《英语语法讲义》PPT课件 69页

Tense英语共有16种时态，在语法测试中，时态是一个常测项目，也是一个必测项目。测试重点有：现在完成时，现在进行时，现在完成进行时，将来完成时，过去完成时，过去进行时，一般将来时。利用时间状语的信息提示时态与时间状语之间存在一定的呼应关系。时间状语可以决定时态。时间状语常出现在句首或句尾，有时也出现在谓语动词前后。标志完成时态的时间状语Eversince,since,sincethen,bythen,bynow,bytheendof,bythetimewhen,before,for,sofar,uptillnow,for,inthepastfewdays,inthepast/lastfewyears标志进行时态的时间状语Now,rightnow,atthemoment,thistimetomorrow标志将来时态的时间状语Tomorrow,tomorrowmorning,soon,next,intwodays,intheyear2050,in10years’time,somedayinthefuture, TRUEORFALSEI’dsaywheneveryouaregoingaftersomethingthatisbelongingtoyou,anyonewhoisdeprivingyouoftherighttohaveitiscriminal.Hewasseeingsomebodycreepingintothehousethroughtheopenwindowlastnight. 时态、语态需要掌握的要点：1.以下几类动词一般不能用于进行时，同样不用于完成进行时：(1)表示感知的动词：hear,feel,notice,recognize,see,taste,smell；(2)表示意愿、情感的动词：desire,dislike,forgive,hate,like,love,prefer,refuse,want,wish,fear,love,hate；(3)表示思考、看法的动词：believe,doubt,expect,forget,hope,feel,mean,know,agree,realize,mind,recall,recollect,remember,trust,suppose；(4)表示所有、占有的动词：belongto,owe,own,possess,hold(容纳),therebe； (5)其他动词：cost,appear,concern,contain,consist,deserve,matter,seem。如：(belong表示归属，不用于进行式)(see表示结果，不用于进行式) 2.不用will/shall表达将来时的形式：（1）begoingto+不定式表示意图：I’mgoingtodropinonmyoldfriend.表示有迹象将发生某种情况：Lookatthedarkclouds-thereisgoingtobeastorm.表示按计划、安排要发生的事情：Whatishegoingtoplaynext?begoingto与will的异同点两者都能表示意图：Iamgoingto/willtellyouaboutit.事先未经考虑的某种意愿，用will，不用begoingto：Thisisaterriblyheavybox.I’llhelpyoutocarryit.begoingto可用于条件从句表示将来，will则不能：Ifyouaregoingtomakeajourney,you’dbettergetreadyforitassoonaspossible.如果will表示意愿，则可用于条件句：Ifyouwill(理解成情态动词)takeoffyourclothes,wewillfitthenewclothesonyouinfrontofthemirror. （2）beto表示安排、计划、决定、命令或注定要发生的事，如：WearetodiscussthereportnextMonday.beto和begoingto时常可以互换，但beto多用来表示客观上的安排，而begoingto侧重说明主观上的打算。而begoingto其它一些用法不能用beto代替:Itistorain.(wrong)Itisgoingtorain.(right) （3）beaboutto表示将要，相当于bejustgoingto，如：Marlinisayoungmanofindependentthinkingwhoisnotabouttopaycomplimentstohispoliticalleaders.另外相似的表达有beonthepoint/vergeof表示“马上就要”，都一般不与表示确切将来的时间状语连用；（4）be，begin，come，depart，getoff，go，leave，return，start的一般进行时表示意图、安排，可代替将来时。瞬间动词的现在进行表将来。I’mleavingtomorrow. 3.一般现在时代替将来时(1)在时间、条件、让步从句中，一般现在时代替将来时，但要注意区别从句的类型，如：I’lltellhimwhenyouringagain.你再打电话时我告诉他。(状语从句){当…}I’lltellhimwhenyouwillringagain.我告诉他你什么时候再来电话。(宾语从句){…的时间}(2)在makesure,makecertain,see(toit)后的that从句中，谓语动词用一般现在时代替将来时，如：Seetoitthatyouincludeinthepaperwhateverquestionstheydidn’tknowtheanswertolasttime.(include不能用willinclude或其他形式) 4.完成时是时态测试的重点，注意与完成时连用的句型和时间状语：(1)by/between/upto/till+过去时间、since、bythetime/when+表示过去发生情况的从句，主句用过去完成时。如：Wehadjusthadourbreakfastwhenanoldmancametothedoor.Between1897and1919atleast29motionpicturesinwhichartificialbeingswereportrayedhadbeenproduced.(表示1919年时已发生的情况)(2)by+将来时间、bythetime/when+谓语动词是一般现在时的从句，主句用将来完成时。如：BythetimeyouarriveinLondon,wewillhavestayedinEuropefortwoweeks.Ihopeherhealthwillhaveimprovedgreatlybythetimewecomebacknextyear. (3)bynow、since+过去时间、in/during/for/over/thepast/lastfew(或具体数字)years/days/months，主句用现在完成时,但在itis+具体时间since/before这一句型中，主句更多的时候不用完成时。如：IhavelivedheresinceIwasborn.ItisfouryearssinceJohnleftschool.(4)在Itisthe+序数词/形容词最高级+that的定语从句中，谓语动词常用现在完成时。如：Itisn’tthefirsttimethatIhavefoundmyselfinanembarrassingsituation.(5)在nosooner…than…,hardly/scarcely…when…句型中，主句常用过去完成时：NosoonerhadIreachedhomethanitbegantorain. 4.完成进行时指动作在完成时的基础上还要继续下去。如：Thecompanyhasbeenpromisingariseinsalaryforages,butnothinghashappened.TheschoolboardlistenedquietlyasJohnreadthedemandthathisfollowershadbeendemonstratingfor. 时态、语态答题思路：(1)先根据选项的区别点确定考题要点为时态，然后回到题句中寻找给出的或暗示的时间状语，缩小选择范围，进而选出正确答案；(2)根据谓语动词与句子主语或非谓语动词与其逻辑主语的关系，确定句子是主动语态还是被动语态。 Infinitive1.不定式做主语Tobehereisagreatpleasure.Itisagreatpleasuretobehere.