综合英语语法总结 60页

新题型：-WhichofthefollowingsentencesisINCORRECT?-Whichofthefollowingdeterminers(限定词)canbeplacedbeforebothsingularcountnounsandpluralcountnouns?-Whichofthefollowingrefelxivepronouns(反身代词)isusedasanappositive(同位语)？-WhichofthefollowingsentencesexpressesWILLINGNESS?-Whichoftheitalicizedpartsfunctionsasasubject?-Whichoftheitalicizedpartsfunctionsasanobject?-AllthefollowingsentenceshaveanappositiveEXCEPT.-Whichofthefollowingbestexplainsthemeaningof“Shallwebuytheticketsfirst”?-Whichofthefollowingcontainsanadverbialclauseofcause?-Whichofthefollowingprepositionalphrasescanfunctionasanadverbial?-Whichofthefollowingprepositionalphrasesisanadverbialofconcession?-"..."Thesentencemeansthat.《综合教程》（修订版）第一册1）simplepast,pastprogressive,pastperfect;一般过去时，过去进行时，过去完成时Useofsimplepasttense:1)Thesimplepasttenseisusedtotalkaboutcompletedactionsandhabitsinthepast.e.g.Shakespearediedin1616.WeusedtowalkamileinthemorningwhenwewereinLondon.2)Pasttenseofverbssuchaswant,wonder,hopeisusedforpoliteinquiries.e.g.Iwonderedhowyoulikedthefilm.Useofpastprogressive:1)Thepastprogressiveindicatesalimiteddurationoftimeandisthusaconvenientwaytoindicatethatsomethingtookplace(inthesimplepast)whilesomethingelsewashappening.e.g.Carloslosthiswatchwhilehewasrunning.2)Thepastprogressivecanexpressincompleteaction.e.g.IwassleepingonthecouchwhenBertiesmashedthroughthedoor.※asopposedtothesimplepast,whichsuggestsacompletedactione.g.Isleptonthecouchlastnight. 3)Thepastprogressiveisalsousedtopokefunatorcriticizeanactionthatissporadicbuthabitualinnature.e.g.Tashondawasalwayshandinginlatepapers.4)Weusethepastprogressiveofverbssuchaswondertoshowpoliteness.e.g.Iwaswonderingifyoucouldgivemealift.※Thisuseisevenmorepoliteandtentativethanthesimplepast.Useofpastperfecttense:1)Thepastperfecttenseexpressestheideathatsomethingoccurredbeforeanotheractioninthepast.Itcanalsoshowthatsomethinghappenedbeforeaspecifictimeinthepast.e.g.IhadneverseensuchabeautifulbeachbeforeIwenttoKauai.2)Ifthepastperfecttenseisnotreferringtoanactionataspecifictime,itisnotoptional.Comparetheexamplesbelow.Herethepastperfecttenseisreferringtoalackofexperienceratherthananactionataspecifictime.Forthisreason,thepastperfecttensecannotbeused.e.g.SheneversawabearbeforeshemovedtoAlaska.NotCorrectShehadneverseenabearbeforeshemovedtoAlaska.Correct2）verbsofperception+ingform/-edform/infinitiveform;感官动词的-ing/-ed/不定式形式Verbsofperceptionareasetofverbsdenotingtheuseofoneofthephysicalsenses.Someverbsofperceptionsee,lookat,hear,listen,andfeel,alongwithwatchandsensecanbeusedwithobjectsfollowedbyverbsin-ingform,-edformandinfinitiveform.e.g.Weheardyouleave.(Emphasisonourhearing.)Weheardyouleaving.(Emphasisonyourleaving.)Johnhasneverheardthepieceplayedbefore.(Emphasisonthepassivevoiceofplay.)3）specialwordorderwithasandthoughas/though引导的让步状语从句Inaconcessiveclauseintroducedbythoughoralthough,thecomplementortheadverbialcanbeplacedatthebeginningofthesentence.Theformulafortheinversionis:complement/adverbial+as/though+subject+predicateverbe.g.Oldas/thoughheis,heworkshardasayoungman.Hardas/thoughhestudied,hedidnotpasstheexamination. Unit21）genericreferenceandspecificreferenceofa/anandthe不定冠词和定冠词的形式、语法意义及用法Weusuallyuse“the”whenwetalkaboutthingsthatareunique:thesun,thesky,etc,andaboutthingsthatarecontextspecificandareknownbyboththespeakerandthelistener.Ifwewanttodescribeaparticularinstanceofthesewecanuse“a/an”.e.g.Icouldseetheplane(contextspecific,boththespeakerandthelistenerknowabouttheplanethatismentioned)highupinthesky(unique).WhenIwokeuptherewasabrightbluesky(aninstance).2）gotoschoolorgototheschool用法区别A/an,theandzeroarticlescanallbeusedinsetcollocationsorfixedcollocationsandidioms.Cautionthatcollocationswithdifferentchoicesofarticlescanmeandifferently.e.g.Amanisstandinginthefrontofthehouse.(Themanisinthehouse.)Atreeisstandinginfrontofthehouse.(Thetreeisoutsidethehouse.)Igotoschooleveryday.(=Igototheschooltostudyeveryday.)Iwenttotheschooltoday.(=TodayIwenttosomeplaceandthatplacewasaschool.)Unit31）more…thanconstruction;了解和掌握比较级最高级的结构、用法和所表达的意义※Youcanuse“alittle”,“alot”,“abit”,“agreatdeal”,“any”,“far”,“even”“still”,and“much”infrontofmorethanconstruction.e.g.TomisalittleyoungerthanTim.Yougetfarmorethanyoupayforit.2）as…asconstruction;Thebasicpatternisas+adjective/adverb+as.e.g.JohnisasbrightasBob.Theswimmingpoolisn"taswideasthatone.※Youcanuse“just”,“almost”,“nearly”,“quite”infrontof"as…as" construction,e.g.Listeningskillsarejustasimportantasspeaking.MaybeIdidn"tloveyouquiteasoftenasIshouldhave.3）themostThesuperlativeconstructionisusedwhenthreeormorethanthreepeopleorthingsarecompared.Inthisconstructionthereisusuallyascopeofcomparisonwhichmaybeexpressedbyaprepositionalphrase,arelativeclause,oranon-finiteclause.Sometimesthescopeofcomparisonisunderstoodinthecontextandneednotbeexpressed.Insomesetexpressions,ascopeofcomparisonisunnecessaryatall.Thenegativeformofthesuperlativeconstructionis"theleast",which,inpracticalusage,isusuallyreplacedbythesuperlativedegreeofantonymousadjectivesoradverbs.e.g.ThisistheleastdifficultbookIhaveeverread.Theideaofhighestdegreecanalsobeexpressedbyotherconstructions.Insomecontextsthepositiveorcomparativedegreeexpressesthesamemeaningasisusuallyconveyedbythesuperlative.e.g.Georgedidmoreworkthananyoneelse.NothinginmylifeshookmesodeeplyasmyfirstvisittoChina.Unit41）any,each,all,everyandtheircompounds;any,each,all,every以及它们的复合词2）countableanduncountablenouns;可数名词和不可数名词Commonnounscanbeclassifiedinto1)countablenounsanduncountablenouns,or2)individualnouns,collectivenouns,materialnounsandabstractnouns.Usuallyindividualnounsandcollectivenounsarecountablewhilematerialnounsandabstractnounsareuncountable.Butsometimesabstractnounsandmaterialnounscanbecountableiftheyareusedinspecificsense,forexamplewithanattribute.e.g.Mychildrenareagreatjoy(anattribute)tome.Hisroom,atsixteendollarsaday,wasadisappointment(somethingspecific,andsomethingthatdisappointspeople).SriLankaproducesmanyteas(manykindsoftea). 3）prepositions介词的用法和特点及其语法意义Unit51）imperativesentences;祈使句Imperativesentences,alsoknownas“commands”beginwithaverbintheimperativemoodandexpressacommand,aninstruction,anorder,awarning,arequest,asuggestion,awish,aninvitation,etc.Therearethreekindsofimperatives:thesecondpersonimperatives,thefirstpersonimperative,andthethirdpersonimperatives.Forthesecondpersonimperatives,ifwewanttoenhancetheforceoftheimperative,wecanaddanemphaticDOorYOUatthebeginningofthesentence.e.g.Mr.Smith,yousitoverthere.Docomein.Letmehavealook.Let’sstopandfinishitlater.Don’tletanyoneshirkhisresponsibility.2）questiontagsaddedtoimperativeclauses;祈使句的反意问句的构成和作用Sometimesweaddquestiontagstotheimperativesentencestosoftentheimperativetone.Forthesecondpersonimperatives,afterapositiveimperative,thequestiontagcanbe“will/would/can/can’t/won’tyou/?”“Won’t”isusedtoinvite.“Willyou”isoftenusedasrequest.“Won’tyou”isusedtoshowlessforcefulorders.“Would”islessforcefulthan“will”andmuchlesscommon.“Can’tyou”canshowthespeaker’sannoyance.Afteranegativeimperative,thequestiontagis“willyou?”Ifthepartaddressedincludesonlythespeakerthequestiontagusuallyis“will/won’tyou?”Ifthepartaddressedincludesboththespeakerandthelistener,thetagshouldbe“shallwe?”e.g.Don’tbesonoisy,willyou?Stoptalking,will/won’t/would/can/can’tyou?Letmedriveyouhome,willyou?Let’stakeataxi,shallwe?3）anther,other(s),theother(s)用法特点及表达的意义 *“Another”means1)additional,onemore(sometimestwomore,threemore...)personorthingofthesametype;2)adifferentone,notthesamepersonorthing.e.g.Ineedanotherweek/twoweekstofinishthisinvestigation.Wefinallymovedtoanotherapartment.