidn’tusetosmokecigarettes.=Heusedn’ttosmokecigarettes.Didn’tMariausetobeinterestedinthetheatre?=Usedn’tMariatobeinterestedinthetheatre?Usedtoandwouldcanbothbeusedtodenoteapasthabitandareinterchangeableinmanycases,butwouldcanonlycombinewithdynamicverbs,whileusedtowithbothdynamicandstativeverbs,eg:Whenwewerechildren,weusedto/wouldgoskatingeverywinter.Whenwewerechildren,weusedtobeinterestedinskating.17.2Epistemicandnon-epistemicuseofmodalsAshasbeenpointedout,modalsaremostlypolysemous.Intermsofthemeaningstheyexpress,modalscanbedividedintotwocategories－epistemicandnon-epistemic.Thefunctionofepistemicmodalsistomakejudgementsaboutthepossibilityofnecessitythatsomethingisorisnotthecase.Thenon-epistemiccategoryonlydescribesthefactasitis,eg:Hemustbeverycareless.(epistemic)Wemustbecareful.(non-epistemic)Astheexamplesin17.1demonstrate,thereareninemodalsthathavebothepistemicand non-epistemicfunctions.Asummarybelowwillhelptoillustratethis:modalsnon-epistemicuseepistemicusecan/couldability,permissionpossibilitymay/mightpermissionpossibilitywill/wouldvolitionpredictabilityshould/oughttoobligationlogicalnecessitymustobligationlogicalnecessityIntheirepistemicuses,theabovemodalscanbearrangedonascaleaccordingtothedegreeofcertaintyoruncertaintythatthespeakerfeels.Mightcanbeviewedasthemostuncertain,whilemustasthemostcertain.Thescaleisasfollows:UncertainmightThatmightbeGeorgemaycouldcanshouldoughttowouldwillcertainmustThatmustbeGeorgeFromthescaleabovewecanseethatmight,may,could,canreferto“possibility”;should,oughtto,would,willto“probability”;mustto“certainty”.Thepastformsofepistemicmodalsarerealizedbyaddingaperfectiveinfinitive,eg:ThatmighthavebeenGeorge.ThatmusthavebeenGeorge.Notethatthenegativeequivalentofmustiscan’t,eg:Thatcan’tbeGeorge.Thatcan’thavebeenGeorge.2)SyntacticfeaturesofepistemicmodalsThefollowingfivesyntacticfeaturesarecommontoallepistemicmodals;a)Allepistemicmodalscancombinewithaperfectiveinfinitive,eg:Youmusthavebeendisappointed.b)Allepistemicmodalscancombinewithaprogressiveinfinitive,eg:Hemustbeworkinglateattheoffice.Hemusthavebeenworkinglateattheoffice.c)Allepistemicmodalscanbeusedinexistentialsentences,eg:Theremustbesomemistake.d)Allepistemicmodalscancombinewithstativeverbs,eg:Hemustunderstandthatwemeanbusiness.e)Allepistemicmodalscanbeusedwithaninanimatesubject,eg:ItmustbeGeorge.Thesefeaturesarenotsharedbynon-epistemicmodals.3)Timereferenceofepistemicmodals Abouttimereferenceofepistemicmodals,therearetwopointsworthnoting.First,indirectspeech,themodalstatementisinvariablymadewithpresenttimereference,becausejudementsordeductionsareusuallymadeatthemomentofspeaking,eg:Hemighthavelosthisway.Hecouldn’tbestillworkingattheoffice.Secondly,thetimereferenceofthecontentsofthejudgementordeductionisdeterminedbytheformoftheinfinitivethatfollowsthemodal.Whentheinfinitiveisinthesimpleorprogressiveform,itusuallyreferstopresentorfuturetime;iftheinfinitivetakestheperfectiveform,itreferstopasttime,eg:Hemustbecallingtonight.=I’msureheiscallingtonight.Hemayhavecomelastyear.=Itispossiblethathecamelastyear.-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Lecture18Auxiliaries(II)Thislectureisconcernedwithsemi-auxiliariesandcontractedformsofauxiliaries.18.1Semi-auxiliariesSemi-auxiliariesconstituteacategoryofverbsbetweenauxiliariesproperandmainverbs.1)Typesofsemi-auxiliariesStructurally,semi-auxiliariesfallintothreetypes:onetypeisinitiatedwiththeverbbe;asecondtypeisinitiatedwiththeverbhave;thethirdtypeisinitiatedwiththeverbseem,chance,happen,appear,etc.Syntactically,semi-auxiliariescanbedividedintotwosubclassesdependingonwhethertheycanbetransformedintoa“it…that-clause”construction.Thesemi-auxiliariesthatcannotbesotransformedareherelabelledas“SubclassI”,whilethosethatcan“SubclassII”,eg:Heislikelytodosomethingwrong.(subclassII)(Itislikelythathewilldosomethingwrong.)Theplanisboundtofail.