合作原则视角下的狄更斯小说中的英语谚语研究 111页

分类号学号I201121138学校代码10487密级硕士学位论文合作原则视角下的狄更斯小说中的英语谚语研究学位申请人：韩礼德学科专业：外国语言学及应用语言学指导教师：张金泉答辩日期：2013年5月日 AThesisSubmittedinPartialFulfillmentoftheRequirementsfortheDegreeofMasterofArtsAStudyofEnglishProverbsinCharlesDickens’Novels——FromthePerspectiveofCooperativePrincipleCandidate:KhalidWahaabJabberMajor:ForeignLinguisticsandAppliedLinguisticsSupervisor:ZhangJinquanHuazhongUniversityofScienceandTechnologyWuhan430074,P.R.ChinaMay,2013 独创性声明本人声明所呈交的学位论文是我个人在导师指导下进行的研究工作及取得的研究成果。尽我所知，除文中已经标明引用的内容外，本论文不包含任何其他个人或集体已经发表或撰写过的研究成果。对本文的研究做出贡献的个人和集体，均已在文中以明确方式标明。本人完全意识到本声明的法律结果由本人承担。学位论文作者签名：日期：年月日学位论文版权使用授权书本学位论文作者完全了解学校有关保留、使用学位论文的规定，即：学校有权保留并向国家有关部门或机构送交论文的复印件和电子版，允许论文被查阅和借阅。本人授权华中科技大学可以将本学位论文的全部或部分内容编入有关数据库进行检索，可以采用影印、缩印或扫描等复制手段保存和汇编本学位论文。保密□，在年解密后适用本授权书。本论文属于不保密□。（请在以上方框内打“√”）学位论文作者签名：指导教师签名：日期：年月日日期：年月日 华中科技大学硕士学位论文AbstractAproverbisatraditional,shortsayingincommonuse.Proverbscontainwisdom,truth,morals,andtraditionalviewsexpressedinametaphoricalmannerandinanindependentformandarehandeddownfromgenerationtogeneration.Theyareregardedasastoreofexperiencesandexpertisewhichreflectpeople’sbeliefsandtraditions.TherearethousandsofproverbsinEnglishandinmanyotherlanguages.Manyhavedescendedfromancienttimesthroughsources,suchastheBibleandrenownedliteraryworkslikethoseofChaucer,ShakespeareandCharlesDickensbuttherearemanywhoseoriginweareuncertainof.ThepresentstudyisanattempttoanalyseEnglishproverbsfromtheperspectiveoftheCooperativePrincipleandGriceanmaxims.EightyEnglishproverbswhicharestillincommonusehavebeenselectedfromthirteennovelsbyCharlesDickens.Thestudyaimstofindoutwhethertheseproverbsdemonstratetheobservanceornon-observanceofGrice’smaxims,whichmaximisleastobservedandwhichkindofnon-observanceisthemostfrequentcomparedtoothers.ThestudyhasrevealedthatmostoftheEnglishproverbsdemonstratenon-observanceofconversationalmaximsandthatonlyasmallpercentageobservethem.Thestudyalsoshowedthattherelationmaximistheonewhichisbrokenmoreoftenthantheothers,whilethequalitymaximgainedlowerpercentage.Theothertwomaxims,thequantitymaximandthemannermaxim,gainedfarlowerpercentages.Thefindingsalsoindicatedthatfloutingisthemostcommonwayofbreakingthemaxims,whereasviolatingandoptingoutoccurfarlessoften.Theothertwokindsofnon-observance,infringingandsuspending,donotrepresentanysignificantpercentage.Speakerscanflouttheconversationalmaximswhentheyhavenointentionofmisleadingordeceivingthehearer.Theydosoprimarilybecausetheywantthehearertopayattentiontotheimplicature.Keywords:EnglishproverbsCooperativePrincipleGrice’smaximNon-observanceI 华中科技大学硕士学位论文摘要谚语是一种常用的传统的短语。谚语是以隐喻的方式和独立的形式一代又一代传承下来，它包含着人类的智慧、真理、道德以及传统的观念。谚语被视为反映人们的信念和传统的蕴含人们的经验和专门知识的镜子。与很多其他语言一样，英语中也有着成千上万的谚语。它们是从古时候继承而来的，主要有几种来源，例如《圣经》，名人的文学作品，如杰弗里·乔叟，莎士比亚以及查尔斯·狄更斯。此外还有许多来源并不明确的谚语。本文研究是从合作原则和格莱斯准则的角度分析英语中的谚语，并从查尔斯•狄更斯的十三篇小说中选取了八十个常用的英语谚语。本文研究目的是找出查尔斯•狄更斯的小说中的英语谚语是否遵守了格莱斯准则，哪一项原则最容易被忽略，相比之下，哪一种背离出现的频率最高。研究结果表明，收集到的英语谚语中，大多数并未遵守格莱斯的会话原则，较之不遵守该原则的现象，遵守该原则的谚语比例更低。研究还表明，与其他准则相比，关联准则更容易被打破，然而违背质量准则的谚语比例最低。其他两种准则，数量准则和方式准则,分别获得了更低的比例。最后，研究结果表明，违背和无视准则的比例却远远低于蔑视准则的比例。其他两种不遵守准则的类别，即违反和延迟并未出现在所选定的语料中。说话者蔑视会话原则，但他/她并无意要误导或者欺骗听话者。他/她只是想让听话者把注意力放在会话含义上面。关键词：英语谚语合作原则格莱斯准则不遵守II 华中科技大学硕士学位论文ContentsAbstract·····················································································I摘要·······················································································IIContents··················································································IIIIntroduction·············································································(1)1LiteratureReview1.1Conceptofaproverb·······························································(5)1.1.1Definitionofaproverb·······················································(5)1.1.2OriginofEnglishproverbs··················································(6)1.1.3CharacteristicsofEnglishproverbs········································(8)1.1.4ImportanceofEnglishproverbs···········································(12)1.1.5Differencesamongproverbs,idioms,andsayings······················(13)1.2StudiesonEnglishproverbsfromdifferentperespectives···················(14)1.2.1Fromthelinguisticperspective············································(14)1.2.2Fromthesocioculturalperspective········································(16)1.2.3FromtheEFLperspective··················································(17)1.3CooperativeprincipleandGrice’smaxims····································(19)1.3.1Generalintroduction························································(20)1.3.2Non-observanceofGrice’smaxims······································(24)1.3.2.1Floutingofthemaxims·············································(25)1.3.2.2Violatingofthemaxims············································(27)1.3.2.3Optingoutofthemaxims··········································(29)1.3.2.4Infringingofthemaxims···········································(30)1.3.2.5Suspendingofthemaxims·········································(30)1.4Fictionalconversation····························································(31)1.5Thewayscooperativeprincipleoperateswithproverbs·····················(34)III 华中科技大学硕士学位论文2Methodology2.1Researchquestions································································(37)2.2Researchsubject···································································(37)2.3Researchprocedures······························································(38)3ResultsandDiscussion3.1Observanceornon-observance··················································(40)3.2Maximsfailingtobeobserved···················································(43)3.3Non-observanceofthemaxims··················································(47)3.3.1Floutingofthemaxims·····················································(51)3.3.2Violatingofthemaxims····················································(77)3.3.3Optingoutofthemaxims··················································(79)3.3.4Infringingofthemaxims···················································(80)3.3.5Suspendingofthemaxims·················································(81)3.4Observanceofthemaxims·······················································(81)Conclusion·············································································(93)Acknowledgments····································································(97)References··············································································(98)IV 华中科技大学硕士学位论文ListofFiguresFigure1.1ObservanceofGrice’sMaxims·········································(23)Figure1.2Non-observanceofGrice’sMaxims···································(25)Figure1.3ConversationintheNovel···············································(32)Figure3.1PercentageofObservanceandNon-observanceoftheMaxims····(43)Figure3.2PercentageoftheMaximsfailingtobeObserved····················(46)Figure3.3PercentageoftheKindsofNon-observanceoftheMaxims········(50)ListofTablesTable3.1ResultsofObservanceandNon-observanceoftheMaxims·········(41)Table3.2ResultsoftheMaximsfailingtobeObserved·························(43)Table3.3ResultsofthekindsofNon-observanceoftheMaxims··············(47)V 华中科技大学硕士学位论文IntroductionBackgroundknowledgeLanguageisameansofcommunication;itexpressesthoughts,emotions,feelings,anddesiresofhumanbeings.Proverbsplayanessentialroleinthecultural,social,didactic,andpsychologicalaspectsofallsocieties.Proverbsaretheessenceofpopularphilosophy.Theyformtheconsensusoffolkloreandgiveatruepictureofthespiritofthenation.TheEnglishword“proverb”hasaLatinandGreeketymologicalroot.ItcomesfromtheLatintermproverbium,whichmeans“oldsaying”and“adage”or“proverb”.However,thetermproverbiumhasbeenmodifiedintheEnglishlanguagetomeana“shortpithysayingincommonandrecognizeduse”(AbdulJabbar,2008:116).Proverbsareregardedasoneofthesmallestubiquitousfolkloregenres.Theyhavebeencollectedandstudiedsincethebeginningofwrittenrecords.Paremiographersandparemiologistshavebeenworkinghardtopublishcollectionsandtreatisesthroughouttheworld.Inthehumancommunicationtrend,proverbshaveplayedamajorrolewhetherinoralorwrittenform(Mieder,2005:1).Proverbshavebeendescribedasbitsofancientwisdomthatbear“theimpressoftheearlydaysofmankind”.Buttheirvalueandcharmisnottobefoundinthepastorintheirbrevityandwitonly.TheSpanishdescribedtheproverbas“ashortsentencebasedonlongexperience”,whiletheDutchcalledit“thedaughterofdailyexperience”.TotheGermans,proverbscanbecomparedtobutterfliesinthat“somearecaughtandsomeflyaway”.FortheArabs,“Aproverbistospeechwhatsaltistofood”(Stone,2006:xiii).Thousandsofyearsago,proverbswereaguideforpeopleintheirreallifecommunication.Proverbscontainexperiencesofthepastdecadesinbriefandexpressinametaphoricalmanner,makingtherememberingofthemeasytouseinlifeaseffectiverhetoricinoralandwrittencommunication(Mieder,2004:xi).Aproverbmayhavetwodifferenttypesofmeanings,literalandfigurative.Theliteralmeaningistheonethatcanbeinterpretedeasily,forexampletheproverb“likefather,likeson”hasaliteralmeaningsincefatherandsonarealike.Incontrast,the1 华中科技大学硕士学位论文proverb“bloodisthickerthanwater”hasafigurativemeaningindifferentinterpretationsdependingonthesocialcontext.Inthiscase,thefigurativemeaningreferstothemembersofthesamefamilythatsharestrongertieswitheachotherthantheydowithothers.Inotherwords,themeaningoftheconstitutivepartsoftheproverbsisdifferentfromthecollectivemeaningoftheproverb(AbdulJabbar,2008:177–178).Languagehasbeenstudiedfromdifferentpointsofviewaccordingtoavarietyofbranchesoflinguistics.Thestudyofmeaningoflanguagehastwolevels.Thefirstleveldealswiththestudyoftextmeaning,thatis,thestudyoftheformofthewordsandsentences.Italsomeansthestudyofmeaningoflanguagerelatedtodictionariesorstructuralmeaningoflanguage.Thislevelofstudyiscalledthesemanticstudyoflanguage.Ontheotherhand,thestudyofthemeaningbeyondtheformofwordsandsentencesiscalledpragmaticstudy.Itdealswiththemeaningthatrelatestothecomponentsofcontext.Sointhiscase,pragmaticmeaninglooksattheimplicitmeaningoflanguagewithreferencetothespeaker’simpliedmeaningandhearer’sintention,whereassemanticmeaninglooksattheliteralmeaningofthewordsandsentencesthatconstitutethetext.Themeaningwithoutthepragmaticaspectiscalledtheliteralmeaning,whichcomesunderthebranchofsemantics.Whilethebranchthatconsidersthecontextorwhatthespeakerintendstoconveyiscalledpragmatics.Pragmaticsisabranchoflinguistics.Itcanbedefinedasthestudyofthelanguageinuseorthestudyoftheinvisiblemeaningofutterances.Pragmaticsconcernstherelationshipbetweenwhatthespeakermeansbyhisorherutteranceandwhatthehearerinfersfromit.Pragmaticsisinterestedwiththemeaningincontext.Understandingthemeaningistheessenceofcommunication;withoutunderstandingthemeaningwecannotcommunicatewitheachother.Theimplicitmeaningoccupiesanessentialroleinlinguisticforms.Therefore,manyresearchersandlinguistshavedevelopedinterestinthisdisciplineandtheyhavetriedtoapproachthisfromdifferentperspectivesunderthepragmaticsumbrella.TheideaofpragmaticsisfirstattributedtothephilosopherCharlesMorrisfollowedbyAustin,Searle,andH.P.Grice.Theydrewintentiontothecontextbeforemeaning.Morriscategorisedthreebranchesoflinguistics,2 华中科技大学硕士学位论文syntax–thestudyofhowthewordsarecombinedtoformsentences,semantics–thestudyofthemeaningofthewordsandsentencesintheirexplicitform,andfinallypragmatics–thestudyofthemeaningbeyondtheformoflanguage(Levinson,1983:1).Cooperativeprincipleisclassifiedwithinpragmatics.H.P.Gricein1975pointedoutthatforaconversationtobeinformative,theinterlocutorsshouldfulfilthefourmaximshehasproposed.Therefore,theconversationalmaximsshouldbecurrentthroughoutconversationsanddiscourses.AccordingtoGrice,ifthespeakerfailstoabidebythesefourmaxims,heorsheisregardedasbreakingthemaximswhetherornothehastheintentiontomisleadthehearer.Proverbsasanaspectoflanguagehavebeenstudiedfromdifferentperspectives,whetherfromthepragmatic,social,cultural,translational,andEnglishlanguageteachingpointofview.Proverbscanbefoundeverywhere,insimpleconversationorinlongdiscourselikepoliticaldiscourseandliteraryworkssuchasnovels.TheresearcherhasneverfoundanystudyoftheanalysisofEnglishproverbsaccordingtocooperativeprincipleespeciallyproverbsfoundinliteraryworkslikenovels.Thisstudyhas,therefore,emergedasanattempttoanalyseEnglishproverbsfromtheperspectiveofcooperativeprincipleandGrice’smaxims.Inordertounderstandthemeaningoftheproverbs,itisimportanttounderstandthestyletheusersadopttoformulatetheproverbsinsuchawayastobeacceptableandunderstandablebytheaudiences.SignificanceofthestudyThesignificanceofthisstudyisinitsimportancetothosenon-nativespeakersofEnglishlanguagewhoareinterestedinunderstandingEnglishlanguage.Thestudyenablesthemtounderstandproverbsincomparisonwiththeirlanguages,especiallywhentheytraveltoEnglishlanguageregions.Thestudyisequallyimportanttotheteacherswhoworkinacademicinstitutions;theycanselectproverbsforstudentstoanalyseespeciallyfromtheperspectiveofdiscourseanalysisandpragmaticsdisciplines.Itisofimportancetopeopletoutilizeproverbsasapartofnaturallanguageandtoenablepeopletoapplytheseproverbsintheenvironmentofinteraction.Finally,itismoreimportanttothosewhomaybeinterestedinliteraryworkstoenablethemto3 华中科技大学硕士学位论文understandthethemeofdiscourseinnovelsandtointerprettherelationshipbetweenthecharacters.OutlineofthestudyThestudyconsistsoffiveparts.Thefirstpartisanintroduction,whichconsistsofbackgroundknowledge,thesignificanceofthestudy,andtheoutlineofthewholethesis.Thesecondpartisaliteraturereview,whichconsistsoffivemainsubparts.Thefirstsubpartistheconceptofaproverb,whichdealswithasurveyofproverbs,theirdefinition,origin,characteristics,importance,andtheirdifferenceinrelationwiththeidiomsandthesayings.ThesecondsubpartisonpreviousstudiesandisanoverviewofthepaststudiesofEnglishproverbs.Thethirdsubpartisasurveyofcooperativeprincipletheoryanditsmaximswithreferencetokindsofnon-observanceofGrice’smaxims.Thefourthsubpartisanillustrationofthefictionalconversation;itclarifieshowthespeaker/authorandlistener/readerconversewitheachothershowingthelevelsofconversationfoundinthediscourseofthenovel.Thelastsubpartdealswiththeroleofcooperativeprincipleinrelationtoproverbs.Thethirdpartofthisthesisisthemethodology,whichincludesthreesubparts,researchquestions,researchsubject,andresearchprocedures.Andthefourthpartistheresultsanddiscussion,whichisregardedasthemainandmostimportantpartofthestudyduetoitsdirectconcernswiththeaimsofdoingthestudy.ItisalongpartandconsistsofsubpartsdealingwiththeanalysisofquotationsfromthetextsofCharlesDickensnovels,theanalysisoftheresults,anddiscussionoffindings.Finally,thelastpartistheconclusion;whichconsistsofasummaryofthemainpointsthatarepresentedinthestudywithaprécisillustrationofthemajorfindingsthattheresearcherhasdrawn,limitationsofthestudy,andsomesuggestionsforfurtherresearch.4 华中科技大学硕士学位论文1LiteratureReviewTheliteraturereviewisdividedintosubpartsandconsistsofasurveyofEnglishproverbs,theirdefinition,origin,characteristics,importance,andthedifferencesamongproverbs,idioms,andsaying.Thesecondsubpartthatdealswithpreviousstudiesisorganizedintodifferentperspectivesofthestudy.Theothersubpartisasurveyofthecooperativeprincipletheory,beginningwithanintroductionandillustrationindetailoftheconceptofthistheoryandhowitoperatesinconversationswithrelevantexamples.Thefinaltwosubpartsarethefictionalconversationandthewayscooperativeprincipleoperateswithproverbs.1.1ConceptofaproverbInthispartmanytopicswillbetakenintoaccount.Itisageneraloverviewabouttheproverbs,theirdefinitions,theoriginoftheEnglishproverbs,theircharacteristics,importance,anddifferenceswiththeidiomsandsayings.1.1.1DefinitionofaproverbItisinappropriateheretochooseageneraloronedefinitionofaproverbbecauseaproverbismultifunctional.Ithasbeendefinedfromdifferentperspectivesbydifferentscholarsanddictionariesandaccordingtodifferentfunctions.Norrick(1985:78)definesproverbsas“atraditional,conversational,didacticgenrewithgeneralmeaning,apotentialfreeconversationalturn,preferablywithfigurativemeaning.”Mieder(2004:3)definesaproverbas“Aproverbisashort,generallyknownsentenceofthefolkwhichcontainswisdom,truth,morals,andtraditionalviewsinametaphorical,fixedandmemorizableformwhichishandeddownfromgenerationtogeneration.”LaterMieder(2004:1)definedaproverbas“Proverbsareasignificantrhetoricalforceinvariousmodesofcommunication,fromfriendlychats,powerfulpoliticalspeeches,andreligioussermonstolyricalpoetry,best-sellernovels,andtheinfluentialmassmedia.”5 华中科技大学硕士学位论文AccordingtoTaylor(1996),“Aproverbiswise,itbelongstomanypeople,itisingeniousinformandidea,anditwasfirstinventedbyanindividualandappliedbyhimtoaparticularsituation.”Dundes(1975,ascitedinMieder,2007:11)gaveimportantexpressionsaboutproverbs.AccordingtoDundes,“Aproverbisatraditionalsayingthatsumsupasituation,passesjudgmentonapastmatter,orrecommendsacourseofactionforthefuture.Someproverbsstateafact,suchas‘Honestyisthebestpolicy’.Butmostproverbsaremetaphorical.Proverbsconsistsofatleastonetopicandonecommentaboutthattopic.Theycanhaveasfewastwowords:‘Moneytalks’,‘Timeflies’.Manyproverbsfallintooneofseveralpatterns.Proverbsareoneoftheoldestformsoffolklore.ProverbsarefoundamongtheIndiansofNorthandSouthAmerica.Itisoftensupposedthatproverbsarefullofwisdom.Infact,aproverbhasbeendefinedas‘thewisdomofmanyandthewitofone’.”AccordingtotheWebster’sDictionary(1972),aproverbisa“Shortsayingincommonuseexpressingawell-knowntruthorcommonfactascertainedbyexperience.”AccordingtoHoneck(1997:18),“Aproverbcanberegardedasadiscoursedeviant,relativelyconcrete,present(non-past)tensestatementthatusescharacteristiclinguisticmarkerstoarousecognitiveidealsthatservetocategorizetopicsinordertomakeapragmaticpointaboutthem.”1.1.2OriginofEnglishproverbsTheword“proverb”isdescendedfromtheLatinwordproverbium.Theprefixpromeans“forth”andtheoriginverbummeans“word”.Everynationhasitsownproverbs.Proverbshavebeenfoundintheoldestliteraryworksinmanylanguages,inSanskrit,Arabic,Hebrew,Greek,Chinese,andRomanliterature.Also,theyhavebeenfoundintheworksofAristophanes,Chaucer,Shakespeare,inErasmus,Cervantes,BenJonson,BenjaminFranklin,RalphWaldoEmerson,HenryDavidThoreau,RobertFrost,and,finally,inCharlesDickensworks,especiallynovels.Furthermore,theyhavebeenfoundindivinebooks,intheBibleandtheQuran(D’Angelo,1977:365–366).Beforemassliteracybecamewidespread,mostproverbswerepassedonorally.Theusersofproverbsarenolongerinterestedwiththeirorigin.Peoplefindthatthey6 华中科技大学硕士学位论文andothersutterthembecausetheyhaveheardtheirparentsorpeopleusethemineverydaylife.Whensayingswererealizedbycommonpeopleandhandeddownfromgenerationtogeneration,theybecameproverbs.English,likeotherlanguages,isrichwithproverbs(Byrne,2005).Eachproverbhasitsownoriginwhetherithascomefromtheholybooks,literarysources,fromthemouthsoffamouspeople,orfromthedifferentsituationsthathavehappenedinthepast.Asageneralidea,aproverbcannotidiomaticallybeaproverbunlessitisusedamongpeopleconstantlywhetherinthepastorinthepresent.SomeoftheEnglishproverbswereborrowedfromotherlanguagessuchasLatin,French,andSpanishbecomingpartofEnglishproverbs.AnothersourceofEnglishproverbsistheBiblewheresomanysayingsarefamousforwisdomamongpublicandcurrentlyhavebecomeproverbsandfewpeopleareawareoftheirorigin,forexample“alivingdogisbetterthanadeadlion”(Manser,2002:174).Crucially,thegreatestliterarysourceofthemodernEnglishproverbsisShakespeare’sworks;nooneknowswhethertheseproverbswereformulatedbyShakespearehimself,thatiswhethertheywerehisoriginalthoughtorifhegotthemfromhissocietyandintroducedtheminhisworks.InEuropeandduringtheMiddleAges,proverbswerewidelyknownandgainedmorepopularity.ProverbsinEuropewereutilizedinsermons,homiliesanddidacticwords.Theuseofproverbsasaliterarystyleintheperiodofthe17thcenturyhaddeclinedbecauseauthorssawthatthecurrentliterarystylenolongerrequiredintheuseofproverbs(Karagiorgos,2001).Mostinterestingly,proverbs,asfolksayingsandasaliterarytradition,havebeencomingbacksincethebeginningofthe19thcentury.Atthebeginningofthe20thcentury,proverbsbegantoattracthighscholarlyattention.Byrne(2005)pointsoutthatthenewproverbswerefoundintheUnitedStates;manyoftheseproverbsareusedintheareasofbusinessandpolitics.Peoplesometimesmakecertainmanipulationstotheproverbsinordertomakethemappropriatefornewsituations.Someoftheproverbshavebeenmodifiedtomeettheneedofnewwordsappropriatetothedevelopmentofcertainincidentsorsituationswhetherinpolitical,economical,orsocialaspectsoflifeasfoundintheliteraryworks7 华中科技大学硕士学位论文ofChaucer,Shakespeareetc,wheresomeofthewordswerereplacedorthestructureoftheproverbswaschangedtobemoreappropriatewiththedevelopmentoflanguages.1.1.3CharacteristicsofEnglishproverbsProverbsarefoundinallnationsandinallcultures.Proverbsaredistinguishedfromotheraspectsoflanguagehavingtheiruniquefeatures.Someoftheimportantprominentfeaturesofproverbsinclude:1.Syntacticfeatures:GramleyandPäzold(1992)statethatproverbspredominantlyshowirregularsyntax,forexample“likefather,likeson”.Proverbsarerecognizedasproverbs,moreclearly,theyarenotaffectedbythetransformation.AccordingtoMieder(2004),proverbsconsistofaboutsevenwords,butsometimesproverbsconsistofmorethansevenwords,suchas“itiseasierforacameltogothroughtheeyeofaneedle,thanforarichmantoenterintothekingdomofGod.”Healsostatesthattheshorterproverbsseemtobemorepopularandeasytomemorize.AccordingtoMieder,therearecommonpatternsortemplatesthatillustratethestructureofproverbsandtheyareusedasabasisforotherproverbs.Heclassifiesthemasfollows:1.Wherethere’sX,there’sY“Wherethere’ssmoke,there’sfire”2.NoXwithoutY“Nogainwithoutpain”3.LikeX,likeY“Likefather,likeson”4.OneXdoesnotmakeaY“Oneswallowdoesnotmakeasummer”5.BetterXthanY“Betterlatethannever”6.IfX,thenY“Ifatfirstyoudon’tsucceed,thentry,tryagain”Withregardtothegrammaticalperspectiveofproverbs,manyoftheproverbsseemtobesentential,inanotherwords,theycanstandalone.Proverbsarecompletegrammaticalaspects,whichmakethemindependentbythemselves.Ontheotherhand,theyarenotsententialbecausetheirstructurecannotcoordinatewiththegrammaticalstructureofasentence,forexamplesomeproverbsareconstructedwithoutverbssuchas“likefather,likeson”,andsomewithoutnouns,suchas“themore,themerrier”(Norrick,2007).8 华中科技大学硕士学位论文2.Semanticfeatures:ThewordsusedinthestructureofproverbstendtobedescendedfromAnglo-SaxonEnglish.Themeaningofproverbsiscenteredonthegeneralnotintheparticular.Thatiswhythepasttenseisnotusuallyusedinproverbs.Semantically,proverbsarerestrictedthroughmodificationssuchrestrictiverelativeclauses,forexample“peoplewholiveinglasshousesshouldnotthrowstones”(Gramley&Pätzold,1992:76).ThreeimplicationshavebeenidentifiedthatfollowtraditionalapproachesofinterpretingandunderstandingEnglishproverbs.First,theclaimingofafigurativemeaningofaproverbisprecededmandatorilybytheanalysisoftheliteralmeaningofthesentence.Second,understandingproverbialexpressionsrequiresidentificationofaliteralmeaningbeforelookingforafigurativemeaning.Third,theinferenceofafigurativemeaningrequiresanadditionalinferentialworkandspecificcognitiveprocesses(Cieslicka,2002).Proverbsarecharacterizedbythesemanticrelations“antonymy”and“synonymy”.Antonymousproverbsexpresscontradictoryideasthroughrelatedimages,suchas“abigfishinasmallpond–asmallfishinabigpond”,alsothroughdifferentimages,suchas“hewhohesitatesislost–foolsrushin”orthroughappositiveideas,forexample“outofsight,outofmind–absencemakestheheartgrowfonder”(Norrick,2007).Antonymousproverbsstatethattherearenoabsolutetruthsandthevalidationoftheirwisdom;theyonlyoccurinthecontext(Mieder,2004:133).Forexample,thecontradictoryproverb“toomanycooksspoilthebroth”canbetrueinthecontextinwhichthejobrequiresacomplicatedskillsuchascooking(Hirschetal,2002).Whenproverbsexpressthesameideathroughparallelimages,theybecomesynonymous,aswith“strikewhiletheironishot–makehaywhilethesunshines”,alsoindifferentliteralterms,asin“firstimpressionsaremostlasting–younevergetachancetomakeafirstimpression”,andthroughafigurativeandliteralproverbwhenthesameideaisexpressed,suchas“theleopardcannotchangehisspots–onceathief,alwaysathief”.Thesesemanticrelationsmakeproverbsmorerealisticduetothefactthattheypermitthemtoreflectthecomplexityoflife(Norrick,2007).9 