引导逻辑主语的介词：不定式的逻辑主语一般由介词for引导,It’snoteasyformetotakecareofsomanychildren.下列表示人的性格行为特征的形容词做表语时,不定式的逻辑主语则由of引导：It’scleverofyoutohaveinventedsuchadevice.(absurd,bold,brave,courageous,careful,careless,clever,wise,foolish,silly,stupid,good,nice,kind,thoughtful,considerate,greedy,generous,honest,modest,polite,rude,cruel,selfish,lazy,wicked,wrong). 2.不定式做宾语要求接不定式的动词：afford,arrange,attempt,claim,desire,determine,expect,fail,guarantee,endeavor,intend,pledge,pretend,resolve,request,swear,tend,venture。如：Eventhoughthechildrenpretendedtobeasleep,thenurseswerenotdeceivedwhentheycameintotheroom.注意一个例外help：Theyhelp(to)sweepthefloorofthewaitingroom.许多动词可以接带疑问副词的不定式：Idon’tknowwhattodonext.whether不可用if代替，why不能用在这个结构中Idon’tknowwhytodoit.(wrong)Idon’tknowwhyIshoulddoit. 3.不定式做宾语补语（1）see,notice,observe,hear,feel,watch等感官动词Didyounoticeanyonetakemybookaway?上述动作后作宾补的不定式不带to，而且表示动作整个过程已经完成。但转成被动语态时，作为主语补语的不定式必须带toThemanwasobservedtoopenthewindow.(2)let,make,have使役动词不带to：have无被动语态，let很少用被动语态，make如用于被动，作为主语补语的不定式必须带to：Iwasmadetolaughbyyou.(3)think,consider,suppose,feel,believe,imagine,prove,find等动词的宾语后面可以带tobe结构，也可以省略：Ithink/considerhim(tobe)awiseleader.(4)callon,askfor,waitfor,dependon,preparefor等成语后面要求用带to的不定式做宾补：Manyofthesesongscalledontheworkerstotakeupthestruggle. 4.不定式做定语(1)被修饰的名词前有序数词、形容词最高级或next,last,only,nota,the,very等限定词时，该名词用不定式做定语。如：thefirstwomantosetfootonthemoon第一个登上月球的女性(2)如果其动词要求不定式做宾语，相应的名词一般用不定式做定语。如：tendencytodo→tendtodo,decisiontodo→decidetodoThisbookisanattempttohelpyouuseEnglishandrecognizehowitisused.(3)如果其形容词形式要求接不定式做补语，相应的名词一般用不定式做定语。如：ambitiontodo“干……的雄心”→beambitioustodo“有雄心干……”curiositytodo “对……的好奇心”→becurioustodo“对……好奇”abilitytodo“做……的能力”→abletodo“有能力做……”AccordingtoDarwin,randomchangesthatenhanceaspecies’abilitytosurvivearenaturallyselectedandpassedontosucceedinggeneration. (4)表示方式、原因、时间、机会、权利等名词常用不定式做定语，这些名词包括：way,method,reason,time,place,chance,occasion,opportunity,evidence,power,right,movement,drive(运动)，effort等。如：IworkedsolateintheofficelastnightthatIhardlyhadtimetocatchthelastbus.Weappreciateyoureffortstobringaboutacomprehensivesolutiontotheexistingproblem.(5)不定代词something,nothing,little,much,alot习惯上用不定式做定语。如：Thoughwehavemadegreatprogress,thereisstillmuchtobeimproved. 4.不定式做状语不定式做状语主要表示目的、程度、结果、方式。(1)inorderto(do),soasto(do)结构引导目的状语，soasto不能置于句首。如：(2)so…asto,such…asto,enough…to,too…to结构做程度状语。如：Thesolutionworksonlyforcoupleswhoareself-employed,don’thavesmallchildrenandgetalongwellenoughtospendmostoftheirtimetogether.ThevocabularyandgrammaticaldifferencesbetweenBritishandAmericanEnglisharesotrivialandfewashardlytobenoticed.(3)不定式做结果状语只能出现在句子的末尾，表示不愉快的结果，有时用only加强语气。常见的不定式动词有find,hear,see,betold,form,give,make,produce等。如：Greatlyagitated,Irushedtotheapartmentandtriedthedoor,onlytofinditlocked.(4)not/nevertoo…to,too…notto,but/onlytoo…to,tooready/eager/apt/inclinedto表示肯定意义。如：Iamonlytoopleasedtohearfromyoufurther.能再听到你的消息，我太高兴了。 Gerund1.必须接动名词做宾语的动词牢记下列要求接动名词做宾语的动词：acknowledge,advocate,anticipate,appreciate,avoid,admit,confess,consider,delay,deny,enjoy,escape,excuse,fancy,favor,finish,forgive,imagine,involve,justify,mention,pardon,practice,postpone,recall，recollect，risk,resist,suggest,tolerate。如：Iappreciatehavingbeengiventheopportunitytostudyabroadtwoyearsago. 2.动名词做介词短语考生尤其要识别下列短语中的to是介词，不是不定式符号：objectto,resortto,reactto,contributeto,lookforwardto,beaccustomedto,becommittedto,beexposedto,besubjectedto,bedevotedto,bededicatedto,beopposedto,bereconciledto,becontraryto,be(get)usedto,comecloseto,getdownto,giveoneselfupto,prefer…to,seeto,setto,taketo,inadditionto,withregardto,withaviewto,onthewayto。