*“Other”isalwaysfollowedbypluralnouns.Itmeans1)additional;2)else,different.“Others”meansmorepeopleorthings.e.g.Dannyisplayingwithtwootherchildren.SaudiArabiaproducesmoreoilthananyothercountry(Singularnounmustbeusedafter“anyother”.)Ionlyknowaboutthisbook,buttheremightbeothers(=otherbooks).*“Theother(one)”meansthesecondofthetwopeopleorthings.“Theothers”(=theotherones)meanstherestofthepeopleorthings.Notethatheretheremustbeaspecificcontext.e.g.Youcanparkontheothersideofthestreet.She’smuchbrighterthanalltheotherchildreninherclass(“Inherclass”servesasaspecificcontext.).Unit61）simpleprepositionsandcomplexprepositions;介词和复合介词①Theprepositions,suchasin,of,at,andto,areallsinglewords.WecallthemSIMPLEPREPOSITIONS.  ②COMPLEXPREPOSITIONSconsistoftwo-orthree-wordcombinationsactingasasingleunit.Herearesomeexamples: accordingto,butfor,exceptfor,intermsof,inpointof,withregardto,inthecaseof,etc.e.g.regardlessofbutforintermsofexceptforaccordingtoincaseof2)conjunctions连词Conjunctionsareusedtoexpressaconnectionbetweenwords.Therearetwotypesofconjunctions.COORDINATINGCONJUNCTIONS(orsimplyCOORDINATORS)connectelementsofequalsyntacticstatus.e.g.PaulandDavid IplaytennisbutIdon"tplaywell.meatorfish Ontheotherhand,SUBORDINATINGCONJUNCTIONS(orSUBORDINATORS)connectelementsofunequalsyntacticstatus.   e.g.IleftearlybecauseIhadaninterviewthenextday. I"llbehomeatnineifIcangetataxi. Unit71)modalauxiliary+infinitive;情态动词+不定式的构成方式及表达的不同语法意义ModalauxiliariesareaspecialtypeofverbinEnglishlanguage.Syntactically,modalauxiliaries(or“modals”forshort)canonlybetheinitialelementofafiniteverbphraseandareinvariablyfollowedbyabareinfinitive.e.g.*Noticethat:whenamodalauxiliarytakesthepredictivemeaning,theinfinitiveafteritmayappearintheperfectformtodenotepasttimeShemusthaveseenhowscaredIwasandreachedover.andintheprogressiveformtodenotefuturetime.Ishouldn’tbeeatingthemanyhow.Whenthemodalauxiliarytakesthenon-predictivemeaning,theinfinitiveafteritusuallyappearsinitsbaseformasinthefirstexample.Icouldhearsmallpocketsofsoothingconversationeverywhere.2)begoingtoandwill;begoingto和will的用法区别Butweuse“will”ratherthan“begoingto”tomakeapredictionbasedonouropinionorexperienceand“begoingto”ratherthan“will”tomakeapredictionbasedonsomepresentevidence.Andweuse“will”whenwemakeadecisionatthemomentofspeakingand“begoingto”fordecisionsaboutthefuturethathavealreadybeenmade.e.g.“ShallIaskSandra?”“No,shewon’twanttobedisturbed.”Theskyhasgonereallydark.There’sgoingtobeastorm.I’llpickhimupat8.(anoffer;makinganarrangementnow)I’mgoingtocollectthechildrenat8.(thiswaspreviouslyarranged)3)hypotheticalpast假设性过去时的用法及语法意义(虚拟)Weusehypotheticalpasttotalkaboutunrealconditioninthepresent,futureandpast.Andinthiscase,weusesimplepasttoreplacetheoriginalsimplepresentorsimplefuture,andpastperfecttoreplacetheoriginalpasttense.e.g.IamsonervousàIfonlyIweren’tsonervous.YouarenottellingthetruthàIwishyouweretellingthetruth. Youdidn’tlistentomeandyouareingreattroublenow.àIfyouhadlistenedtome,youwouldn’tbeinsuchtroublenow.Unit81）realandunrealconditionals;真实条件句和非真实条件句2）it+be+…+that强调句的用法及表达的不同语法意义Sentencesintroducedby"Itis"or"Itwas"areoftenusedtoemphasizeaspecificsubjectorobject.Theintroductoryclauseisthenfollowedbyarelativepronoun.“It+be+…+that”canbeusedtohighlightthesubject,object,adverbialoftime,place,manner,cause.e.g. ItisJennywhospendsallhermoneyonshoes.(subject)ItisshoesthatJennyspendsallhermoneyon. (object)ItwasinLondonthathemethisfirstwife.(place)ItwasonlywhenhephonedthatIrealizedwhathadhappened.(time)ItislearningEnglishthatIfindmostenjoyablenowadays.(gerundaction)Unit91）simplepresenttense;一般现在时①Thesimplepresentisusedintheexpressionofeternaltruthsandproverbs,scientificandotherstatementsmadeforalltime.e.g.Arollingstonegathersnomoss.LondonstandsontheRiverThames.②Thesimplepresentcanexpresshabitualorrecurrentactions.e.g.Percyoftengoestohisofficebyunderground.Healwayssleepswithhiswindowsopen.③Thesimplepresentcanbeusedtodenoteamomentaryphenomenonthatexistsatthetimeofspeaking.e.g.What’sthematterwithyou?Youlookpale.④Thesimplepresentcanbeusedtodenotefuturetime.e.g.Ihopeshelikestheflowers.Ifitdoesn’traintomorrow,wewillgotothecountryside.⑤Thesimplepresentcanoccasionallybeusedtodenotepasttime.Thisuseofthesimple presentisusuallyfoundwithsuchverbsastell,say,hear,write,learn.e.g.Marytellsmeyou’reenteringcollegenextyear.IhearpooroldMrs.Smithhaslostherson.1）presentprogressive;现在进行时①Thepresentprogressiveisusedtodenoteanactioninprogressatthemomentofspeaking.e.g.Hurryup!We’reallwaitingforyou.②Thepresentprogressivecanexpressanactioninprogressataperiodoftimeincludingthepresent.e.g.Janeisstudyinglawwhilehersisterisdoingphysics.③Thepresentprogressiveisusedtodenoteafuturehappeningaccordingtoadefiniteplanorarrangement.e.g.I’mgoingtoShanghaiforthesummerholiday.Whenyouaretalkingwithhim,takecarenottomentionthis.④Thepresentprogressivecanbeusedtodenoteanactionintheimmediatepastandtomakeevenpoliterrequestswithsuchverbsashope,wonder.e.g.Youdon’tbelieveit?YouknowI’mtellingthetruth.I’mwonderingifImayhaveawordwithyou.3）progressiveverbvs.non-progressiveverbs延续性动词和非延续性动词的用法和语法意义Thepresentprogressiveiscommonlyassociatedwithdurativedynamicverbssuchaswork,play,study,live,write,etc.whichareprogressiveverbs.Thosemomentaryverbs,denotingveryshortduration,suchasshoot,jump,nod,put,etc.andstativeverbssuchasthink,know,belong,believe,like,etc.,arenon-progressiveverbs.e.g.Petershootsand—yes,it’sagoal.Thecrowdarecheeringandtheotherplayersarerunninguptocongratulatehim.Unit101）Thepassivevoice;被动语态Iftheagentisimportant(theperson,companyorthingthatdoestheaction),use“by”.Ifitisnotdefiniteanddoesnotcarryanyessentialinformation,itcanbeomitted.※Onlyverbsthattakeanobjectcanbeusedinthepassivevoice. e.g.Housesarebuilt.Mybikewasstolen.2）subordination引导状语从句的连词的用法和语法意义Subordination(abbreviatedvariouslysubord,sbrd,subrorsr)isacomplexsyntacticconstructioninwhichoneormoreclausesaredependentonthemainclause.Dependentclausesarealsocalled“subordinateclauses”.Subordinateclausesareintroducedbyasubordinatingconjunction,suchas,after,although,asmuchas,aslongas,assoonas,because,before,if,inorderthat,lest,since,sothat,than,that,though,unless,until,when,whenever,where,wherever,whether,andwhile,etc.e.g.Idon"tknowifGeorgeisawakeyet.Georgeoversleptbecausehisalarmclockwasbroken.Unit111）reportedspeech;间接引语的表述方法Note:●BackshiftofSimplePresentisoptionalifthesituationisstillunchangedorifyouagreewiththeoriginalspeaker.e.g.“CanberraisthecapitalofAustralia.”ShesaidthatCanberrais/wasthecapitalofAustralia.●Advisoryexpressionswithmust,shouldandoughtareusuallyreportedusingadvise /urge.e.g.“Youmustreadthatbook.”Headvised/urgedmetoreadthatbook.●Theexpressionlet’sisusuallyreportedusingsuggest.Inthiscase,therearevariouspossibilitiesforreportedspeech:gerundorstatementwithshould.e.g.“Let’sgotothecinema.”Hesuggestedgoingtothecinema.Hesuggestedthatweshouldgotothecinema. 