华中科技大学硕士学位论文3.Prosodicandfigurativefeatures:Norrick(1985)distinguishesbetweentwofeaturesofproverbs,prosodicandfigurative.Prosodicfeaturesmeanstylistic,rhetorical,andexternalfeatures.AccordingtoMieder(2004),prosodicfeaturesmaketheproverbseasytorememberandmemorisable.Theyareillustratedasfollows:1.Repetition:Repetitionmeanstherepetitionofsyntacticpattern,suchas“wherethere’ssmokethere’sfire”orrepetitionofthesubjectasinredundantproverbs,suchas“enoughisenough”(Norrick,2007).2.Alliteration:Alliterationistheuseofthesameletterorsoundatthebeginningofthewordsrelatedtogether,suchas“manyalittlemakesamickle”,“liveandletlive”(Mieder,2004).3.Assonance:Assonancemeansthattwosyllablesinthewordsclosetogetherhavethesamevowelsoundwithdifferentconsonants,suchas“arollingstonegathersnomoss”(Gibbs,2001).4.Rhyme:Itisawordthathasthesamesoundorendswiththatofanotherword,suchas“whenthecat’saway,themicewillplay”(Mieder,2004).5.Parallelism:Parallelismisacorrespondencewithinoneormoreofclausesthathavethesamestructure,suchas“apennysavedisapennyearned”,“wherethere’sawill,there’saway”(Mieder&Holmes,2000).6.Ellipsis:Theomissionofoneormorewordsfromthesentenceinordertoavoidrepetition,suchas“outofsight,outofmind”,“morehaste,lessspeed”(Mieder,2004).7.Personification:Asin“hungeristhebestcook”(Gibbs,2001).8.Hyperbole:Hyperboleisatermreferstotheexaggerationinthespeech,suchas“awatchedpotneverboils”(Ibid).9.Paradox:Itisastatementthatseemsstrangebutexpressesatruthinreality,suchas“nonewsisgood”(Ibid).Thesecondkindofliteraryfeaturesisthefigurativeorimagery.Metaphoricalfeaturesofproverbsmakethemencodedtomanipulatedifferentsituations.So,thegeneralizationthatisanimportantfeatureofproverbsisachievedthroughthemetaphoricalnatureoftheproverbs,whichmakesthemapplicabletosuitdifferentvarietiesandcontextsofsituations.10 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Concerningthemetaphoricalaspectoftheproverbs,TurnerandLakoff(1989)arguedthatproverbiallanguagetakesadvantageoftheconceptualmetaphorGENERICISSPECIFIC.Lakoff(1993)alsopointsoutthatthemetaphoroftheproverbsassertstheideaofmetaphorbeingcentraltoeverydaynaturallanguage.Itisimportanttosaythatnotalltheproverbsappearasmetaphors.Someoftheproverbscanbeunderstoodbytheirliteraryforms,suchas“honestyisthebestpolicy”,withoutanyindicationthattheyaremetaphoricalbecausetheseproverbsexpresstruthasageneralfactanddonotneedtomanipulatethespecificsituation.Furthermore,Norrick(1985)mentionsthatthereisnodifferentiationbetweenthemetaphoricalandliteralproverbs.Heindicatesthatproverbscaneitherbeusedfigurativelyorliterallydependingonthecontext,forexampletheproverb“itneverrainsbutitpours”canbeunderstoodasactualrainortorefertosomeoneexperiencingmanyproblems.Anotherexampleis“don’tputallyoureggsinonebasket”,whichisunderstoodbytheconceptualmetaphorthatlifeisacontainerandbeliefsarephysicalpossessions.Theinterpretationofaproverbshowsthatthelanguageusermapshisorherknowledgeofcontainersandpossessionsintotheirknowledgeoflife.Inanotherinterpretation,peoplemayputalltheirhopesinoneplaceconfirmingtheconceptualmappingwhilethebeliefsarerepresentedbyeggs(Cieslicka,2002).4.Socio-culturalfeatures:Thiskindreferstoallthenon-linguisticfeaturesthataproverbcharacterizestogainthepropertyoftheproverb.Foraproverbtobeacceptedandrecognizedasaproverb,itrequiresalongofperiodtimeforthesayingtoachievethenecessarypopularityandtradition.Popularityandtraditionmakeaproverbacceptedbycommonalty.Duringtheirusebythepopulation,proverbslosetheiroriginandtheybecomedifficultfortheuserstoknowtheirsources(Ridout&Witting,1969).Vivanco(2008)mentionsthatproverbscannotberegardedasproverbsunlesstheyhavesomedegreeofcurrencyinaperiodoftime.Thiscurrencymeansthefamiliarityofoccurrenceofacertainperiod.Thecurrencyisbasedontruthsandpointstoobservationsderivedfromeverydayexperiences.Thefamiliarityandgeneralizationsofproverbsarebasedonexperienceoflife,andbecausedifferentpeoplehavedifferentexperiences,theseyielddifferentproverbs.Togainpopularityorcommonness,proverbsshouldbeliked,enjoyed,andsupportedbyhumanbeings.Ifsomesayingsfail11 华中科技大学硕士学位论文toreachthestateofpopularity,theymaydieoutbeforereachingthestageofcommonness.Inaddition,GramleyandPätzold(1992)pointoutthattheproverbshaveadidactictendency.Thedidacticityoftheproverbssometimesisregardedasexplicit,suchas“liveandletlive”andsometimesimplicit,suchas“toomanycooksspoilthebroth”.Anysayingthatlacksthedidacticfeatureisdescribedasaclichératherthanaproverb.5.Thepragmaticfeatures:Thelastimportantfeaturesofproverbsarethattheyincludethepragmaticaspectsoflanguage.Becausethisstudydealswithanalysisoftheproverbsaccordingtooneofthepragmaticmodels,wewilltalkaboutthiskindlaterunderthetitle“Thewayscooperativeprincipleoperateswithproverbs”.1.1.4ImportanceofEnglishproverbsProverbsarearhetoricalforcethatisusedindifferentaspectsofcommunication,suchasinternetchatting,inpoliticalspeeches,literaryworks,massmedia,academicstudyandteachingapproaches.Proverbsarewidelyusedinreallifesuchasinnewspapers,advertisements,andeverydaycommunication.Proverbssurrounduseverywhere,andtheyareanimportantpartofdailycommunication.Proverbscanserveasthepunchlinesofjokesandtherefrainsofsongs.Theyalsosumupsituationsandgiveadviceinshortandtersephrases.Englishspeakerstendtouseproverbstocommentonasituation,oftenattheendofatruestorysomeonehastold,orinresponsetosomeevents.Proverbsareusefulandjoyfulforknowledgeandunderstanding,butwearewarnedtousethemwithcare(McCarthy&O’Dell,2002).Dougall(2004)claimsthatthefunctionoftheproverbs“canprovideasnapshotofotherculturesthatallowsforamorethoroughunderstandingofbothlanguageandculture…wecanbecomeenrichedasindividualsandsocietieswhenweunderstandtheviewpointsofothers.”AccordingtoByrne(2005),proverbshavethreefunctions;first,theypasswisdomandculturalvaluesfromonegenerationtoanother.Second,theyadviseandwarnchildrenaboutappropriateandinappropriatebehaviour.Third,theyembellishspeech,caparguments,andaddtothegaietyofnations.12 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Proverbsareapolitenesspolicybywhichthespeakercanaccomplishavarietyofpurposes,suchaspersuading,givingadviceandwisdom,warning,anddidacticmanner.Sothepolitenessoftheproverbsgivesthespeakerthepowertousetheminsuchawaytobeacceptedbypeople,becausemanypeopledonotacceptthedirectwayofspeaking.Asaresult,themetaphoricalmannerrelatedtomostproverbssavesourattitudesandavoidsusfromembarrassments.Proverbsaremultifunctionalandflexibledevicesusedineverydaysituations.Thecurrencyandpopularityofproverbsduringthepastagesgavethemthehighstaturetomaintainthecultureandancientheritage.Proverbsarepropositionsfullofthespeaker’shiddenfeelings,intentions,andwishes(Lauhakangas,2007:80–81).Proverbscanbeusedindifferentsituationsinprose,poetry,andpoeticwords.ProverbsalsohavebeenfoundasthetitleofliteraryworkssuchastheShakespeare’splayMeasureforMeasure.Theyareusedinbreakingnewswhentheyoccurasheadlinestoreflectthetopicsofthenews.1.1.5Differencesamongproverbs,idioms,andsayingsBothproverbsandidiomsaretraditionalandtheyhaveafixedformandliteraryvalue.Proverbsrepresentacompletepieceofinformation;theycanworkassentences.Idioms,incontrast,arenotafullsentencebutapartofone;sotheyaresyntactically-dependent.Nida(1993)definesidiomsas“Idiomsarecombinationsofwords,themeaningofwhichcannotbedeterminedfromthemeaningsoftheparts,e.g.to‘kickthebucket’,meaning‘todie’,and“fromthefryingpanintothefire”,meaning‘toexperienceincreasinglyworsecircumstances’.”Proverbsconstituteacompletesentence,whileidiomsconsistofonephrase.Therefore,theproverbsformulatesentences;thewordorderofthesesentencescannotbechanged.Theidiomsmustbeusedinasentence,andtheirverbsmustbeconjugated,butwecanchoosetheirlocationinasentence.Forthisreason,wecanconstitutelongsentenceswiththeidioms.Proverbsgivelessonsbasedontheexperiencesofregenerations,whileidiomsareusedtodescribeaneventorasituation.Proverbsintendtoteachpeople,whileidiomsdescribesocial,natural,andexperientialevents(Agis,2007:3).13 华中科技大学硕士学位论文AccordingtoAkbarian(2012),anidiomisagroupofwordswhosemeaningisdifferentfromthemeaningofsinglewordsthatmakeuptheidiom.Forinstancethemeaningof“letthecatoutofthebag”istotellasecretbymistake,butitdoesnotliterallyfollowthemeaningoftheindividualwords.DobrovolandPiirainen(2005)alsopointoutthatthedifferencebetweenproverbsandidiomsdoesnotdependonjustsyntaxbutalsothesemanticandpragmaticlevelsandcanbeusedasabasistodeterminewhetherthesayingisaproverboranidiom.Theydiscussthedifferencesunderthreepoints.First,proverbsareregardedasageneralstatementexpressingthegeneralfactwiththedeterminationofquantifiers,suchasevery,all,any,each,always,no,never,whilesentenceidiomsdonothavesuchageneralfunction.Second,whileproverbshavetheillocutionaryforceofrecommendationwithindicationtoanacceptedproposition,sentenceidiomslackexplanatoryforce.Third,proverbsareindependentavoidingusingdeicticelementswhilesentenceidiomsaredependentoncontext,makinguseofdeicticelements.Asayingisawordorphraseusedinparticularsituationsbyparticularpeople.Asayingcanbedefinedasastatementspokenbyfamouspeople.Itsmeaningisdifferentfromthemeaningofthesinglewordswhichformulateit,e.g.thesayingbyAristotle“Whatisafriend?Asinglesouldwellingintwobodies”andthesayingbyAlbertEinstein“Trynottobecomeamanofsuccess,butrathertrytobecomeamanofvalue.”1.2StudiesonEnglishproverbsfromdifferentperspectivesProverbsareanaspectoflanguage.Theyhavebeenstudiedandexploredfromdifferentperspectives.Proverbsareoneofthefolkloriststudies;therefore,mostwhohavestudiedproverbsarefolkloristics.ThispartdealswiththepaststudiesofEnglishproverbs;itisdividedintodifferentsubpartsaccordingtothekindofstudy.1.2.1FromthelinguisticperspectiveDundeswasoneofthefamousgiantsoftheinternationalfolkloristics;hewasinterestedinfolkloreingeneralandwithproverbsinparticular.Hislectures,whichhavebeendeliveredaroundtheworld,havegainedtheinterestofmanyscholarsand14 华中科技大学硕士学位论文studentsofthefolklore.Also,hehastaughtovertwentythousandstudentswithaninterestinfolkloreattheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley.Dundeswasinterestedinthedefinitionofgenresbymeansofstructural,textual,andcontextualanalysis.Thetextualfeaturesofproverbsarerhymeandalliteration,stress,pitch,juncture,toneandonomatopoeia.Thetextisaversionorasingletellingofatale.Thetextisconsideredtobeindependentofitstextureforthepurposeofanalysis,whiletextureisuntranslatable.Forexampletheproverb“coffeeboilediscoffeespoiled”maybetranslatedintomanylanguages,buttranslationofthetexturefeatureofrhymewillvirtuallybenil.Thecontextoftheproverbisthespecificsocialsituationinwhichthatproverbisemployed.AgainDundesemployedproverbstoillustratethetheoreticalpointforfolkloreingeneralinhisarticleStructuralismandFolklore(1976),hisideawasthattheproverbconsistsofatleastelementsthataremadeupofatopicandacommenttobeaperfectexampleofaminimalstructuralunit(Mieder,2007).Rezaei(2012)discussedtheimportanceofproverbsinrhetoricandtheninvestigatedtheirfunctionaccordingtotheliterarygenrefromdifferentperspectives,suchastheroleoftheaudience,choiceofwords,andqualityofthemessage.Abbas(2009)tackledarepetitionphenomenonoftheproverbs,especiallyphonologicalphenomenon.Thestudyattemptedtoseewhetherthefiguresofthephonologicalrepetitionhaveanysignificanceinthetextoftheproverb.ThedatawereselectedfromtraditionalEnglishproverbs.Theseproverbscoverdifferentconcepts,suchastheme,weather,religion,gender,food,agricultural,andothers,e.g.“betterbendthanbreak”,“whatmustbemustbe”,“speechissilver,silenceisgolden”.Thestudyattemptedtoshowpeopletherightwaytoactandwhattodoinacriticalsituation;whenlisteningandrepeatingtheproverbstheywouldattainexperienceandlessons.Sattam(2009)investigatedtheproblemsthatatranslatorencounterswhentranslatingsomeEnglishproverbswhichincludeattributivelyandpredicativelyusedadjectives.ElevenEnglishproverbshavebeenchosenwiththeirrenderings.TheseproverbswerediscussedintermsofsyntaxandtranslationwithreferencetothesimilaritiesanddifferencesinusageoftheattributivelyandpredicativelyusedadjectivesinEnglishandArabic.Byapplyingtwotypesoftranslation,thesemanticandcommunicative,theauthorconcludedthattherewasnocorrespondencebetween15 华中科技大学硕士学位论文EnglishandArabicproverbsinvolvingattributivelyandpredicativelyusedadjectivesduetotheformalandculturaldifferences.AnattributivelyusedadjectiveinEnglishoftenprecedesitsheadnouninthenounphrase,whileinArabicitfollowsitsheadnoun.Also,inEnglish,anattributivelyusedadjectivedoesnotagreewithitsheadnoun,whereasinArabic,itagreeswithitsheadnounindefiniteness,number,gender,andcase.Charteris-Black(1999)usedcorpuslinguisticstoanswerhisquestionsonwhichtextsfromformergenerationsarestillcurrenttoday,whatarethenewproverbsofthemodernageandhowpeoplearefamiliarwithproverbstoday.Heidentifiedsomeofthecharacteristicsthattheproverbssharethatmaintainedtheircurrency.HehasarguedthataparemiologicalminimumofEnglishproverbsisbestidentifiedbyusingalargecorpusincludingalltypesoftheproverbs.Hehasclaimedthatrepetitionandlengthofformarebasiccharacteristicsoftheproverbsthatdemonstratevitalityandrepetitionofuse.Hebelievesthatissuesofstyleareconsideredtobeimportanttoanyonewhoisconcernedwithhowproverbsareusedintheidentificationofaparemiologicalminimum.1.2.2FromthesocioculturalperspectiveThestudyadoptedbyZhao(2012)shedslightonthetechniqueofsocialproverbstomakecommunicationstoculturesandtheirfunctionsbeingcarryofculturalmessage.Heturnedtosemioticsinhisstudy.HeadoptedtheBakhtiniansemiotictheoryasananalytictool.Thestudyfindsoutthatsemioticsprovestobeaneffectiveapproachtostudylanguagefromtheculturalperspective.Italsorevealsthattheindividualfeatureofsocialproverbsleadstotheiruseasutterances.So,socialproverbscancarryoutfunctionsasculturalsigntopreserveandconveytheimpliedstructureofculture.Lutfi(2008)introducedthecrucialsocioculturalpropertiesoftheweatherproverbsthatcanbeidentifiedanddistinguishedfromothertypesofproverbialutterances.Hepointedoutthefollowingcharacteristicsofweatherproverbs;thefirstisalocalityinwhichtheproverbsformulatewithcaseshappeningintheatmosphericconditions,suchastheappearanceofthesky,themovementofclouds,andthedirectionofwinds,e.g.“whenthewindisinthewest,theweatherisalwaysbest”.Thesecondisavalueproperty;thisreferstoadvicegiventoothersdependingonthe16 华中科技大学硕士学位论文personalexperiences,e.g.“ayearofsnow,ayearofplenty”.Thestudyansweredthequestionofhowweatherproverbsoriginate.Theauthorconcludedthatwhenhunters,farmers,andsailorobservebehaviourofanimals,theyconnectthesetothechangesinnatureandweather.Asaresult,theyrecalledwhattheysawinshortsayingsandthentheywererepeatedagainandagaintobecomepartoftheculturehandeddownfromgenerationtogeneration.ThestudyadoptedbyLauhakangas(2007)wasbasedonresearchonthefunctionsofproverbsinsocialinteraction.Thestudyaimedtoexplorecommonsenseoreverydaythinkinginitsculturalandsocialcontexts.Theauthorkeptanotebookoneverydaysituations;shehasobservedpeople’swaysintheuseofproverbsinsocialsituations.Accordingtoherobservations,proverbsaremultifunctionalandflexibleinstrumentsofeverydayreasoning,althoughtheymaymaintainsolidifiedattitudesortraditionalmodesofthoughtofacertainculture.1.2.3FromtheEFLperspectiveHanzén(2007)examineswhetherproverbsareapartoftheEFLteachingintheSweden.ThestudyfocusesontheoccurrenceofproverbsineleventextbooksfortheEnglishA-andB-courses,alsoontheusingproverbsintheteachingamongnineteenteachersatsevenuppersecondaryschools.Thestudytackledthequantitativeandqualitativeapproaches.ThestudyfindsoutthatproverbsareasmallpartoftheEFLteachingconcerningthetextbooksandusingthemintheclassroombytheteachers.Proverbsareusedinthetextbooksfordiscussionsasexpressionstoexplainbytheteachers.Thestudyalsoshowsthatthereareawarenessamongtheteachersconcerningproverbsasapartoftheculture,language,andcommunication.Inconclusion,thestudyshowsthattheknowledgeincreasesamongeducatorsandtextbookauthorstouseproverbsaseffectivetoolsineverydimensionsoflanguageteaching.Akbarian(2010)presentedsomeactivitieswithproverbsforlanguageteachers,particularlyEFLteachers,tomaketheirclassesmorelively.Hehassuggestedthataddingvarietytotheclassroomactivitiesmightcontributetothelearners’consciousnessraisingthatwouldinturnincreasetheirlanguageproficiencyingeneralandproverbialunderstandinginparticular.17 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Can(2011)triedtofindoutEFLteachertrainees’attitudestowardslearningandteachingEnglishproverbs,theirconceptualizationofproverbs,theirknowledgeanduseoftheEnglishproverbs,perceptionsabouthowsufficientlytheirEnglishteachersandcoursebooksathighschooltaughtthemEnglishproverbs.ThestudyalsoaimedtouncoverhowtheEnglishcoursebooks,theyusedinAnatolianteachertraininghighschoolinTurkey,teachEnglishproverbs.Thestudyadoptedaquestionnaireadministratedto187freshmanELTstudents.ThestudyfindsoutthattheteachertraineeshavepositiveattitudestowardslearningandteachingEnglishproverbsduethattheynothaveenoughknowledgeofEnglishproverbsandtheirEnglishteachersandcoursebooksdidnotteachproverbssufficiently.AliandMakhlef(2011)trytoinvestigatethirdyearcollegestudents’abilityinidentifyingthemetaphoricalandindirectmeaningthataproverbconveys.ThestudyaimstocheckwhetherthethirdyearcollegestudentsareabletoidentifythemeaningofEnglishproverbsandusethemproperly.Thestudyconsistsof20itemsdistributedintotwokindsofquestions;thefirstismultiple-choiceandsecondisacompletionone.ByusingtheT-testformula,thestudyfindsoutthatthestudentslacktheabilitytoidentifythemeaningofproverbsandusethemproperly.Thiscasebelongstothefactthattheteachersintroducethemeaningoftheproverbswithoutreferencetotheirusage.ThestudyrecommendsthattheteachersshouldgiveEFLlearnersthechancetouseproverbsinsuitablesituations.ThestudyadoptedbyAL-Mutalabi(2012)triedtoinvestigateIraqiEFLlearnsfailureanddifficultyininterpretingproverbsofjusticepragmatically.ThestudyadministeredtestonEFLlearners,thetestrepresentedbyagroupofproverbsgiventolearnerstointerpretthem.ThetestisappliedtofortyIraqilearnersatfourthyearofEnglishdepartmentduringtheacademicyear2010-2011.Thestudyfindsoutthatthelearnersmisinterpretproverbsofjusticebecausethelearnerslackthepragmatic,linguistic,andsemanticknowledgeofinterpreting.Thelearnersareunawaretotheimportantofthepragmaticknowledgeininterpretingthecommunicativeevents.Misinterpretingofpragmaticknowledgebelongstothelinguisticinabilitiesofthelearnerstomeetthefunctionoftheproverbsinrelationtothesocialcontext.Mostof18 华中科技大学硕士学位论文thelearnersbehaveintheirinterpretingtotheculturaleventswithoutexposetothetargetlanguage.HoldenandWarshaw(1985)refertooneoftheimportantrolesofproverbs.Theypointouttothestudyofproverbsinrelationtoteachersandlearners.Thestudyofproverbscanbeabasisforanumberofactivitieswhichcanaccomplished.Teachersmightchooseproverbstoteachmanyskills,suchasusingspecificgrammaticalformsinwriting,thegrammaticalanalysisofunusualcontractions,identificationofthemesinessays,recognizingmainideasthroughmatchingproverbs,learningandpracticingthetechniquesofethnographicfieldwork,creationoforiginalproverbsaccordingtospecificationssuchasellipsis,personification,infinitives,expansionofvocabularythroughindividualizedtechniques,andrecognitionofrhetoricaldevicesaspreparationforunderstandingandappreciatingpoetry.Authorsrecommendedthattheusingofproverbsasactivitiesbepostponeduntilearlyadolescence,theperiodofformaloperationalthinking.Thestudentsinthisstageareabletothinkandinferinalogicalandabstractway,theycanunderstandandpracticeproverbsontheirownwithoutexposetoinstructions.Furthermore,somescholarshavestudiedproverbsfromacomparativeperspective,forexampleCharteris-Black(1995)attemptedtoexplorethetopicofproverbswithreferencetospeechandsilencefromacross-linguisticperspective,andNaoum(2007)pointedouttotheassociativemeaninginEnglishproverbswiththeirArabicequivalents.1.3CooperativeprincipleandGrice’smaximsThispartisanoverviewofthetheoryofcooperativeprinciple.Itbeginswithageneralintroductionaboutthetheoryanditsmaxims,howtheimplicaturearisesbetweenthespeakerandhearer.Thisisfollowedbyanillustrationoftheconceptofnon-observanceandhowthespeakerfailstofulfilthemaximssupportedbyexamplesandfigures.19 华中科技大学硕士学位论文1.3.1GeneralintroductionAustin(1962)isconcernedwithillustratingtheconceptofwhatthespeakerissaying(locutionaryact)contrarytowhathemeans(illocutionaryact).Likewise,Grice(1975)triestoexplainhowthehearercaninferfromwhataspeakerimplies.Theconceptofimpliedmeaningrelatestothespeaker,whichmeansthehintandtheactualmeaningthatthespeakerwantstoconveytothehearer.Inthiscase,thespeaker’smeaningisdifferentfromthestructuralmeaning;thisisthemeaningofthewordsintheirexplicitform.Forinferring,Gricerelatesthisconcepttothehearer.Inferencemeanstheabilityofthehearertounderstandtheimpliedmeaningfromtheevidenceoflinguisticornon-linguisticproperties(Thomas,1995:58).In1975H.P.Gricedevelopedtheideaofcooperationwhichunderliessuccessfulverbalcommunication.Griceproposedthatthegenuinemeaning,whichisconveyedbyutterancesasapartofthespeaker’smeaningwithoutbeingpartofaspeaker’ssaying,iscalledimplicature.AccordingtoGrice,theintendedmeaning,whichthespeakercommunicates,isregardedasfarricherthanwhatheorsheexpressesdirectly(Horn&Ward,2004:3).Thefollowingexampleillustrateswhatismeantbyconversationalimplicature“Haveyougotanycashmoney?”Thespeakerwantsthehearertounderstandthemeaning“Canyoulendmesomemoney?Idon’thaveenoughmoney.”Theconversationalimplicatureisnotfoundintheexactwords;thespeakerimplieditandthehearerinferredit.AccordingtoGrice,conversationalimplicaturewill“explainhowahearergetsfromwhatissaidtowhatismeant,fromthelevelofexpressedmeaningtothelevelofimpliedmeaning”(Thomas,1995:56).Thebridgebetweentheliteralmeaning(whatissaid)towhatiscommunicatedisconstructedthroughimplicature.Whataspeakersaysisquitedistinctfromwhatheimplies(Horn&Ward,2004:7).Grice’stheoryofcooperativeprincipleisbasedontheassumptionthathumanbeingsareintrinsicallyrationalandcooperativeintheirinteractionswithoneanother;theircommunicationsshouldbeintendedtobeinformative(Verschueren&Ostman,2009:103–105).20 