如：TherewasnosignthatMr.Jospin,whokeepsafirmcontrolonthepartydespitehavingresignedfromleadershipofit,wouldintervenepersonally.Ourmoderncivilizationmustnotbethoughtofashavingbeencreatedinashortperiodoftime.Asthechildrenbecomefinanciallyindependentofthefamily,theemphasisonfamilyfinancialsecuritywillshiftfromprotectiontosavingfortheretirementyears. Participle分词起形容词和副词的作用，在句中做定语或状语。在概念上应清楚：●现在分词表示主动，表示动作在进行。●过去分词表示被动，表示动作结束了的状态或结果。 1.分词做定语，弄清现在分词与过去分词的区别分词短语做定语相当于省略了的定语从句，考生应掌握：(1)现在分词与被修饰词之间具有主动意义。如：It’seasytoblamethedeclineofconversationonthepaceofmodernlifeandonthevaguechangestakingplaceinourever-increasingworld.(相当于thechangeswhichtakeplace...)TherewasaveryinterestingremarkinabookbyanEnglishmanthatIreadrecentlygivingwhathethoughtwasareasonforthisAmericancharacteristic.(相当于whichgave...)Howmanyofusattending,say,ameetingthatisirrelevanttouswouldbeinterestedinthediscussion?(相当于Howmanyofuswhowillattend...) (2)过去分词与被修饰词之间具有被动意义。如：Goodnewswassometimesreleasedprematurely,withtheBritishrecaptureoftheportannouncedhalfadaybeforethedefendersactuallysurrendered. (相当于…recaptureoftheportwhichhadbeenannounced…)Justasthevalueofatelephonenetworkincreaseswitheachnewphoneaddedtothesystem,sodoesthevalueofacomputersystemincreasewitheachprogramthatturnsout. (相当于…eachnewphonewhichisaddedto…)Theauthorgaveadetaileddescriptionbasedonhispersonalobservationofnature.(相当于…descriptionwhichwasbasedon…)(3)下列不及物动词也以过去分词形式做定语或表语，但不具有被动意义（充当形容词作用）deceased,departed,elapsed,faded,fallen,gone,grown-up,retired,returned,risen,set,vanished,much-travelled,newlyarrived,recentlycome。如：anescapedprisoner一个逃犯aretiredworker一位退休工人afadedcurtain一个褪了色的窗帘anewlyarrivedstudent一个新来的学生 2.分词做状语，注意区分分词的一般式与完成式(1)表示时间，多置于句首，注意如果分词表示的动作的时间先于谓语动词，要用完成式。如：Havingcompletedonetask,westartedonanotherone.   (complete先于start之前发生)(2)表示原因，置于句首句尾均可，根据情况有时要用完成式，有时用一般式。如：Hewasn’taskedtotakeonthechairmanshipofthesociety,consideredinsufficientlypopularwithallmembers.Thereseemedlittlehopethattheexplorer,havingbeendesertedinthetropicalforest,wouldfindhiswaythroughit.(3)表示伴随、方式，置于句尾，用分词的一般式。如：Helenborrowedmydictionarytheotherdaysayingthatshewouldreturnitsoon.Annawasreadingapieceofsciencefiction,completelylost totheoutsideworld. (4)表示结果，置于句尾，用分词的一般式。如：Thecityfounditselfinacrisissituationlastsummerwhentheairconditioningondozensofthenewbusesbrokedown,beinginamess.(5)表示补充说明(同位)，置于句尾，用分词的一般式。如：Thearticleopensandcloseswithdescriptionsoftwonewsreports,eachmakingonemajorpointincontrastwiththeother.Fordtrieddividingthelabor,eachworkerassignedaseparatetask.3.分词的独立主格结构分词的逻辑主语一般为句子的主语，否则分词短语要有自己的逻辑主语，称为分词独立主格结构。分词独立主格结构只是句子的一个部分。如：Allflightshavingbeencanceledbecauseofthesnowstorm,wedecidedtotakethetrain.Darknesssettingin,theyoungcouplelingeredonmerrymaking. 非谓语动词的其他考点1.接不定式或动名词做宾语都可以，但在意思上有区别的动词的用法meantodo想要(做某事)proposetodo打算(做某事)meandoing意味(做某事)proposedoing建议(做某事)forgettodo忘记(要做的事)remembertodo记得(要做某事)forgetdoing忘记(已做的事)rememberdoing记得(已做过的事)goontodo继而(做另一件事)stoptodo停下来去做另一件事goondoing继续(做原来的事)stopdoing停止正在做的事regrettodo(对将要做的事)遗憾regretdoing(对已做过的事)后悔 2.不定式的习惯用法句型：cannothelpbutdo       cannotbutdocannotchoosebutdo     candonothingbutdohavenochoice/alternativebuttodo上述句型的意思接近，即“不得不做”、“不禁做”、“不由自主地做”、“不能不做”、“只能做”。如：Nobodycanhelpbutbefascinatedbytheworldintowhichheistakenbythesciencefiction.WhenIconsiderhowtalentedheisasapainter,Icannothelpbutbelievethatthepublicwillappreciatehisgift. 3.动名词的习惯用法句型：bebusy/activedoingsth.havedifficulty/trouble/problemdoingsth.It’snogood/use/picnic愉快的时间doingsth.haveagood/great/wonderfultimedoingsth.spend/wastetimedoingsth.Thereisnopoint/sense/harm/usedoingsth.cannothelpdoingsth.Thereisnodoingsth.Iknowitisn’timportantbutIcan’thelpthinkingaboutit.Alicewashavingtroublecontrollingthechildrenbecausethereweresomanyofthem.Thereisnousecryingoverspiltmilk. 4.therebe非谓语动词的用法(1)做宾语时取决于谓语动词的持续要求。