2）subject-verbagreement主谓一致的用法Mostlikely,yourverbwillagreewiththefirstnountotheleftoftheverb.e.g.TheSupremeCourtjudgedecidestheappropriatepenalty.Occasionally,asentencehasthesubjectaftertheverbinsteadofbeforeit.Thisstrategyisoftenusedforpoeticeffect.e.g.Overtheripplesglidesasmallcanoe.Ifsubjectsarejoinedbyorornor,theverbshouldagreewiththeclosersubject.e.g.Eithertheactorsorthedirectorisatfault.Therelativepronouns(who,whom,which,andthat)areeithersingularorplural,dependingonthewordstheyreferto.e.g.ThesalesmanagerisagoodresearcherwhospendsagreatamountoftimesurfingtheWebforinformation.Indefinitepronouns(someone,somebody,each,eitherone,everyone,oranyone)areconsideredsingularandneedsingularverbsalthoughtheymayconveypluralmeaning.e.g.Anyonewhowantstopursuehighereducationhastopassentranceexams.Afewnounscanbeeitherpluralorsingular,dependingonwhethertheymeanagrouporseparateindividuals.Thesewordsarerarelyusedaspluralsinmodernwriting.e.g.Thejuryissequestered.Afewsubjectslookpluralbutarereallysingularorviceversa.e.g.Thenewsofthediscoveryisspreading.Themassmediahavepublicizedthefacts.Unit121）therelativeclause;关系从句的形式及语法意义Arelativeclauseisaclausethatisintroducedbyarelativeword—eitherbyarelativepronounorbyarelativedeterminer,orbyarelativeadverb.Relativeclausesmayberestrictiveornon-restrictive.antecedenta)TherelativethatisnormallyusedassubjectcomplementinanSVCconstructionortherebeconstruction.Inthisuse,"that"isusuallyomitted.e.g.WhenMarywasborn,Dorothydecidedherdaughterwouldbethesinger(that)shealwayswantedtobe.The9.15isthefastesttrain(that)therehaseverbeen.b)Whentheantecedentisanindefinitepronounsuchasall,anything,something,ornothing,thefollowingrelativeclauseusuallyrequiresarelativethatassubject,andthat/zeroas object.e.g.Allthatlivemustdie.All(that)Iwantispeaceandquiet.c)Whentheantecedentiscomposedofapersonalheadwithdeterminersasonly,all,any,andwhentheantecedenttakesapremodifierinthesuperlativedegree,thefollowingrelativeclauseisnormallyintroducedbythatratherthanwhoorwhich.e.g.Anymanthatwantstosucceedmustworkhard.Newtonwasoneofthegreatestmenthateverlived.d)Anon-restrictiverelativeclauseisusuallyintroducedbywho,whom,whose,which.Theantecedentofwhichmaybeaclauseorpartofacause.e.g.Thisbook,whichonlyappearedayearago,hasalreadygonethroughseveraleditions.Hetriedtostandonhishandsforfiveminutes,which—asyouknow—isratheradifficultthingtodo.2）thepresentandthefuture现在时和将来时的不同形式即语法意义Futuretimeisexpressedbymeansofmodelauxiliaries,bysemi-auxiliaries,orbythesimplepresentandpresentprogressiveforms.1)will/shall+verbe.g.ThenexttraintoShanghaiwillleaveat8a.m.Weshallknowtheresultnextweek.2)begoingto+verbe.g.He’sgoingtobeadoctor,whenhegrowsup.3)be+-ing(presentparticiple):Verbsofmovementfromoneplacetoanothersuchasgo,come,leave,start,arrive,etc.canbeusedinthisstructure.e.g.Theplaneistakingoffat6.30.4)beto+(infinitive)e.g.I’mtohaveteawithBettythisafternoon.5)simplepresente.g.I’llgiveittoyouafterIreturn..Unit131）theinfinitiveandthe–ingparticipleasobject;现在分词和不定式作为宾语的用法 a)Verbsthatarefollowedby–ingparticipleinclude:admit,fancy,delay,miss,involve,postpone,finish,imagine,avoid,deny,risk,practise,consider,enjoy,etc.b)Verbsthatarefollowedbytheinfinitiveinclude:decide,hope,pretend,deserve,promise,attempt,offer,agree,plan,aim,afford,manage,threaten,refuse,learn,fail,etc.c)Eitherinfinitiveor–ingparticiplewithoutchangeofmeaningVerbsthatcantakeeitheraninfinitiveoran–ingparticipleasobjectincludeattempt,begin,can’tbear,continue,deserve,dread,hate,intend,like,loathe,love,need,neglect,omit,plan,prefer,require,start,etc.Followingthesewords,aninfinitiveoran–ingparticiplecanalternatewithoutchangeinbasicmeaning.Therearecases,however,wherethetransformsarenotinfreevariation.i)Afterprocessverbssuchasbegin,cease,continue,startandemotiveverbssuchascan’tbear,deserve,dread,hate,intend,like,loathe,love,need,neglect,omit,plan,prefer,require,theinfinitiveiscommonlyusedtorefertoaspecificactwhilethe–ingparticipleisusedtorefertoageneralact.e.g.Ican’tbearlivingalone.Ican’tbeartoseethechildsobadlytreated.Philprefersdoingitthatway.Hepreferstogobytrainthisevening.ii)Afterneed,want,require,deserve,anactive-ingparticiplecanbeusedtodenoteapassivemeaningwhichcanalsobeexpressedbyapassiveinfinitive.e.g.Thisletterneedssigningbythemanager.=Thisletterneedstobesignedbythemanager.Thehousewantsrewiring.=Thehousewantstoberewired.iii)Afterbeginandstart,eitherinfinitiveor–ingformispossible,butwhentheinfinitiveisastativeverb,orwhenbegin/startisintheprogressive,weusetheinfinitiveform.e.g.Webegantoseewhathemeant.It’sbeginningtorain.d)Eitherinfinitiveor–ingparticiplewithdifferentmeaningsTheverbssuchasforget,goon,leaveoff,mean,regret,remember,stop,etc.thatcantakeaninfinitiveoran–ingparticiplewithdifferentmeaningsfallintofivesub-classes:i)Afterremember,forgetandregret,theinfinitivereferstothenextactionthatfollowsthefirst,andthe–ingparticipletoapreviousevent.e.g.Can’tyouremembertellingmethestorylastnight?=Youtoldmethestorylastnight.Can’tyourememberit? Youmustremembertotellhimallthat.=Youmusttellhimallthat.Don’tforgetit.ii)Afterstop,leaveoff,goon,the–ingparticiplefunctionsasobject,whiletheinfinitiveasadverbialofpurpose.e.g.TheystoppedwatchingTVat9:30.=At9:30theydidnotwatchTVanymore.Heleftoffwritingthebook.=Hestoppedwritingthebook.Heleftofftowritethebook.Heleftsomeplaceinordertowritethebook.iii)Aftertry,mean,can’thelp,thechoicebetweenaninfinitiveandan–ingparticipledependsonthemeaningoftheprecedingverbitself.e.g.Yourplanwouldmeanspendinghours.Ididn’tmeantomakeyouangry.iv)Afteragree,decide,thereisachoicebetweentheinfinitiveand“preposition+-ing”.e.g.Theyagreedtosharetheremuneration.Theyagreedonsharingtheremuneration.v)Afterencourage,permit,allow,recommend,advise,authorise,eitherthe–ingparticipleortheinfinitivewithanexpressedlogicalsubjectcanbeused.Allowdoing/allowsbtodoe.g.Shedoesn’tallowsmokinghere.Shedoesn’tallowustosmokehere.1）thenon-finiteformsasadverbialandnounphrasemodifier;非限定性形式做名词短语、副词短语修饰语Thenon-finiteformsincludethe–ingclauseandtheinfinitiveclause.An–ingparticipleclauseusuallyreferstoanactiveand/orprogressiveevent,an–edparticipleclausereferstoanpassiveand/orexperiencedeventwhileaninfinitiveclausesuggestsaneventtobeexperienced.Theycanbeusedasadverbialorasnounphrasemodifier.e.g.Shelookedatuswithasmilingface.Todeterminethenumberofcells,asampleisputunderamicroscope.Unit141）need;need的用法 Needcanbealexicalverbaswellasamodalauxiliary.Asalexicalverb,itisfollowedbyato-infinitive.Asamodalauxiliary,itisnon-assertive,whichmeansitisusuallyusedinnegativesentencesorquestions.Notethatinanswertoaquestionintroducedbyneed,weshouldusemustinapositiveresponseandneedn’tinanegativeresponse.e.g.Doweneedtostaythisevening?Needweworklatetoday?No,weneedn’t,butwemusttomorrow.Wheninquiringaboutthenecessityofdoingsomething,eithermustorneedcanbeused.Iftheanswerisnegative,wecanonlyuseneedn’tordon’thavetoratherthanmustn’t.e.g.Need/mustIseeadoctoratonce?No,youneedn’t/don’thavetoforthetimebeing.“Needn’thave+-ed”impliesthatsomethingwasdonebutwasunnecessary.e.g.Ineedn’thavegonetothestation.2）thenon-finiteformasnounphrasemodifiers名词性短语修饰语的用法及其语法意义The–ingformofmostintransitiveverbsofEnglishcanbeusedattributivelyasadjectivestoindicatewhatsomeoneorsomethingisdoing.–edadjectivesmayrefertoaperson’smentaloremotionalreactiontosomethingordescribetheexpressionormannerofthepersonaffected.Most–edadjectivesarerelatedtotransitiveverbsandhaveapassivemeaning.Afew–edadjectivesarerelatedtotheintransitiveverbsandhaveanactivemeaning.e.g.Mostpeoplelikefreshfoodanddon’tlikefrozenfood.Somepeoplesayitisaninterestingbookwhileotherssaythatitisaboringone.《综合教程》（修订版）第二册wouldv.s.usedto;usedtov.s.beusedto“Woulddo”referstopastactionsandhabitsaswell.Rememberthat“would”isalsousedinaconditionalsense.It’sagoodideanottouse“would”inquestionsandnegativesentences,asitsmeaningcaneasilybemisunderstoodinaconditionalsense.e.g.We’dspendalotofmoneyonprojectsthatdidn’thelpthecompany.Theywouldaskalotofcrazyquestionsthatdidn’tseemtomakeanysense.