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Thebasicassumptioninconversationisadheringparticipantstothecooperativeprincipleandthemaxims.Forexample,thefollowingisaconversationbetweenAlexandJohn:Alex:Ihopeyoubroughtthebreadandthecheese.John:Ah,Ibroughtthebread.Johnviolatedtherequirementsofthequantitymaxim.Alex,afterhehasheardJohn’sresponse,hasassumedthatJohnwascooperatingandnottotallyunawareofthequantitymaxim.ButJohndidn’tmentionthecheese;ifhehasbroughtthecheesethenhewouldsaythat,becausehewouldhaveadheredtothequantitymaxim.JohnbelievedthatAlexinferredthatwhatisnotmentionedbyhimwasnotbrought.WecaninferfromthisconversationthatJohnhasconveyedmorethanhissayingviaaconversationalimplicature.Inotherwords,itisthespeakerwhocommunicatedviaimplicaturesanditisthelistenerwhorecognizedthiscommunicatedmeaningviainference(Yule,1996:40).Theconversationalimplicatureiscommonlyusedineverydaylifeandindifferentsituations.Thecommonknowledgeplaysasignificantroleinunderstandingandinterpretingtheinferencebetweentheaddresserandtheaddressee.Furthermore,boththeaddresserandtheaddresseeinconversationshouldhavethewillingnesstocommunicate.Moreclearly,thecooperativeattitudebetweentheminthetalkexchangeisnecessary.Thus,Grice(1975)proposedageneralprincipletodescribehowparticipantsinteractinconversationandhowtheyunderstandimplicatures.Thecooperativeprincipleisformulatedasfollows:“Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.”Supportingthisprinciplearefourmaxims,GriceregardsthemasabasisforcooperativecommunicationandtheyarecalledGriceanmaxims.Theyareillustratedasfollows:1.Themaximofquantity21 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Themaximofquantityrelatestotheamountofcontributiontothecoherenceoftheconversation.Grice(1975)clarifiesthatthemaximofquantityhastwosub-maxims:1-Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).2-Donotmakeyourcontributiontotheconversationmoreinformativethannecessary.ThefollowingexampleisadoptedbyLevinson(1983):A:HowdidHarryfareincourttheotherday?B:Oh,hegotafine.2.ThemaximofqualityGrice(1975)suggeststhataconversationshouldbegenuineandsincereandthespeakershouldtelltruthorfacts.Itisformulatedbythefollowingtwosub-maxims:1-Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.2-Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.ThefollowingexampleisgivenbyChrisnawaty(2006):A:Doesyourfarmcontain400acres?B:Idonotknowthatitdoes,andIwanttoknowifitdoes.3.ThemaximofrelationInthismaxim,theutterancesshouldberelevanttothecontextoftheconversation.AccordingtoGrice,thespeakers’speechshouldberelevantorrelatedtothecurrenttopicoftheconversation(Grice,1975).ThefollowingisanexamplegivenbyLeech(1983):A:Where’smyboxofchocolates?B:It’sinyourroom.4.ThemaximofmannerGrice(1975)statesthatthespeakershavetotrytopresentmeaningclearly,conciselyandorderly,andavoidambiguityandobscurityofexpression.Thismaximbreaksdownintofoursub-maxims:A-Avoidobscurityofexpression.B-Avoidambiguity.22 华中科技大学硕士学位论文C-Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).D-Beorderly.Levinsonadoptsthefollowingexample(1983):A:WherewasAlfredyesterday?B:Alfredwenttothestoreandboughtsomewhisky.Figure1.1showstherelationshipbetweeninterlocutorsintheconversation.Bothofthemabidebytheconversationalmaxims.Themeaningisclearfromthespeakerandunderstandabletothehearer.Inotherwordsthereisnoimplicaturearisinghere.GriceanmaximsExplicitQuantityExplicitQualitySpeakerSayingRelationReplyingListenerMannerFigure1.1ObservanceofGrice’sMaximsGricealsopointsoutthatthespeakerissometimesunabletofulfiltherequirementsofconversationorobserveamaximunlessheorsheviolatesanothermaxim.ThiscasewhatGricecallsaclashbetweenmaxims(Grice,1975:51–52),forinstance:A:WheredoesClives?B:SomewhereintheSouthofFrance.AccordingtoGrice’sexplanation,BknowsthatAaimstogotovisitC.ThereliefofthemaximofquantityrequiresgivingC’saddresstoA,butbecauseBdoesn’tknow23 华中科技大学硕士学位论文C’saddressandinordertobeinformative,Bintendedtosaysomethingthatinfringedthequalitymaxim.Thecooperativeprincipleandtheconversationalmaximsarepartofabroadertheoryofconversationalimplicaturewhichbridgesthegapbetweenthesayingandimplying(Davies,2007:23–28).Thesemaximsappointwhatparticipantsmustbedoinginordertoconverseinanefficient,rational,andco-operativeway.Theyshouldspeaksincerely,relevantly,andclearlywhenprovidingsufficientinformation(Levinson,1983:102).Fromtheaboveillustration,wecanconcludethatifthereisnodistinctionbetweenwhatthespeakerissayingandwhathemeanttosay,therewasnoimplicatureexpectedintheconversation.Inthiscasethespeakerobservesallthemaxims.Moreclearly,ifthespeakeradherestoallthemaxims,themaximswillbeobserved.Itisnotcleartowhatextentcooperativeprinciplecanbegeneralized.TheapplicationofGrice’smaximsisnotequalineverysituation.Manyverbalcommunicationsarenotconversations.Togossip,speakersarelikelytoengageinexaggeration,departfromthestricttruthandgenerallytrytomaketheircommentsinterestingattheexpressionofvariousmaxims.Someinteractionssuchasquarrelsareuncooperative.Weallsayirrelevantthings,butweareirritatedwhenothersdoso(Black,2006:24).1.3.2Non-observanceofGrice’smaximsGricepointsoutthatnotallpeopleobservethemaxims.Peopletendlieindifferentsituationsinreallife.Thespeaker’slyingleadshimtobreakthemaxims.Therearemanyreasonsthatleadthespeakertolie,suchastosaveface,avoidembarrassment,avoidinappropriatesituations,andsometimestoavoidhurtingthehearer.Whenthespeakerfailstoobservethemaxims,thismeansthatthereisadistinctionbetweenwhatthespeakersaysandwhathemeanttosay.Figure1.2showstherelationshipbetweenaspeakerandahearerandthekindsofbreakingofthemaximsthatareusedbyinterlocutors.Theimplicatureistheonlywaybywhichthespeakerandhearercancommunicate.Breakingthemaximsdoesnotmeanthatthespeakerisnot24 华中科技大学硕士学位论文awareoffulfillingthemaxims;hestilltriestoadheretothemaximsinadeeperwayandthatiswhatGricecalledtheconversationalimplicature.Kindsofnon-observanceFloutingViolatingSpeakerImplyingOptingoutInferenceListenerInfringingSuspendingImplicatureFigure1.2Non-observanceofGrice’sMaximsGricedistinguishesfivekindsofnon-observancebywhichthespeakerfailstoobserveamaxim;theyareflouting,violating,optingout,infringing,andsuspending.1.3.2.1FloutingofthemaximsThespeakerblatantlyfailstoobserveamaximinwhichhehasnointentionofdeceivingormisleading.Thespeakerwishestoraisethehearer’sattentiontotheimplicitmeaning,whichisdifferentfromtheexpressedmeaning.AccordingtoGrice,thisadditionalmeaningiscalledconversationalimplicature,andthewaybywhichsuchimplicatureisgeneratediscalledfloutingamaxim(Grice,1975:71).Iftheaddresserandtheaddresseehavesharedthesamebackgroundknowledge,theknowledgeofinterpretationisnottheroleoflinguisticformsbuttheknowledgeof25 华中科技大学硕士学位论文theworld,thentheimplicaturewillbeaccomplished(Coulthard,1987:8).Thespeakerfloutsthemaximstoservedifferentpurposes,tocreatehumourandironyandtoavoidaninappropriateoruncomfortablesituations.1.3.2.1.1FloutingthemaximofquantityWhenthespeakerblatantlygivesmoreorlessinformationthanthesituationrequires,heissaidtohavefloutedthemaximofquantity.Thespeakerusuallyfloutsthismaximbecauseheorsheusesinsufficientwordsinconversation.Inotherwords,thespeakergivesincompleteinformationwhenheorsheisspeaking(Leech,1983:140).ThisisanexampleadoptedbyGrice(1975:52):WomenarewomenorWariswar.Theliteralmeaningofthisutteranceisnoninformative,buttheimpliedmeaningisinformative.Thehearer’sinferencetosuchanutterancedependsonhisabilitytoexplainthespeaker’sintentionofthisparticularspeech.Thefunctionsoffloutingthequantitymaximare:irony,metaphor,meiosis,hyperbole,etc.(Ibid:52–53).1.3.2.1.2FloutingthemaximofqualityInordernottogetanypunishmentfromtheaddressee,theaddressertendstosaysomethingthatisuntrueorliesanddeniessomething.Thespeakermisrepresentshisinformationinordertomakethehearerunderstandtheintendedmeaningofanutterance(Levinson,1983:110).ThisisanexamplegivenbyGrice(1975:53):SomeonesaystoX’swife.Sheisdeceivinghimthisevening.Fromthecontextofthesentenceorfromthetoneofvoice,itseemstobethatthespeakerhasnoadequatereasontosupposethisasacase,orperhapsthatsheislikeapersonwhowouldnotstopshortofsuchconduct.1.3.2.1.3FloutingthemaximofrelationTheparticipantfloutsthismaximinsuchawaythatitmakestheconversationunmatched.Theparticipants’topicsarespokenindifferentways.Inthiscase,theparticipantwillchangethetopicbymeansofirrelevanceofthetopictothepartneroftheconversation(Levinson,1983:111).ThefollowingexampleisalsogivenbyGrice(1975:54):26 华中科技大学硕士学位论文A:Mrs.Xisanoldbag.B:Theweatherhasbeenquitedelightfulthissummer,hasn’tit?BhasrefusedblatantlytomakewhathesaidrelevanttoA’sprecedingremarks.HeimpliedthatA’sremarkshouldnotbediscussed;morespecifically,Ahascommittedasocialgate.1.3.2.1.4FloutingthemaximofmannerWhenthespeakerusesambiguouslanguageorusesanotherlanguagethatmakestheutteranceincomprehensibletotheaddressee,thisisacaseoffloutingthemaximofmanner.Moreover,iftheaddresserusesslangorhisvoiceisnotloudenough,heorshewillfloutsthismaxim(Levinson,1983:104).ThefollowingisanexamplegivenbyThomas(1995):Interviewer:DidtheUnitedStatesGovernmentplayanypartinDuvalier’sdeparture?Didthey,forexample,activelyencouragehimtoleave?Official:Iwouldnottrytosteeryouawayfromthatconclusion.Intheaboveexampletheofficial’sresponseisextremelylongandconvolutedanditisobviouslynotbyaccidentorthroughanyinabilitytospeakclearly.Therefore,hehasfailedtoobservethemaximofmanner.Theofficialhasreplied“Yes.”1.3.2.2ViolatingofthemaximsAccordingtoGrice(1975),thespeakerviolatesamaximwhenheorshewillbeliabletomisleadthehearertohavesuchimplicature.Thespeakerdeliberatelytriestomakethehearermisunderstandthetruemeaningofwhatissaid.Hetriestomisleadthehearertolookfordifferentmeaningofwhatthespeakerissaying.Thismakesthehearerinfernegativeimplicature.Inreallifesituations,manypeopletendtosaysomethinguntruewhentheycommunicate;theyevencarryoutmultipleviolationsforlyingpurposes.Peopleinreallifetendtotellliesfordifferentreasons:tohidethetruth,saveface,feeljealous,satisfythehearer,cheerthehearer,buildone’sbelief,avoidhurtingthehearer,andconvincethehearer.Peoplebelievethatlyingisthenaturaltooltosurviveandtoavoidanythingthatmayputtheminaninappropriatecondition(Tupan&Natalia,2008:64–66).27 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Thetalkofthenon-observanceofthefourmaximsisthesame,whetherthesemaximsareusedinflouting,violating,andotherkindsofnon-observance,butthedifferenceisinthekindofnon-observance;therefore,inthefollowing,theexampleswillbeadequatetoillustratehowthespeakerviolatesamaxim.1.3.2.2.1ViolatingthemaximofquantityThefollowingexampleisaconversationbetweentwofriends,JohnandMike:John:Wherehaveyoubeen?Isearchedeverywhereforyouduringthepastthreemonths!Mike:Iwasn’taround.So,what’sthebigdeal?JohnposesaquestionwhichheneedsansweredfromMike.WhatMikesaysinreturndoesnotlackthetruth;however,itisstillinsufficient.ThiscanbeduetothefactthatMikepreferstorefrainfromprovidingJohnwiththeanswer.John’ssentenceimpliesthatMikehasnotbeenaround;otherwise,hedidnothavetosearcheverywhere.Johndoesnotsayasmuchasitisnecessarytomakehiscontributioncooperative.Therefore,Johnviolatedthequantitymaxim(Khosravizadeh&Sadehvandi,2011:123).1.3.2.2.2ViolatingthemaximofqualityThefollowingexampleisaconversationbetweenamotherandherson:Mother:Didyoustudyalldaylong?Thesonwhohasbeenplayingalldaylong:I’vebeenstudyingtillnow!Inthisconversation,theboywasnottellingthetruthandheviolatedthemaximofquality.Heliedtoavoidunpleasantconsequencessuchaspunishmentortobeforcedtostudyfortherestoftheday(Ibid:122–123).1.3.2.2.3ViolatingthemaximofrelationThefollowingisanexampleofaconversationbetweenateacherandoneofhisstudents:Teacher:Whydidn’tyoudoyourhomework?Student:MayIgoandgetsomewater?I’msothirsty.28 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Inthisexample,thestudent’sanswerisbynomeansirrelevanttotheteacher’squestion.Onereasonforthisanswercanbethefactthatthestudentistryingtoevadetheinterrogationposedbytheteacher(Khosravizadeh&Sadehvandi,2011:123).1.3.2.2.4ViolatingthemaximofmannerThefollowingisaconversationbetweentwofriends,SaraandAnna:Sara:Didyouenjoythepartylastnight?Anna:Therewasplentyoforientalfoodonthetable,lotsofflowersallovertheplace,peoplehangingaroundchattingwitheachother…Saraaskedaverysimplequestion;however,whatshereceivesfromAnnaisaprotracteddescriptionofwhatwasgoingonintheparty.TwointerpretationscanbemadefromAnna’sdescription:1.Annahadsuchagreattimeand2.Shedoesnotknowhowtocomplainaboutit.Annaisambiguous;therefore,sheviolatedthemaximofmanner(Ibid:123).1.3.2.3OptingoutofthemaximsWhenthespeakeroptsoutfromthemaxim,heorsheseemsunwillingtocooperateinthewaythemaximsrequired(Grice,1975:71).Moreover,Thomas(1995:74)saysthatthe“exampleofoptingoutoccursfrequentlyinpubliclife,whenthespeakercannot,perhapsforlegalorethicalreason,replyinthewaynormallyexpected.Thespeakerusuallywishestoavoidgeneratingafalseimplicatureorappearinguncooperative.”Thomasalsoarguesthatgivingtherequestedinformationmighthurtathirdpartyorputthemindanger.Forexample:Ifadoctororanurse,whohascompleteconfidentialityregardinghisorherpatients,isaskedbythepoliceorthepresstorevealsomethingaboutthepatientthatheorsheistreating,heorshewillreply:A:Iamsorrybutcan’ttellyouanything.Thedoctorornurseoptsoutofamaximwhenheorsheispreventedfromanswering.Thedoctorseemstobeunwillingtocooperate,duetotheproceduresofthehospitalorforthesakeofsecretinformationorsomethingelse(Dornerus,2006:7).29 华中科技大学硕士学位论文1.3.2.4InfringingofthemaximsWhenthespeakerhasanimperfectknowledgeorperformanceoflanguage,heorsheinfringesthemaximslikeayoungchildoralearnerofaforeignlanguagewhohasimperfectcommandofthelanguage.Furthermore;nervousness,darkness,andexcitementmayimpairthespeaker’sperformance;inthesecasesheorshedoestheinfringement(Thomas,1995:74).Sometimesaspeakerinfringesthemaximsbecauseheorsheisincapableofspeakingclearly;heorshedoesnotknowthecultureorheorshehasnotenoughknowledgeofthelanguage.Considerthefollowingexample,someonelearningEnglishasasecondlanguagespeakstoanativespeaker:Englishspeaker:Wouldyoulikehamorsaladonyoursandwich?Non-Englishspeaker:“Yes.”Theimplicaturehasnotbeengeneratedbytheinterlocutor;heorshehasnotunderstoodtheutterance.Theanswermightbeinterpretedasnon-operative.Thisisacaseofdifferentsocialknowledgewhichimpliedadifferentimplicature(Dornerus,2006:7).Thedifferencebetweenviolatingandinfringingdependsonthespeaker’sintention;inviolatingthespeakerisliabletomisleadthehearer,whereasininfringingthespeakerunintentionallyfailstoobserveamaxim.Violatingisakindofmisleadingthehearer;thespeakerhereintendstomisleadinordertosavefaceortoachievesomepurposesinhisfavour.Infringementoccurswhenaspeakerfailstofulfilamaximbecausehehasimperfectknowledgetocommunicate.1.3.2.5SuspendingofthemaximsThespeakerfailstoobservethemaximsifthereisnoexpectationtogenerateimplicature.Inthiscase,thespeakersuspendsthemaxims.Thismayculturallydifferentiateaccordingtoparticularevents.Forthequalitymaxim,thiscasecanbefoundinfuneralorations,whentherelativeandhisfriendswanttopraisethedeceasedandexcludeanynegativeaspectsoftheirlifeorpersonality.Thespeakerinpoetrysuspendsthemannermaximsincepoetrydoesnotaimforconciseness,clarityandlackofambiguity.Inthecaseoftelegrams,telexesandsomeinternationalphonecalls,the30 华中科技大学硕士学位论文maximofquantityissuspendedbecausesuchmeansarefunctionalowingtotheirverybrevity.Itisdifficulttofindanyappropriateexamplesinwhichthemaximofrelationissuspended(Thomas,1995:76–78).1.4FictionalconversationLanguageisatoolbywhichhumanbeingscancommunicateandconveymessagestoeachotheraimingtoachievearangeofpurposes,suchasinforming,ordering,reassuring,warning,persuading…etc.Therhetoricofdiscourseisawayinwhichthemessagesareusedtoachievesuchpurposes.Therhetoricaldiscourseinanovelhasdifferentimplications.Thewriterrealizestherelationwithhisreadersinwhichthecontentsofthefictionareinterpretedinanappropriatemanner.Buttheproblemarisinghereisthatthediscourseinfictionisnotlikespokenorsimpleconversation.Thesimpleconversationisclearwheretheaddresserandaddresseeareknown.Indiscourse,thesentencesshouldbeconnectedwitheachothermatchingthegeneraltopic.Therefore,eachsentenceintendstoberelevanttothesurroundingpartsofthetextandshouldtellthetruthinordertoaccomplishclearmeaningmutuallybetweenthespeaker/writerandlistener/reader(Green,1989:103).AccordingtoLeech(1983),rhetoricinitstwolevels,interpersonalandtextual,hasaroleinspeechsituations.Thesetwolevels,accordingtohim,areusedtoproduceacertaineffectinthemindthroughthelanguage.Heemphasizestheimportanceofthesetwolevelsinanyinteractionsandtriestomakeclassificationbetweenthem.Inliteratureworks,especiallynovelsasakindofadiscourse,thereisoneaddresserbutalargenumberofaddressees.Theauthorofanovelisinthedarklikehisreaders,heorshecansharewithhisreadersthecommonexperiencesandknowledge,suchashistoricalevents,literaryworks,andinterpretationofthesentences.Inassumingknowledgethatareadermaynotnecessarilyhave,itmightconcludethattheaddresseeinliterarycommunicationisnotthereaderbutwhatWayneBoothhasclaimedastheIMPLIEDREADER,inwhichthehypotheticalpercentagesharingbetweenauthorandimpliedreaderisnotbackgroundknowledgebutasetof31 华中科技大学硕士学位论文presuppositions,sympathiesandstandardsofwhatisgoodorbad,rightorwrong.Tobecomeanappropriatereader,heorsheshouldmakeallkindsofallowances,linguistic,social,andmoral,whomtheauthorisaddressing,notjustmakehimselfawareofthoseparticularfacts.BoothpointsoutthatthereiswhathecalledtheIMPLIEDAUTHORbetweentheauthorandtextjustasthereisanimpliedreaderbetweenthereaderandhiswork.Figure1.3clarifiesthesetwolevelsofdiscourse;theauthormeansimpliedauthorwhereasreadermeansimpliedreader(Leech&Short,1981:207).Addresser1Addressee1(Author)(Reader)MessageAddresser2Addressee2(ImpliedAuthor)(ImpliedReader)MessageAddresser3Addressee3(Narrator)(Interlocutor)MessageAddresser4Addressee4(Character)(Character)MessageFigure1.3ConversationinthenoveladoptedfromLeech&Short(1981:216)32 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Inthediscoursesituationsofthenovel,boththeauthorsandreadersarenottheonlyfigurescommunicated.Thereisadistinctionbetweentheauthorandnarrator;thenarratormightbetalkingtosomeonedifferentfromthereader.Moreclearly,thereisI-narrationnovelsuchasDavidCopperfieldnarratedbyanI-narrator;thischaractertalkstoaninterlocutorapparently,becausethereisnodirectlistenertotheDavid.Weconcludethatheistalkingtous.Figure1.3alsoindicatestherelationbetweentheaddresserandaddresseeasitappearsinthepersonalityoftheDavid(addresser3)andtheinterlocutor(thereader/listener).AtthelevelofdiscoursestructuretheparticipantDavidiscollapsedintotheequivalentparticipantinstantly(Leech&Short,1981:211).Itcanbenoticedthatthereareaseriesofnarratorsandeachoneisassociatedwithdifferentdiscoursestructure.Asadiscourse,novelscanbeseenashavinghighlyindividualarchitecturesandparticularlythatanarratorcanaddressdifferentinterlocutorsatdifferentpointsinthenovel(Ibid:212).Foranovelist,itismoreusualtoutilizeanimpersonalstyleofnarration.Thatis,byemployingthethirdperson.IntheBleakHousenovel,Dickens,whenheisrecountedthedeathofMr.Tulkinghorn,pretendsthathedoesnotknowthateventsthatoccurredplacinghiminthepositionofpasser-bywhowillfindoutstepbystepwhathashappened.Whofiredagun?What’sthat?Wherewasit?Thedeclarativestructureofthenarrativesentenceisreplacedbyaseriesofquestions.Seemingly,Dickensisunawarenotonlyofwhofiredtheshot,butwhatkindofweaponwasusedtoshoot(Ibid:214).Thereisanotherimportantlevelofdiscoursefoundinthenovelwhichisaconversationthatthecharactersinthenovelsharing.Figure1.3showsthefinaldiscourserelationsinthenovel.Inthisfigure,anovelcontainsanembeddedhierarchyofdiscourse;thisisanecessarydistinctionbetweencharacters,narrators,impliedauthorandrealauthor.Generally,theuseofthirdpersonnarrationseparatesthelevelofcharacterdiscoursefromthatofnarratordiscourse.InBleakhouse,thecharacterEstherSummersonnarrationwastoldfromtheeyesofanothercharacterinthestory.Furthermore,thereisamergerofthecharactersandnarrator’slevelsofdiscourseasinmostI-narrationnovels(Ibid:216-217).33 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Green(1989)interestedwiththecontributionofthecooperativeprincipleinwritingdiscourse.AccordingtoGreen,thecoherenceofthetextdependsontheeffortrequiredtoconstructanaffordabletoadvantagetotheproducerofthetextinproducingthetext.Andthisdependsontheabilityofthesentenceitselftogivethetruth,contributionandrelevancetothecoreofthediscourse.Greenalsopointsoutthatthelinguisticpropertieshaveanessentialroleinthetextcoherence,butnotalwaysdothesepropertiesmakethetextcoherentandachievetheunityofthetopicofdiscourse.Cooperativeprinciplecanbeappliednotonlybetweenthecharactersinthediscourseofthenovel,butalsobetweentheauthorsandreadersinwhichtheyconveymessagestothem.Theauthorsometimesconveyswhatheorshewantsdirectlyorviacommunicationbetweencharacters.Inbothwecanexpecttoreachtheconversationalimplicature.ThefollowingisasentencequotedfromPrideandPrejudicebyJaneAusten(Leech&Short,1981:243):Itisatruthuniversallyacknowledgedthatasinglemaninpossessionofagoodfortunemustbeinwantofawife.Theauthorhereviolatedthequalitymaximbecausenoonecanacceptsuchatruth.Wecanassumethattheauthorspeaksinanironicway,andthemeaningcanbeunderstoodasifthisisnotauniversaltruth.Thesocialconventionsofmoneyandmarriagearealotofpeoplebehavingasiftheyweretrue.Inthenovel,thereaderisinvitedtodrawimplicaturefromthecharacters’speechandauthorialcommentary;thesetwolevelsleadtoathirdkindofimplicaturederivedbythereader(Ibid:242–243).1.5ThewayscooperativeprincipleoperateswithproverbsPragmatically,theliteraryaspectsofproverbsmakethemimportantsinceproverbsareregardedasmultifunctionalbeingcapabletocoordinatewithdifferentvarietiesofinteraction.Sotheindirectfeatureofproverbsmakesthemaspracticalasrequiredtomeettheneedsofeverydaycommunication.Forthehearer,forinterpretingthemeaningoftheproverb,hefirstlyneedstolookfortheliterarymeaningifitisan34 华中科技大学硕士学位论文appropriatetothecontext.Ifitisnotthenheshouldlookforafigurativemeaning,themeaningundertheformofaproverb.Hearerssometimesareunwillingtoreceiveadvicedirectly,especiallywhentwointerlocutorsareinthesamestatus;therefore,thespeakerofproverbsintendstohidehisorherfeelingunderthecontextofaproverbleavingtheinterpretationofthemessagestothehearer/readers(Norrick,2007:386).Tosaveface,mostoftheusersofproverbstendtotackleindirectandpolitemannersindealingwithproverbsduetothepolitenessstrategiesthatareamechanismbywhichthespeakerisabletoconveyamessagetothehearerwithoutcausinganyembarrassment.Harnish(1993)distinguishesbetweentheconstativeanddirectivewithreferencetoproverbs.Heclaimstheuseoftheconstativeononehandincludesthedeclarativeproverbsthatexpress,forexample,anattitude,givingadvice,andexplainingsomething.Useofthedirectiveontheotherhand,includesimperativeproverbsthatguideanddirectthehearer’saction.AsthepresentstudyisconcernedwiththeCooperativePrincipleandGrice’smaximsasatheoryofanalysisofproverbs,itisimportanttoseethesemaximsinrelationtoproverbsfromtheperspectiveofscholars.Charteris-Black(1995)pointsouttherelationofproverbstothefourmaximsandhowthesemaximsrelatetoproverbs.Inconformitywiththemaximofqualitywhichrequiresthatthecontentofcommunicationshouldbegenuine,proverbsreflectthewisdomofasocietyandsharethebackgroundoftruthandvalue.Proverbsbeingshort,pithy,andinformativeexpressions,theyarecoordinatedwiththemaximofquantitywhichpresupposestheinterlocutorstogivetheamountofinformationtofulfiltherichnessoftheconversation.Withreferencetothebriefnessandorderthatareessentialtoavoidambiguityandobscuritytothecontext,theproverbshouldabidewiththemannermaximwhichemphasizesthatthespeakershouldbeclearinhisorherspeechtoavoidobscuritysothehearerunderstandsthemessage.Finally,proverbsindealingwiththerelationmaximseemnotalwaysberelevanttotheprecededdiscoursesincethemetaphoricalstatusmakestherelationwiththecontextobscure,inthiscasethebreakingofamaximhasoccurred.Chong(2001)statesthatproverbsarefoundintheenvironmentofcommunicationandprovideasuitableandagoodexampletodescribetheconceptofcooperative35 