如：Thestudentsexpectedtheretobemorereviewingclassesbeforethefinalexams.(expect要求接不定式做宾语)(2)做目的状语或程度状语时用fortheretobe，做其他状语用therebeing。如：Fortheretobesuccessfulcommunication,theremustbeattentivenessandinvolvementinthediscussionitselfbyallpresent.(fortheretobe…在句中做目的状语)Itisn’tcoldenoughfortheretobeafrosttonight,soIcanleaveJim’scaroutquitesafely.(fortheretobe…在句中做程度状语)Therebeingnofurtherquestions,we’llstopheretoday.(therebeing…做原因状语)(3)引导主语用fortheretobe。如：Itisunusualfortheretobenolatecomerstoday.(4)做除for外的介词宾语，用therebeing。如：Hewouldalwaysignorethefactoftherebeingsuchacontradictioninhisinnerthought. There与be中间可插入一些表推测的情态动词、表时态的短语和一些动词短语(如和将来时begoingtowill、现在完成时havehas+pp.、usedto结构等连用，注意其构成形式,这一内容在我们日常练习中经常出现错误,是一难点,也是历年中考试题中的一个考点.)。例如：Theremustbeapeninthebox.Therehappenedtobesomemoneyinmypocket.Thereisgoingtobeameetingtonight.Therehasbeenabigtreeonthetopofthehill.Thereusedtobeachurchacrossfromthebank. Therehavebeenmanypeoplemissing.很多人都已经不见了。Therehasbeenmuchmoneymissing.很多钱都不见了。therebe的反义疑问句用相应的谓语动词+there Subjunctivemood1.主从句谓语动词的时态(1)掌握主从句谓语动词的规范搭配:E.g.Thereisarealpossibilitythattheseanimalscouldbefrightened,shouldtherebeasuddenloudnoise.主句从句与现在事实相反would/情态动词过去式+dowere(不分人称)/did与过去事实相反would/情态动词过去式+havedonehaddone与将来事实相反would/情态动词过去式+doshoulddo/weretodo (2)区分主从句表示的不同时间概念：主从句谓语动词所指时间不同，这叫做错综时间条件句，动词形式应根据实际情况来调整。如：Haditnotbeenforthetimelyinvestmentfromthegeneralpublic,ourcompanywouldnotbesothrivingasitis.(主句与现在事实相反，从句与过去事实相反)HadPaulreceivedsixmorevotesinthelastelection,hewouldbeourchairmannow.(主句与现在事实相反，从句与过去事实相反)(3)识别事实和假设混合句：Yourmathinstructorwouldhavebeenhappytogiveyouamake-upexaminationhadyougoneandexplainedthatyourparentswereillatthetime.(句子前半部分为假设情况，而“父母病了”是事实)Iwouldhavegonetovisithiminthehospitalhaditbeenatallpossible,butIwasfullyoccupiedthewholeoflastweek.(前半部分为假设，后半部分是事实) 2.名词性从句的虚拟形式名词性从句是指宾语从句、主语从句、表语从句和同位语从句。从句的谓语动词需用(should+)动词原形表示虚拟。考生应熟悉：(1)下列动词做谓语时，that宾语从句中的动词用虚拟形式：desire,advise,recommend,command,direct,order,ask,demand,request,require,insist,maintain,move,propose,prefer,urge,vote。如：Inthepastmengenerallypreferredthattheirwivesworkinthehome.Imovethathebedischargedforhisseriousmistake. (2)下列形容词和分词做表语或补语时，that主语从句中动词用虚拟形式：advisable,desirable,insistent,preferable,urgent,appropriate,compulsory,crucial,essential,imperative,important,necessary,obligatory,possible,probable,proper,vital,advised,arranged,commanded,demanded,desired,ordered,proposed,recommended,requested,required,suggested。如：Theboarddeemiturgentthatthesefilesshouldbeprintedrightaway.Itisessentialthatallthesefiguresbecheckedtwice. (3)下列名词接同位语从句或表语从句时，从句中动词用虚拟形式：insistence,preference,recommendation,suggestion,proposal,motion,desire,requirement,request,order,necessity,importance,regulation,rule,resolution,understanding。如：JohnWagner’smostenduringcontributiontothestudyofAfro-Americanpoetryishisinsistencethatitbeanalyzedinareligious,aswellasworldly,frameofreference.Theykeeptellingusitisofutmostimportancethatourrepresentativebesenttotheconferenceonschedule. 3.含蓄虚拟条件句的谓语动词形式含蓄虚拟语气是指假设条件不通过if从句表达，而是暗含在其他结构中。考生应熟悉：(1)连词but,butthat,or,orelse；副词otherwise,unfortunately等表示转折假设。如：Asafetyanalysiswouldhaveidentifiedthetargetasapotentialdanger.Unfortunately,itwasneverdone.Victorobviouslydoesn’tknowwhat’shappened;otherwisehewouldn’thavemadesuchastupidremark.(2)介词短语暗含假设条件，常用的有：without,butfor,undermorefavorableconditions等。如：ButfortheEnglishexaminationIwouldhavegonetotheconcertlastSunday.(3)intended/meant/hoped/wished/plann或was/were+不定式完成式或hadintended/meant/planned/hoped/wished+不定式一般式暗示虚拟语气。如：Iintendedtohavecalledonyou,butIwasbusyatthattime.(4)情态动词完成式暗示虚拟语气。如：Ishouldhavecalledtomakeanairlinereservation,butIdidn’t. 4.