“Usedtodo”expressessomethingthatweoftendidinthepast,butdon’tdoanymore.Itis oftenusedinthepositiveformtospeakaboutrepeatedactions.Generally,weusetheformtocontrastpasthabitswithpresentsituations.e.g.IusedtogojoggingthreetimesaweekwhenIlivedinItaly.Now,I’mtoobusyandcanonlyjogonceaweek.JaniceusedtoliveinNewYork,butmovedtoSeattlelastyear.“Beusedto(doing)sth.”meanssomeonehasexperiencedsomethingsothatitnolongerseemssurprising,difficultorstrange.Itisalwaysfollowedbyanounorgerund.e.g.Sallyisusedtospendinghoursinfrontofthecomputereveryday.They’vealwayslivedinhotcountriessotheyaren’tusedtothecoldweatherhere.would,should,might,couldWouldcanbeusedinsomeformsthatareviewedasmoreformalorpolite.Itcanalsobeusedtoexpresswillingness.e.g.Wouldyougetmeaglassofwater?Itoldhimnottogo,buthewouldnotlisten.Shouldisusedtoindicatethatanactionisconsideredbythespeakertobeobligatory.Itisusedtoformthefuturetenseofthesubjunctivemood,usuallyinthefirstperson.e.g.Youshouldbrushyourteetheveryday.IfIshouldbelate,gowithoutme.Mightcanbeusedtoexpressapresenttimepossibilityoruncertainty.Itcanbeusedinthefirstpersontoexpressthatfutureactionsarebeingconsidered.Itcanbeusedinaquestiontoaskforpermission.e.g.Johnisnotintheofficetoday,andhemightbesick.Imightgotothemalllater.Mightyourphone?Likecouldandwould,mightcanalsobeusedinpoliterequestsandsuggestions.Theauxiliariescould,wouldandmightcanbeusedtoexpressdifferingdegreesofpoliteness.Thus,mightexpressesthehighestdegreeofpoliteness.Couldisusedtoexpressability.Itisalsousedtoexpressbeliefsaboutsituations.Couldcanbeusedtomakerequests.e.g.IcouldspeakEnglish.Hecouldn’thaveleftalready;whywouldhewanttogettheresoearly?Couldyoupassmethecheese?didn’tneedtodo/needn’thavedoneBoththesepatternsareusedtotalkaboutpastevents.“Needn’thavedonesomething” meansthatsomethingwasnotnecessaryundercircumstanceswhereitwasdone.e.g.Ineedn’thavepreparedallthatfood.Theyphonedtosaytheywouldn’tbecoming.WhenIgothomefromthebakery,Ifoundwestillhadplentyofbread,soIneedn’thaveboughtaloaf.“Didn’tneedtodosomething”meansthattherewasnonecessitytodosomething.Andthethingwasnotdone.e.g.Wehadplentyofpetrolinthetank,soIdidn’tneedtofillup.Wedidn’tneedtowaitforlongforthem.Theyarrivedjustafterus.DanglingParticiple悬垂分词又叫“无依着分词”（UnattachedParticiple）,是指其逻辑主语与所处句子的主语不一致的分词。Whichsentencecontainsdanglingparticiple?Wrong:Leavingtheclassroom,thelightswentoutbythemselves.Right:Leavingtheclassroom,hefoundthelightswentoutbythemselves.Concretenouns&abstractnounsExperience:经验;经历Youth:inyouth,ayouth年青人抽象名词前加adj时,是可数名词一些词泛指是不可数的,指某一特殊情况时,可数Quantifier量词Determiner限定词Every,each,everyone,everyone,all,both,etherorneither,some,anyNegationandinversionInversioninvolvesputtinganauxiliaryverbbeforethesubjectofaclause.InformalEnglish,itisquitecommontouseinversionafternegativeadverbialexpressionsandrestrictivewordssuchasonly,never,hardly,littleandseldom.e.g.Atnotimedidhegetpermissionforwhathewasdoing.Notuntilthenextmorningdidsherealizehowseriousitwas.Onlylaterdidtheylearnhisterriblesecret.Hardlyhadwewalkedinthedoorwhenthephonestartedringing.Insomenegativesentences,“not”istonegatethepredicatesinform,butactuallyitisusedtonegateotherelementsofthosenegativesentences.Therefore,whiletranslating,weshould transferthenegationinsomecases.e.g.Everymancannotbeascientist.Ahighexecutivedoesnothavealargevocabularymerelybecauseoftheopportunitiesofhisposition.Anegativemaybetransferredfromacertainpartofthesentencetoanotherintranslation.e.g.Wedon’tbelievethatourmothertongueisinferiortoanyotherlanguageintheworld.Idon’tthinkFatherwillfancylivinganidlelifelikethat.UnitnounThereareanumberofnounsinEnglishwhichcanbeusedwithmassnounstoindicateunitsthatyoucancountafterall.Someoftheotherunitnounshavemorerestrictedcollocations:theycombinewithcertainnounsbutnotwithothers.Hereareafewexamples:asliceofcakealoafofbreadalumpofsugarapinchorgrainofsaltastrokeofluckas…as,asvs.like“As…as”isusedascomparativesubordinatingconjunctionstojointwoclauses.e.g.Thehousewasaslargeastwoputtogether.Thecoatofpaintisnotasfreshasitusedtobe.“Like”(whenusedtomean“similarto”)isapreposition.“As”(whenusedtomean“inthesamemanner”)isaconjunction.Prepositionsgovernnouns,pronouns,andwordsusedasnouns.Conjunctionsjoinclauses.e.g.DoasIsay!Heeatslikeapig.Whenusedasapreposition,“as”means“inthepositionof,intheformof”.e.g.DaddressedupasSantaClaus.Practice:Insertasorlikeasappropriateineachsentence.1.In1939,____________in1941,therewasagreatsurgeofpatrioticfeeling.2.You’rejust____________whatIexpected. 3.Youmustn’tthinkofme____________beingunhappy.4.Thechildsangassweetly___________anightingale.5.Ireceivedthesamegrade___________youdid.6.There’snothing___________agoodnight’ssleep.Key:1.as2.like3.as4.as5.as6.LikethesimplepresentandthepresentprogressiveSimplepresentisusedforactivitiesthatarelong-lastinghabits.e.g.Helenexerciseseveryday.HelencooksGreekfoodoften.Presentprogressiveisusedforactivitiesthatoccuratthemomentofspeakingactivities.e.g.HelenistakingaclassatSkylineCollegethisyear.HelenisstudyingMultimediaArtsthissemester.HelenislisteningtoheriPodnow.Thepresentcontinuouswithwordssuchas“always”or“constantly”expressestheideathatsomethingirritatingorshockingoftenhappens.e.g.Sheisalwayscomingtoclasslate.Heisconstantlytalking.Iwishhewouldshutup.Speakersusethepresentcontinuoustoindicatethatsomethingwillorwillnothappeninthenearfuture.e.g.Iamnotgoingtothepartytonight.Ishevisitinghisparentsnextweekend?2.PositionofadjectivesUnlikeadverbs,whichoftenseemcapableofpoppingupalmostanywhereinasentence,adjectivesnearlyalwaysappearimmediatelybeforethenounornounphrasethattheymodify.Sometimestheyappearinastringofadjectives,andwhentheydo,theyappearinasetorderaccordingtocategory.Thecategoriesinthefollowingtablecanbedescribedasfollows: A.Determiners—articlesandotherlimiters.B.Observation—postdeterminersandlimiteradjectives(e.g.arealhero,aperfectidiot)andadjectivessubjecttosubjectivemeasure(e.g.beautiful,interesting)C.SizeandShape—adjectivessubjecttoobjectivemeasure(e.g.wealthy,large,round)D.Age—adjectivesdenotingage(e.g.young,old,new,ancient)E.Color—adjectivesdenotingcolor(e.g.red,black,pale)F.Origin—denominaladjectivesdenotingsourceofnoun(e.g.French,American,Canadian)G.Material—denominaladjectivesdenotingwhatsomethingismadeof(e.g.woolen,metallic,wooden)F.Qualifier—finallimiter,oftenregardedaspartofthenoun(e.g.rockingchair,huntingcabin,passengercar,bookcover)e.g.abeautifuloldItaliantouringcarfourgorgeouslong-stemmedredsilkroseshershortblackhairseveralenormousyoungAmericanbasketballplayersNumeralsCardinalnumerals基数Thedifferentwaystoexpress“around”:around,about,nearly,some,moreorless,orso,thereabouts,etc.Ordinalnumerals序数Ordinalnumeralsallowbotharticlesahead.Again,thearticledeterminesthenounonly,notthenumeral.Fractionalnumeral分数isusedtoexpresspartsofawhole.Commonly,ittakestwoforms:1.CommonfractionWorkaccordingtotheformula:Wholes+Numerator/Denominatore.g.12/3=(isequaltoormeans)one(whole)and/plustwothirdsNotethe“s”addedtothedenominator:“thirds”.2.Decimalnumbers小数Workaccordingtotheformula:Wholenumbers(point)decimalse.g.12.15=(isequaltoormeans)twelvefifteen,ortwelvepointfifteenHaveone’sfortywinks白天小睡，oneinathousand难得，杰出，atsixesandsevens乱七八糟，onallfours四脚着地，talknineteentothedozen喋喋不休，tentoone很可能，ahundredandone许多，heistentimesthemanyouare他比你好的多 