华中科技大学硕士学位论文principle.ProverbscanobservethefourGriceanmaxims:quantity,quality,relation,andmanner.Withreferencetothequantitymaxim,theproverbsareabidingwiththemaximbecausetheyarebriefbutinformative.Inanindicationofquality,thespeakers’comprehensionshouldberealandproverbshaveproofintheformofconversationwisdomthattheyperform.Intermsofmanner,proverbsareregardedasbriefandordered.Themetaphorandanalogyofproverbsmaketheirrelationtothetopicofthediscourseobscure,sotherelationmaximseemstobebroken.Manyproverbsareemployedindirectlytosavefaceandtoavoidgeneratingnegativefeelings,sothiscaseofindirectnessmakestheuseofproverbsinsuchawaytobeadynamicofpoliteness.LittlemoreandLow(2006)indicatethatinadditiontotheindirectfunctionofproverbsincommunication,proverbsalsoplayanimportantroletobeginaconversationortochangethetopic.Interlocutorsuseproverbstosumupsituationsandtosummarizethediscussion;also,theyindicatetheirdesiretoendtheconversation(Drew&Holt,1998).Gibbs(2001)claimsthatthefunctionofproverbsthatarerepresentedinatextisrelatedtotheirpowerinpersuadingothers.Interlocutorscanwinargumentsbyusingthewisdomofproverbsasamoralauthority.Forthesereasons,Obelkevich(1994)considerstheuseofproverbsasstrategiesfordealingwithsituations.ThecontextisregardedasanessentialenvironmenttojustifythemeaningofproverbsasMieder(2007)assertedthatinactualusetheproverbsrefertothesocialsituationsandtheseinturngivetheproverbsthesuitablemeaning.Judgmentinthismatterdependsonthecontextofthesituationandthewayinwhichthespeakerwantstheproverbtobeused.36 华中科技大学硕士学位论文2Methodology2.1ResearchquestionsThisstudyisanattempttoanalyseEnglishproverbsfromtheperspectiveofcooperativeprinciple.Thestudyaimstoanswerthefollowingthreequestions:1.DotheEnglishproverbsfoundinCharlesDickens’novelsdemonstratetheobservanceornon-observanceofGrice’smaxims?2.Whichmaximistheleastobservedcomparedtoothers,andwhy?3.Whichkindofnon-observanceisthemostfrequentinusingEnglishproverbscomparedtoothers,andwhy?2.2ResearchsubjectTherearethousandsofEnglishproverbsfromvarioussourcesaroundtheworld.Proverbsaremultifunctional;theycannotstandforoneparticularsituationviztheirmeaningarevariable.Proverbsmanagewhenthecontextisrequired;therefore,thecontextprovidesanappropriateenvironmenttoanalyseproverbsaccordingtotheCooperativePrincipletheory.ThisstudywilltackletheEnglishproverbsexistinginthenovelsofVictorianera,specificallytheproverbsfoundinthecontextofCharlesDickensnovelsduringtheperiod1836–1870.TheOxfordDictionaryofEnglishProverbsprovidesanindextoproverbsexistinginliteratureworks.Thisdictionarycountedabout160EnglishproverbsinCharlesDickensnovels.Concerningtheimportanceandtheaimsofthisstudy,itisofgreatbenefittochoosetheproverbsthatarestillincommonuse.So,OxfordConciseDictionaryofProverbsprovidesover1000ofthebestknowncommonEnglishproverbsaroundtheworld.ThisdictionarycountedeightyEnglishproverbsdistributedamongthirteennovels.Someproverbsarerepeatedmorethanonetimeindifferentnovels.Sinceaproverbappearedinadifferentcontext,itisregardedasonecasetobeanalysed.37 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Thefollowingarethenamesofnovelsthataretackledinthisstudylistedinchronologicalorderaccordingtodateoftheirpublishingwithreferencetothenumberofproverbsforeachnovel:1.Pickwickpapers,sevenproverbs.2.NicholasNickleby,nineproverbs.3.TheOldCuriosityShop,eightproverbs.4.BarnabyRudge,tenproverbs.5.MartinChuzzlewit,eightproverbs.6.DombeyandSon,threeproverbs.7.DavidCopperfield,nineproverbs.8.BleakHouse,sevenproverbs.9.HardTimes,threeproverbs.10.LittleDorrit,fourproverbs.11.GreatExpectations,fourproverbs.12.OurMutualFriend,threeproverbs.13.TheMysteryofEdwinDrood,fiveproverbs.2.3ResearchproceduresThestudyisaninvestigationofEnglishproverbsbasedonthetheoryofCooperativePrinciple.Thenon-observanceandobservanceofGrice’smaximswillbetheframeworktoanalysethecollecteddata.Qualitativeandquantitativeapproacheswillbeadopted.Qualitativestudywillbeadoptedtoinvestigatethereasonsforobservanceandnon-observanceofGrice’smaxims.Quantitativestudywillbeusedtomeasurethefrequencyofobservanceandnon-observanceofthemaximsandtoclarifytheresults.Withregardtonon-observanceframework,thedatawillbedistributedamongthefivekindsofthisframework.So,allquotationsaresequentialbeginningwithoneandendingwitheighty.Someoftheproverbsareusedtobreakmorethanonemaxim,toavoidrepetition;eachquotationwillbeusedonetime.Forexample,ifoneproverbis38 华中科技大学硕士学位论文usedtofloutquantityandmannermaxims,thequotationwillbeunderthetitle“Floutingthemaximofquantity”.Fortheobservanceframework,thequotationswillbeplacedwithoutdivisionintosubparts.Becausetheobservanceofmaximsmeansthatthespeakerobservesallthemaxims,wedon’tneedtotacklesubpartsinthisframework.Threetableswillbetackledinthisstudy.ThefirstshowsthefrequencyofEnglishproverbswhetherinrelationtoobservanceornon-observanceofGriceanmaxims.ThesecondshowsthefrequencyofmaximsthathavebeenbrokenbytheusersofEnglishproverbs.Thethirdshowsthefrequencyofkindsofnon-observancethathavebeenusedtobreakthemaxims.Chartswillbedrawnforeachtableforaclearerpresentationoftheresults.Eachproverbwillbeindependentlyanalysedindetail.Theauthorwilllookatthequotationsfromthepointofviewoflinguisticandnon-linguisticcommunication.Asthefictionalconversationisnotlikeordinaryconversation,theauthor,ontheonehand,willlookintochangesinthetopics,structureoftheproverb,andthetiesthatrelatedaproverbwithotherpartsofthetext.Ontheotherhand,theauthorwilllookatthetensions,deductionsinthecontexts,feelingsthattheauthorhasintroducedtothediscourse,andtherolesofthecharactersthatwerecreatedbytheauthorofthenovels.39 华中科技大学硕士学位论文3ResultsandDiscussionThispartdealswiththeanalysisofEnglishproverbsbasedonCooperativePrincipletheoryandGrice’smaxims.Thequotationsinthispartwillbeanalysedonebyone.Thequalitativeapproach,whichwillbedoneaftereachquotation,isdividedintosubparts.Itwillbeginwiththediscussionandcountingoftheresultsaccordingtothethreequestionsofthestudyfollowedbyanalysisofthedataandclassifyingthembyobservanceandnon-observance.3.1Observanceornon-observanceGricepointsoutthatnotallpeopleobservethemaximswhetherinreallifeorinwrittenandspokendiscourse.Inthiscase,thereisadistinctionbetweenwhatthespeakerissayingandwhatheintendstoconvey.Inotherwords,animplicaturewillariseasaresultofbreakingtheconversationalmaxims.ThefunctionofEnglishproverbshereplaysanessentialroletojustifywhatthespeakerwantstoconvey.Griceidentifiedfivekindsofnon-observanceofconversationalmaxims;flouting,violating,infringing,optingout,andsuspending.ThequantitativestudyrevealedthatmostEnglishproverbsthathavebeenanalysedinthisstudyhavefailedtofulfiltheGriceanmaxims(non-observance).Table3.1indicatesthatthemaximsarebroken57times(proverbs)accountingfor71.25%ofthetotalproverbsanalysed,whilethemaximsareobserved23times(proverbs)accountingfor28.75%.Basedonthefindings,itcanbeconcludedthatEnglishproverbscanbedividedintotwokindsaccordingtotheirstructureandthecontextofthesituationsaffectingthespeaker’suseofEnglishproverbsinfictionaldiscourse.40 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Table3.1ResultsofObservanceandNon-observanceoftheMaximsNo.NameofthenovelTheresultsaccordingtothenumberofquotationNon-observanceObservance1PickwickPapers11011124258592NicholasNickleby213254344606162523TheoldCuriosityShop14152653546364654BarnabyRudge161727454666674748555MartinChuzzlewit3282930314968506DombeyandSon432697DavidCopperfield518193334567071728BleakHouse6720353673749HardTimes37757610LittleDorrit3877787911GreatExpectations89395712OurMutualFriend21224013TheMysteryofEdwinDrood2324415180Total5723Frequency71.25%28.75%Thefirstreferstothoseproverbsforwhichtheirstructureallowsthemtobecapableofgoingalongwiththetexttoformsentencesorphrasesgeneratedfromitandtransformintoanother.Theseproverbsseemtobesimpleinstructureandeasytounderstand.Theyareabsoluteandfreefromobscureexpressionsthatcauseambiguityintheinterpretationofthecontextualsituationsmakingthemeasierforthelisteners/readerstounderstandthefunctionoftheproverbsinthecontext.Forinstance,theproverb“liveandlearn”(Quotation64)isinfluencedbythepreviouswordstoformprepositionalphrase“tolive”andatransitiveverb“learnto”.Someoftheseproverbsinfluencedbythesurroundingcontextsituationsmakethempossibletobeconsistentwiththethemeofthediscourse.Becausetheseproverbsareformulatedwithordinarywords,theycanexistwithinthecontextofthediscourseasordinarydependentclauseslosingtheirmeaningasproverbsandoperatingwithotherpartsofthetexttomakeconcretecontext.Averygoodexampleofthisis“whatthesoldier…said…it’snotevidence”,thesituationalcontextrevolvesaroundtheconversationbetweenSamWeller,41 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Mr.Pickwick’sadvisor,andthejudge.WhenSamWellersaysthejokeaboutthesoldier,thejudgeexploitstheword“soldier”saidbySamtocreateanimperativesentencebythisproverbtoorderhimnottotalkaboutthesoldier’scase.So,theproverbbecomesanessentialpartoftheconversationbetweenthem.ThesecondpartoftheresultsindicatesthatmostusersoftheEnglishproverbsinthisstudyhavebrokentheGriceanmaxims.ThecharacteristicofEnglishproverbsasanindependentstructureisessentialtojustifytheirroleintheconversationsasfoundinCharlesDickens’novels.So,themetaphoricalfunctionofproverbs,thesituationalpoliteness,andtheindirectmannerthespeakeremploystoconveymessagestothereaderarefundamentalfactorsprovingwhythespeakerfrequentlyfailstoobservethemaximsofconversation.Thus,asproverbsholdwisdom,advice,warning,persuasions,theyareregardedasmultifunctionaldevices.Therefore;theproverbsareregardedasatoolusedbytheusersindifferentsituations.Theencodedfunctionorhiddenmeaningoftheproverbsenablesthespeakertomanipulatetheproverbsthusbreakingthemaximsinordertomeethisaims.Thesekindsofproverbsduetotheirindependentnaturefailtoobservethemaximsofconversationandassuchcannotbeemployedtooperatewiththecontext/textofthediscourse.ButitisimportanttosaythatauserofEnglishproverbsatthesametimemeetthemaximsindirectly.So,thebackgroundknowledge,socialcontext,psychologicalcontext,thetoneofthespeaker,andtheabilityofthereadertointerpretthecoreofdiscourse,allpermittheinterlocutorstounderstandthemeaningofconversationbeyondexplicitmeaningwhetherinapositiveornegativemanner.42 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Figure3.1PercentagesofObservanceandNon-observanceoftheMaximsFigure3.1clarifiesthepercentagesofEnglishproverbsthathavebeenanalyzedanddemonstratedasobservanceandnon-observanceofGriceanmaxims.3.2MaximsfailingtobeobservedTable3.2showsthefrequencyofmaximsthathavebeenbroken.Theresultsindicatethattherelationmaximisbrokenmoreoftenthanothers,28timesaccountingfor35%,whilethequalitymaximisbroken20timesaccountingfor25%,andthequantityandmannermaximsarebroken16timesandaccountfor20%each.Table3.2ResultsoftheMaximsFailingtobeObservedNo.oftheGrice’smaximsproverbquantityqualityrelationmanner1√2√√3√4√√√5√√6√7√√8√9√10√√11√12√43 华中科技大学硕士学位论文No.oftheGrice’smaximsproverbquantityqualityrelationmanner13√√14√√15√√16√17√18√√19√20√√21√22√23√24√√25√26√27√28√√29√30√31√√32√33√34√35√36√37√38√39√40√41√√42√43√√44√45√√46√√47√√48√√49√√50√√51√52√53√54√44 华中科技大学硕士学位论文No.oftheGrice’smaximsproverbquantityqualityrelationmanner55√√56√57√Total16202816Frequency20%25%35%20%Table3.2indicatesthattherelationmaximwastheleastobserved.Proverbs,asanindependentstructure,consistofphrasesandwordsstandingalone.Therearenotiesbetweenaproverbandotherpartsofthetext.So,independenceasacharacteristicofmostEnglishproverbsmakesthemdifficulttocorrespondwithinthesurroundingcontext/text.Theirregularsyntaxofproverbsmakesthemrecognizableasproverbs;moreclearlytheycannotbeaffectedbytransformations.Fromtheabovereasonswecanconcludethattheproverbslackrelationtothecontext/text.Thefigurativefeatureandspecialstructureofproverbsmakethemstandbythemselveslackingtieswithsentences/utterances.Furthermore,proverbsappeartolosetheirunitywithtext/context.Therefore,inthiscasetherelationmaximhasbeenbrokenmoreoftenthanothers,losingtheunityoftheconversationandmakingtheconversationirrelevant.Someexpressionsthatconstituteproverbsseemtobeuntrueorimpossibletoachieve,forexample“loveisblind”(Quotation10),“anEnglishman’shouseishiscastle”(Quotation12),“timeismoney”andmanyothers.Theuseroftheseproverbswithrelationtothecontextisseeminglylyingandhisspeechmightbefalse.Howcansomeonebelievethattimeismoneyandlovecanbeblind!Beingmetaphoricaldevices,manyproverbsareconfusingtounderstand;sotheusersapparentlyfailtoobservethequalitymaximwheretheymeetthismaximthroughdeeplymeaningembeddedundertheformofproverbs.Thereasonsforthefailuretoobservethequalitymaximarerelatedtothereasonsofthefailuretoobservetherelationmaxim.Duetothesereasons,bothofthemhavegainedalmostclosedresults.Thelasttwomaximsthathavebeenbrokenarethequantityandmanner.Bothofthemgainedanequalresult.Gricepointsoutthatforconversationstobeinformative;thespeakershouldgivenomoreorlessinformationthanrequired.Otherwise,theconversationwilllackvalueanddirecttheinterlocutorsawayfromtheessenceof45 华中科技大学硕士学位论文speech.Aproverbasasentenceorshortsentencegivesadequateinformationbyitselfinaparticularsituationasshowninthegroupoftheproverbsthataredemonstratedtoobservethemaxims.Inconversation,particularlyinfictionalconversation,thevarietyoffunctionsgivenbytheproverbsontheonehandandtheextensionofthecontextontheotherhandmaketheuserbreakthemaximofquantityinespecialcircumstances.Sometimes,proverbsareoperatedwiththetext/contexttotransferinformationmorethanisrequiredintheconversation.So,inthiscasetheuseroftheproverbfailstoobservethequantitymaximduetothehugeinformationgiven.Figure3.2clarifiesthepercentageofGriceanmaximsthathavebeenbrokeninthecontextofthenovels.Someoftheproverbsinthisstudyareconstitutedwithobscureexpressions;theycannotcorrespondintothecontext/textofthediscourse.Theseobscureexpressionsmakeadentinthestructureofthetextchangingthethemeofthecontext.AccordingtotheconversationalmaximsandwhatGrice’smaximscalledfor,bothinterlocutorsshouldavoidexpressionswithambiguitytoenablethelistener/readertointerpretthemessagesoftheaddresser.Someoftheproverbscauseambiguityinthecontext,whenforinstancetheuserchooseswordsthatgivesrisetomorethanoneinterpretation,whichmakesthelistener/readerconfusedabouttheappropriateinterpretationofthemeaningofproverbs.Thisleadsthemtolookforthemeaningbeyondthewordsofwhatthespeakerwantstoconvey.Figure3.2PercentagesoftheMaximsFailingtobeObserved46 华中科技大学硕士学位论文3.3Non-observanceofthemaximsTable3.3showsthefrequencyofthekindsofnon-observanceofGrice’smaxims.Theresultsshowthatthefloutingofmaximsisusedinthehighestpercentagewithafrequencyof51casesaccountingfor89.47%,whiletheviolatingofthemaximsisusedinthefarlowerpercentage.Themaximsareviolated4timesandaccountfor4.01%,optingoutregistered2casesandaccounts3.50%.Suspendingandinfringingarenotusedtobreakthemaxims.Table3.3ResultsoftheKindsofNon-observanceoftheMaximsNo.NameofanovelKinksofNon-observanceFloutingViolatingOptingoutInfringingSuspending1PickwickPapers110111242002NicholasNickleby213254344523TheoldCuriosity1415265354Shop4BarnabyRudge16172745465547485MartinChuzzlewit32829303149506DombeyandSon4327DavidCopperfield518193334568BleakHouse672035369HardTimes3710LittleDorrit3811GreatExpectations89395712OurMutualFriend21224013TheMysteryof23244151EdwinDroodTotal514200Frequency89.47%7.01%3.50%0%0%Gricepointsoutthatauserfloutstheconversationalmaximswhenheorshehasnointentiontomisleadordeceivethehearer.Heorshewantsthehearertopayattentiontotheimplicatue,inotherwords,thespeakerwantsthehearertounderstandtheimplicitmeaning.So,withreferencetoproverbsasmultifunctional,thespeakeremploystheminthecontexttomeettheaimsofconversation.Thespeakerinnormalspeechwantstobeinformativebuttoavoidprolongationinhisspeechaccordingtothe47 华中科技大学硕士学位论文contextofthesituations,toavoidembarrassment,tosaveface,andtobepolite.Forthesereasons,thespeakerintendstouseproverbsincontexttoachievetheseaims.Violatingthemaximsmeansthattheuserintendstomisleadordeceivethehearer,thespeakerwantsthehearertomisunderstandthegivenmessage.So,thisfeatureofviolatingmaximsseemsnottoconformwiththefunctionsofproverbsatall.ThisisduetothefactthatmostoftheproverbsholdthemessagesthatuserwantstobeinthefavourofthehearersaswehaveseeninthecontextofCharlesDickensnovels.Herepresentsinhischaractersthemiserable,badlife,richandpoor,andhowrichpeoplewereovercomingthelifeofpoorpeople.SoDickens,whenheusesproverbsinthecontextofhisnovels,wantstorefertohumanbeings,thebadconditionsoflawintheVictorianera,hewouldliketostimulatethegovernments,wealthy,andemployerstomakethemawareofthosebadconditionsofthatperiod.Heexploitstheproverbstoconveymessagestohisreaders,inordertohighlightmattershebelievedwereimportanti.e.thejusticeandequalityamongthepeople.Furthermore,proverbsfromDickens’pointofviewareatoolusedtoconveylongdiscourseinshortwordsaswewillseeinthefollowingonhowDickensusedproverbsinthemouthsofhischaractersandbyhimasanarratortofulfildifferentpurposes.DickensreferstotheessentialthingoflifeespeciallyintheVictoriannovels;heemphasizestothesignificanceofgivingtheworkerstheirworthysalaries.Heusestheproverb“thelabourerisworthyofhishire”(Quotation6)asasigntocapitalismwheretherichmenstolethehireofthepoorpeople.Dickensmovesfromspecializationintogeneralization,themeaningoftheproverb“between…twostoolsagreatmanypeoplehadcometotheground”,whichnotonlyreferstothetwocharactersthatDickenscreatedinhisnovelTheOldCuriosityShopbutfortheordinarypeoplewhowerevictimsundertheeventsoftheIndustrialRevolutionandMarxism.Dickensshowsthattolivewithoutdignityandfreedomisspiritualdeath(deathinlife)andinthiscase,itislikethosewhosacrificetheirlivesforthesakeoflife.Thisviewwasrevealedintheproverbs“mightaswellbehangedforasheepasalamb”.Dickenswantsallthosewhoarepoorvictimstotakeactiverolesinthemobssincetheresultisthesame,eitherphysicalorspiritualdeath.Throughtheproverb“idlenessistherootofallevil”;Dickenstellsthegovernmentinanindirectwaythattheidlenessis48 华中科技大学硕士学位论文thesourceofthemob.Theevilisareflectionoftheactsofhumanbeings;itisaresultofdifferentmisbehaviours.Dickens,thenarrator,referstothenatureofpeopletocirculatebadnewsquicklyanddelaygoodnewsasseenthroughthemeaningoftheproverb“Illnewstravelsfast”(Quotation21).Inaddition,theproverb“familiaritybreedscontempt”isareflectionofDickens’view;hemakesacomparisonbetweenNickleby’smiserablestateandwiththousandsofVictorianswholiveunderthesameconditions.Dickensusestheproverb“strikewhiletheiron’shot”(Quotation27)tomotivatehispeoplewhohavethedesiretorevoltagainstthegovernmentnottohesitateordelaysincetheyhavealreadydecidedandplanned.Theproverbheretakestheroleofmotivation.Dickens,throughthespeechofTiggandthroughtheproverb“charitybeginsathome”criesthatthecapitalistsshouldpreferthemembersoftheirfamily,metaphoricallyspeaking,tothestrangers.Onceagain;Dickenstakesthisopportunityaswelltoinstructhisreadersnottogiveupeasily,quicklyorfromonlyoneortwoattempts.Hisproverb“Romewasnotbuiltinaday”motivatesthemobbytellingthemnottoexpecttheywillachievetheirobjectsoffreedomanddignityovernight.Ittakesalongperiodofstruggle;so,patienceisrequiredinallthetime.Throughthisproverb“liveandletlive”,Dickensmakesitclearthateveryoneisfreetoliveinthewayheorshelikesanditisnecessarytorespectthat.Theproverb“anEnglishman’shouseishiscastle”(Quotation37)referstoallcapitalistsrepresentedbythecharacterBounderbywhohaveprivacyandsecurityintheirhouseswhilehundredsofworkersarehomeless.Furthermore,itisDickens’intentiontoportraythenatureofpeopleintheVictoriansociety;theproverb“accidentswillhappen”serveshispurpose.Peopleattackeachotherbasedonsuspicionsandthentheysaythatitisjustanaccident.Figure3.3clarifiesthepercentagesofthefivekindsofnon-observanceofGriceanmaximsastheyareusedtobreaktheGriceanmaximsinthecontextofCharlesDickensnovels.49 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Figure3.3PercentagesoftheKindsofNon-observanceoftheMaximsBasedontheabovefindingswecanconcludethattheusersoftheEnglishproverbsinthesenovelsfloutthemaximsinordertostimulatethelisteners/readerstothefunctionsofproverbs,whicharemostlybeinginfavourofgoodness.Inconclusion,Dickensfoundintheproverbsameanstoachievehisgoals.Thisisareasonwhyviolatingmaximsrarelyhappenswithproverbs.Withregardtothekindofviolatingasmentionedabove,theuserintendstomisleadthehearer,aswehaveseenintheproverb“comparisonsareodious”;DickensreferstoanimportantcharacteristicamongtheVictorians;notallthewealthyarethesame(unjust)andnotallthepoorarethesame(victimized).ThoughStaggispoor,hemakesuseofhisabilityinusingeffectivewordstodeceivetheothersashedoeswithMary.Theoptingoutofthemaximsisusedtobreakmaximsafewtimesinthecurrentstudy.Optingoutiscontrarytotheaimoftheusersoftheproverbs.Theywanttogivethehearerswisdomandadviceorsomeotherfunctions.Thesefunctionscannotbedonebyoptingoutofamaxim.Theuserinsistsoncallingtheseproverbstoachievehispurpose;thereisnochanceofretreatingorchange.Afewoftheproverbsinthisstudyconsistofwordsindicatingthattheuserwasunwillingtocontinuetheconversation;sotheproverbisanaphorismscarcelyusedforoptingoutofthemaxims.50 华中科技大学硕士学位论文3.3.1FloutingofthemaximsWhenthespeakerblatantlyfailstoobserveamaxim,heorshehasnointentionofdeceivingormisleadingthehearer.Thespeakerwantsthehearertosearchformoremeaningunderthestructureofwords.Inthiscase,hefloutstheconversationalmaxims.Iftheinterlocutorsortheaddresserandtheaddresseehavesharedthesamebackgroundknowledgeoftheworld,thentheimplicaturewillbeaccomplishedasafunctionoftheproverbsaccordingtothecontextofthesituations.TheproverbsthathavebeenusedtoflouttheGriceanmaximswillbeexaminedthispart.3.3.1.1Floutingthemaximofquantity(1)But,justwhenmatterswereattheirheight,andthreateningtoremainso,Mr.Pickwickfoundapowerfulassistantintheoldlady,who,evidentlymuchstruckbythemodeinwhichhehadadvocatedherniece’scause,venturedtoapproachMr.BenjaminAllenwithafewcomfortingreflections,ofwhichthechiefwere,thatafterall,perhaps,itwaswellitwasnoworse;theleastsaidthesoonestmended,anduponherwordshedidnotknowthatitwassoverybadafterall;whatwasovercouldn’tbebegun,andwhatcouldn’tbecuredmustbeendured;withvariousotherassurancesofthelikenovelandstrengtheningdescription.(ThePickwickPapers,p.941)Here,Pickwickmakesreferencetotheproverb“leastsaidthesoonestmended”totelltheoldlady,Arabella’saunt,thatsheisthereasonthatisdrivingBenAllen,Arabella’sbrother,toquarrelwithhisaunt’sservant,thinkingthatheisheraccomplice.ShedoesnotknowhowtousetheproperwordstotellBenthathissisterhasrunawayandmarriedNathanielWinkle.Dickenswantstoshowhowdirectwordscanleadtolargefights.Thus,theindirectuseoftheproverbfloutsthequantitymaxim.Thelittleinformationwhichtheproverbprovideswithreferencetocontextmakesthetalkuninformative.(2)GangawatoLunnunafoot!criedJohn,inamazement.Everystepoftheway,repliedNicholas.Ishouldbemanystepsfurtheronbythistime,andsogoodbye!Naynoo,repliedthehonestcountryman,reininginhisimpatienthorse,‘stan’still,tellee.Hoomuchcashhasttheegotten?NotmuchsaidNicholas,colouring,butIcanmakeitenough.Wherethere’sawill,there’saway,youknow.(NicholasNickleby,p.235)51 华中科技大学硕士学位论文NicholasNicklebysaysthisproverb“Wherethere’sawill,there’saway”toJohnBrowdie.Nicklebyexpresseshisfeelingsandintentionthroughawellknownproverb.Dickens,byusingthisproverb,succeedsincreatingapatheticcharacter.Despitethehardconditions,Nicklebyisstillhopeful.ThesemixedfeelingsofoptimismanddeprivationrepresentDickens’intentionsinthisnovel.WhenJohnasksNicholas“Howmuchcashhehasgotten?”Nicholasreplies“Notmuch”andthentellshimthathecouldmakeitdo.Thelexicalexpression“will”isnotenoughtoassumethathewillcertainlygetmoney.Thespeakerofthisproverbfloutsthequantitymaxim.Hegavelittleinformationtoclarifyhowtogetmoney.Inthisproverb,Nickolasassertstherewillbeawayifhehasthewill,butthisclaimisnotalwaystrue.Thus,theveracityofwhathesayscouldbechallenged.Therefore,hefloutsthequalitymaxim.