常用虚拟形式的句型(1)从句中动词用过去式或过去完成式表示虚拟的句型：wouldrather      wouldassoon       asthough             suppose…hadrather            wouldsooner        asif              supposing…Ifonly…              Itis(high)timethat…(从句中动词只用过去式)如：Hiswifewouldrathertheydidn’ttalkaboutthematteranymore.I’dratheryouwentbytrain,becauseIcan’tbeartheideaofyourbeinginanairplaneinsuchbadweather.IfIwereinamovie,thenitwouldbeabouttimethatIburiedmyheadinmyhandsforacry.Myfatheralwaystalksasthoughhewereaddressingapublicmeeting. (2)Ifitwerenotfor…(与现在事实相反)Ifithadnotbeenfor…(与过去事实相反)相当于butfor。如：Ifithadnotbeenforhishelp(=butforhishelp),wewouldnothavesucceeded.(3)Ifonly…谓语动词视情况选用适当的形式。如：Ifonlythecommitteewouldapprovetheregulationsandputthemintoeffectassoonaspossible.(4)lest/forfearthat/incase从句谓语用(should+)动词原形。如：Themadmanwasputinthesoft-paddedcelllestheinjurehimself.(5)whether…or…有时谓语用be的原形，引导让步虚拟从句，这种用法经常采用倒装结构。如：Churchasweusethewordreferstoallreligiousinstitutions,betheyChristian,Islamic,Buddhist,Jewish,andsoon.Thebusinessofeachday,beitsellinggoodsorshippingthem,wentquitesmoothly. 注意情态动词完成式的用法有两方面的含义：1.表示已经发生的情况(1)musthave+过去分词，表示对已发生情况的肯定推测，译为“(昨天)一定……”。如：MypainmusthavebeenapparentthemomentIwalkedintotheroom,forthefirstmanImetaskedsympathetically:“Areyoufeelingallright?”(2)can’t/couldn’thave+过去分词，表示对已发生情况的否定推测，译为“(昨天)一定没……”。如：Marycouldn’thavereceivedmyletter;otherwiseshewouldhaverepliedbeforenow.(3)may/mighthave+过去分词，表示对已发生的事情做不肯定、可能性很小的推测，或事实上根本没发生，译为“也许……”。如：AtFloridaPower’sCrystalRiverplant,apotentiallyseriousleakageofradioactivewatermayhavebeenunknowinglycausedbyanelectrician.情态动词 2.表示虚拟语气(1)needn’thave+过去分词，表示做了不必做的事，译为“其实没必要……”。如：Asitturnedouttobeasmallhouseparty,weneedn’thavedressedupsoformally.(2)should/shouldnothave+过去分词，表示应该做某事但实际上未做，或本不应该做但实际上做了,译为“本(不)应该……”。如：Iregrethavinglefttheworkunfinished;Ishouldhaveplannedeverythingaheadcarefully.(3)oughttohave+过去分词，表示动作按理该发生了，但实际上未发生，译为“该……”，与should的完成式含义类似。如：Theporteroughttohavecalledthefire-brigadeassoonashesawthefireinthestock,whichwentupinsmoke.(4)couldhave+过去分词，表示过去本来可以做但却未做，译为“完全可以……”。如：Whatyousaidisright,butyoucouldhavephraseditmoretactfully.(5)may/mighthave+过去分词，表示过去可以做但实际未做，译为“(那样)也许会……”。如：Itmighthavebeenbettertoincludemorepunchystatisticsandphotosofequipmentintheintroductiontofurtherassistfirst-timeofficeautomationmanagers. 3.几个情态动词常考的句型(1)may/might(just)aswell“不妨，最好”，与hadbetter相近。如：Sincetheflightwascancelled,youmightaswellgobytrain.(2)cannot/can’t…too…“越……越好，怎么也不过分”。注意这个句型的变体cannot…over…。如：Youcannotbetoocarefulwhenyoudriveacar.Thefinalchaptercoversorganizationalchangeanddevelopment.Thissubjectcannotbeoveremphasized.(3)usedn’t或didn’tuseto为usedto(do)的否定式。(4)should除了“应该”一层意思外，大纲还规定要掌握其“竟然”的意思。如：Ididn’texpectthatheshouldhavebehavedlikethat. 形容词、副词及其比较级1.形容词的句法功能形容词在句中做定语、表语和主语。考生应注意：(1)以“a”开头的形容词如alone,alike,asleep,awake等不能做前置定语，可做表语或后置定语。(2)某些以副词词缀“-ly”结尾的词是形容词，如friendly,leisurely,lovely等。(3)下列动词既是实义动词又是系动词，注意用做系动词时，要求形容词做表语：remain,keep,become,get,grow,go,come,turn,stay,stand,run,prove,seem,appear,look。 2.考比较级时，考生应把握(1)形容词和副词比较级的形式是否和比较连词对应出现，即是否符合原级比较及比较级的结构。如：Doyouenjoylisteningtorecords?Ifindrecordsareoftenasgoodas,orbetterthananactualperformance.Onthewhole,ambitiousstudentsaremorelikelytosucceedintheirstudiesthanarethosewithlittleambition.(2)比较的成分是否属于同类事物或同类概念。如：Thenumberofregisteredparticipantsinthisyear’smarathonwashalfthatoflastyear’s.Youngreaders,moreoftenthannot,findthenovelsofDickensfarmoreexcitingthanThackeray’s. (3)比较级的修饰语如alittle,alot,the,any,even,far,hardly,lots,much,rather，还有表示倍数比较的词等，他们的位置是：修饰语+as…as…,或修饰语+more…than…。如：Smokingissoharmfultopersonalhealththatitkillsseventimesmorepeopleeachyearthanautomobileaccidents.“Doyouregretpayingfivehundreddollarsforthepainting?”