Practice:Correcttheerrorsinthefollowingsentences.1.Hewasnotdueattheofficeforanotherthree-quarterofanhour.2.ThisistheworstdisasterIcanrememberinmyplus25yearsasapoliceofficer.3.Ittookhimoneandahalfhourtofinishthetask.4.Fivehundredyuanamonthareenoughtoliveon.5.Threefourthofthebuildingswasruined.6.HeisastudentoftheClassTwo.Key:1.Hewasnotdueattheofficeforanotherthree-quarterofanhour.threequarters2.ThisistheworstdisasterIcanrememberinmyplus25yearsasapoliceofficer.25yearsplus3.Ittookhimoneandahalfhourtofinishthetask.hours4.Fivehundredyuanamonthareenoughtoliveon.is5.Threefourthsofthebuildingswasruined.were6.HeisastudentoftheClassTwo.ClassTwoDeterminers(both,each,eitherorneither,some,any)Determinersareusedinfrontofnounstoindicatewhetheryouarereferringtosomethingspecificorsomethingofaparticulartype.Whenbothisusedwithandtolinkparallelelementsinasentence,thewordsorphrasesthatfollowthemshouldcorrespondgrammatically.Bothcanonlycollocatewithpluralcountnouns.e.g.Bothherfingersarebroken.BothMaryandTomlikereadingEnglishnovels.Thephrasebeginningwitheachidentifiesasetofitemswhereinthewordsfollowingeachidentifytheindividualelementsbytheirsharedcharacteristics.Thephraseisgrammaticallysingularinnumber,soifthephraseisthesubjectofasentence,itsverbisconjugatedintoa third-personsingularform.Similarly,anypronounsthatrefertothenounphrasearesingular.e.g.Eachcandidatehas49votes.Eachvotermustdecideforherself.Eitherandneitherareusedinsentencesconcerningapossiblechoicebetweentwoitems.Eithercanmeanoneortheother(oftwo)oreachoftwo.e.g.I’vegotteaandcoffee,soyoucanhaveeither.(oneortheother)Theroomhasadoorateitherend.(both)Neithermeansnotthefirstoneandnotthesecondone.e.g.Neitherofthestudentswerelistening.Both,someandanyappearbeforenouns.Someandanymaybeusedwithcountableanduncountablenouns.e.g.Heboughtsomesandwichesforlunch.Hedidn’tseeanystarswhenhevisitedHollywood.Heatesomecheesewithhissandwiches.Heneverdrinksanycoffeeatnightbecausethenhecan’tsleep.QuestionsObjectclausee.g.Susan:“Iworkinanoffice.”Susansaysthatsheworksinanoffice.Susan:“Iworkinanofficenow.”Susansaidthatsheworkedinanofficethen.e.g.Lizwantedtoknowwhether/ifwehadanyphotosofourholiday.Wedidn’tknowwhytheshopwasshutdown.(not…whywastheshopshutdown)1.DisjunctAdisjunctisatypeofadverbialthatexpressesinformationthatisnotconsideredessentialtothesentenceitappearsin,butwhichisconsideredtobethespeaker’sorwriter’sattitudetowards,ordescriptivestatementof,thepropositionalcontentofthesentence.Moregenerally,thetermdisjunctcanbeusedtorefertoanysentenceelementthatisnotfullyintegratedintotheclausalstructureofthesentence.Suchelementsusuallyappearperipherally(atthebeginningorendofthesentence)andaresetofffromtherestofthesentencebyacomma(inwriting)andapause(inspeech).e.g.Honestly,Icouldn’tbelieveit. Unfortunately,KimhashadtoleaveusDisjunct外加语Rightly,youreturnedthemoney.Adjunct附加语Ihavealmostfinished.Conjunct联加语itrained,therefore,thematchwaspostponed.2.RelativewordsRelativewordsareusedtorefertoanounmentionedbeforeandofwhichweareaddingmoreinformation.Theyareusedtojointwoormoresentencesinthewaywecall“relativesentences”.e.g.Iknowmanyboyswho/thatplayrugby.Theshirtwhich/thatCarlboughthasastainonthepocket.ThisistheboywhosemotherworksfortheBBC.BarnstaplehasaveryoldcoveredmarketwhereIboughtsomelovelyoldplates.Sundayisthedaywhenpeopleusuallydon’tgotowork.Iftheverbintherelativeclauseneedsapreposition,weusuallyputitattheendoftheclause:e.g.Themusicwhich/thatJulielistenstoisgood.Sometimes,theprepositioncanalsobeplacedbeforetherelativepronoun.e.g.MybrothermetawomanwithwhomIusedtowork.Itwasthestreaminwhichtheelephantandthemousepreferredtoswim.Noticethatwecannotusewhoorthatafterapreposition,fortherelativepronounnowservesastheobjectofthepreposition.Practice:Fillineachblankwithaproperrelativeword.Use“preposition+relativeword”ifnecessary.1.Goodwritingisbuiltonasolidframeworkoflogic,argument,narrative,ormotivation_________runsthroughtheentirepieceofwritingandholdsittogether.Thisisthetime_________manywritersfinditmosteffectivetooutlineasawayofvisualizingthehiddenspine_________thepieceofwritingissupported.2.Theman,_________fatherisaprofessor,forgothisumbrella.3.Australiaisoneofthefewcountries_________peopledriveontheleft.4.JamesRussellisaman_________Ihavethegreatestrespect.5.Hisglasses,_________hecouldseenothing,fellonthegroundandbroke.6.Hebuiltatelescope_________hecouldstudythesky.Key: 1.which/that,when,bywhich2.whose3.where/inwhich4.forwhom5.withoutwhich6.throughwhich3.whatever,wherever,whoever,whichever,whenever,andhoweverThewordswhatever,wherever,whoever,whichever,wheneverandhoweverhavesimilarmeaningsto“nomatterwho,what,which…”.Awordofthiskindhasadoublefunction:itactsasasubject,objectoradverbinitsownclause.Italsoactsasaconjunctionjoiningitsclausetotherestofthesentence.e.g.Whateveryoumaysay,Iamnotgoingtotakehimback.(Nomatterwhatyousay,...)Whereveryougo,Ishallfollowyou.(Nomatterwhereyougo,Ishallfollowyou.)Whoeverdisobeysthelawmustbepunished.(Nomatterwhodisobeysthelaw…)Howevermuchheeats,henevergetsfat.(Nomatterhowmuchheeats,…)Thesewordsarealsousedtosuggestsomethingnotdefinitelyknown.e.g.IshallcomewheneverIcanslipaway.·Weshallsendwhoeverisavailable.·Youwillhavetobecontentwithwhateveryoucanget.Practice:Completethefollowingsentenceswiththeappropriatewordsinthebox.whoeverwhereverwhateverhoweverwheneverwhichever1.____________problemsyoumayhave,wewillhelp.2.Take_____________bookyoulikebest.3.___________lateitis,youmustcometothepartybecauseitwillbesomethingfantastic.4.Youwillseethisproductadvertised____________youlike.5.____________youcome,youwillbewarmlywelcomed.6.____________uprootedthattreeoughttobeashamedofthemselves.7.Thisisonepossiblesolutiontotheproblem.____________,thereareothers.Key:1.Whatever 1.whichever2.However3.wherever4.Whenever5.Whoever6.HoweverThepresentperfecttensevs.thesimplepasttenseThesimplepastreferstothedefinitepast.Thepresentperfectrefersto“thepastwithpresentrelevance.”Theactionorstatedenotedbythepresentperfecttense,thoughreferringtosomeindefinitehappeninginthepast,hassomeconnectionwiththepresent.Hence,ifanactionorstatehappenedinthepastandhasnoconnectionwiththepresent,itwillhavetobeexpressedbythesimplepast.Compare:Hisfatherhasbeenateacherallhislife.(Hisfatherisstillalive.)Hisfatherwasateacherallhislife.(Hisfatherisnowdead.)2.Connectives(because,as,since,seeingthat,for,becauseof)Becauseisgenerallyusedwhenthereasonisthemostimportantpartofthesentence.Asandsinceareusedwhenthereasonisalreadywellknown,orislessimportantthantherestofthesentence.Sinceisalittlemoreformalthanas.Asandsinceclausesoftenbeginthesentence.Clausesofcause-resultareintroducedbybecauseoras.Seeingthatmeansthesameassince.Itisusedonlyininformalspeech.Forsuggeststhatthereasonisgivenasanafterthought.Forclausesnevercomeatthebeginningofthesentence.Thephrasebecauseofisaprepositionalphrase,andshouldbefollowedbyanounoranounphrase.PersonalpronounsPersonalpronounsrefertothepersonwhoisdoingtheactionortowhomtheactionaffects.Inthatwaywedistinguishtwotypesofpersonalpronouns:Personal“SubjectPronouns”andPersonal“ObjectPronouns”.PersonalPronounsassubject(nominative)IYouhesheitweyoutheyWehavesomebooks. asobject(accusativeanddative)meyouhimheritusyouthemThebooksareforus.Apersonalpronounreferstoaspecificpersonorthingandchangesitsformtoindicateperson,number,gender,andcase.2.Impersonalitvs.thereInmanyEnglishsentences,youwillfindtheword“it”ortheword“there”inthesubjectposition.Theseareusually“impersonal”sentences—sentenceswherethereisnonaturalsubject.Impersonal“it”WhentouseitExamplesTalkingaboutweatherIt’sraining/cold/sunny.Identifyingsomething“Whoisit?”“It’sme.”“Whatisit?”“It’sacat.”Talkingabouttime“Whattimeisit?”“It’sfiveo’clock.”“Whatdayisit?”“It’sThursday.”Talkingaboutdistance“HowfarisittoToronto?”“It’s4000kilometers.”Impersonal“there”Impersonal“there”isusedtosaythatsomethingexistsinaparticularplace:e.g.Thereisabookonthetable.(singular)Therearethreemeninthecar.