(3)Thefactis,Iclosedwiththethinginamadandsanguinemanner,saidMartin,andthelesssaidaboutitthebetterforme.Mark,here,hadn’tavoiceinthematter.Well!Buthehadn’tavoiceinanyothermatter,hadhe?returnedMr.Bevan:laughingwithanairthatshowedhisunderstandingofMarkandMartintoo.Notaverypowerfulone,Iamafraid,saidMartinwithablush.Butliveandlearn,Mr.Bevan!Nearlydieandlearn:andwelearnthequicker.(MartinChuzzlewit,p.761)Martinsaysthisproverb“liveandlearn”toMark.Martinshowshowthroughlifeonecangainexperience.Learningcontinuessincelifecontinues.WhenhetellsMarktolookatMr.Bevan,thoughheisold,hestilllearns.ThisisDickens’referencetotheimportanceofeducation,asbeingtheonlythingthatcanbekeptforever.Theproverbhereisshortandconstitutesasadeclarativesentence.Theword“learn”ispresentedasaresultoftheword“live”.Thespeakerdoesnotsupplytheappropriateinformationrequiredtothisconversation.Thereferencetotheexpressions“live”and“learn”appliestoanyonebutinthiscontextthespeakerfloutsthequantitymaxim,soMartinneedstospeakperfectlyinorderfortheconversationbeinformative.(4)Hush,Susan!Ifyouplease!saidFlorence.PerhapscanhavethegoodnesstotelluswhereCaptainCutllelives,ma’amashedon’tlivehere.Whosayshedon’tlivehere?retortedtheimplacableMacStinger.Isaiditwasn’tCap’enCuttle’shouse---anditain’thishouse-andforbidit,thatitevershouldbehishouse---forCap’enCuttledon’tknowhowtokeepahouse---anddon’tdeserve52 华中科技大学硕士学位论文tohaveahouse---it’smyhouse---andwhenIlettheupperfloortoCap’encuttle,ohIdoathanklessthing,andcastpearlsbeforeswine!(DombeyandSon,p.351)Mrs.MacStingerusestheproverb“castpearlsbeforeswine”whenshespeakstoFlorence,Dombey’sneglecteddaughter(whensheiswithhermaid,SusanNipper)inaskingaboutCaptainCuttle.Florencelaterrunsawayfromthehousebecauseofherfather’silltreatment.SheisthenobligedtolivewithCaptainCuttle.MacStingerusesthisproverbinanattempttoexplainthebestwaytobehavetowardspersonslikeCaptainCuttle.ByusingtheproverbshemakeshermeaningclearertoFlorence.WhenFlorenceinquiresaboutwhereCaptainCuttlelives,Mrs.MacStinger(CaptainCuttle’slandlady)givesmoreinformationthantheconversationrequires.Thecoordinator“and”generatestheproverbinordertomanagethesurroundingsentencestofloutthequantitymaxim.Atthesametime,theproverbisseeminglyobscure,duetheobscureexpressionphrase“pearls”causingambiguity;sothespeakerfloutsthemannermaxim(avoidingobscureexpressions).Furthermore,thespeakerfloutstherelationmaxim,inthatthereisnolinkbetweenwhatthespeakerissayingandwhatFlorenceisinquiringabout.(5)Idon’tknowwhattheBankshareswereworthforalittlewhile,saidmyaunt;centpercentwasthelowestofit,Ibelieve;buttheBankwasattheotherendoftheworld,andtumbledintospace,forwhatIknow;anyhow,itfelltopieces,andneverwillandnevercanpaysixpence;andBetsey"ssixpenceswereallthere,andthere"sanendofthem.Leastsaid,soonestmended!(DavidCopperfield,p.372)BetseyTrotwoodusesaproverb“Leastsaid,soonestmended”whenspeakingtoDavidandAgnes,hisclosefriendandlaterhiswife.Sherevealscertainpointsaboutherhistorywithmoneytoendherspeechbysaying“Leastsaid,soonestmended”.Shedeliberatelyavoidsdiscussingdealingwithdifficultincidents,hopingshecanforgetthem.Inthiscase,MissBetseyfloutsthequantitymaxim.Lookingatthestructureoftheproverb,wefindthatitworksinanindependentway,andthusnotiescanbefoundinrelationtothecontext.Also,thetopicoftheproverbisoppositetowhatthequotationsuggests;thereforethespeakerherealsofloutstherelationmaxim.(6)Iwish,sir,saidMr.Vholes,toleaveagoodnamebehindme.ThereforeItakeeveryopportunityofopenlystatingtoafriendofMr.C.howMr.C.issituated.Astomyself,sir,thelabourerisworthyofhishire.IfIundertaketoputmyshouldertothewheel,Idoit,andIearnwhatIget.Iamhereforthatpurpose.Mynameispaintedonthedooroutside,withthatobject.(BleakHouse,p.851)53 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Mr.Vholes,thelawyer,usesthequotation“thelabourerisworthyofhishire”whenspeakingtoAllenWoodcourt,wholovesEsther.Mr.Vholesisadirectmanwhobeginstheconversationbyaskingforhisfees.Theuseoftheexpressionemphasizestotheimportanceofgivingworkersappropriatesalaries.Theproverb,asitoccursinadeclarativesentence,manageswiththesurroundingcontexttobreakuptheconversation.Thespeakeragainsuppliesmorethanthecontextrequires.Thus,thisspeakeralsofloutsthequantitymaxim.(7)Abargain.saidMr.Woodcourt.Doasmuchbymeinreturn.Oh!You,returnedRichard,youcanpursueyourartforitsownsake,andcanputyourhandupontheploughandneverturn,andcanstrikeapurposeoutofanything.YouandIareverydifferentcreatures.Hespokeregretfullyandlapsedforamomentintohiswearycondition.Well,well!hecried,shakingitoff.Everythinghasanend.Weshallsee!SoyouwilltakemeasIam,andmakethebestofme?(BleakHouse,p.852-853)RichardCarstoneusestheproverb“Everythinghasanend”whenspeakingtoWoodcourt.Richardwantstotakehischancesinthisworld.HetellsCarstone“TakemeasIam,andmakemethebestofme.”WoodcourtrefusesbecausehedoesnottrustCarstone.Carstoneusestheproverbameansofpersuasion,andhesucceedsinpersuadingWoodcourtthattimewillshowwhoisloyalandwhoisnot.Theroleoftheproverbhereispersuasive.InusingthisproverbCarstonefloutsthequantitymaximbynotsayingmuchabouthisclaim.Thus,thelackofinformationmakestheconversationformallyuninformative.Thepronoun“everything”seemsobscure,asthereisnolinkwiththecontextinthiscase,sothespeakeragainfloutsthemannermaxim.(8)Mrs.Joewasaverycleanhousekeeper,buthadanexquisiteartofmakinghercleanlinessmoreuncomfortableandunacceptablethandirtitself.CleanlinessisnexttoGodliness,andsomepeopledothesamebytheirreligion.(GreatExpectations,p.32)Pip,thenarrator,usesthequotation“CleanlinessisnexttoGodliness”todescribehowcleanhissisteris.But,Dickens,throughthevoiceofPipisimplicitlycriticizingthereligiousnotionof“cleanliness”ofsoulandconscience.Heisexpressingthattheideaofcleannessdoesnotonlyrefertokeepingacleanhouse,butthathumanbeingsshouldbecleanintheirheartsandintheirbehaviourtowardsothers,referringtoherbadtreatmentofhimandherhusband.WhenPipsaysthishefloutsthequantitymaxim54 华中科技大学硕士学位论文asheintroduceslessinformationtoillustratehowcleanlinessisnexttoGodlinessandwhatsomepeopledowiththeirreligiousbeliefs.(9)Well!criedmysister,withamollifiedglanceatMr.Pumblechook.Shemighthavehadthepolitenesstosendthatmessageatfirst,butit’sbetterlatethannever.AndwhatdidshegiveyoungRantipolehere?(GreatExpectations,p.140)Mrs.JoeGargeryusestheproverb“betterlatethannever”toMr.PumblechookwhenexpressingherdisagreementwithMissHavisham’slifestyle.BecausePumblechookisresponsiblefortakingPiptoplaywithEstella,Havisham’sadopteddaughter,Mrs.JoefeelsshyofcriticizingMissHavishamdirectly.So,theproverbisusedtoexpressfeelingsofdisagreement.AsforDickens,itisalsopublicadvicetocarryouttheintendedactionsevenifitislatebecausetodoitisbetterthannevertodoitatall.Grammatically,thecontextiscohesive.Thecoordinator“but”linktheproverbwiththeprevioussentence.Mrs.Joeexpressesthisfeelingclearlybutgivesnoclearreasonwhyshedisagrees.Mrs.Joeherefloutsthequantitymaxim,asthisshortutteranceisnotenoughtofulfilobservanceofthequantitymaxim.3.3.1.2Floutingthemaximofquality(10)Irepeatit,tobematterofprofoundastonishmentandintensewonder,thatNathanielPipkinshouldhavehadthetemeritytocasthiseyesinthisdirection.Butloveisblind;andNathanielhadacastinhiseye;andperhapsthesetwocircumstances,takentogether,preventedhisseeingthematterinitsproperlight.(ThePickwickPapers,p.328)Pickwickusedtheproverb“loveisblind”whenspeakingtoWardleandTrudle.HeisnarratingthetaleofNathanialPipkin,whoisdeceivedbylove.HisloveforMaria’sfather’smoneyblindshiseyesfromtherealitythatMariadoesnotlovehim.Thus,PickwickusesthisproverbmetaphoricallytorefertoNathanial’smentalblindnessbecauseoflove.Theco-operativeprincipleproposesthatinorderforconversationtobeinformative,thespeaker’sstatementshouldbetrueandnotlackinginevidence.Theword“love”isaconsciouscasewhereas“blind”isadisease.Theycannotbeco-ordinatedwitheachother.Literallyspeaking,itisimpossibleforlovetobeblind.Inthissituation,Pickwickfloutsthequalitymaxim.Thespeakeralsofloutsthemanner55 华中科技大学硕士学位论文maxim.Theadjective“blind”seemstobestrangeinthecontext,andseemsambiguousinthiscontextduetothefactthatithasmorethanonemeaning.(11)Asadisplayoffancy-shooting,itwasextremelyvariedandcurious;asanexhibitionoffiringwithanypreciseobject,itwas,uponthewhole,perhapsafailure.Itisanestablishedaxiom,thateverybullethasitsbillet.Ifitapplyinanequaldegreetoshot,thoseofMr.Winklewereunfortunatefoundlings,deprivedoftheirnaturalrights,castlooseupontheworld,andbilletednowhere.(ThePickwickPapers,p.361)Pickwickusestheproverb“everybullethasitsbillet”toWinkle.HetellsWinklethatitisnecessarytomakeplansinadvanceinordertoknowwhattodo,howtodoitandwhenandwheredoit.Planningisimportantingettingthedesiredresults.Pickwick’sadviceismoreeffectivewiththepresenceofthisproverbbecauseitconveyshissincerefeelingstowardWinkle.However,hedoesnotgiveenoughdetailsofhowthisadvicecanbecarriedout,sohefloutsthequalitymaxim.(12)Mr.Snodgrasswasthefirsttobreaktheastonishedsilence.HelookedsteadilyatMr.Grummerforabriefspace,andthensaidemphatically,Thisisaprivateroom,sir.Aprivateroom.Mr.Grummershookhishead,andreplied,Noroom’sprivatetohisMajestywhenthestreetdoo’soncepassed.That’slaw.SomepeoplemaintainsthatanEnglishman’shouseishiscastle.That’sgammon.(ThePickwickPapers,p.468)Gummerusestheproverb“anEnglish’shouseishiscastle”totellSnodgrassindirectlythathomeis“whereyourfriendsandfamilyare”ratherthannecessarilybeingarealhousemadeofbricks.Inusingthisproverb,GummersucceedsinconveyinghisfeelingsofpleasureofhavingafriendlikeSnodgrass.AccordingtoGrice’smaxims,theusershouldpresentwhathebelievesasadequateevidence.Whatpeoplesayisnotnecessarilyfactualorintendedtobetackledbythespeakerasaworthyreplytotheconversation.ThemetaphoricalmannerofMr.Grummermakeshimfloutthequalitymaxim.(13)HereistheletterforRalph,saidNicholas,andherethekey.Whenyoucometomethisevening,notawordoflastnight.Illnewstravelsfast,andtheywillknowitsoonenough.Haveyouheardifhewasmuchhurt?(NicholasNickleby,p.602-603)NicholasNicklebyusestheproverb“Illnewstravelsfast”whenspeakingtoNoggs.NicklebyhandsNoggsaletterandkeytobegiventoRalph.ThismeanstherewillbeameetingbetweenNoggsandRalph.Thereisconsiderabletensionbetween56 华中科技大学硕士学位论文NicklebyandRalph,soNicklebyindirectlywarnsMoggsnottosayeven“awordoflastnight”(603).BecauseNicklebyiscarefulaboutothers’feelings,heusesthisproverbinordernottooffendMoggs.Thespeakersayswhathebelieveswillhappeninthefuture,butthereisnoproofofhisclaims.Thus,theuseofthisproverbfloutsthequalitymaxim.Nicholasdoesnotspecifywhich“news”heisreferringtoandwhyit“travelsfast”.Thespeakerdoesnotintendtomisleadordeceivethehearerinordertomakehimpaybeattentiontothesituation.So,hefloutsthequantitymaxim.(14)Itseemsimprobablebecauseitisimprobable,hisfriendreturned.Ifyouwouldfurnishhimwithanadditionalinducementtoforgiveyou,lettherebeanirreconcilablebreach,amostdeadlyquarrel,betweenyouandme---lettherebeapretenceofsuchathing,Imean,ofcourse---andhe’lldofastenough.AstoNell,constantdroppingwillwearawayastone;youknowyoumaytrusttomeasfarassheisconcerned.(TheOldCuriosityShop,p.81)Fred,Nell’sbrother,usestheproverb“constantdroppingwillwearawayastone”whentalkingtoDick.FredgiveshisopinionaboutNell.Hepointsoutthatrichesandbeautyareimportantandthathissisterpossessesthem,althoughsheisonlyfourteen.Despitethis,hewilltrytoconvincehertomarryDickalthoughhefeelsthatshedeservesbetterthanhim.Thoughtheyarenotrich,FredtriestoconvinceDicktomarryhissisterbyusingthisproverb.Fred,theuserofthisproverbpresentsanassumptionwithoutadequateevidence.So,thespeakerfloutsthequalitymaxim.Atthesametimethespeakerfloutstherelationmaxim.Thetopicoftheproverbisverydifferentcomparedtothecontextinwhichtheproverbislocated.Theproverbhereisindependent;thereisnolinkstructurallyorsemanticallywiththesurroundingsentences.Therelevanceofthecontextherehasbeenbroken.(15)Itisdifficulttounderstandhow,possessedofthesecombinedattractions,sheshouldremainMissBrass;butwhethershehadsteeledherheartagainstmankind,orwhetherthosewhomighthavewooedandwonher,weredeterredbyfearsthat,beinglearnedinthelaw,shemighthavetoonearherfingers’endsthoseparticularstatuteswhichregulatewhatarefamiliarlytermedactionsforbreach,certainitisthatshewasstillinastateofcelibacy,andstillindailyoccupationofheroldstooloppositetothatofherbrotherSampson.Andequallycertainitis,bytheway,thatbetweenthesetwostoolsagreatmanypeoplehadcometotheground.(TheOldCuriosityShop,p.339-340)57 华中科技大学硕士学位论文CharlesDickensusesthisproverbdirectlytous,thereaders.HedoesthistogiveaclearcutpictureofthecharacterofSallyBrass.Thenhereachesthepointwhensheandherbrother,Sampson,sitoppositeeachother.TheproverbdoesnotonlyrefertoSallyandSampsonbutalsototheIndustrialRevolutionintheVictorianperiod.“Agreatmanypeople”(355)referstotheordinarypeoplewhoarevictimizedbythisevent.Theuserofthisproverbfloutsthequalitymaximasitcannotbepossibleforthepeopletofalltothegroundwhentheyareconfusedbetweentwothings,asinthiscasehappenedtoMissBrass.Thepluralnoun“stools”andtheverbphrase“hadcome”havemorethanonemeaning;inthiscasetheycauseambiguityininterpretationoftheutterance,sothisspeakeralsofloutsthemannermaxim.(16)Alatehourforanimportunatecreditor,hesaid,raisinghiseyebrowswithasindolentanexpressionofwonderasifthenoisewereinthestreetandonewithwhichhehadnotthesmallestpossibleconcern.Muchaftertheiraccustomedtime.TheusualpretenceIsuppose.Nodoubtaheavypaymenttomakeuptomorrow.Poorfellow,helosestime,andtimeismoneyasthegoodproverbsays-Ineverfounditoutthough.well.Whatnow?YouknowIamnotathome.(BarnabyRudge,p.253)Mr.Chesterusestheproverbwhenspeakingtohimself.Hedoessotosatirizeoneofhiscreditorswhoislateinpayinghisdebts.Hecommentsonthesignificanceoftimebysayingthateverythinginlifecanbecompensatedforexcepttime.Dickens’referencetothisproverbshowshowmuchhewasinfluencedbyhisfather’sdebtsthatledhimtoprisonandpoverty.Accordingtothestructureoftheproverb,theword“time”isnotcompatiblewiththeword“money”.“Time”isaconsciouswordwhereas“money”referstoastangiblething.Noonecanacceptthattimeisatruthofmoney.Accordingtothecontext,thespeaker’sdeclarativesentenceisfalse.Thus,hefloutsthequalitymaxim.(17)ManyofthisclasshaddesertedtheirusualoccupationsontheSaturdaymorning;somehadbeenseenbytheiremployersactiveinthetumult;othersknewtheymustbesuspected,andthattheywouldbedischargediftheyreturned;othershadbeendesperatefromthebeginning,andcomfortedthemselveswiththehomelyproverb,that,beinghangedatall,theymightaswellbehangedforasheepasalamb.(BarnabyRudge,p.566-567)CharlesDickenssaysthisquotation.Dickens,asarevolutionarywriterbynature,appearsclearlythroughthisquotationandinparticularthroughthisproverb.Heurgespeopletoriotagainstthegovernmentanditsunjustlawswhicharemadebytherichfor58 华中科技大学硕士学位论文therich;i.e.forthebenefitofthemiddleandupperclasses.TheproverbreflectsDickens’viewoflife.Heshowsthattolivewithoutdignityandfreedomisspiritualdeath(deathinlife).Hewantsallthosewhoaredowntroddentotakeanactiveroleinthemobssincetheresultofinactionwouldbeeitherphysicalorspiritualdeath.So,inbothcases,thereisnoneedtofeardeath.Thespeakerclaimsthatahangingwilltakeplacewhetherforsomeonestoleasheeporlamb.HisclaimemergesfromthesituationatthattimeintheVictorianerabutsuggeststhatincontexttheusershouldpresentevidencetoprovethecorrectnessofwhathehasclaimed.Thus,thecooperativeprincipleshowsthatthespeakershoulduseevidencetosupportwhathewantstosay.Thus,thespeakerfloutsthequalitymaxim.(18)Theboywillbeidlethere,saidMissMurdstone,lookingintoapickle-jarandidlenessistherootofallevil.But,tobesure,hewouldbeidlehere-oranywhere,inmyopinion.(DavidCopperfield,p.102)JaneMurdstone,Mr.Murdstonespinstersister,usestheproverb“idlenessistherootofallevil”whenspeakingtoClaraPeggotty,aservantoftheCopperfieldfamily.Janeisascruelasherbrother.Indirectly,shetellsClarathatherbrotheristroublesomebecauseheisidle.Throughthisproverb,Dickenstellsthegovernmentinanironicwaythatoppositionwillnotbesilencedunlessitfindssolutionstoidleness.Thereal“evil”isareflectionoftheactsofhumanbeings;itistheresultofdifferentkindsofmisbehaviour.Tosaythattheidlenessisliterallytherootofallevilishardtobelieve.Itisimpossibletogenerateidlenessasthecauseforallbaddeeds.Thus,theuserfloutsthequalitymaxim.Also,theinterpretationofthephrase“rootofallevil”canbeambiguous.Theword“root”createsmorethanonemeaning,oftencausingamisunderstandingoftheutterance.(19)Isay,returnedMr.Micawber,quiteforgettinghimself,andsmilingagain,themiserablewretchyoubehold.Myadviceis,neverdotomorrowwhatyoucandotoday.Procrastinationisthethiefoftime.Collarhim.(DavidCopperfield,p.129)TheyoungboyDavidCopperfieldisinvitedtodinnerbyMr.andMrs.Micawber,thefamilywithwhomhehasbeensenttoworkintheirfactoryinLondon.Mr.MicawberexplainshisexperiencesinlifetoDavidandgiveshimadvice.59 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Micawber,inthissayingfloutsthequalitymaxim.Sincetheword“procrastination”isanactorhabit,itisimpossibletobeathief.Ontheotherhand,theexpression“time”expressesaconsciousthoughtthatcannotbestolen.Theproverbfunctionsasametaphor,inordertoadvisetheheareroftheimportanceofthetimeandusingitintherightway.(20)ButwhenIhadmadethesethreevisits,myguardiansaidtome,onmyreturnatnight,Now,littlewoman,littlewoman,thiswillneverdo.Constantdroppingwillwearawayastone,andconstantcoachingwillwearoutaDameDurden.WewillgotoLondonforawhileandtakepossessionofouroldlodgings.(BleakHouse,p.438)JohnJarndyce,Esther’sguardian,says“Constantdroppingwillwearawayastone”toEsther.Asanorphan,Estheriscertainlysensitivebynaturetoeverything.Jarndyce’sfearofherfeelingsobligeshimtousetheproverbasasafeharbourtoexplainhownecessarytheirmovingtoLondonwas.Dickensintendstosaythatsometimeswehavetoobligeourselvestodothingsagainstourwillinordertogainotherthingsinstead.Thisisnotsupportedbyproofthatstoneswearawaybyconstantdropping,soJarndycefloutsthequalitymaximbyfailingtofulfilthegenuinenessofhisclaim.Tojustifythestatement,itisnecessarytohaveaunifiedoverviewoftheentirecontext.Thisisnotachievedinthequotation.Boththeproverbasindependentutteranceandtherestofthetexthavetheirownidea.Thisisbecausethisthespeakerfloutstherelationmaxim.(21)WEREBELLAWILFER’Sbrightandreadylittlewitsatfault,orwastheGoldendustmanpassingthroughthefurnaceofproofandcomingoutdross?Illnewstravelsfast.Weshallknowfullsoon.(OurMutualFriend,p.25)CharlesDickensreferstotheproverb“Illnewstravelsfast”withregardtoBellaWilfer,whoissupposedtogetmarriedtotheheirJohnHarmonbeforehissupposeddeath,Mr.andMrs.Boffins,whoarenowinchargeofHarmon’sfortune,alongwithNicodemus,theGoldenDustman,andJohnRokesmith,adisguisedJohnHarmonwhoisworkingasasecretaryfortheBoffins,allsitatatablediscussingRokesmith’swagesandotherbadnews.Dickensshowsthatitisthenatureofpeopletocirculatebadnewsquicklyanddelaygoodnews.Thespeaker’sclaimlacksevidence,andhisstatementthat“Weshall60 华中科技大学硕士学位论文knowfullsoon”requiresmoreproof.Spreadingbadnewsisnotapopulationmatter.Theuserherefloutsthequalitymaxim.(22)Withallmyheart,MaryAnne.AgainMaryAnne’stelegraphicarmworked.Whatmore,MaryAnne?Theymustfinditratherdullanddark,MissPeecher,fortheparlourblind’sdown,andneitherofthempullsitup.Thereisnoaccounting,saidgoodMissPeecherwithalittlesadsightwhichsherepressedbylayingherhandonhernearmethodicalboddice,thereisnoaccountingfortastes,MaryAnne.(OurMutualFriend,p.750)MissPeech,theschoolteacher,says“thereisnoaccountingfortaste”toMaryAnne.PeechissurprisedbyMaryAnne’slifestylebecauseshebelievesintheproverb.Dickensalsobelievesinthisproverbandwantseveryonetobelieveitandtorespectothers’manners.Herbeliefinitisenoughforhimtoclaimthatthereisnothingsuitablefortaste.So,shedidn’tgivetheevidencetomaketheconversationclearforthelistener.Hisclaimisrequiredmorethanhebelievesinthecontext.Inthiscasehefloutsthequalitymaxim.(23)Sheismovingaway,withanotherBlessye,andthank’ee,deary!whenheadds:Youweretotellmesomething;youmayaswelldoso.SoIwas,soIwas.Well,then.Whisper.Youbethankfulthatyournameain’tNed.Helooksatherquitesteadily,asheasks:Why?Becauseit’sabadnametohavejustnow.Howabadname?Athreatenedname.Adangerousname.Theproverbsaysthatthreatenedmenlivelong,hetellsher,lightly.(TheMysteryofEdwinDrood,p.135)EdwinDroodsaystheproverb“threatenedmenlivelong”toanoldwomanwhoneedsmoney,whichhegivesher.WhenshelearnsthathisnameisEdwin,sheisrelievedtoknowitwasEdwinandnot“Ned”because“Ned’is“Athreatenedname.Adangerousname”Edwincommentsthatthisproverbindicatesthatthosewhoarefearlesswillendurelifeandsowilllivelongerthanthepoorandkindheartedpeople.Dickensholdsonthisideabecausehethinksthatpowerfulstrongmenlivelongerthan61 华中科技大学硕士学位论文therest.Inreallifethereisnoevidencethatbeingabletoendurethreatsisafeaturethatmakesmenlivemorethanothers.Inthiscase,Edwinfloutsthequalitymaxim.(24)Igatherfromyoursilenceonthesubjectthatmylateguardianisadverse,Mr.Crisparkle?TheMinorcanonanswered:Yourlateguardianisa—amostunreasonableperson,anditsignifiesnothingtoanyreasonablepersonwhetherheisadverse,perverse,orthereverse.WellformethatIhaveenoughwitheconomytoliveupon,sighedNeville,halfwearilyandhalfcheerily,whileIwaittobelearned,andwaittoberighted!ElseImighthaveprovedtheproverb,thatwhilethegrassgrows,thesteedstarves!(TheMysteryofEdwinDrood,p.164)NevilleLandlesssays“whilethegrassgrows,thesteedstarves!”withreferencetoMr.Crisparkle.Unfortunately,Nevilleknowsthathislateguardian,HoneyThunder,is“adverse”.ThishasanegativeimpactonNeville.Mr.CrisparklewantsNevilletobestrongandtostudyandlearnevenifNevillehasmoney.Nevilledoesnotfindasentencebetterthantheproverbtoexpressmetaphoricallyhisbitterfeelingsofdespair.ForDickens,thisproverbcanbeappliedtotherich,theemployers.Themoretheygetmoney,thelesstheygivetheemployees,whosetheyhavetothankmustgotothemfortheirwealthandprosperity.Nevillefloutedthequalitymaximbyusingthetwolexicalexpressions,whichconstitutetheproverb,torefertotheconditionsentence.Logically,itisnottruethatgrassgrowingwillcausestarvationtothesteed.Atthesametimethespeakerfloutstherelationmaxim.Thereisnoformalcohesivenessinthecontext.Mr.CrisparkletalksaboutstudyingandlearningtoNevillewhereastheproverbintroducesadifferenttopic,i.e.theanimalandgrass.Thus,thetwooppositetopicslackcoherenceinthecontext.3.3.1.3Floutingthemaximofrelation(25)Ofthischamber,Nicholasbecamethetenant;andhavinghiredafewcommonarticlesoffurniturefromaneighboringbroker,andpaidthefirstweek’shireinadvance,outofasmallfundraisedbytheconversationofsomespareclothesintoreadymoney,hesathimselfdowntoruminateuponhisprospects,which,liketheprospectsoutsidehiswindow,weresufficientlyconfinedanddingy.Astheybynomeansimprovedonbetteracquaintance,andasfamiliaritybreedscontempt,heresolvedtobanishthemfromhisthoughtsbydintofhardwalking.(NicholasNickleby,p.275-276)62 华中科技大学硕士学位论文CharlesDickensusesthisproverb,“familiaritybreedscontempt”directlyinthecourseofalongdescriptionofNickleby’sunhappystate.Theproverbisprecededby“as”asitisknown“as”isusedforcomparison.Thus,DickensmakesacomparisonbetweenNickleby’smiserablestateandathousandofVictorianswholiveinsimilarconditions.Thenovelistfloutstherelationmaxim.Thereisnoconnectionwiththecontextbeforeandafterit.TheproverbisconcernedwithfamiliaritybetweenpeoplewhereasthecontextreferstotheprospectsthatNicholasruminateon.(26)Iamcoming,criedtheoldman.Sittheedown,Nell,sittheedownandlookon.Beofgoodheart,it’sallforthee---all---everypenny.Idon’ttellthem,no,no,orelsetheywouldn’tplay,dreadingthechancethatsuchacausemustgiveme.Lookatthem.Seewhattheyareandwhatthouart.Whodoubtsthatwemustwin!Thegentlemanhasthoughtbetterofit,andisn’tcoming,saidIsaac,makingasthoughthewouldrisefromthetable.I’msorrythegentleman’sdaunted---nothingventure,nothinghave---butthegentlemanknowsbest.