“No,Iwouldgladlyhavepaidtwiceasmuchforit.”twicethelengthof(4)下列词和短语不用比较级形式却表示比较概念：inferior，minor，senior，prior，preferto，superior，major，junior，preferable，differfrom，comparedwith，incomparisonwith，differentfrom，ratherthan。如：Theirwatchissuperiortoalltheotherwatchesonthemarket. 3.最高级形式应注意的问题比较级形式表示最高级意义时，比较对象的范围应用：anyother+单数名词theother+复数名词theothersanyone/anythingelse上述词是用来将比较级结构转变成最高级意义的关键词语，切不可遗漏，否则会造成逻辑混乱的错误。Johnrunsfasterthananyone.(TorF) 4.有关比较级的特殊句型(1)notsomuch…as…与其说……不如说……Thechiefreasonforthepopulationgrowthisn’tsomuchariseinbirthratesasafallindeathratesasaresultofimprovementsinmedicalcare.(2)no/notanymore…than…两者一样都不……Theheartisnomoreintelligentthanthestomach,fortheyarebothcontrolledbythebrain.Thereisnoreasontheyshouldlimithowmuchvitaminyoutake,anymorethantheycanlimithowmuchwateryoudrink.(3)no/notanyless…than…两者一样都……Sheisnolessbeautifulthanhersister.(4)justas…so….正如……，……也……(用倒装结构)Justasthesoilisapartoftheearth,soistheatmosphere. 平行结构1.注意比较结构中相比较的内容在语法形式上是否相同。如：Itisbettertodieonone’sfeetthantoliveonone’sknees.Despitethetemporarydifficulties,themanagerprefersincreasingtheoutputtodecreasingit.2.其他具有并列或比较意义的短语。(1)ratherthan,letalone虽不是并列连词，但在结构上连接两个语法形式相同的成分。如：Wearetaughtthatabusinesslettershouldbewritteninaformalstyleratherthaninapersonalstyle.(而非)Forthenewcountrytosurvive,letaloneforitspeopletoenjoyprosperity,neweconomicpolicieswillberequired.（更不用说）(2)如果平行的两个成分在形式上是介词短语，而且介词相同，一般说来第二个介词不要省略。如：Attimes,morecaregoesintothecompositionofnewspaperandmagazineadvertisementsthanintothewritingofthefeaturesandeditorials. 代词1.与所指代的名词在性、数、格上是否一致如：Eachcigaretteapersonsmokesdoessomeharm,andeventuallyhemaygetaseriousdiseasefromitseffect.Itwasduringthe1920’sthatthefriendshipbetweenthetwoAmericanwritersHemingwayandFitzgeraldreacheditshighestpoint.2.that的指代作用that指代不可数名词和单数可数名词(如是复数，用those)，后面通常跟有修饰语，如出现在比较结构中的thatof。如：Conversationcallsforawillingnesstoalternatetheroleofspeakerwiththatoflistener,anditcallsforoccasional“digestivepauses”byboth.Nobreadeatenbymanissosweetasthatearnedbyhisownlabor.3.one的指代作用one指代不确指的单数可数名词，复数为ones。theone指代确指的单数可数名词。如：Agoodwriterisonewhocanexpressthecommonplaceinanuncommonway. 主谓一致问题1.主语与谓语之间有定语从句或其他结构修饰，所以距离较远，考生易误认主语。如：Theamountofpressurewhichthematerialsaresubjecttoaffectsthequalityoftheproducts.2.关系代词做主语的定语从句中，谓语的数要与先行词一致。如：Despitemuchresearch,therearestillcertainelementsinthelifecycleoftheinsectthatarenotfullyunderstood.3.动名词短语、不定式短语、名词性从句做主语，谓语用单数。如：Buyingclothesisoftenatime-consumingjobbecausethoseclothesthatapersonlikesarerarelytheonesthatfithimorher.Tounderstandthesituationcompletelyrequiresmorethoughtthanhasbeengiventhusfar.4.主语带有(together/along)with,suchas,aswellas,accompaniedby,including,ratherthan等附加成分,谓语的数不受附加成分的影响。如：Thepresidentofthecollege,togetherwiththedeans,isplanningaconferenceforthepurposeoflayingdowncertainregulations. 5.表示时间、距离、金额、重量、面积、体积、容积等度量的名词短语做主语时，谓语用单数。6.某些固定结构中谓语的数：agreatmany+可数名词复数                  谓语用复数manya+可数名词单数                          谓语用单数anumberof+可数名词复数                     谓语用复数thenumberof+可数名词复数                  谓语用单数themajorityof+可数名词复数                 谓语用复数each/every+可数名词单数                       谓语用单数neither/eitherof+可数名词复数                谓语用单数morethanone+可数名词单数                  谓语用单数oneandahalf+可数名词复数                  谓语用单数thegreaterpartof/alargeproportionof/50%of /onethirdof/plentyof/therestof谓语的数与of后面的名词一致 倒装结构1.下列否定词及含有否定意义的词组修饰状语时，若置于句首，句子的主谓要部分倒装never,no,neither,notonly,hardly,scarcely,little,seldom,rarely,notuntil,nowhere,atnotime,onnoaccount,innorespect,innosense,bynomeans,innoway,nolonger,noless,nomore,nosoonerthan,undernocircumstances,invain,stillless。如：Notonlyisitsdirectattackontheirdiscipline,itbypassestheessenceofwhatsociologistsfocuson.Undernocircumstancesshouldwedoanythingthatwillbenefitourselvesbutharmtheinterestsofthestate.2.