(SubclassI)(*Itisboundthattheplanwillfail.)Mostofthesemi-auxiliariesbelongtoSubclassI.Theyinclude:beabouttobetobeabletobewillingtobeapttohadbetterbeboundtohadbestbeduetohavetobegoingtohavegottobeliabletocometobeobligedtofailtobesupposedtogettobesuretotendto,etcThefollowingsemi-auxiliariesbelongtoSubclassII: becertaintohappentobe(un)likelytoseemtoappeartoturnouttochancetoetcSemi-auxiliariesareinvariablyfollowedbyinfinitivewhichmightbeinthesimple,progressiveorperfectiveform,eg:Ichancedtobeoutwhenhecalled.Heseemstobeenjoyinghimself.Ihappentohavehadsomenastyexperiencesindealingwithhim.Semi-auxiliariesmayfollowamodaloraprimaryauxiliaryorbothtoformcomplexverbphrases,whichmightbeafinitephraseoranon-finite,eg:Theydidn’tseemtohavenoticedthat.Hemighthavechancedtomeethersomewhere.2)Semi-auxiliariesand“it…that-clause”Ashasbeensaidbefore,semi-auxiliariesofSubclassIIcanbetransformedintoa“it…that-clause”construction.Thetransformationalrelationismoreorlessthesameasthatin15.2whenwediscussedthetwopassivepossibilities.Forconvenience’ssake,wemightaswelllabelthe“it…that-clause”constructionasPatternI,andthesentencewithasemi-auxiliaryasPatternII,eg:ItappearsthathehasmanyfriendsinChina.(PatternI)HeappearstohavemanyfriendsinChina.(PatternII)Fromtheexamplecitedabove,wecanseethattheformoftheinfinitiveinPatternIIisdeterminedbytheformofthefiniteverbphraseinthethat-clauseofPatternI.Whentheverbphraseinthethat-clauseofPatternIisintheprogressiveorperfective,theinfinitivethatfollowsthesemi-auxiliaryinPatternIIalsotakesaprogressiveorperfectiveform,eg:IthappenedthathewasworkingattheofficewhenIcalled.HehappenedtobeworkingattheofficewhenIcalled.ItislikelythathehasarrivedinShanghai.HeislikelytohavearrivedinShanghai.Theinfinitivefollowingasemi-auxiliarymaybeactiveorpassive.Thisisdeterminedbythevoiceoftheverbphraseinthethat-clauseofPatternI,eg:Itseemsthatsomemembersofthecommitteehavebeenbribed.Somemembersofthecommitteeseemtohavebeenbribed.18.2ContractedformsofauxiliariesAlltheprimaryandmodalauxiliarieshavecontractedforms,whichmaybedividedintotwotypes:negativecontractionsandpositivecontractions.1)NegativecontractionsAlltheprimaryandmodalauxilariesexcept“amnot”havenegativecontractions:amnotdon’tcouldn’taren’tdoesn’tmayn’tisn’tdidn’tmightn’twasn’tshan’tmustn’tweren’twon’toughtn’t haven’tshouldn’tneedn’thasn’twouldn’tdaren’thadn’tcan’tusedn’tAllthe24formslistedaboveareauxiliariesexceptbeandhave,whichcanbeusedbothasauxiliariesandasmainverbs,butevenasmainverbstheyhavecontractions.Thenegativecontractionsoftheverbbemaytaketwoforms,exceptforthefirstpersonsingular:I’mnot－(aren’t)he’s/she’s/it’snothe/she/itisn’t(wasn’t)we’re/you’re/they’renotwe/you/theyaren’t(weren’t)Innegativequestions,wecaneitheruseanegativecontractionoranon-contractedform.Theformersuggestsacombiningofpositiveandnegativeorientation;thelatterisnegativelyorientated.Compare:Haven’tweseenthefilmbefore?Havewenotseenthefilmbefore?Isn’theanauthorityonpreventivemedicine?Ishenotanauthorityonpreventivemedicine?2)PositivecontractionsThereareonlytenitemsthathavepositivecontractions.Theseinclude:am(‘m),is(‘s),are(‘re),have(‘ve),has(‘s),had(‘d),shall(‘ll),will(‘’ll),should(‘’d),would(‘d).Thesepositivecontractedformsareusuallycombinedwithpersonalpronouns,withnounphrases,withpossessive,demonstrative,andindefinitepronouns,withintroductorythere,aswellaswithinterrogativewords,eg:I’dbegratefulifyou’dlendmeyourcar.Mary’scomingtomorrowevening.Themanager’llseeyousoon.Mine’sblue;yoursisred.That’dbemuchbetter.Something’sgottobedone.There’sbeenafarmhereforcenturies.What’reyoudoing?Who’dhavebelievedit?How’syourfather?3)RestrictionsontheuseofpositivecontractionsTherearesituationsinwhichpositivecontractionscannotbeused.a)Theycannotbeusedinshortresponses,eg:Haveyoufinishedyourwork?Yes,Ihave.(*I’ve)b)Theydonotappearattheendofasentence,eg:JohnisnotsuchagoodstudentasBillis.(*asBill’s)c)Theydonotoccuringeneralquestions,eg:Isitraining?Yes,itis. d)Theycannotbeusedwhentheverbisstressed,eg:You’recomingwithme?Iamcomingwhetheryoulikeitornot.e)Theverbhavecannotbecontractedwhenitisusedtodenote“possession”,norcanhavetowhenusedtodenote“obligation”,eg:Theyhavethreechildren.(*They’ve)Hehastoleaveearly.(*He’sto)Thisrestriction,however,doesnotapplytohavegotorhavegotto,eg:They’vegotthreechildren.He’sgottoleaveearly.