(TheOldCuriosityShop,p.308)Isaacsaystheproverb“nothingventure,nothinghave”whenspeakingtotheoldman,Nell’sgrandfather.Asagambler,hedoesnotpayattentiontorisksbecausehisjobrequiresbeingfearless.Here,headvisestheoldmantotakerisksifhewantstoachievesomethinginlife.Inthisway,Dickensintendstourgethepoorandallthosewhoarehopelesstotakeriskstochangetheirlife;withouttakingtherisksofrevoltingagainstoratleastrefusingtoacceptthemiserableconditions,whichwillremainastheyare.Inthecontextofthesituation,theproverbisincompatiblewithwhattheoldmanwantstodo.Inhisabilitytoplayandwin,Isaacclaims“thegentlemanknowsbest.”ThisisdifferenttowhatIsaacwantstoconveybyusingthisproverb.Thus,Isaacfloutstherelationmaxim.(27)Whythen,Lordloveyou,saidthehangman,inhishoarsestchuckle,ashepointedwithhispipetoHugh,therehesits.That’stheman.Mystarsandhalters,MusterGashford,headdedinawhisper,ashedrewhisstoolclosetohimandjoggedhimwithhiselbow,whatainterestingbladeheis!Hewantsasmuchholdinginathorough-bredbulldog.Ifithadn’tbeenformeto-day,he’dhavehadthatereRoman,andmadeariotofit,inanotherminute.Andwhynot?criedHughinasurlyvoice,asheoverheadthislastremark.Where’sthegoodofputtingthingsoff?Strikewhiletheiron’shot;that’swhatIsay.(BarnabyRudge,p.477)Hughsaystheproverb“Strikewhiletheiron’shot”tothehangman.Agroupofgentlemengathered“inoneofthemeanesthouses,whichwasbutaroom”(475).They63 华中科技大学硕士学位论文discussseveralmatters.Hughdoesnotagreewiththehangmanwhenthelattersays“madeariotofitinanotherminute”(p.477).Hughseesthatthereisnoneedtodelaytheworksoftodayuntiltomorrowifoneiscapableofdoingatthesametimeorthesameday.Hughusesthisproverbtoconvincetheothersofhispointofview.Hughmakesitclearthattheproverbusedhere,“strikewhiletheiron’shot”,ishismottoinlife.Fromanotherangle,Dickenswantsittobethemottoofeveryone.Accordingtothecontext,thespeakeroftheproverbfloutstherelationmaxim.Thetopicofthisproverbisverydifferentfromthepreviouscontext.Thereisnocohesioninmeaningbetweentheproverbandothersurroundingelements.Theword“iron”isstrangeinthiscontext.Therearetwodifferenttopicsherewhichareunrelated.(28)Verygood,remarkedthegentleman.Thatismyinterestandbusinesshere.Withthathemadeanotherdiveforhisshirt-collarandbroughtupastring.Now,thisisverydistressing,myfriend,saidMr.Pecksniff,shakinghisheadandsmilingcomposedly.Itisverydistressingtome,tobecompelledtosaythatyouarenotthepersonyouclaimtobe.IknowMr.Slyme,myfriend:thiswillnotdo:honestyisthebestpolicy,youhadbetternot,youhadindeed.(MartinChuzzlewit,p.74)Mr.Pecksniffusestheproverb“honestyisthebestpolicy”whenspeakingtoMontagueTigg.TiggasksMr.Pecksnifftoconductbusinesswithhisfriend,ChevySlyme.PecksniffknowsthatSlyme’sfinancialstateisgettingworseandworse.So,heissatisfiedtousetheproverbtocommunicatehisrefusaltoTigg.ThisproverbisusedthreetimesbyDickensindifferentsituations.Itisalwaysusedbycharactersthataregreedydishonest,forironiceffect.Dickenswarnsusnottobedeceivedbyappearance.Thereisnolinkintopicbetweentheproverbandwhatthecontexttalksabout.Thecontextreferstothebusinesswhereastheproverbcallsforapolicyofhonesty.So,thecontextseemsnottobecoherent.Therefore,theproverbfloutstherelationmaxim.Theword“policy”hasdifferentmeanings;so,itcanbeinterpretedindifferentways.Inthiscasethespeakerfloutsthemannermaximbecausebreakingthismaximcausesambiguityinunderstandingtheexplicitinterpretationofthequotation.(29)Doit!repeatedthechairman.B’shard-up,mygoodfellowandwilldoanything.Don’tyousee?It’smyidea.Itdoesyouhonour.I’mblestifitdon’t,saidJonas.64 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Ithinkitdoes,repliedthechairman,andI’mproudtohearyousayso.BpaysthehighestlawfulinterestThatan’tmuch,interruptedJonas.Right!quiteright!retortedTigg.Andharditisuponthepartofthelawthatitshouldbesoconfoundedlydownuponusunfortunatevictims,whenittakessuchamazinggoodinterestforitselffromallitsclients.Butcharitybeginsathome,andjusticebeginsnextdoor.(MartinChuzzlewit,p.624)Tiggusestheproverb“charitybeginsathome”toJonasandthechairman.ByusingthisproverbTiggputshishandsonthewoundsofthepoor.Capitalistsarecarefultocollectingmoneyforthemselvesandtheyspenditonthemselveswhiletheworkerswhoworkdayandnightintheirfactoriestoincreasetheirincomesgetnothingexceptminimalpayments.So,Dickens,throughthevoiceofTigg,ironicallyshowsthattheCapitalistsprivilegemembersoftheirfamily,metaphoricallyspeaking,overstrangers.Thereisacontrastbetweentheproverbandpreviouscontext.Thereisnoreferencetotheword“charity”inthepreviouscontext.Thecoordinator“and”thatlinkstheproverbwiththefollowingsentence,suggestsaconnectionwithadifferenttopic.Thenoun“justice”isnotcompatiblewiththemeaningoftheproverb.Thetheoryofthecooperativeprinciplepointsoutthatadiscoursemayberelevantifthetopicofconversationisconsistentwithallsides.However,thespeakerherefloutstherelationmaxim.(30)Tom,Tom!Themaninallthisworldmostconfidentinhissagacityandshrewdness;themaninallthisworldmostproudofhisdistrustofothermen,andhavingmosttoshowingoldandsilverasthegainsbelongingtohiscreed,themeekestfavourerofthatwisedoctrine,Everymanforhimself,andGodforusall…!(MartinChuzzlewit,p.859)JohnWestlocktheproverb“Everymanforhimself,andGodforusall”toTomPinch.HeadvisesTomtothinkonlyofhisowninterestsandnotinterfereinothers’affairsbystatingthisproverb.HepointsoutthatGodisresponsibleforallthecreaturesandthehumans.BeforegivingTomthisadvice,WestlockasksTommanyquestionsaboutMercyPecksniff.Dickenswantstodrawthereader’sattentiontotwoimportantpoints.Thisisdonefirstlythroughtheuseofthisproverbwhichadvisesleavingcreaturestotheircreator,andsecondly,throughthecharacterofWestlock,notallthosewhosaywisdomsarereallywise.Grammatically,thereisnoconnectionbetweentheproverbandotherpartsofthetext.Semantically,themeaningoftheproverbisvery65 华中科技大学硕士学位论文differentfromthemeaningofthecontext.Thus,thespeakerfloutstherelationmaxim.Whattheusersayshereisdifferentfromthesurroundingcontext.Thecontextherelosesitsrelevancetotheproverb.(31)Mind!exclaimedtheoldman.Notahairofherhead!Notahairofherheadill-used!Iwon’tbearit.I---I---haveborneittoolong,Jones.Iamsilent,butI---I---Icanspeak.I---I---canspeak---hestammered,ashecreptbacktohischair,andturnedathreatening,thoughafeeble,lookuponhim.Youcanspeak,canyou!ThoughJonas.So,so,we’llstopyourspeaking.It’swellIknewofthisingoodtime.Preventionisbetterthancure.(MartinChuzzlewit,p.1077)Jonassays“Preventionisbetterthancure”tohimself.Chuffeyisworriedabouthiswifewholeftthehousefromtheearlyafternoonandhasnotreturnedyet.Thoughshetoldherhusbandthatshewouldgotoherfriend,Mrs.Todgers,ChuffeysuspectsthatJonasisthereason.Hence,ChuffeythreatensJonasthatifhedoeswrongwithher,hewillmakeJonasregretitdeeply.Jonasissurethathewillnotlethimselftoreachthatpointwithoutplacingeverythingunderhiscontrolinadvance.Heisencouragedbytheproverb.HefeelsthatitwillbeeasiertopreventChuffeyfromtakinganyrushedactionthantomendtheruinsthathewillcause.Dickens,throughtheuseofthisproverb,encourageseveryonetothinkinthesamemanner.Theusertellsthetruthinadeclarativesentence.Theproverbisusedindependentlyofitssemanticmeaning,sonolinkisfoundbetweentheproverbexpressionsandtheexpressionsfoundinthecontext.Likewise,nostructurallinkinghasbeenfoundwiththetext.Inthiscase;theideaoftheproverbisdifferentfromthewidercontext.Thus,thespeakerherefloutedtherelationmaxim.Furthermore,thoughthespeakertellsthetruth,buthedoesnotexplainhisclaimaboutpreventionaccordingtothecontextualsituation.Asaresult,thespeakerfloutsthequantitymaxim.(32)Well,Mr.Dombey,he’shadafallfromhishorse,saidRobunwillingly;andmymasterhastobeupthere,morethanusual,eitherwithhim,orMrs.Dombey,orsomeofem,andsowe’vecometotown.Aretheygoodfriends,lovely?askedtheoldwoman.Who?retortedRob.Heandshe?What,Mr.andMrs.Dombey?saidRob.HowshouldIknow?Notthem---MasterandMrs.Dombey,chick,repliedtheoldwoman,coaxingly.66 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Idon’tknow,saidRob,lookingroundhimagain.Isupposeso.Howcuriousyouare,MissesBrown!Leastsaid,soonestmended.(DombeyandSon,p.666)RobinToodleor“Rob”saystheproverb“Leastsaid,soonestmended”toMrs.Brown,theoldwoman.ShealwaysasksRobmanyquestionsaboutMr.Dombeyandhiswife.OnceRobisgettingsickofherquestions,hecannotsaythisdirectly.So,hetranslatesthisintotheformofaproverb.Hefindsintheproverbawayofindirectlyconveyinghisfeelingsofboredomandanger.So,inthissituationRobfloutstherelationmaxim.Whattheuserintheproverbclaimsiscontrarytotheoldman’squestion.(33)Mind!Itellyou!saidUriah,continuingtowarnme.Ifyoudon’tstophismouth,you’renothisfriend!Whyshouldn’tyoubeinalltheworld’spower,Mr.Wickfield?Becauseyouhavegotadaughter.Youandmeknowwhatweknow,don’twe?Letsleepingdogslie-whowantstorouseem?Idon’t.Can’tyouseeIamasumbleasIcanbe?Itellyou,ifI’vegonetoofar,I’msorry.Whatwouldyouhave,sir?(DavidCopperfield,p.419)UriahHeepsays“Letsleepingdogslie”toMr.Wickfield.UriahlosescontrolandtellsDavidtostopMr.Wickfield.TherearesecretsbetweenUriahandMr.Wickfieldconcerningthelatter’sdaughterandUriahthreatenshimthathewillrevealeverythingtoDavidthroughtheproverbUriahusestheproverbasatooltowarnWickfieldnottorememberthebitterpastinordertoavoiditstroublesanddanger.Inthecontextthereisnoreferencetothedogs.Theimperativesentenceoftheproverbisindependentinitsmeaning.Thereisnorelevanceintheideasrelatedtothegeneraltopicofthequotationandtheideaoftheproverbitself.Thus,thespeakeragainfloutstherelationmaxim.(34)Icomprehended,atonce,thatmyauntwasright;andIcomprehendedthefullextentofhergenerousfeelingtowardsmydearwife.Theseareearlydays,Trot,shepursued,andRomewasnotbuiltinaday,norinayear.Youhavechosenfreelyforyourself;acloudpassedoverherfaceforamoment,Ithought;andyouhavechosenaveryprettyandaveryaffectionatecreature.(DavidCopperfield,p.464)BetseyTrotwoodsays“Romewasnotbuiltinaday”toDavid.Betseystartsherstoryaboutherpastwiththisproverb.Firstly,sheintendstotellDavidthatthestoryislongandwilltakesometimetotell,andsecondly,shepavesthewayforDavidinthatshealsosufferedinherlifeandthirdly,mostimportantly,shewantstoencouragehimtobepatientinlifeandnottogiveupquicklyevenifhefailsonceortwiceoreven67 华中科技大学硕士学位论文more.Allovertheworld,greatdeedscannotbedoneinaminuteandasquickasonedesires.Sheistryingtoreducehisdisappointment.Dickensalsoseizesthisopportunitytoinstructhisreadersnottogiveupeasily,orafteronlyoneortwoattempts.Hemotivatesthemobsbytellingthemnottoexpectthattheywillachievetheirobjectoffreedomanddignityovernight.Thistakesalongperiodofstruggle,sopatienceisrequiredatalltimes.Theideaoftheproverbisfarawayfromwhattheinterlocutorstalkabout.Themeaningoftheproverbistotellthetruthbutbycomparingitwithcontextlosesitsrelevancebeinganappropriatesentence.So,Trotwoodhasfloutedtherelationmaxim.(35)ItwillsoundverystrangeinMissSummerson’sears,Idaresay,thatweknownothingaboutchopsinthishouse.Butwedon’t,nottheleast.Wecan’tcookanythingwhatever.Aneedleandthreadwedon’tknowhowtouse.Weadmirethepeoplewhopossessthepracticalwisdomwewant,butwedon’tquarrelwiththem.Thenwhyshouldtheyquarrelwithus?Liveandletlive,wesaytothem.Liveuponyourpracticalwisdom,andletusliveuponyou!(BleakHouse,p.734-735)Mr.HaroldSkimpolesays“Liveandletlive”tohisthreedaughters,Arethusa,LauraandKitty.Althoughheisnotagoodcharacterandhasastrangelifestyle,throughthisproverbheprovesthatheunderstandslifewell,althoughhealsoclaimsthat“Inthisfamilyweareallchildren,andI’mtheyoungest”(734).Onhisbehalf,Dickenscriticizesageneraltraitthatmanypeoplehave,whichisinterferenceinothers’waysofliving.Throughthisproverb,Dickensmakesitclearthateveryoneisfreetoliveinthewayheorshelikesanditisnecessarytorespectthat.Whenthespeakerusedthisproverb,hefloutedtherelationmaxim;hisanswertothequestionisdifferent.Thephrase“letlive”isoppositetotheprecededword“quarrel”.Thespeakerwantstostimulatethereaderwithregardtothewisdomimpliedbeyondtheformoftheproverbthatistoleteveryoneliveforhimselfandforothers.(36)YourladyshipwillrememberwhenImuentionitthatthelasttimeIwashereIrunagainstapartyveryeminentinourprofessionandwhoselosswealldeplore.ThatpartycertainlydidfromthattimeapplyhimselftocuttinginagainstmeinawaythatIwillcallsharppractice,anddidmakeit;ateveryturnandpoint,extremelydifficultformetobesurethatIhadn’tinadvertentlyleduptosomethingcontrarytoMiss.Summerson’swishes.Self-praiseisnorecommendation,butImaysayformyselfthatIamnotsobadamanofbusinessneither.(BleakHouse,p.932)68 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Mr.Guppyusestheproverb“Self-praiseisnorecommendation”whenspeakingtoLadyDedlock,Esther’sunknownmother.Mr.GuppydoeshisbesttoconvinceLadyDedlockthatheisatrustworthyman,soheseeksthehelpofthisproverb.ThisbyitselfisenoughtoconvinceLadyDedlock.Theproverbwasformulatedasadeclarativesentence,orstructurallyanindependentsentence.Thusthereisnogrammaticallylinktootherpartsofthecontext.Thereisacontrastinmeaningbetweentheproverbasitholdsthewisdomofselfdenialandwhathehasclaimedforhimself.Asaresult,Mr.Guppyfloutstherelationmaxim.(37)ItwasoneofthemostexasperatingattributesofBounderby,thathenotonlysanghisownpraisesbutstimulatedothermentosingthem.Therewasamoralinfectionofclap-trapinhim.Strangers,modestenoughelsewhere,startedupatdinnersinCoketown,andboasted,inquitearampantway,ofBounderby.Theymadehimouttobetheroyalarms,theUnion-jack,MagnaCharta,JohnBull,HabeasCorpus,theBillofRights,anEnglishman’shouseishiscastle,ChurchandState,andGodsavetheQueen,allputtogether.(HartTimes,p.25)CharlesDickensusestheproverb“anEnglishman’shouseishiscastle”todescribeBounderby’spossessions.Bounderbyisacapitalistwhodespisesthepoorworkerswhoworkinhisfactories.So,whenDickenssaysthisproverb,itisusedasadirectattackonallcapitalists,representedbythecharacterofBounderby,whohaveprivacyandsecurityintheirhouseswhilehundredsofworkersarehomeless.Thedeclarativeindependentsentenceoftheproverblosesitscontextualrelevance;i.e.thecontextisincoherentgrammaticallyandsemantically.Formally,theproverbreferstoanunknownperson.Thespeakerofthisproverbfloutstherelationmaxim.(38)Idon’tsee,returnedMr.Flintwinch,scrapinghishornycheek,thatitneedsignifymuchtoyou.ButI’lltellyouwhatIdosee,Arthur,glancingupatthewindows;Iseethelightoffireandcandleinyourmother’sroom!Andwhathasthattodowithit?Why,sir,Ireadbyit,saidMr.Flintwinch,screwinghimselfathim,thatifit’sadvisable(astheproverbsaysitis)toletsleepingdogslie,it’sjustasadvisable,perhaps,toletmissingdogslie.Let‘embe.Theygenerallyturnupsoonenough.(LittleDorrit,967)Mr.Flintwinch,initiallyMrs.Clennam’sservantandlaterapartnerinClennam&Co.,says“letsleepingdogslie”toDavid.Mr.FlintwinchisabadcharacterwhoknowsMrs.Clennam’ssecretsandblackmailsher.So,itisbetterforDavidnottodisturbhimbecauseifMr.Flintwinchspeaks,theresultswillbeadisaster.Dickensisliterally69 华中科技大学硕士学位论文sayingthatMr.Flintwinchisadogthatmustremainasleep.Andtherearealotofdogs,likeMr.Flintwinch,thatmustbekeptasleepaswell.Infact,heblatantlywantsDavidtobecarefulofMr.Flintwinch.Thetopicoftheproverbisdifferentcomparedtothetopicofthesurroundingcontext.Asthereisnoactualreferencetodogsinthiscontext,theproverbfloutstherelationmaxim.(39)ItwasnolaughingmatterwithEstellanow,norwasshesummoningtheseremembrancesfromanyshallowplace.Iwouldnothavebeenthecauseofthatlookofhersforallmyexpectationsinaheap.TwothingsIcantellyou,saidEstella.First,notwithstandingtheproverbthatconstantdroppingwillwearawayastone,youmaysetyourmindatrestthatthesepeopleneverwill–neverwould,inhundredyears---impairyourgroundwithMissHavisham,inanyparticular,greatorsmall.Second,Iambeholdentoyouasthecauseoftheirbeingsobusyandsomeaninvain,andthereismyhanduponit.(GreatExpectations,p.355)Estellauses“constantdroppingwillwearawayastone”whenspeakingtoPip.EstellaisHavisham’srevengefulweapontodestroymen.ShetellsPipnoteventothinkofherbecauseitisuselessandtheproverbcannotbeappliedtoher.Thefigurativemeaningoftheproverbisthatwhathewantstoconveyisdifferentfromthemeaningofthecontext.Notiesarefoundrelatedstonesinthiscontext.Theindependenceoftheproverbmakestheuserflouttherelationmaxim.Hedoesn’tachieverelevancetothecontextorsituation.(40)Mrs.Lammle’sinnocentappealwasmerelythrownintotheair,tominglewiththesteamoftheurn.GlancingtowardsMr.andMrs.Boffin,sheveryslightlyraisedhereyebrows,asthoughinquiringofherhusband:DoInoticeanythingwronghere?Mr.Lammlewhohadfoundhischesteffectiveonavarietyofoccasions,manoeuvredhiscapaciousshirtfrontintothelargestdemonstrationpossible,andthensmilingretortedonhiswife,thus:Sophronia,darling,Mr.andMrs.Boffinwillremindyouoftheoldadage,thatself-praiseisnorecommendation.(OurMutualFriend,p.681)AlfredLammlesaystheproverb“self-praiseisnorecommendation”tohiswife,Sophronia.TheyaresupposedtobeclosefriendswithMr.andMrs.Boffinsbutinreality,theyareaftertheirwealth.ThisistheactualreasonfortheirfriendshipwiththeBoffins.Therefore,AlfredLammleremindshiswifeabouthowtobehavebyusingthisproverb.Thus,theproverbisusedbyAlfredLammleforthepurposeofremembering.Inotherwords,itisavehicletoachieveanend.WhenMr.Lammleanswershiswife’s70 华中科技大学硕士学位论文questionbyusingthisproverb,hefloutstherelationmaxim.Sheinquiredwhetheranywrongthingsarefound.Hisanswerdoesnotmatchthequestionofhiswife.So,hissayinglosesitscoherenceinthecontext.Inotherwordsthereisnorelevanceinideabetweentheproverbandtheideaofthecontext.(41)HedebatedprincipallywhetherheshouldwritetoyoungDrood,orwhetherheshouldspeaktoJasper.TheconsciousnessofbeingpopularwiththewholeCathedralestablishmentinclinedhimtothelattercourse,andthewell-timedsightofthelightedgatehousedecidedhimtotakeit.Iwillstrikewhiletheironishot,’hesaid,‘andseehimnow.(TheMysteryofEdwinDrood,p.88)Theminorcanon,Mr.SeptimusCrisparkle,says“strikewhiletheironishot”tohimself.HewishestoreconcileEdwinandNevilleLandlessbecausethelatterissecretlyinlovewithRosaBud,Edwin’sfiancéeandheisopposedtotheirbetrothal.CrisparklehesitatesbeforetakingtheactionofgoingtoJohnJasper,Edwin’suncle,tobringaboutreconciliationinhishouse.Heencourageshimselfbyusingtheproverb.Theproverbactsasaformofmotivationhere.ItprovokesCrisparkletotakeinstantactionandheimmediatelygoestoJasper’shouse.Thewords“strike”and“iron”arebothobscureinthiscontext.Thespeakermeansthathewillsolvetheprobleminitsinitialearlystage.So,thespeakerfloutstherelationmaxim.Atthesametimethespeakerfloutsthequalitymaxim.Inhissaying“Iwillstrike”appearsasifhewascontextuallylyingbecausethisactionwillnotbecarriedoutbyhim,asnothinglikeironisactuallyfoundinthesituation.3.3.1.4Floutingthemaximofmanner(42)Comealong,then,saidheofthegreencoat,luggingMr.Pickwickafterhimbymainforce,andtalkingthewholeway.Here,No.924,takeyourfare,andtakeyourselfoff---respectablegentleman----knowhimwell---noneofyournonsense---thisway,sir---where’syourfriends?---allamistake,Isee---nevermind---accidentswillhappen---bestregulatedfamilies---neversaydie---downuponyourluck---Pullhimup---Putthatinhispipe---liketheflavour---damnedrascals.(ThePickwickPapers,p.25)Theyoungmansays“accidentswillhappen”toPickwickwhenhetriestorescuehimwhenaquarrelhappenedbetweenPickwickandCabbie,whothinksthatPickwickisaninformer.ThoughtheyoungmantriestoreducethetensionandsettlethesituationbyconvincingPickwickthatitismerelyamisunderstandingandthishappenseverywhereandatanytime,itisDickens’intentiontoportraythenatureofpeopleinVictorian71 华中科技大学硕士学位论文society.Peopleattackeachotherbasedonsuspicionsandthentheysaythatitwasjustanaccident.Whentheyoungmansaysthishefloutsthemannermaxim.Accordingtotheco-operativeprinciple,thespeakershouldavoidambiguitythatwilllackadequateevidencetomaketheconversationinformative.Theword“accident”shouldbegenuinelysupportingtheevidence.Themodalverb“will”showsanactionreferringtosomethinghappeninginthefuture.Hedoesnotsupplyanyprooftoclarifyingwhichaccidentswillhappen.Accordingtothesituationsdescribedbeforeandaftertheproverb,wecanconcludethattheuserhasnointentiontomisleadordeceive.(43)Youdon’tmeantosaythatyouarereallygoingallthewaydownintoYorkshirethiscoldwinter’sweather,Mr.Nickleby?SaidMiss.LaCreevy.Iheardsomethingofitlastnight.Ido,indeed,repliedNicholas.Needsmust,youknow,whensomebodydrives.Necessityismydriver,andthatisonlyanothernameforthesamegentleman.(NicholasNickleby,p.78)NicolasNicklebyusestheproverb“Needsmust…whensomebodydrives”whenspeakingtoMissLaCreevy.HerealizeshowmuchMissLaCreevyisworriedabouthimbecausehewasgoingtoYorkshirewherehisunclechoseforhimtowork.Sohetriestotellherthathehasnootherchoice.Inasituationlikethis,apersonmayresolvetoacertainproverbforabetterexpressionofhisorherfeelings,andsodoesNickleby.ByreplyingwiththeproverbNicholasfloutsthemannermaxim.Inthephrase“youknow”theanaphora“you”referstothefirstperson,MissLaCreevy,intheconversation.Italsoindicatesthatbothinterlocutorsintheconversationsharethesamebackgroundknowledge.Theuserwantsthehearertounderstandtheimpliedmeaningbeyondtheformoftheproverb.Nicholas’reply“Idoindeed”canbeenough,buttheadditionalinformationgivenbytheproverbfloutsthemaximofquantityandsomakestheconversationmoreinformative.(44)Imusthumourhimthough,criedoldArthur;‘hemusthavehisway---awillfulman,astheScotchsay---well,well,they’reawisepeople,theScotch.Hewilltalkaboutbusiness,andwon’tgiveawayhisfornothing.He’sveryright.Timeismoney,timeismoney.(NicholasNickleby,p.863)OldArthurusestheproverb“Timeismoney”whentalkingtoRalph.Bothofthemaremoneyseekers.Hence,theydonotwanttowasteaminutewithoutgainingacent.Arthurrepeatstheproverbtwice“Timeismoney,timeismoney”andRalphalso72 华中科技大学硕士学位论文repeatsitafterhimwiththeaddedexaggeration“Timeismoneyandverygoodmoneytoo”.Thisshowsthatbothofthemdefinitelyagreethattimeneedstobevaluedgreatlyiftheywishtogainafortuneinthisworld.Dickensusesthisproverbhereforthepurposesofcharacterization.Theword“time”referstoacognitivesensewhereas“money”referstoaphysicalthing.Semantically,thereisnolinkbetweentwolexicalexpressions.Theproverbseemstobeambiguous.Literally,itisimpossibletodescribetimeasmoney.So,thespeakerinthiscontextfloutsthemannermaxim.Inorderforthecontexttobeinformativeandeasytointerpret,aspeakershouldavoidspeakingwithobscureexpressions.(45)Whatdidyoudo-whathappenednext?Askedhisdaughter.Why,themaskscameflockinground,withageneralnoiseandhubbub,andIthoughtmyselfinlucktogetclearoff,that’sall,rejoinedthelocksmith.WhathappenedwhenIreachedhomeyoumayguess,ifyoudidn’thearit.Ah!Well,it’sapoorheartthatneverrejoices-PutTobythisway,mydear.(BarnabyRudge,p.63-64)GabrielVarden,thelocksmith,says“it’sapoorheartthatneverrejoices”tohisdaughter,Dolly.Thefatherissotiredthathehasreachedthepointofdespair.Heexpresseshissorrowbecauseofbadluckthroughtheproverb.Helooksforhappinessinhislife.DollyVarden,thedaughterofthelocksmithGabrielVardenasksherfatheraboutthis.Whenthelocksmithusesthisproverb,hefloutsthemannermaxim.Theword“poor”isahomonymwithmorethanonemeaning.Inthiscase,thiswordcausesambiguitytointerpretthecontext.Theproverbisnotcohesivewithotherpartsofthetext.ItdoesnotmeetofwhatDollyVardenaskedaboutthehubbubthathappenednext.Thetopicofconversation,accordingtoGricemustkeepcontact,sothespeakeralsofloutstherelationmaxim.(46)Iamsurethat’swhatIshoulddoifitwasme,thoughtDolly.Tomakeone’ssweetheartmiserableiswellenoughandquiteright,buttobemademiserableone’sselfisalittletoomuch!Howeveritwouldn’tdotosayso,andthereforeshesatlookingforsilence.sheneededaprettyconsiderablestretchofpatience,forwhenthelongletterhadbeenreadonceallthroughitwasreadagain,andwhenithadbeenreadtwiceallthroughitwasreadagain.Duringthistediousprocess,Dollybeguiledthetimeinthemostimprovingmannerthatoccurredtoher,bycurlingherhaironherfingers,73 华中科技大学硕士学位论文withtheaidofthelooking-glassbeforementioned,andgivingitsomekillingtwists.Everythinghasanend.Evenyoungladiesinlovecannotreadtheirlettersforever.