以only修饰状语开头的句子，句子的主谓要部分倒装Onlywhenyouhaveobtainedsufficientdatacanyoucometoasoundconclusion. 3.以下列副词或短语开头的句子，句子的主谓要部分倒装often,so,well,tosuchadegree,tosuchanextent,tosuchextremes,tosuchapoint，manyatime。如：Soinvolvedwiththeircomputersdothechildrenbecomethatleadersatsummercomputercampsoftenhavetoforcethemtobreakforsportsandgames. 4.以下列副词开头的句子，句子的主谓要全部倒装(1)出于修辞需要，表示方向的副词：out,down,in,up,away,on。如：Downjumpedtheburglarfromthetenthfloorwhenheheardsomeoneshoutedathim.(2)出于习惯用法：here,there,now,thus,hence,then。（某些时间、地点副词置于句首）如：Nowisyourturn.         Theregoesthebell.5.让步从句的倒装(1)as引导让步状语从句，必须采用倒装结构，但不是主谓倒装，而是将被强调的内容置于句首。如：MuchasIhavetraveled,Ihaveneverseenanyonetoequalher,inthoroughness,whateverthejob.(2)出现在句型be+主语+其他（或者）,comewhatmay（不管怎样）中。如：Ourcivilizationhasaccumulatedanincredibleamountofknowledge—beitscientificorartistic.Thebusinessofeachday,beitsellinggoodsorshippingthem,wentquitesmoothly.Comewhatmay,I’llbeonyourside. 6.比较从句的倒装as,than引导的比较从句中，如果主语是名词短语且较长，经常采用倒装结构(不倒装也可以)。注意：这种结构主语一般为名词，如果是代词则不倒装。如：Hydrogenburnsmuchmorecleanlythandootherfuelsandiseasytoproduce.Readingistothemindasisexercisetothebody. 复合句——形容词性(定语)从句1.尤其要注意whose的用法whose在从句中做定语，修饰名词。所以，如果关系代词后面紧接的是名词，且关系代词又不在从句中做主语或宾语，那么，这个关系代词就应该是whose。如：2.介词+which的用法如果从句中主宾成分齐全，考生便可考虑关系代词是否在从句中做状语，而状语通常用介词短语充当，于是可以得知，关系代词前面应有介词，再分析所给的选项，根据与名词的搭配作出正确选择。如：Wearenotconsciousoftheextenttowhichworkprovidesthepsychologicalsatisfactionthatcanmakethedifferencebetweenafullandanemptylife. 3.as与which用作关系代词的区别(1)as与thesame,such,so,as等关联使用。如：Astheforestgoes,sogoesitsanimallife.(2)as和which都可以引导非限定性定语从句，但as在句中的位置比较灵活，可出现在句首、句中、句末，而which只能出现在句中，尤其是当先行词是整个句子时。如：Asistrueinallinstitutions,juriesarecapableofmakingmistakes.常见的这类结构有：ashasbeensaidbefore,ashasbeenmentionedabove,ascanbeimagined,asisknowntoall,ashasbeenannounced,ascanbeseenfromthesefigures,asmight/couldbeexpected,asisoftenthecase,ashasbeenpointedout,asoftenhappens,aswillbeshown等。 4.关系代词that与which用于引导定语从句的区别(1)如果关系代词在从句中做宾语，用that,which都可以，而且可以省略；(2)先行词是不定代词anything,nothing,little,all,everything时，关系代词用that；(3)先行词由形容词最高级或序数词修饰或由next，last,only,very修饰时，用that；(4)非限定性定语从句只能用which引导；(5)关系代词前面如果有介词，只能用which。（6）先行词既是人又是事，用that5.but做关系代词，用于否定句，相当于who…not,that…not这个结构的特点是主句中常有否定词或含有否定意义的词。如：Therearefewteachersbutknowhowtouseacomputer.Thereisnocomplicatedproblembutcanbesolvedbyacomputer. 复合句——名词性从句一个句子起名词的作用，在句中做主语、宾语／介词宾语、表语、同位语，那么这个句子就是名词性从句。1.what/whatever的用法考生应把握：what是关系代词，它起着引导从句并在从句中担当一个成分这两个作用。如：Theylosttheirwayintheforest,andwhatmademattersworsewasthatnightbegantofall.(what既引导主语从句又在从句中做主语)Waterwillcontinuetobewhatitistoday—nextinimportancetooxygen.(what既引导表语从句又在从句中做表语)2.whoever和whomever的区别whoever和whomever相当于anyonewho，用主格与宾格取决于其在从句中做主语还是做宾语。如：Theyalwaysgivethevacantseatstowhoevercomesfirst.(whoever在从句中做主语) 3.有关同位语从句的问题(1)引导词通常为that,但有时因名词内容的需要，也可由whether及连接副词why,when,where,how引导。that不表示任何意义，其他词表示时间、地点、原因等。如：Theproblem,whereIwillhavemycollegeeducation,athomeorabroad,remainsuntouched.(2)同位语从句有时与先行词隔开，注意识别。如：Evidencecameupthatspecificspeechsoundsarerecognizedbybabiesasyoungas6monthsold. 4.whether与if在引导名词性从句时的区别(1)主语从句只能用whether引导；(2)whether一般多用于宾语从句的肯定式，而if引导的从句可以有否定式；(3)whetherornot可以连在一起用，而ifornot则不能，ornot只能放在句末；(4)whether可以引导介词宾语从句，if则不能；(5)宾语从句提至谓语前面时，只能用whether引导；(6)在question,ask后面一般只用whether，question的同位语从句也用whether引导；(7)后接不定式时，只能用whether。5.动词believe,expect,fancy,imagine,suppose,think后的宾语从句如为否定式，一般将否定词转移到主句谓语上。否定转移 复合句——副词性(状语)从句副词在句中起状语作用，故如果起状语作用的部分为一个句子，那么该句便是副词性从句，也称状语从句。状语从句可细分为：时间、地点、条件、原因、让步、目的、结果、比较、方式等。状语从句的测试重点为：考查考生对主从句之间逻辑意义关系的把握，看其是否能选择正确的从属连词。1.条件状语从句的常考知识点(1)if与unless的用法。if和unless都是引导条件状语从句的连词，考生应尤其注意unless的用法，因为它表示反面条件，相当于ifnot“如果不”、“除非”。