(plural)3.Non-finiteclausesandverblessclausesAnon-finiteclauseisaclausewithanon-finiteverbphraseaspredicator.Averblessclauseisaclausewithoutanyformofverbelement.Non-finiteclausesincludeinfinitiveclauses,-ingparticipleclauses,and-edparticipleclauses.Bothnon-finiteclausesandverblessclausescanbeusedwithanadverbialmeaning,givinginformationabouttime,cause,condition,purpose,result,concessionaswellasaccompanyingcircumstances.e.g.Whensleeping,Ineverhearathing.Oncepublished,thebookcausedaremarkablestir.Heopenedhislipsasiftosaysomething.Whateverthereason,hiscordialityhaswonhimafriend.WheninRome,doastheRomansdo.NonfiniteclausesandverblessclausesNonfiniteclauses: 1)-edparticipleclausescanbeintroducedbysubordinatorssuchaswhile,unless,though,whenever,if,whether,once,whether…or.Whileflattered,Imustdeclinetoaccept.2)infinitiveclausescanbeintroducedbyasif,asthough,whether,soasetc.IwaswonderingwhethertogoupstairsortofollowMr.Maximtothelibrary.3)-ingparticipleclausescanbeintroducedbysubordinatorssuchasbefore,after,although,asif,asthough,evenif,once,though,unless,until.Verblessclauses:thesamewith1)Wheneverpossible,thechildrenplayoutsideinthefreshair.ThesimplepastandthepastperfectWeusethepastperfectforanactionwhichwascompletedbeforeaspecialpointoftimeinthepast.Weoftenusethepastperfecttogetherwiththesimplepast.Theactionwhichwascompletedbeforetheotheractionbeganisputintopastperfect.Insimplewords,whilethesimplepastreferstoapastevent,apasthabitorapaststate,thepastperfectreferstopastinthepast.PastPerfectTimelinee.g.Ihadalreadydonetheshoppingbythetimeshecamehome.Iwaslateforwork;bythetimeIarrivedtheclienthadalreadyleft.2.have…do/doing/done“Have…do…”means“tocause…todosomething”,andusuallyit’sorder-like.“Have…done”meansthesubjectcausessomethingtobedoneordealtwithbysomebodyelse.“Have…doing”meansto”keep…doingsomething”or“toallow…todosomething”.e.g.Don’tforgettohavehimcome.Iwon’thaveyoutalkinglikethat.Iintendtohavemydaughtereducatedoverseas.3.Adjectivesendingin–ableor-ibleWecanaddsuffix-able(also-ible)toanounoraverbtoformanewadjective.Thesuffix -able/-iblemeanstobeabletobedoneortohaveaparticularqualityorcondition.e.g.washable:itcanbewashedunbreakable:itcannotbebrokenloveable:easilytobelovedknowledgeable:knowingalotcomfortable:ofgreatcomfortUseofdeterminers1)DeterminerswithallthreeclassesofnounsDeterminerssuchaspossessivedeterminers,genitivenounsandthedefinitearticleaswellassome,any,no,theother,andwhosecangowithallthethreeclassesofnouns.e.g.thecarthecarsthemoneyhiscarhiscarshismoneysomebooksomebookssomemoney2)DeterminerswithsingularcountnounsonlyDeterminerssuchasa(n),one,another,each,every,either,neither,manya,suchacanonlycollocatewithsingularcountnouns.e.g.eachworkereverystudenteitherbookneitherboy3)DeterminerswithpluralcountnounsonlyDeterminerssuchasboth,two,three,etc.,anothertwo/three,many,(a)few,several,these,those,a(great)numberofcanonlycollocatewithpluralcountnouns.e.g.bothworkers(a)fewwordsseveralgirlsthese/thosetourists4)DeterminerswithnoncountnounsonlyDeterminerssuchasa(little)bitof,agreatamountof,agreatdealof,(a)little,much,less,leastcanonlycollocatewithnoncountnouns.e.g.muchnoise(a)littlecourageabitoffunalargeamountofmoneylessoil5)DeterminerswithsingularandpluralcountnounsonlyDeterminerssuchasthefirst,thesecond,thelast,thenextcangowitheithersingularorpluralcountnouns.e.g.thefirstrose/rosesthelastman/menthenextmeeting/meetings6)DeterminerswithsingularandnoncountnounsonlyDeterminerssuchasthis,thatcancollocatewitheithersingularornoncountnouns.e.g.this/thatjobthis/thatwork7)Determinerswithpluralandnoncountnounsonly Determinerssuchasalotof,lotsof,plentyof,enough,most,such,othercangowithpluralandnoncountnouns,butnotwithsingularnouns.e.g.enoughcopiesenoughbreadmoreessaysmoretimemostpeopleThisclassofdeterminersmayalsoincludelessandleast,normallyoccurwithnoncountnouns,butinpresent-dayEnglish,especiallyininformalstyle,mayoccasionallyoccurwithpluralnouns.e.g.Lessandlesspeoplecanaffordtogoabroadfortheirholidays.PoliticalprogramsonTVattracttheleastviewers.(Thisuseoflessandleastisregardedbysomeasnon-standard.)Correcttheerrors,wherefound,inthefollowingsentences.1.He’sinvitedtoalotofpartiesandhegoestoeveryone.2.Iwouldliketovisiteachcountryintheworld.3.WhenIwasonholiday,mywholeluggagewasstolen.4.WhyistherefewertrafficonthestreetsinFebruarythaninMay?5.HehaspublishedagreatamountofshortstoriesinEnglish.6.Thereisastairwayatbothendofthecorridor.Key:1.everyone→everyone2.each→every3.mywholeluggage→allmyluggage4.fewer→less5.agreatamountof→anumberof6.both→eitherUseofpronounspersonalpronouns人称代词suchasI,you,he,she,it,we,they,me,him,her,them,possessivepronouns物主代词suchasmy,mine,your,his,her,hers,its,our,ours,your,yours,their,theirs,reflexivepronouns反身代词suchasmyself,ourselves,yourself,yourselves,himself,herself,itself,themselves,reciprocalpronouns相互代词suchasoneanother,eachother,demonstrativepronounssuchasthis,that,these,those,interrogativepronouns疑问代词suchaswho,whom,whose,what,which,relativepronouns关系代词suchaswho,whom,whose,that,whichandindefinitivepronouns不定代词suchassomebody,anybody,everybody,nobody,someone,anyone,everyone,noone,something,anything,everything,nothing,all,another,any,both,each,few,neither,none,some,etc. e.g.There’ssomebodyatthedoor.Didanybodyeverhearofsuchathing?Useofgenitivecaseofnouns名词所有格Caseisagrammaticalterm.Itdenotesthechangesintheformofanounorapronounshowingitsrelationshipbothgrammaticallyandsemanticallywithotherwordsinasentence.Thegenitivecaseofnounsisformedbyadding’stonouns.e.g.mymother’sarrival,women’sclothes,mymother-in-law’sdeath,anhour’sworkCertainsemanticrelationsbetweennounphrasesmaybeexpressedbyagenitiveinpremodificationorbyaprepositionalphrase(usuallyanof-phrase)inpostmodification.e.g.thetrunkofanelephant,theforeignpolicyofChina,thearrivaloftheprimeminister2011年第65题Whichofthefollowingitalicizedphrasesindicatesasubject-predicatedrelation(主谓关系)?A.Mr.Smith’spassporthasbeenissued.B.John’straveldetailshavenotbeenfinalized.C.Thevisitor’sarrivalwasreportedinthenews.D.Thenewbookstoresellschildren’sstories.答案：C本题考查名词s-属格的意义。A和B中’s表示所有关系，即相当于Mr.Smithhasapassport和Johnhastraveldetails；C表示主谓关系，相当于Thevisitorarrived；D表示事物的类别，相当于storiesforchildren。UseofirregularpluralsTheregularpluralisformedbyadding-sor-estothebaseofthenoun,whiletheirregularpluralisnotformedinthesamewaybutbyothermeanssuchasbythechangeofinternalvowelorbythechangeintheendingofthenoun.e.g.foot—feetman—menstratum—stratahypothesis—hypothesesPracticePutthefollowingnounsintoplural.1.grouse2.formula3.womandoctor4.mouse5.ox6.fire-engine Key:1.grouse2.formulae,formulas3.womendoctors4.mice5.oxen6.fire-enginesUseofsubject-verbagreementBysubject-verbconcordismeantagreementbetweensubjectandpredicateverbwithregardtonumber.Therearethreeprinciplesguidingsubject-verbconcord;theyareprinciplesofgrammaticalconcord,notionalconcordandproximity.1)Theprincipleofgrammaticalconcordreferstotherulethattheverbmustmatchitssubjectinnumber.Ifthesubjectisplural,theverbshouldtakethepluralfrom;if,ontheotherhand,thesubjectissingularorisamassnoun,theverbshouldtakethesingularform.e.g.Twogirlswerestandingonthecorner.Heisagoodstudent.2)Theprincipleofnotionalconcordreferstotherulethattheverbcansometimesagreewiththesubjectaccordingtothenotionofnumberratherthantotheactualpresenceofthegrammaticalmarkerforthatnotion.e.g.Thegovernmenthaveaskedthecountrytodecidebyavote.3)Theprincipleofproximitydenotesagreementoftheverbwithacloselyprecedingnounphraseinpreferencetoagreementwiththeheadofthenounphrasethatfunctionsassubject.e.g.Eithermybrothersormyfatheriscoming.PracticeUsetheproperformoftheverbsgiventocompletethesentences.1.Asmostsportsmagazinescanattest,playingsportssuchastennisandbasketball______(require)notonlymentalabilitybutalsophysicalstrength.2.Despitethebadweatherwehavehadinthepastdays,there_______(be)nodoubtthatthetournamentwillgoon.3.Meatpieandpeas_______(be)Tom’sfavouriteatthemoment.4.Thatsheshouldopposetheseideas_______(be)quitenatural.5.Fifty-sixdollars________(be)stolenfromthecashregister.6.Nooneexcepthisownsupporters________(agree)withhim.Key:1.requires2.is3.is 