(BarnabyRudge,p.225)CharlesDickensuses“Everythinghasanend”indescribingEmma’sstatewhenshereceivesaletterfromherlover,EdwardChester.DuetotheenmitybetweenEmma’suncleandEdward’sfather,theloversbelievethattheirrelationshipwillbealmostbetweenthemisnearertoimpossibility.InusingtheproverbDickenssympathizeswiththemandcommentsthat,byhopingthatinthefuturethatmanynewthingswillappear,thiswillputanendtotheirsuffering:whoknowswhatwillhappeninthefuture?Theexpression“everything”doesnotactuallyapplytoeverything.Sothespeakerherefloutsthemannermaximasthestructureoftheproverbcausesambiguityintheunderstandingofthemeaningofquotation.Atthesametimetheword“end”isnotafactualresultofeverything.AtthismomentwedonotknowiftheeventsfromwhichbothEmmaandChesterweresufferingwillend,sointhiscasethespeakerfloutsthequalitymaxim.(47)You’rethekindofladforus,criedtheserjeant,holdingJoe’shandinhis,intheexcessofhisadmiration.You’retheboytopushyourfortune.Idon’tsayitbecauseIbearyouanyenvy,orwouldtakeawayfromthecreditoftheriseyou’llmake,butifIhadbeenbredandtaughtlikeyou,I’dhavebeenacolonelbythistime.Tush,man!saidJoe,I’mnotsoyoungasthat.Needsmustwhenthedevildrives;andthedevilthatdrivesmeisanemptypocketandanunhappyhome.Forthepresent,good-bye.(BarnabyRudge,p.339.340)JoeWilletusestheproverb“Needsmustwhenthedevildrives”tothesergeant.Joeistwenty,yethisfathertreatshimasachild,especiallywhenheseesJoebeingkindandtimid.Toprovetohisfatherthatheisaman,Joevolunteerstobeasoldier.Thesergeantmakesfunofhimbysaying“Idon’tsayitbecauseIbearyouanyenvy”.Thisseemstobevirtuallyunbelievableandevenillogical.However,forJoe,itisanordinarycaseforheknowswhyheisdoingthisbutcannotsaywhy.Heusestheproverbtoexpresshisunexpressedfeelings.Themodalverb“must”showshowmuchJoeisreallyobligedtodoso.Verbphrase“devildrives”isnotcompatiblewiththecontext.Theproverbcontainsan74 华中科技大学硕士学位论文obscureexpressionandthiscausesambiguityinthecontextso,Joefloutsthemannermaxim.Semantically,thereisnolinkbetweenwhattheproverbsaysandwhatJoefeelsabouthisfather’swayoftreatinghim.Joeherealsofloutstherelationmaxim.(48)Iwishoneofyoufellerswouldholdabottletohismouthtokeephimquiet,saidSimon,unlessyouwantthemilitarytobedownuponus.Andwhatiftheyaredownuponus!retortedHugh.Whocares?Who’safraid?Letemcome,Isay,letemcome.Themore,themerrier.GivemeboldBarnabyatmyside,andwetwowillsettlethemilitary.Barnaby’shealth!(BarnabyRudge,p.631-632)Hughsays“Themore,themerrier”toSimonTappertit.Isthereanythingworsethantobeinvolvedinriotsagainstthegovernmentanditsmilitary?ThisisthequestionthatHughwantstoaskSimonthroughtheproverb,whichisusedironicallyhere.WhenHughsaysthisproverb,heisfloutingthemannermaxim.Theobscureexpressions,i.e.thetwonounphraseswhichconstitutetheproverb,donotcoordinatewitheachother.Theproverbitselfseemstobeambiguouswithregardtowhatthetwointerlocutorstalkabout.Thereferencetothenounphrase“themore”isunknowninthecurrentcontext.Thereisacontrastwiththeproverbinrelationtothecontext.So,Hughherefloutstherelationmaximbecausethetopicoftheproverbisdifferentfromtheideaofthewholecontext.(49)Martin,hesaid,willseathimselfbetweenyoutwo,mydears,andMr.Pinchwillcomebyme.Letusdrinktoournewinmate,andmaywebehappytogether!Martin,mydearfriend,mylovetoyou!Mr.Pinch,ifyousparethebottleweshallquarrel.Andtrying(inhisregardforthefeelingsoftherest)tolookasifthewinewerenotacidanddidn’tmakehimwink,Mr.Pecksniffdidhonourtohisowntoast.This,hesaid,inallusiontotheparty,notthewine,isaMinglingthatrepaysoneformuchdisappointmentandvexation.Letusbemerry.Herehetookacaptain’sbiscuit.Itisapoorheartthatneverrejoices;andourheartsarenotpoor.No!(MartinChuzzlewit,p.125)Pecksniffsays“Itisapoorheartthatneverrejoices”toTomPinchandMartin.Pecksniffisamerrycharacter.Hedoesnotpayattentiontoothers.Hesaystheproverbtomotivatetheothergentlementohavefunaswell.Theimplicationisthatthosewhocannoteverhavefunwillbemiserable.Sincetheydonothaveproblems,theirmoodisgreat.Thus,thereisnothingtopreventthemfromhavingfun.CertainlytheoppositeistrueandthisisthefirsttimethatDickensusestheproverbtonegatetheidea.75 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Grice’stheoryproposesthatthespeakerfloutsthemaximsinsuchawayastohavenointentiontomisleadordeceivethehearer.Theword“poor”givesrisetotwointerpretations.Alsothereisnoreferencetothepronoun“it”here.Thusheisfloutingthemannermaxim.Atthesametimethereisacontradictionbetweentheproverbitselfandanotherpartofthecompoundsentencethatisconnectedbythecoordinator“and”inwhichtheproverbconstitutethefirstpart.Mr.Pecksniffsays“poorheart”andthen“ourheartsarenotpoor”.Thecontrastinmeaninghereassertsthespeaker’sflouting.Thecheerfulofthespeakerrevealshisunintentionalspeech.Thereforeinthiscasehefloutsthequalitymaxim.(50)Gowiththegrain,Poll,allround,please,saidMr.Bailey,screwinguphisfaceforthereceptionofthelather.Youmaydowotyoulikewiththebitsofwhisker.Idon’tcareforem.Themeeklittlebarberstoodgazingathimwiththebrushandsoap-dishinhishand,stirringthemroundandroundinaludicrousuncertainty,asifheweredisabledbysomefascinationfrombeginning.AtlasthemadeadashatMr.Bailey’scheek.Thenhestoppedagain,asiftheghostofabeardhadsuddenlyrecededfromhistouch;butreceivingmildencouragementfromMr.Bailey,intheformofanadjurationtoGoinandwin,helatheredhimbountifully.Mr.Baileysmiledthroughthesudsinhissatisfaction.’Gentlyoverthestones,Poll.Goatip-toeoverthepimples!(MartinChuzzlewit,p.646)Mr.Bailysaysthisproverb“Gentlyoverthestones”toPollSweedlepipe,“themeeklittlebarber.”Mr.Bailyisproudofbeingastrongman.Hedoesnotknowhowhewantstobeshaved.Therefore,hetriestobenicetoPollbyusingthisproverb.Fromoneangle,hewantstotellPolltotakeiteasilyandtobekindtohimandfromanotherangle,hewantstotellhimthatheisstrong.Thespeakerconsidershimselfasbeingastone;thisclaimcausesambiguityininterpretingthemeaningofthecontext.Howcanonebekindwithstones!Theword“gentle”isabstractwhereastheword“stones”referstoasoldthing.Itisimpossibletoaskstonestobekind.Therefore,thespeakerisfloutingthemannermaxim.Semantically,thereisnolinkinmeaningwiththecontext.Bothinterlocutorstalkabouthowtoshave.Thisisthemaintopichere.Thus,inthiscase,thespeakerfloutstherelationmaxim.(51)WouldHisHonourallowmetoinquirewhethertherearestrongsuspicionsofanyone?76 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Morethansuspicions,sir,returnedMr.Sapsea;allbutcertainties.Onlythinknow!criedMr.Datchery.Butproof,sir,proofmustbebuiltupstonebystone,saidtheMayor.AsIsay,theendcrownsthework.Itisnotenoughthatjusticeshouldbemorallycertain;shemustbeimmorallycertain—legally,thatis.(TheMysteryofEdwinDrood,p.176)TheMayorusestheproverb“theendcrownsthework”whenspeakingtoDickDatcherywhenthelatterisaskingaboutbutisnotcertainaboutEdwin’sdisappearance.TheMayordisagreeswithhimbecausejusticemustbebuiltonevidenceandnotsuspicion.Heenhanceshisattitudewiththeproverb.Thismeansthattheresultisveryimportant.ThisproverbisDickens’wayofenhancinghissituationconcerningthemobs.Mayor’srepliestoMr.Datcheryinvolvefloutingthemannermaxim.Theconversationneedstoillustratewhichworkthatwillbecrownedintheend.Thus,theproverbusescausesambiguitytointerprettheconversation.Onceagainfigurativemeaningplaysanessentialrolehereinobservingimplicitconversationalmaxims.3.3.2ViolatingofthemaximsWhenthespeakerintendstomisleadthehearer,hespeakstoimplynegativemeaning.Violationofthemaximsmeansthatthespeakerintentionallyabstaintoobservecertainmaximsintheirconversationtocausemisunderstandingsonthepartoftheparticipantsortoachievedifferentpurposes.3.3.2.1Violatingthemaximofquality(52)Verygood!SaidRalph,inallusion,nodoubt,tosomeproceedingoftheday.Hedefinestheusurer,doeshe?Well,weshallsee.Honestyisthebestpolicy,isit?We’lltrythattoo.(NicholasNickleby,p.526)Ralphsaysthisquotationtohimself.Hegivesjustificationsforhisdirtydeeds,forheknowsthatcunningandusuryarecorruptmeansofmakingafortune.Yet,hemakesareferencetohonestywhenheusesthisproverb“Honestyisthebestpolicy”.Thisiscalledverbalirony,i.e.thespeakersayssomethingdifferentfromwhatheorshereallymeans.Theplaceoftheproverb,here,servesDickensinattractingthereaders’attentiontosuchcharacteristicsintheVictorianperiod.Thus,theuserviolatesthequalitymaxim.Hemisleadshimselfandthereadersaboutwhathereallythinks.77 华中科技大学硕士学位论文(53)Why,letmesee,saidQuilp.Itmustbeamatterofnearlytwoyearssincewewerefirstacquainted.Nearerthree,Ithink,saidTrent.Nearerthree!criedQuilp.Howfasttimeflies.Doesitseemaslongasthattoyou,Mrs.Quilp?(TheOldCuriosityShop,p.243)Quilpsaystheproverb“timeflies”toNellTrent.QuilptriestoplayonNell’sfeelingsbydeceivingherconcerningtime.HeisthevillaininthenovelwhoexploitsNell’sinnocenceandhergrandfather’sweaknessandtakestheirshop.Oneofhisdirtytricksagainsttheinnocentgirlisconnectedtothedurationofhisacquaintancewithher.Hepretendsthatheissurprisedwhenshetellshimthreeyearsandnottwo,commentingthattimeistobeblamedbecauseitpassesquicklysoitdeceivespeople.Theproverbisusedinaninterrogativesentence.Semantically,theword“time”isanabstractconceptwhichofcoursedoesnothavetheabilitytofly.ThecontextalsoindicatesthatQuilpisviolatingthequalitymaxim.3.3.2.2Violatingthemaximofrelation(54)Mr.swiveller,saidQuilp,beingprettywellaccustomedtotheagriculturalpursuitsofsowingwildoats,MissSally,prudentlyconsidersthathalfaloafisbetterthannobread.Tobeoutofharm’swayheprudentlythinksissomethingtoo,andthereforeheacceptsyourbrother’soffer.Brass,Mr.Swivellerisyours.(TheOldCuriosityShop,p.344)Quilpsays“halfaloafisbetterthannothing”toDick.Theformeristryingtoconvincethelatteraboutsomethingthathedoesnotlikehimself,contentedness.ThatiswhyQuilpsays“MissSallyprudentlyconsiders.”Heknowshimselfthatheisnotcontented.ThoughDickensportraysQuilpnegatively,thisisshownasapositivetrait.ThisshowsthatDickenswishestopointoutthatnotbeingcontentedshouldnotalwaysbeaccepted.Themeaningoftheproverbisnotcoordinatedwiththeotherexpressionsinthiscontext.Itisnecessarytocreateacompletelyclearideaofthecontext.Therefore,thereisnocoherencehere.Thus,theuserofthisproverbviolatestherelationmaxim.(55)Youareslowinconversation,widow,hesaidafteraafteratime,pausinginhisdraught.Weshallhavetotalkbeforeyourson.Whatwouldyouhavemedo?sheanswered.Whatdoyouwant?Wearepoor,widow,wearepoor,heretorted,stretchingouthisrighthand,andrubbinghisthumbuponitspalm.78 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Poor!shecried.AndwhatamI?Comparisonsareodious,saidtheblindman.Idon’tknow,Idon’tcare.Isaythatwearepoor.(BarnabyRudge,p.489-490)Stagg,theblindman,saystheproverb“Comparisonsareodious”toMaryRugde,Barnaby’smother.Staggisbeingplayful.HeplaysonMary’sfeelingswhenhedescribeshisunhappystatebecauseheispoor.WhenMaryaskshimaboutherself,“AndwhatamI”?Heletstheproverbanswerinsteadofansweringithimself.Also,bymeansofthisproverb,DickensreferstoanimportantcharacteristicamongtheVictorians.Notallthericharethesame(unjust)andnotallthepoorarethesame(victimized).ThoughStaggispoor,hemakesuseofhisabilityinusingeffectivewordstodeceivetheothers,ashedoeswithMary.Theuserofthisproverbviolatestherelationmaxim.Thereisnolinkinmeaningbetweentwolinesofinteraction.Atthesametimethespeakerviolatesthequalitymaxim.Hiscommentabouttheodiousnessofcomparisonslacksadequateevidence.Hedoesnotprovethevalidityofhisclaim.3.3.3OptingoutofthemaximsIfthespeakerappearsunwillingtoconversewithothers,hewillbeseentobeoptingoutthemaxims.Thisoftenhappensinacasewhereheorsherefrainsfromconversingforlegalorethicalreasonsortoavoidgeneratingarevealedimplication.Insuchcaseandforotherreasonsthepersonmaynotbeabletoreplynormally.3.3.3.1Optingoutthemaximofquantity(56)Somethinghasbeengotfromhimbyfraud,Iknow,returnedTraddlesquietly;andsodoyou,Mr.Heep.Wewillreferthatquestion,ifyouplease,toMr.Micawber.Ury-!Mrs.Heepbegan,withananxiousgesture.Youholdyourtongue,mother,hereturned;leastsaid,soonestmended.But,myUry.(DavidCopperfield,p.544)UriahHeepsays“leastsaid,soonestmended”tohismother,Mrs.Heep.Mr.Traddles,David’sfriend,facesUriahwiththefactthatheknowsaboutUriah’sfraudandthreatensthathewilltellMr.Micawber.Themother,whoisanxiousaboutherson,triestointerferebutUriahshutshermouthbyquotingtheproverb.Thisisthesecond79 华中科技大学硕士学位论文referencetothisproverbinthisnovel.Uriahwantstoexplaintohismotherthatthelesstheyspeakofthetopic,themorehewillbeabletocontrolthesituation,untilitisforgotten.Thespeakergiveslittleinformationtohismotheraboutwhysheshouldstopwhatsheissayingandhowhewillcontrolthesituation.Accordingtothecontextoftheproverb,Uriahwasunwillingtoconversewithhismother.Thus,theconversationdidnotgiverisetomuchinformationandasaresult,Uriahoptsoutofthequantitymaxim.(57)WhileMrs.Joesatwithherheadbendingoverherneedlework,IputmymouthintotheformsofsayingtoJoe,What’saconvict?Joeputhismouthintotheformsofreturningsuchahighlyelaborateanswer,thatIcouldmakeoutnothingofitbutthesinglewordPip.Therewasaconvictofflastnight,saidJoe,aloud,aftersunset-gun.Andtheyfiredwarningofhim.Andnowitappearsthey’refiringwarningofanother.Who’sfiring?saidI.Dratthatboy,interposedmysister,frowningatmeoverherwork,whataquestionerheis.Asknoquestions,andyou’llbetoldnolies.(GreatExpectations,p.21)Mrs.Joe,Pip’ssister,says“Asknoquestions,andyou’llbetoldnolies”toPip.PiphelpstheconvictwithoutherknowledgeandhereheasksJoeaboutgunshotsheheardasasignofwarningtoindicatethattheconvictwasescapingfromprison.BecauseMrs.Joedoesnotknowaboutthat,shewarnsPipnottoaskifhewantstoavoidbeingtoldlies.ThisideaisdeliveredtoPipbymeansoftheproverb.Hence,thisproverbtakesapreventativerole.Heranswerasappearstobeaconditionalsentenceindicatingunwillingnesstocontinuetheconversationwithhim.So,sheoptsoutofthequantitymaxim.3.3.4InfringingofthemaximsInfringingofamaximshowsthatthespeakerhasimperfectknowledgeofthelanguage.ThiskindofbreakingcannotbetackledbythespeakerofEnglishproverbsinthisstudy,becausetheproverbsthemselvesarewellknown.Theyarenotlikeordinaryspeechbutarerichwithwisdom,advice,andexperience.Iftheyhavebeenusedbyaspeakerthenthespeakerisindicatingwhathewantstodo.MostEnglishproverbsareusedinsuchawaythataddresseewillunderstandtheirimplicitmeaning.Ifthespeakerdoesnothaveperfectknowledgeofwhatthefirstinterlocutorintendstoconvey,then80 华中科技大学硕士学位论文hewillnotreplyusingaproverb.Astheproverbsinthisstudyoccurinthecontextoffictionalconversation,theauthorofthesenovelsseeminglychoosestheeventsandsituationssothattheyarefamiliartoreaders.3.3.5SuspendingofthemaximsSuspendingofamaximreferstothesituationwherethereisnoexpectationofanyoftheinterlocutorsfulfillingamaxim.Insuchsituationsnoimplicatureisgenerated.WithregardtoEnglishproverbs,suspendingamaximisnotdonebythespeakersinthisstudy.Theusersarewillingtocommunicateandtheyexpecttogenerateimplicatures.Theuserspeakswiththeproverbwhereitisexpectedtohaveaneffectonthelistener,whethernegativelyorpositively.Therefore,inthisway,suspendingofthemaximsisunmatchedwithwhatthespeakerintendstosay,aswehaveseeninpreviousquotations.Inaddition,asthesettingofthenovelsisinEnglishsociety,bothinterlocutorsthattheauthorcreatesareofthesamecultureandassuch,thereisnodifferenceincultureorimperfectknowledgethatpreventstheinterlocutorsfromgeneratingimplicature.3.4ObservanceofthemaximsAccordingtoGrice,suchinterlocutorsarecommunicatinginformativeknowledge.Thismeansifthereisnodifferencebetweenwhatspeakerssaysayingandtheirintentions.Thus,themeaningbeingcommunicatedbetweenbothofthemisexplicitlyclearandthereisnohiddenmessageintheirspeech.Inthiscase,bothinterlocutorsareobservingtheGriceanmaxims.ThefollowingsectiondealswithproverbsthatareusedtoobserveGriceanmaxims.Herewedon’tneedtodrawfourmaximsbecausetheobservancemeansthattheuserobservesthemaxims.(58)Myfriendsarenotmuchinthewayofthissortofthingyet,Martin,saidWardle,nothingthelook.Liveandlearn,youknow.They’llbegoodshotsoneofthesedays.IbegmyfriendWinkle’spardon;though,hehashadsomepractice.(ThePickwickPapers,p.354)Wardlesaystheproverb“Liveandlearn”toMartin.Wardlewantstodeliveranoteindicatingthatlifeisthebestteacher.Therefore,oneshouldnotbesurprisedatanything.ThereisareferencethatindicateswhatDickensexpectsfromhissocietyunderthe81 华中科技大学硕士学位论文impactoftheIndustrialRevolution.ThecontextoftheconversationbeforetheproverbreferstoMartinnotbeingveryconcernedwithholdingthegun.WaldlehereobservedtheGriceanmaxims.Theword“learn”connotestotheword“practice”locatedaftertheproverb.Boththesewordsrefertothecoherenceinthemeaningwithpartsofthetext.(59)Littletodo,andplentytoget,Isuppose?SaidSerjeantBuzfuz,withjocularity.Oh,quiteenoughtoget,sir,asthesoldiersaidventheyorderedhimthreehundredandfiftylashes,repliedSam.Youmustnottelluswhatthesoldier,oranyotherman,said,sir,interposedthejudge;itsnotevidence.(ThePickwickPapers,p.675)Thejudgesays“whatthesoldier…said…it’snotevidence”thisquotationtoSamWeller.SamWellerisMr.Pickwick’smanservantandadvisor.TheproverbreflectsJudge’srhetoricalstylewhichreflectsDickens’disgustattheabsurdityoftheVictorianlawandcourt.ThissceneisaliteraryburlesqueofcourtroomproceduresintheVictorianperiod.Theuserofthisproverbobservestheconversationalmaxims.Thejudgeexploitstheword“soldier”saidbySamWellertocreateanimperativesentencebythisproverb.Also,theword“soldier”isananaphoratothesameperson’sspeech,Sam.Theproverbisdividedintothreepartswhichfadeintothetext,sothatitlosesitsvalueasanindependentproverbandbecomespartofthesurroundingcontext.Therearenoambiguityorobscureexpressions.(60)Ioughttomakeahundredapologiestoyouforcallingatsuchaseason,saidNicholas,butIwasnotawareofituntilIhadrungthebell,andmytimeissofullyoccupiednow,thatIfeareditmightbesomedaysbeforeIcouldpossiblycomeagain.’Notimelikethepresent,sir,saidMr.Kenwigs.ThesitiwationofMrs.Kenwigs,sir,isnoobstacletoalittleconversationbetweenyouandme,Ihope?(NicholasNickleby,p.658-659)Mr.Kenwigssays“Notimelikethepresent”toNickleby.AftershakingNickleby’shands,kissinghisstudents,speakinggentlywiththeladiesandapologizingtoMr.Kenwigsforarrivingatthetimewhichisnotappropriate,Mr.KenwigsisleftwithnowayoftellingNicklebythatnowistheappropriatetimeexceptthroughthisproverbMr.Kenwigsletstheproverbexpresswhatheisunabletoexpress,intermsoffeelingsofintimacytowardNickleby.82 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Accordingtothecontext,theuserobservedtheconversationalmaxims;theproverbheremanagesinasituationwithneighbourstobeagoodanswertothefirstinterlocutor.Theword“time”hereissemanticallyconnectedwithword”time”thatNicklebyreferstopreviously.Theconversationseemstobeclearandthereisnoobscureexpression.AsaresultNicholassays“Youareverygood”(659)asasignthathehasunderstoodthemeaning.(61)Presently,resumedJohn,hedidcoom.Heerddoorshutdoonstairs,andhimawarking,oopinthedark.Slowandsteddy,Isaystomyself,takyourtime,sir---nohurry.(NicholasNickleby,p.769)JohnBrowdiesays“Slowandsteady”toNickleby.BrowdieseeshowstressedNicklebyis.Hetriestoreducethatstressbydescribingtheslownessoftheschoolmaster’scoming.Heemphasizesthisideatohimselfwhenhetellshimself.So,heusestheproverb,here,tomakeiteasyforhimselfandforNickleby.Thespeakerdescribedaseriesofactionsrelatetostatusofhowtheschoolmastercame;so“hedidcome”and“shutdownstairs”aresemanticallycoordinatedwiththeproverb.Furthermore,theword“slow”issynonymouswithlexical“nohurry”,thustheproverbissemanticallycoherentwiththecontext.Asaresulttheuserexhibitstheobservanceofconversationalmaxims.(62)Oh!Tease,indeed!CriedMissSqueers,bridlingup.Tease,indeed!He,he!Tease,too!No,don’tteaseher.Considerherfeelings,pray!Ifit’sfatedthatlistenersarenevertohearanygoodofthemselves,saidMrs.Browdie,Ican’thelpit,andIamverysorryforit.ButIwillsay,Fanny,thattimesoutofnumberIhavespokensokindlyofyouback,thatevenyoucouldhavefoundnofaultwithwhatIsaid.(NicholasNickleby,p.775)Mrs.Browdiesays“listenersarenevertohearanygoodofthemselves”toMissSqueers.MissSqueersdoesnotintendtoinsultJohnBrowdiewhenshetoldhimnottomeddlewithherChristianname,butMrs.Browdiemisunderstandsherandthus,shethanksherinthatimpressivemannerbyusingtheproverb.Browdie’stongueisunabletoexpressherstrongfeelingsinthismoment,sotheuserofthisproverbobservestheconversationalmaxims.Thereisanobviouslinkwiththesurroundingcontext.Therearenoambiguousorobscureexpressions.Thus,sheusestheproverbasawayoftellingMissSqueershowgoodsheistoher,especiallybehindherback.83 华中科技大学硕士学位论文(63)TothisLadies’Seminary,then,RichardSwivellerhied,withdesignsobnoxioustothepeaceofthefairSophia,who,arrayedinvirginwhite,embellishedbynoornamentbutoneblushingrose,receivedhimonhisarrival,inthemidstofveryelegantnottosaybrilliantpreparations;suchastheembellishmentoftheroomwiththelittleflower-potswhichalwaysstoodonthewindow-silloutside,saveinwindyweatherwhentheyblewintothearea;thechoiceattireoftheday-scholarswhowereallowedtogracethefestival;theunwontedcurlsoMissJaneWackleswhohadkeptherheadduringthewholeoftheprecedingdayscreweduptightinayellowplay-bill;andthesolemngentilityandstatelybearingoftheoldladyandhereldestdaughter,whichstruckMrswivellerasbeinguncommonbutmadenofurtherimpressionuponhim.Thetruthis---and,asthereisnoaccountingfortastes,evenatastesostrangeasthismayberecordedwithoutbeinglookeduponasawillfulandmaliciousinvention---.(TheOldCuriosityShop,p.89-90)CharlesDickenswrites“thereisnoaccountingfortaste.”HereDickensputshisfingeronanimportantpointconcerningopinions.Theideaisthateveryoneisfreetoexpresstheiropinions,attitudeandfeeling,aslongastheydonothurtanybody.RichardDickSwivelleradmiresthefairSophia.Thisisseenashisconcern.Mrs.Wacklesandhereldestdaughterhavenorighttocommentonhisfeelings.DickenscriticizessuchcharactersasMrs.Wacklesandherdaughterthroughthisproverb.Theuserhereobservestheconversationalmaxims.Grammatically,theproverbislinkedtothetext,thecoordinator“and”whiletheconjunction“as”islinkedtotheproverb,sointhiscasetheproverbisdependent.Thedeclarativesentenceoftheproverbformsaunityinrelationtothecontext,andthereisnoambiguityorobscureexpression.(64)Apeacefulplacetolivein,don’tyouthinkso,saidherfriend.Ohyes,rejoinedthechild,claspingherhandsearnestly.Aquit,happyplace---aplacetoliveandlearntodiein!Shewouldhavesaidmore,butthattheenergyofherthoughtscausedhervoicetofalter,andcomeintremblingwhispersfromherlips.(TheOldCuriosityShop,p.530)Nellsaystheproverb“liveandlearn”totheschoolmaster.AtthetimeNellandhergrandfatheraresearchingforaplaceandtheschoolmasterguidesthegirltoahouseneartohisown.ItissimpleandpoorbutitgetsNell’sadmirationtotheextentthatshespeaksthoughsheisstillachild,wisely.ThisshowsthatDickensbelievesthatpovertycanbeaccompaniedwithquietness,happinessandgoodeducation.WhenNellusesthisproverb,shefulfilstheconversationalmaxims.ThecontextreferstokindoflifewhichNellandherfriendweresearchingfor.Theword“live”isprecededbythepreposition“to”toformtheprepositionalphrase“tolearn”,whilethe84 华中科技大学硕士学位论文word“learn”isatransitiveverbconstitutingtheprepositionphrase“todie”,sotheproverbhastheabilitytogeneratefromandbetranslatedintootherphrases.However,thecohesionofthecontextyieldsaninformativeinterpretation.(65)Ah!RejoinsMr.Brass,brim-fullofmoralpreceptsandloveofvirtue.Acharmingsubjectofreflectionforyou,verycharming.Asubjectofproperprideandcongratulation,Christopher.Honestyisthebestpolicy.---Ialwaysfinditsomyself.Ilostforty-sevenpoundtenbybeinghonestthismorning.Butit’sallgain,itsgain!