如：Indebating,onemustcorrecttheopponent’sfacts,denytherelevanceofhisproof,ordenythatwhathepresentsasproof,ifrelevant,issufficient. (2)复合连词aslongas，solongas，asfaras，onconditionthat，intheeventthat；动词及分词provided(that)，providing(that)，giventhat,suppose/supposing(that)，assuming，say等引导条件状语从句。如：YoucanarriveinBeijingearlierforthemeetingprovidedyoudon’tmindtakingthenighttrain.Assumingheisdiligentinhisstudiesatordinarytimes,heissuretopassthetest.Intheeventthatshehasnotbeeninformed,Iwilltellher.(如果……)Youcangoswimmingonconditionthatyoudon’tgotoofarfromtheriverbank.(如果……)Supposeitrained,wewouldstillgo.(假如……)Sayitweretrue,whatwouldyoudoaboutit?(假如……)(3)祈使句表示条件。如：Dresswarmly,orelseyou’llcatchcold.Talktoanyoneinthedrugindustry,andyou’llsoondiscoverthatthescienceofgeneticsisthebiggestthingtohitdrugresearchsincepenicillinwasdiscovered. 2.让步状语从句的常考知识点(1)as引导让步从句，要求用倒装结构，把强调的部分置于句首。即使如：Muchashelikesher,hedoesgetirritatedwithhersometimes.Humbleasitmaybe,thereisnoplacelikehome.(2)while引导让步从句。尽管如:Everybodycheatsalittle,somepsychologistssay,whileothersinsistthatmostpeoplearebasicallyhonestandsomewouldn’tcheatunderanycircumstances.(3)复合连接词forallthat和分词granting/granted(that)引导让步从句。纵然，虽然如此如:Grantedyouhavemademuchprogress,youshouldnotbeconceited.Forallthatcomputerscanprovideuswithgreathelp,theyshouldn’tbeseenassubstitutesforfundamentalthinkingandreasoningskills. 3.时间状语从句的常考知识点(1)before表示汉语的“只有/必须……才能”。如:Newideassometimeshavetowaitforyearsbeforetheyarefullyaccepted.(2)when引导时间从句时，如果出现在后半句，则表示“这/那时突然”。如：IhavejuststartedbackforthehousetochangemyclotheswhenIheardthevoices.(3)whenitcomesto是习惯用法，意为“当谈到……时”。如：Doingyourhomeworkisasurewaytoimproveyourtestscores,andthisisespeciallytruewhenitcomestoclassroomtests. (4)名词短语、介词短语each/everytime,themoment/second/minute,inthetime,bythetime起连词作用。如:Ihopeherhealthwillhaveimprovedgreatlybythetimewecomebacknextyear.MypainmusthavebeenapparentthemomentIwalkedintotheroom,forthefirstmanImetaskedsympathetically:“Areyoufeelingallright?”Mercury’s水星velocity速度issomuchgreaterthantheEarth’sthatitcompletesmorethanfourrevolutionsaroundtheSuninthetimeittakestheEarthtocompleteone.(5)副词directly,immediately,instantly,now引导时间从句,相当于assoonas。如:Thepolicemenwentintoactiondirectlytheyheardthealarm. 4.原因状语从句的常考知识点(1)inthat引导原因从句时,有时翻译成“是因为”、“就在于”。如:Advertisingisdistinguishedfromotherformsofcommunicationinthattheadvertiserpaysforthemessagetobedelivered.Criticismandself-criticismisnecessaryinthatithelpsustofindandcorrectourmistakes.(2)nowthat表示“既然”;seeingthat,considering，given表示“鉴于”、“考虑到”。如:Nowthatwehaveallthematerialready,weshouldbeginthenewtaskatonce.Hedidpoorlyintheexaminations,consideringhowhardhehadtriedforthem.Seeingthatsheislawfullyoldenoughtogetmarried,Idon’tthinkyoucanstopher.其他引导原因状语从句的连接词语还有:forthe(simple)reasonthat,byreasonthat,onthegroundsthat,inasmuchas,insofaras由于等。 5.while,whereas然而，却引导对比从句如:WhiletheteenagepopulationintheUnitedStateshasdeclinedoverthepastdecade,violentcrimescommittedbyjuvenileshavesharplyincreased.Ababymightshowfearofanunfamiliaradult,whereasheislikelytosmileandreachouttoanotherinfant.6.so…that…,withtheresultthat,somuchsothat引导结果状语从句如:Overtheyears,alargenumberofoverseasstudentshavestudiedatthatuniversitywiththeresultthatithasacquiredsubstantialexperienceindealingwiththem.Hehimselfbelievedinfreedom,somuchsothathewouldratherdiethanlivewithoutit. 7.inorderthat,incase,forfearthat,lest以免，唯恐(用虚拟语气)引导目的状语从句以免如:Givemeyourtelephonenumber,incaseIneedyourhelp.HelenlistenedcarefullyinorderthatshemightdiscoverexactlywhatJohnwanted.8.where作为连接副词的一种用法,翻译为“在……地方”如:InJapan,aperson’scapabilitiesarenotforcedintoaninflexiblespecialty.Wherethereiswillingnessandintelligence,thereisaplacewithinthecompanytotryandtosucceed.