4.is5.was6.agreeUseofcomparativesandsuperlativesAdjectiveshavetwoforms.Oneisthepositivedegreeandtheotheristhecomparativedegreeandthesuperlativedegree.Thecomparativedegreeorthesuperlativedegreeisformedbyadding-eror-esttotheadjectivewithonesyllableorafewadjectiveswithtwosyllables,suchastaller,biggerortallest,biggest.Thecomparativedegreeorthesuperlativedegreeisformedbyaddingmoreorthemostbeforetheadjectiveswithtwoormorethantwosyllables,suchasmorecareful,themostcareful,moreactive,themostactive.Fortheirregularadjectives,theformsoftheircomparativedegreeorsuperlativedegreearedifferent.e.g.good—better—bestbad—worse—worstfar—farther—farthestlittle—less—leastmuch,many—more—mostUseofthepastperfectandthepastperfectprogressiveThepastperfectrefersto“pastinthepast”.Italsohastwochiefuses:“finished”useand“unfinished”use,onlywithtimereferenceback-shiftedtoaspecifiedpastmoment.e.g.Ihadwrittenthearticlewhentheycame.In1960,I’dknownhimfortenyears;Imethimforthefirsttimein1950.Thepastperfectprogressivesuggestscontinuousness,temporarinessandincompletenessoftheactions.Thechiefuseofthepastperfectprogressivehasalsosomethingincommonwiththe“unfinished”useofthepastperfect,and,therefore,inmanycases,thesetwoformscanbeusedinterchangeably,thoughincolloquialspeech,thepastperfectprogressiveismorefrequentlyusedthanthepastperfect.e.g.I’dbeenworkingforsometimewhenhecalled.=I’dworkedforsometimewhenhecalled.Subordinationandcoordination从属关系和并列关系Generallyspeaking,coordinationestablishesarelationshipbetweenideasofapproximatelyequalimportance.Acoordinationconstructionisformedwithcoordinatingdevicesincludingcoordinators(usuallyand,orandbut)andsomepunctuationmarks.e.g.Therainstopped,andthesuncameout.Therearefivetypesofdischargefrommilitaryservice:honorable,general,undesirable,badconduct,anddishonorable.Golfdemandsthebestoftimeandspace;tennis,thebestofpersonalenergy.Subordinationestablishesakindofrelationshipwhichindicatesthatoneideaismore importantthantheother.Asubordinateconstructionmightbeafiniteclause,anon-finiteclause,averblessclause,oraphrase.e.g.Expectingtrouble,theguardswerefullyarmed.Whentherainstopped,thesuncameout.Beforeshecouldanswerthetelephone,itstoppedringing.whichsentenceineachofthepairsispreferable？1.a.Childrenusethetelephonesooften,andtheirparentsbecomeangry,andtheyhaveitdisconnected.b.Becausechildrenusethetelephonesooften,theyangertheirparents,whohaveitdisconnected.2.a.Charliehadasmallpieceofcakeafterdinner,althoughitwasnotonhisdiet.b.Althoughcakewasnotonhisdiet,Charliehadasmallpieceafterdinner.3.a.WendytravelledtoHawaii,whenshestayedatahotelnearDiamondHead.b.WendystayedatahotelnearDiamondHeadwhenshetravelledtoHawaii.4.a.BothJanewantedtogotothesouth,andherhusbandwantedtogothere,too.b.BothJaneandherhusbandwantedtogotothesouth.5.a.Itisquiteclearthatthecrimewasdonedeliberately.b.Itisquiteclearthecrimewasdonedeliberately.6.a.Heatetoolittleandworkedtoohardforweeksonend,andhebecameill.b.Asheatetoolittleandworkedtoohardforweeksonend,hebecameill.Key1.b2.b3.a4.b5.a6.bThesubjunctivemoodThesubjunctivemoodisusedtoindicateanon-factandhypothesis.Therearetwoformsofthesubjunctive:be-subjunctiveandwere-subjunctive.Inthethat-clauseafterverbs,adjectivesornounsexpressing“command”,“suggestion”,or“resolution”,be-subjunctiveisusedinAmericanEnglishand“should+infinitive”isusedinBritishEnglish.Weresubjunctive,ofteninclausesintroducedbyif,supposing,wish,asif,isaverbformindicatinghypotheticalmeaning.e.g.Sheinsistedthatshegotothesouthforherholiday.Ifitweretorain,thegamewouldbeputoff.Completethefollowingsentencesusingthesubjunctiveforms. 1.Supposehe___________(ask)forthemoneybackatonce.2.Hespeaksasifhe___________(be)thebosshere.3.Heismybestfriend—mysecondself,asit__________(be).4.I’dratherI_________(be)notatthesiteoftheaccident.5.Thoughthewholeworld__________(be)againstme,IwoulddowhatIconsiderasright.6.Congresshasdecidedthatthepresentlaw_________(maintain).Key:1.weretoask2.were3.were4.were5.were6.bemaintainedReplacingandomittingwords1)Replacingwords:Replacing(substitution)isagrammaticaldeviceforavoidingrepetitionandachievingtextualcohesion.Therearethreekindsofsubstitution:nominalsubstitution,verbalsubstitution,andclausalsubstitution,andthereforethreekindsofsubstitutes:nominalsubstitutessuchasone(s),thesame,thekind,thesort,,andsomeindefinitepronounslikeall,both,some,any,enough,several,none,many,much,(a)few,theother,others,another,either,neither,etc.,verbalsubstitutessuchasdoordoso,andclausalsubstitutessuchasso,not.e.g.Hedoesn’tlikethisbook.Showhimamoreinterestingone.(one=book)Canyougetmesomenails?Ineedsome.(some=somenails)A:Weallhatehypocrisy.B:Yes,everybodydoes.(does=hateshypocrisy)Hesaidhewouldtellmethenews,buthedidn’tdoso.(doso=tellmethenews)A:Doyouthinkhe’llcometomorrow?B:Yes,Ithinkso.(so=thathe’llcometomorrow)No,Ithinknot.(not=thathe’llnotcometomorrow)2)Omittingwords:Likesubstitution,ellipsisisalsoagrammaticaldeviceforavoidingrepetitionandachievingtextualcohesion.e.g.A:Whichdoyouprefer,theredorthegreenscarf?B:I’dlikethered.(Here,theword“scarf”isomitted.)I’dliketheredone.(Here,“one”isusedtoreplace“scarf”toavoidrepetition.)《综合教程》（修订版）第三册 1．Conjunctions（连词）Aconjunctionisawordwhichlinkstwoclauses,groups,orwords.Therearetwokindsofconjunction:coordinatingconjunctions（并列连词）andsubordinatingconjunctions（从属连词）.Thecoordinatingconjunctionsare:and,but,nor,or,then,yet.Someofthemostfrequentsubordinatingconjunctionsare:although,despite,though,when,as,if,unless,whenever,because,inspiteof,whereas,while.Forexample:Hersonlivesathomeandhasasteadyjob.(coordinatingconjunction)Visityourlocaldealerorphoneforabrochure.(coordinatingconjunction)Hehadcanceralthoughitwasdetectedatanearlystage.(subordinatingconjunction)Ifhehadhadagun,hewouldhavekilledtheman.(subordinatingconjunction)I.Coordination（并列（关系））Awayofjoiningclauses,orclauseelementswithcoordinators（并列连词）suchasand,or,for,soandbute.g.Janeisagoodteacher,andherstudentsreallylikeher.Correlatives(关联词):either…or…,both…and…,neither…nor…，notonly/notmerely…but(also)…,…aswellas…e.g.EitherSylviaorhersisterwillstaywithus.WhichofthefollowingsentencesisCORRECT?BA.Keepingtothehighroads,cyclingasfastashecould,aswellasnottostopforrestallowedhimtomakethetripinrecordtime.B.Continuespendinglikethisandyou’llbebankruptinayear.C.Eitheryoumuststayhomeorgowithus.D.Thesentenceisdifficulttounderstandnotbecauseofthetechnicalvocabularybutbecausethesyntaxisfaulty.II.Subordination(从属(关系))：(1)NominalClauses（名词从句） Therearefivemaintypesofnominalclauses:that-clauses,interrogativesub-clauses,nominalrelativeclauses,nominalto-infinitiveclausesandnominal-ingclauses.Nominalclausesfunctionlikenounphrases.Theycanoccurassubject（主语）,object（宾语）,complement（补语）,apposition（同位语）,andprepositionalcomplement.Forexample:l Thehopeis[thatwewillsucceed].(complement)l Thehope[thatwewillsucceed]isunrealistic.(apposition)l [Whatyoudo]doesnotconcernme.(subject)l Ididn’task[whereyoulive].(object)l  Ihadpreparedmyselfverycarefullyfor[whatImustsay].