(TheOldCuriosityShop,p.582)Mr.Brasssaystheproverb“Honestyisthebestpolicy”toKit,anhonestboywhoworksintheshop.Mr.BrassadvisesKitthatitisbettertobehonest.TomakehispointclearertoKit,Mr.Brasstellshimaboutaneventthatheexperiencedthatmorningwhenhelostforty-sevenpoundsandtenshillingsbecauseofhishonesty.Mr.Brass,theuserofthisproverbobservedthecooperativemaxims.Thesentence“Ialwaysfinditsomyself”isareferencetothehonestythatBrassintended.Thecontextinthiscaseiscoherent.So,semantically,theproverbachievestheunitywiththecontext.(66)lookingoutaccordingly,andstretchingherneckoverthehandrail,shedescried,tohergreatamazement,Mr.Tappertitcompletelydressed,stealingdownstairs,onestepatatime,withhisshoesinonehandandalampintheother.(BarnabyRudge,p.106)CharlesDickensusesthephrase“onestepatatime”whendescribingMissMiggs’mannersathome.Miggsisaclevercharacter.ShedescribesMr.Tappertit’sactionswhenhewasmovingarounddownstairssearchingforthestrangething.Herethephrasemeansthatheisslow.Inthiscontextnoambiguityorobscureexpressionsisused.Theproverbmanagesthecontextasasingleblock,andthereisnocontradictionbetweentheproverbandtheothersentences.Thereforethisproverbobservestheconversationmaxims.Theword“step”linksto“downstairs”andwiththe“shoes”whichrefertotheunityofthecontextasallofthemrefertothesameidea.(67)Seethehangmanwhenitcomeshometohim!CriedHughagain,astheyborehimaway---Hahaha!Courage,boldBarnaby,whatcarewe?Yourhand!Theydowelltoputusoutoftheworld,forifwegotlooseasecondtime,wewouldn’tletthemoffsoeasy,eh?Anothershake!Amancandiebutonce.Ifyouwakeinthenight,singthatoutlustily,andfallasleepagain.Hahaha!(BarnabyRudge,p.822)85 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Hughsays“Amancandiebutonce”toDennis.InthisquotationDennisbetraysBarnaby,hisfatherandHughtoprotecthimself.NowhewantsHughandBarnabytoforgivehimandprotecthim,especiallyasheisdeeplyinjured.Heisafraidofdeath.ThroughthisproverbHughwantshimtounderstandtheideathatwhendeathcomes,itcomesonceandnotmore.Itcannotbedelayed.Thus,Dennismustfacedeathlikeaman.Theproverbreferstotherealityofdeathwhichhappenstoeveryone.Therearetieslinkingtheproverbwiththesurroundingcontext.Theword“die”relatesto“hangman”andwiththephrase“outoftheworldandlooseasecondtime”,representsthecoreoftheideaofdeath.This,theuserobservesthecooperativemaxims.Thetextisgrammaticallyandsemanticallycohesive.Thecontextiscoherentsincethewholecontextrevolvesaroundthedeath.(68)Why,mydearsir,withregardtotheAnglo-Bengalee,myinformation,yousee,islimited:verylimited.Iamthemedicalofficer,inconsiderationofacertainmonthlypayment.Thelabourerisworthyofhishire;Bisdatquicitodat---(Classicalscholar,Jobling!thinksthepatient,well-readman!)---andIreceiveregularly.(MartinChuzzlewit,p.614)Jobling,thedoctor,says“Thelabourerisworthyofhishire”toCrimple.Itisstrangethatadoctorwhoseworkissoimportantasksaboutfeesinthefirstplace,asinthecasewithJobling.WhenheisaskedtoworkasamedicalofficerintheAnglo-Bengaleecompany,heasksaboutthesalaryjustifyingthiswiththeproverb.Thefunctionoftheproverb,hereistoprovidejustification.Joblingissayingthatbeinga“medicalofficer”canbeconnectedtobeinga“labourer”andinconsiderationofcertainmonthlypaymenthasmoreorlessthesamemeaningas“worthyofhishire”.Thismightindicatethatheisusingaproverbthathasthesamebasicmeaningaswhathehasalreadysaidjustbefore.Sointhiscasethespeakerobservedtheconversationalmaxims,thetextiscoherenttobeadherenttothecooperativeprinciple.(69)InMr.Dombey’shouse,atthissametime,thereisgreatstirandbustle,moreespeciallyamongthewomen:notoneofwhomhashadawinkofsleepsincefouro’clock,andallofwhomwerefullydressedbeforesix.Mr.Tomlinsonisanobjectofgreaterconsiderationthanusualtothehousemaid,andthecooksaysatbreakfasttimethatoneweddingmakesmany,whichthehousecan’tbelieve,anddon’tthinktrueatall.(DombeyandSon,p.461-162)86 华中科技大学硕士学位论文CharlesDickensuses“oneweddingmakesmany.”Hedescribesthestateofpeoplewhentheyarehappytotheextentthathereferstothisproverbemphasizeshisattitude.Itisjustonlyonehappyoccasionbutforthesimplecook;infact,itmeansalot.Theuserhereobservesthemaxims;thesayingisconsistentwiththecontextoftheconversation.Thissaying,whichoccurredduringbreakfast,wasgeneratedbyadeicticexpression“that”inordertobecomepartoftheprecedingtextandtoformulatethedeclarativesentence.Sotheword“time”and“that”makethecontextcoherent.(70)Isay,returnedMr.Micawber,quiteforgettinghimself,andsmilingagain,themiserablewretchyoubehold.Myadviceis,neverdotomorrowwhatyoucandotoday.Procrastinationisthethiefoftime.Collarhim!(DavidCopperfield,p.129)Mr.Micawbersaystheproverb“neverdotomorrowwhatyoucandotoday”toDavidCopperfield.Mr.Micawbersaysopenlythathehas“nothingtobestowbutadvice”(128).HegivesDavidacrucialadvicewithreferencetothesameidea.Thereisnoneedtodelaytheworksoftodaytilllateronsincethereisanopportunitytodoittoday.Dickensmakesitplainthattimeisimportantintakingactionsodelayistheenemyoftimebecauseitisawasteoftime.Hissayingmeetsthecoreoftheconversation.Grammatically,theproverbisconsistentwiththecontext.Thereisnocuttinginthestructure.Semantically,theproverbsharesthesametopicwiththeadvicethatMr.MicawberpresentstoDavid.So,inthiscasetheuserofthisproverbobservestheGriceanmaxims.(71)Really!saidMissDartle.Well,Idon’tknow,now,whenIhavebeenbetterpleasedthantohearthat.It’ssoconsoling!It’ssuchadelighttoknowthat,whentheysuffer,theydon’tfeel!SometimesIhavebeenquiteuneasyforthatsortofpeople;butnowIshalljustdismisstheideaofthem,altogether.Liveandlearn.Ihadmydoubts,Iconfess,butnowthey’reclearedup.Ididn’tknow,andnowIdoknow,andthatshowstheadvantageofaskingdon’tit?(DavidCopperfield,p.214)MissDartle,spinster,usestheproverb“Liveandlearn”whenspeakingtoJamesSteerforth,whoisDavid’sclosefriend.Jamesdescribesthesortofpeopleheseesinoneofhisjourneys.Sheissurprised,soshethisproverbasameanstoexpressherfeelingsofsurpriseandamazement.Throughthisproverb,Dickenssaysthelongerapersonlives,themorehewillseeandhearinhislifeaboutother’sstories.ThroughhersayingMissDartleobservesthemaximsofthecooperativeprinciple.Theword“live”isareferencetoher.Theproverbisprecededbythedeclarative87 华中科技大学硕士学位论文sentence“Idon’tknow”andfollowedby“Ididn’tknow”.Thesetwosentencesconnotetowhatproverbappealsto.Thus,whatwasmentionedaboveisareferencetothecontextbeingcoherent,sothattheuseroftheproverbwillabidebythemaximsofconversation.(72)Soshewenton,gettingbetterfromdaytoday,slow,butsure,andtryingtolearnthenamesofcommonthings-namesassheseemednevertohaveheerdinallherlife-tilloneeveningcome,whenshewasa-settingatherwindow,lookingatalittlegirlatplayuponthebeach.Andofasuddenthischildheldoutherhand,andsaid,whatwouldbeinEnglish,Fisherman’sdaughter,here’sashell!(DavidCopperfield,p.528)Mr.Peggottysays“slow,butsure”toDavidandhisauntBetseyTrotwood.Mr.PeggottyportraysapartofEmily’slife.Whenhesaysthishetriestoexplainthewayinwhichshebehaves.Hermovementsareslowbutcertain.Thoughthelanguageisdifficult,Emilycanunderstanditslowlybutcorrectly.Mr.Peggottymakesacommentonlife,thatspeedisnotimportantincomparisontocertainty.Theproverbisregardedasbeingapartofthecoreofthecontext.Theword“slow”referstothestagesofEmilylearninglanguageasDaviddescribesit.Thecoordinator“and”linkstheproverbwiththesentencesthatcameafterit.Thesayingcanberegardedasordinaryspeechwithinthiscontext.Thereisnoambiguityorobscureexpression,sotheuserobservesthemaximsofcooperativeprinciples.(73)Yousee,mydear,tosaveexpenseIoughttoknowsomethingofthepiano,andIoughttoknowsomethingoftheKittoo,andconsequentlyIhavetopracticethosetwoinstrumentsaswellasthedetailsofourprofession.IfMahadbeenlikeanybodyelse,Imighthavehadsomelittlemusicalknowledgetobeginupon.However,Ihadn’tany;andthatpartoftheworkis,atfirst,alittlediscouraging,Imustallow.ButIhaveaverygoodear,andIamusedtodrudgery—IhavetothankMaforthat,atallevents—andwherethere’sawillthere’saway,youknow,Esther,theworldover.(BleakHouse,p.662)Caddy,Esther’sfriend,says“wherethere’sawillthere’saway”toEsther,theheroineofthenovel.TheproverbgivesadvicetoEstherbecauseshewantstoknowtheidentityofherparents.CaddyisalsousingittoadviseherselfbecauseofherlovefortheyoungPrinceTurveydropandDickensisadvisinghisreaders.Themessageisthateveryoneshouldbeoptimisticabouttomorrowsothattheycanfacetheburdensofahardlife.88 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Theproverbtellsusthatifapersonisdeterminedtodosomething,theywillsucceed.Heretheuserobservestheconversationalmaxims;thecoordinator“and”locatedbeforetheproverblinksitwiththeprevioustext.Thephrase“youknow”whichfollowstheproverbgivesusanindicationastotheunityofthetextbeforeandaftertheproverb.Syntacticallyandsemanticallythecontextiscohesive.Thecontextisclearlystrippedfromambiguityorlyingandthereisnobreakingorchangingofthecontext.(74)ButifIfollowherincompanywithayounglady,answeringtothedescriptionofayoungladythatshehasatendernessfor—Iasknoquestion,andIsaynomorethanthat—shewillgivecreditforbeingfriendly.Letmecomeupwithheralone—ahardmatter—andI’lldomybest,butIdon’tanswerforwhatthebestmaybe.Timeflies,it’sgettingonforoneo’clock.Whenonestrikes,there’sanotherhourgone,andit’sworthathousandpoundnowinsteadofahundred.(BleakHouse,p.945)InspectorBucketsays“Timeflies”toJohnJarndyce.InthecourseofhisinvestigationofMr.Tulkinghorn’smurder,BucketisobligedtoaskJarndyceseveralquestionsaboutLadyDedlock,becausehesuspectsher.ToconvinceJarndycetohelphim,Bucketusestheproverb,showingthatsoonerorlateratimewillcomewheneverythingwillbediscovered.Dickensusesthisproverb,toteachpeoplepatiencebecausetimepassesandlifecontinuesdespiteeverything.Insayingthis,Bucketobservestheconversationalmaxims.Thecontextrevolvesaroundtheideawhichindicatesthatthesentence“there’sanotherhourgone”isreferringtowhatheclaimsbecausetheword“gone”coordinateswithword“flies”.Thereforethespeakerexpresseshisfeelingoftheideaofwastingtime.Theproverbisembeddedinthecontextasasingleblock;thereisnolyingorambiguity.Thus,thecontextachievesunity.(75)Onyoursofteningtowardsyoursister---whichyououghttodo,andonyourbeingamorelovingandagreeablesortofbrother---whichyououghttobe.Iwillbe,Mr.Harthouse.Notimelikethepresent,Tom.Beginatonce.(HeartTimes,p.60)JamesHarthouse,whoattemptstowooLouisaGradgrind,Tom’ssister,says“Notimelikethepresent”toTomGradgrind.JameswantsTomtotakecareofLouisaandmotivateshimtotakeactionnowratherthantomorrowbyusingtheproverb.Dickensseemsparticularlykeenthatpeopleshouldtakeactioninstantlyagainstallcorrupting89 华中科技大学硕士学位论文systemsiftheycantoday,becausetomorrowchancemaynotknockatthedoorandsotheircasemayneverbecompleted.Harthouseobservestheconversationalmaxims.Hemakestheconversationinformative.Theverbphrase“beginatonce”createsameaningfullinkwiththeproverbandespeciallytheword“present”,while“notime”meansthatthebesttimeisthepresent,soitisbettertobeginnow.(76)Ifsoomhabeenwantininunnerstaninmebetter,I,too,habeenwantininunnerstaninthembetter.WhenIgotthyletter,Ieasilybelieventhatwhattheyoungledysenanddonetome,anwhatherbrothersenanddonetome,wasone,andthattherewereawicketplotbetwixtem.WhenIfell,Iwereinangerwiher,andhurryinont’beasunjustt’herasootherswast’me.Butinourjudgments,likeasinourdoins,wemunbearandforbear.(HeartTimes,p.344)StephenBlackpool,apoorworkerinBounderby’sfactory,says“bearandforbear”toLouisaGradgrind.WhenTomrobsBounderby’sbank,Stephenisaccusedofthiscrime.Louisacomeswithherfathertosaysorry.Stephen,Dickens’representativeofthevictimsoftheIndustrialRevolutionanditsresults,tellsherthis,meaningthattheyhavenootherchoicebuttobepatients.Hejustasksthathisnameiscleared.Throughthisproverb,Dickenssaysloudlythattheremustbechangestosavethosevictimizedpeople.Noonecanendureinjusticeanddehumanization.Stephanhereobservesthecooperativeprinciple,whiletheproverbisgeneratedfromprecedingtext.Thepronoun“we”referstothespeakerasasubject,anditcombineswiththeproverbtoformadeclarativesentence.(77)ImustopenlyadmitthatIhavenopretensions,saidFlora,buthavingknownthedearlittlethingwhichunderalteredcircumstancesappearsalibertybutisnotsointendedandGoodnessknowstherewasnofavourinhalf-a-crowna-daytosuchaneedleasherselfbutquitetheotherwayandastoanythingloweringinitfarfromitthelabourerisworthyofhishireandIamsureIonlywishhegotitoftenerandmoreanimalfoodandlessrheumatisminthebackandlegspoorsoul.(LittleDorrit,p.883)FloraFlinchingsays“thelabourerisworthyofhishire”toWilliamDorrit.DespitethefactthatDorritisinabadfinancialstate,thisdoesnotpreventFlorafromaskingaboutthefeesbyusingtheproverbtoemphasizeherpointofviewandnottobemisunderstood.ThisisthethirdtimeDickensreferstothisproverb,sheddinglightontheimportantpointthatwhethercircumstancesaregoodorbad,feesmustbepaid.90 华中科技大学硕士学位论文Inthiscontexttheuserofthisproverbobservesconversationalmaxims.ItisatruesayingbytheFlorathatthereisnocuttingormovingintheideaofthesituation.Theproverbseeminglyconnectswiththetextthroughthepronoun“it”whichprecedestheproverbandwithpreposition“and”thatfollowsit,bothofwhicharerefertotheunityoftheproverbwithinthetext.Thustheproverbiscontextuallycoherentandtextuallycohesive.(78)TheybothappearedtoderivealargeramountofsatisfactionfromthecautionscharacterofMr.Pancks,thanwasquiteintelligible,judgedbythesurfaceoftheirconversation.Andnow,saidDaniel,lookingathiswatch,astimeandtidewaitfornomanmytrustypartner,andasIamreadyforstarting,bagandbaggage,atthegatebelow,letmesayalastword.Iwantyoutograntarequestofmine.(LittleDorrit,p.956)DanielDoyce,ahardworkinginventorandengineer,whoisalsoArthur’sbusinesspartner,says“timeandtidewaitfornoman”toArthurClennam.Makingquickdecisionsaboutbusinessisnotwisebutatthesametimedelayingthemdoesnotmeaneventswillbepreventedfromoccurring.ThisistheideathatDoycewantsArthurtocomprehendbyusingtheproverb.HewantsArthurtodecidequickly.InusingthisproverbDanielobservestheconversationalmaxims.Thedeclarativesentence“Iamreadyforstarting”islocatedaftertheproverbandisconnectedtothemeaningoftheproverb.Thespeakerheretellsthetruth,asneithertimenortidescanwaitforsomeonebecausetheygoonwithoutstopping.Thereisnoambiguityorobscureexpressionhereinrelationtothecontext.(79)Fivehundredpeoplewhosatdowntobreakfastentirelyuninformedonthewholesubject,believedbeforetheyhaddonebreakfast,thattheyprivatelyandpersonallyknewphysiciantohavesaidtoMr.Merdle,Youmustexpecttogoout,someday,likethesnuffofacandle;andthattheyknewMr.Merdletohavesaidtophysician,Amancandiebutone.(LittleDorrit,p.1006-1007)Mr.Merdle,amasterfinancier,says“Amancandiebutonce”tohisphysician.Areportarrivesaboutthedeathofagreatman.Mr.Merdlecommentsonthisnewsbyusingtheproverb.Deathisapartofuniversallaw.ThisproverbisDickens’indicationthatthemobsshouldnotfeardeathbecausewhenitcomes,noonecanrunawayfromit.Sotheuserhereobservestheconversationalmaxims,providingexactinformation-nomoreandnoless.Thewholecontextinvolvesonetopicwhichisdeath.91 华中科技大学硕士学位论文(80)Unwinking,cat-like,andintent,shepresentlyadds:Notsopotentasitoncewas?Ah!Perhapsnotatfirst.Youmaybemorerightthere.Practicemakesperfect.Imayhavelearnedthesecrethowtomakeyetalk,deary.(TheMysteryofEdwinDrood,p.225)TheoldwomanwhoEdwinmeetsinthestreetsays“Practicemakesperfect”toEdwininoneoftheuglycourts.Byusingtheproverbsheadviseshimtokeeponwithhismissionuntilhegetstotheend.ThisisalsoDickens’advicetopoorpeoplewhowanttodevelopthemselvesbytellingthemnottogiveupquicklyandkeeponwithanactionuntiltheymasteritintheend.Theoldwomanobservestheconversationalmaxims.Theword“practice”relatestotheword“learned”whichislocatedaftertheproverb.Thisconversationisthusperfectandinformative;thereisnoambiguityorobscureexpression.92 华中科技大学硕士学位论文ConclusionInthelightoftheanalysisanddiscussion,itcanbeconcludedthatmostoftheEnglishproverbsthathavebeenanalysedexhibitnon-observanceofconversationalmaxims,whereasonlyafewEnglishproverbsactuallyobservethesemaxims.Thefindingsshowthattherelationmaximisbrokenmoreoftenthanothermaxims,whereasthequalitymaximisbrokenlessoften.Thetwomaxims,quantityandmanner,arebrokenanequalnumberoftimesbutlessoftenthantherelationandqualitymaxims.Thestudyalsoshowsthatthisfloutingisusedtobreakconversationalmaximsmorethanotherkindsofthenon-observance.Violatingandoptingoutareusedlessoftenthanflouting,whileinfringingandsuspendingarenotusedatall.WhetherornottheuserofEnglishproverbs,inthecontextofDickens’novels,observestheconversationalmaxims,thefunctionsofproverbsstillliveinthemindofthehearerswithregardtowhatthespeakerwantsthemtocommunicate.Soproverbsarenotlikeotheraspectsoflanguageinthattheirfunctions,whichsooftenappearnottobeinobservanceofGrice’smaxims,aregenerallyusedinthefavouroftheaddressees.Themessagesthattheysendusuallyreferclearlytowhatthespeakerwantstoconvey.EventhoughtheusersofEnglishproverbsveryoftenbreaktherelationmaximofconversationinthecontextofnovels,inawaytheyactuallyfulfilthismaxim,inthatthespeakerswishtoconveyrelevantmessageswithregardtothediscourse.Eventhoughtheusersbreaktherelationmaximformally,theyfulfilinawaythatisbeyondthestructureofsentences.Theuseraccomplishestheideaofthediscourseduetothefunctionoftheproverbsheorshecomesintocontactwithandwithregardtowhatthehearerexpectsfromthespeaker.Thus,abrokenrelationmaximmakesthehearerslookbeyondtheformofthesayings,whetherpositivelyornegatively.Intermsofqualitymaxim,manyEnglishproverbsinthisstudyconsistofwordsthatareunbelievableoriftheyareambiguousinthecontexttheyarepresentedin.Whetherusersfloutthemaximsornot,theyoftenstillfulfiltheminthatthespeakergenerallyexpectsthehearertounderstandofwhatheorsheisasaimingto93 华中科技大学硕士学位论文convey.Iftherearebarriersthatmaketheuserfloutthemaxims,forinstancetoavoidembarrassmentandinappropriatesituationsornottooffendthehearer,heorsheoftenabideswiththemaximsbecausethespeakerhasnointentiontomisleadordeceivethehearer.Heorsheaimstomakethehearerunderstandtotheexactmeaningofwhatisbeingsaid.Aswehavementionedearlier,thisaspectofhowtheusersofproverbshidetheirintentionsunderliestheformoftheproverbs.Therefore,wecansaythattheinterlocutorsinfictionaldiscoursegenerallyabidebytheconversationalmaximsfromtheperspectiveofimplyingmeaning.Withregardtoviolation,thisrarelyoccursinrelationtoEnglishproverbs.Itcanthereforebeattributedtothefeaturesofproverbsingeneral,especiallytheproverbsfoundinthenovelsinthecurrentstudy.Thestructureoftheproverbsenablesaspeakertosaywhathewantstosayinsuchamannerthatthehearerwillreceiveitpositively.Thisaimdoesnotcorrespondwithviolatingthemaxims.Optingoutofamaximisusedtobreakthemaximsafewtimes.Thisispartofthefunctionoftheproverbs.Aswehavementionedinthediscussion,theuserisnotgenerallyunwillingtocommunicate.Heorshedoesnotusetheproverbshaphazardly,butinordertodeliveramatureideatothelistener.MajorfindingsThepresentstudyhasresultedinthefollowingmajorfindingswithregardtotheanalysisofEnglishproverbs:Firstly,whetherornotEnglishproverbsabidebyconversationalmaxims,theystillhaveessentialfunctionsintheircontextbecauseproverbsarenotordinaryformsofspeech.However,theyarealwaysusedwiththeintentionofconveyingmessagesinthefavourofthehearers.Secondly,proverbsplayanessentialroleintheircontext.Theysumupsituationsandrelatemessageswhichoftenconveymorethantheliteralmeaningoftheirwords.AswehaveseeninthecontextofDickens’novels,proverbswereusedasatoolbyDickenstocommunicateinwayshecouldnotachieveinadirectmanner.Thirdly,thestructureofproverbsjustifiestheircapabilitytoexistwithinthecontext/text,asweseeintheproverb“liveandlearn”,whichisexaminedfourtimesin94 华中科技大学硕士学位论文thestudy.Onthreeoftheseoccasionsthemeaningoftheproverbdependsonthespecificcontextitisusedin.Infact,mostEnglishproverbsareindependentoftheirsemanticstructure,sotheycanstandalonewithoutanyrelationtothesurroundingtext.Therefore,mostofthembreakthemaximsfrequently.Theyarerarelyusedforobservance.Forinstance,theproverb“leastsaid,soonestmended”ismentionedfourtimesinthestudy.Onthreeoccasionsitsusebreaksthemaxims.Fourthly,someofproverbsareaffectedbycontextintermsofjustifyingwhethertheymakesenseincontext.Anexampleistheuseof“timeflies”inquotationnumber53.Theuserofthisproverbbrokethemaxims,whileinquotationnumber74theuserobservesthemaxims.Thisisalsotruewiththeuseoftheproverb“thelabourerisworthyofhishire”.LimitationsofthestudyFirstly,thestudyislimitedtoEnglishproverbsfoundinCharlesDickensnovels,andinparticulartheproverbsthatarestillincommonuse.Also,itislimitedtooneofthepragmaticmodels;thatis,the“cooperativeprinciple”.Secondly,theEnglishproverbsthathavebeenusedinthisstudydependontheindexesoftwodictionaries,TheOxfordDictionaryofEnglishProverbsandOxfordConciseDictionaryofProverbs.Proverbsthatarenotincommonusearethusexcludedfromtheseworks.Thirdly,theresultsoftheanalysisofEnglishproverbsarelimitedtothecurrentdata.Itisimpossibletoapplythemtootherunlimitedproverbsunlesstheyareexaminedaccordingtothenewdata.Fourthly,thefindingsarefocusedonthecontextofDickens’novels,soarenotcertaintoattainthesameresultswithdifferentcontexts.Differentcontextscouldgivedifferentresults,astheproverbsaremultifunctionalSuggestionsforfurtherresearchAproverbisanaspectoflanguagewhichisfoundeverywhere.AcomprehensivestudyofEnglishproverbsrequiresmuchmoreinformationandanalysisthanalimited95 华中科技大学硕士学位论文surveysuchasthiscanprovide.Inconsideringthefindingsandlimitations,thefollowingsuggestionsareproposedforfurtherstudy:Firstly,whilethepresentstudyfocusesonananalysisofEnglishproverbsinCharlesDickens’novelsfromtheperspectiveoftheco-operativeprinciple,itwouldalsobeproductivetoanalysethesamedatafromthepointofviewofothertheoriesofpragmatics,suchasspeechacttheoryandrelevancetheory.Suchstudiescouldprovideageneralpragmaticoverviewofthefunctionsofproverbsinsuchnovels.Secondly,thepresentstudyfocusesonananalysisofEnglishproverbsfoundinthirteennovels.ResearcherscouldanalyseagroupofEnglishproverbsinanovelandthenmakecomparisonsbetweenlargergroupsofnovelsfromthepointofviewofthesame“cooperativeprinciple”,inordertoshowwhichproverbsbreakthemaximsmostoftenandtotrytoinvestigatethereasonsforthat.Thirdly,thepresentstudydependsonlinguisticandnon-linguisticfactorsinitsanalysis.Inorderfortheanalysistofocusonallkindsofcontext,itwouldbeverybeneficialtoanalyseEnglishproverbsinCharlesDickens’novelswithreferencetotheculturalcontextinrelationtothetheoryofthecooperativeprinciple.96 华中科技大学硕士学位论文AcknowledgmentsFirst,IwouldliketoexpressmygreatgratitudeandthankstomysupervisorassociateProf.Zhangjinquan,whowaspatientandcontinuouslyobservedmywork.Withouthisprofoundknowledgeandkeeninterest,mythesiscouldnothaveattainedthislevel.IwouldliketoexpressmythankstothestaffoftheSchoolofForeignLanguagesfortheirgenerosityinmakingavailabletherelevantscientificmaterialstomyselfandallotherstudents.Iwouldequallyliketothankallmycolleaguesandstaffthathavecontributedonewayortheothertotheimprovementofmywork.Also,manythanksgotomyprofessorsinIraq,atMisanUniversity;Assist.Prof.Dr.SafaaIssa,EnglishDepartment,CollegeofEducation.Assist.Prof.Dr.AbdulKareemLazim,HeadoftheEnglishDepartment,CollegeofBasicEducation,fortheirsuggestions,advice,encouragementandinspirationinenablingmetopursuemystudy.MyspecialandheartythanksalsogotoAssist.Prof.AlaaThafer,MisanUniversity,CollegeofEducation.Herunlimitedassistancewasinvaluable.Shewasabletooffermuchassistance.MythanksalsogotoAssist.Prof.Dr.AbbasLutfiatBaghdadUniversity.Therichandvaluedinformationthatheofferedtomeaddedanewdimensiontothesubjectofthethesis.Also,IwouldliketothankDr.OutiLauhakangasfromFinlandandAndersTrulsson,aPh.D.studentfromSwedenwhoshowedgreatinterestinproverbsandsupportedsuggestionsandinformationtoenrichmyknowledgeinthisarea.Myspecial,deep,andheartythanksandgratitudegotomyentirefamily;mywife,withherunprecedentedencouragementandsupport,playedanessentialroleinthecompletionofmystudy.Thepresenceofmydaughters,Maram,Shams,andMassara,besideme,wasastabilizingfactor.Withoutthem,mystudywouldhavebeenmuchmoredifficult.97 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