(prepositionalcomplement)l [Tosendhimmoneynow]wouldbe[toputthecartbeforethehorse].(subjectcomplement)Exercises:Thequestionwhetherhewillcomeornotisnotsettled.(什么从句?)Whetherhewillcomeornotisaquestion.(什么从句?)-Whichoftheitalicizedpartsfunctionsasasubject?DA．Doyouknowifheeverwentthereatall?objectB．Youmustgiveitbacktowhoeveritbelongsto.objectC．Theproposalthatweshouldimportmoreequipmentistobediscussedatthemeeting.appositionD．ItoccurredtomethatIwouldtravelEurope.subject(“it”-apreparatorysubject/formalsubject)(2)If-clauses（If(引导的条件状语)从句）Note:If-clausesinfrontpositionaremoreemphatic(加强语气或强调作用).If-clausesinfrontpositiongetacomma.Forexample1.Takeadeepbreathandyouwillfeelrelaxed.=Ifyoutakeadeepbreath,youwillfeelrelaxed.2.HadIworkedharder,Iwouldhavepassedtheexam.=IfIhadworkedharder,Iwouldhavepassedtheexam.3.Drivemorecarefully,oryou’llcauseanaccident.=Ifyoudon’tdrivemorecarefully,you’llcauseanaccident.4.Shouldtheflightbedelayed,passengerswillbeinformedimmediately. =Iftheflightshouldbedelayed,passengerswillbeinformedimmediately.5.HadIknowntheaddress,Iwouldhavecalledintotheoffice.=IfIhadknowntheaddress,Iwouldhavecalledintotheoffice.比如：WhichofthefollowingsentencesisINCORRECT/CORRECT?(3)AdverbialClausesofCause（原因状语从句）Thistypeofclauseexplainsthereasonsforwhathappensinthemainclauses.Conjunctions,likebecause,as,since,now(that),inthat,areoftenusedintheadverbialclausesofcause.★Becauseisusedwhenthereasonisthemostimportantpartofthesentence.Therefore,thebecause-clauseusuallycomesattheend.★Asandsinceareusedwhenthereasonisalreadywell-known,orislessimportantthantherestofthesentence.Theycanalsomean“inviewofthefactthat”.As-andSince-clausesoftenbeginthesentence.★Nowthathasameaningveryclosetoasandsince.注意：for是并列连语，因此接表示间接原因的并列分句，而不是引导表原因的状语从句。for所说的理由是一种补充，句子一般放在句尾。WhichofthefollowingsentencesisINCORRECT?CA.Sincewedonothavetoworktoday,weshouldgotoLagunaBeach.B.Nowthatthesunhasset,thetemperatureshouldbegindropping.C.Becausehewastired,hescoredpoorlyontheexam,thisisafactwhichwillcausehimtonotbeadmittedintotheuniversity.D.Learninghowtowriteisimportantsincemostprofessionaljobsrequirewritingskills.sothat(“为了……”，“以便……”;“因此/所以……”)introducesanadverbialclauseofpurpose（目的状语从句）,whichusuallycontainsamodalverb.Forexample:Theteachermustspeakclearlysothathisstudentscanunderstandwell.Shelockedthedoorsothatshewouldn’tbedisturbed. Johnhasboughtabicyclesothathemaysavemoneyonfares.Heworeglassesandafalsebeardsothatnobodywouldrecognizehim.Pleasearriveearlysothatwecanstartthemeetingontime.引导目的状语从句的其它连词还有inorderthat,that,lest,forfear(that)等。AdverbialClausesofConcession（让步状语从句）Adverbialclausesofconcessionexpressacontrastofmeaningorimplicationof‘unexpectedness’inrelationwiththemainclauses.Theyareoftenintroducedbyconcessiveconjunctionssuchasalthough,thoughorprepositionssuchasdespite.Forexample:lAlthoughthecarwasbadlydamaged,noneofthepassengerswashurt.lWeenjoyedourholidaydespitethefactthatitrainedsometimes.lHoweverdifficultthesituationis,weshallsticktoit.Hepassedtheexamalthoughhehadbeenpreventedbyillnessfromstudying.Nomatterwhetherhewashereornot,Ishouldn’thavetimetoseehim.Richasheis/Althoughheisrich,Mr.Johnsonisbynomeansahappyman.Despite/Althoughheisill,heworkshard.Thougheverythingaroundhimwasblowntopieces,theministerescapedwithoutascratch.Whichofthefollowingcontainsanadverbialclauseofconcession?CA．DoinRomeastheRomansdo.(manner)B.YoumaycallthisnumberincaseIamnotathome.(condition)C.Hardasheworked,hefailed.(concession)D.Seeingthatit’sraining,youhadbetterstayindoors.(cause)比较状语从句the“as…as”structure Ifyouwanttosaythatathingorpersonhasmuchofaqualityassomethingorsomeoneelse,youcanuseastructurebasedontheword“as”infrontofanadjective/adverb.Usuallythisadjective/adverbisthenfollowedbyaphraseorclausewhichalsobeginswith“as”.Forexample:lYou’rejustasbadasyoursister.lConversationwasnearlyasslowasIfeareditwouldbe.Thevillagegardensareasgoodastheyweretenyearsago.notas/so…asThenegativeformof“as…as”is“notas…as”or“notso…as”.Butsomaynotbeused(1)afterthecontractedformsuchasisn’t,don’t,(2)whenthereareotherlexicalitemsinbetweenthenegativewordandas…asconstruction.However,whenadverbswithnegativemeanings,suchasnotnearly,notquite,areuseddirectlybeforethecomparativeconstruction,soisusuallyacceptable.Forexample:Johnisn’tastallashisfather.Johnisnotas/sotallashisfather.MichaeldoesnotswimaswellasPaul.Michaeldoesnotswimnearlyas/sowellasPaul.WhichofthefollowingsentencesisINCORRECT?BA.Thisisnearlyascomplicatedasitsounds.B.Therequirementsforachemistrydegreearenotasstrictasamedicaldegree.(thoseformedicaldegree)C.Withoutthisrearingourchildrenwouldbetentimesashardasitis.D.I’mnotsogoodacookassheis.VerblessClauses（无动词分句）Averblessclausemeansclause-likeconstructioninwhichaverbelementisimpliedbutnotpresent.Suchclausesareusuallyadverbial,andtheomittedverbisaformofbe. e.g.Johnbelievestheprisonerinnocent.Inthissentencetheitalicizedsequenceisaverblessclause,whichweassumeisareducedversionoftheto-infinitiveclause:Johnbelievestheprisonertobeinnocent.Thefollowingsentencescontainfurtherexamplesofverblessclauses(italicized):lHeconsideredthegirlagoodstudent.lWheneverintrouble,Billranghisgirl-friend.lHemarriedherwhenastudentatHarvard.更多例句：1.Whenindoubt,tellthetruth.Itwillconfoundyourenemiesandastoundyourfriends.（=Whenyouareindoubt）2.Whenheated,metalexpands.（=Whenitisheated）3.Iftrue,itwillcauseusalotoftrouble.（=Ifitistrue）4.Wheneverpossible,theyshouldbetyped.（=Wheneveritispossible）关于Appositive（同位语）的考查：Anappositiveisawordorgroupofwordsthatidentifiesorrenamesanotherwordinasentence.Itoffersconcisewaysofdescribingordefiningaperson,place,orthing.Anappositivemostoftenappearsdirectlyafterthenounitidentifiesorrenames.Forexample:thebaldeagle,thesymbolofAmericaSteveRace,themusicianandbroadcastermyhusbandGeorgeAllthefollowingsentenceshaveanappositiveEXCEPT.CA.Whentravellingbyair,weallshallrememberOrvilleWright,thefirstmantofly.B.YesterdayImetTom,afriendofmybrothers".C.Youmusttakecareofyourself．D.WeChinesepeoplearebraveandhardworking.2.Tense(时态)Tenseisagrammaticalcategorythatlocatesasituationintime,thatindicateswhenthesituationtakesplace. TenseAffirmative（肯定句）/Negative（否定句）/Question（疑问句）UseSimplePresent一般现在时A: Hespeaks.N: Hedoesnotspeak.Q: Doeshespeak?-Actioninthepresenttakingplaceonce,neverorseveraltimes-Actionstakingplaceoneafteranother-ActionsetbyatimetableorschedulePresentProgressive现在进行时A:Heisspeaking.N: Heisnotspeaking.Q: Ishespeaking?-Actiontakingplaceinthemomentofspeaking-Actiontakingplaceonlyforalimitedperiodoftime-ActionarrangedforthefutureSimplePast一般过去时A:Hespoke.N:Hedidnotspeak.Q:Didhespeak?Actioninthepasttakingplaceonce,neverorseveraltimesActionstakingplaceoneafteranotherActiontakingplaceinthemiddleofanotheractionPastProgressive过去进行时A:Hewasspeaking.N:Hewasnotspeaking.Q:Washespeaking?ActiongoingonatacertaintimeinthepastActionstakingplaceatthesametimeActioninthepastthatisinterruptedbyanotheractionPresentPerfectSimple现在完成时A:Hehasspoken.N:Hehasnotspoken.Q:Hashespoken?PuttingemphasisontheresultActionthatisstillgoingonActionthatstoppedrecentlyFinishedactionthathasaninfluenceonthepresentActionthathastakenplaceonce,neverorseveraltimesbeforethemomentofspeaking PresentPerfectProgressive现在完成进行时A:Hehasbeenspeaking.N:Hehasnotbeenspeaking.Q:Hashebeenspeaking?Puttingemphasisonthecourseorduration(nottheresult)ActionthatrecentlystoppedorisstillgoingonFinishedactionthatinfluencedthepresentPastPerfectSimple过去完成时A:Hehadspoken.N:Hehadnotspoken.Q:Hadhespoken?ActiontakingplacebeforeacertaintimeinthepastSometimesinterchangeablewithpastperfectprogressivePuttingemphasisonlyonthefact(nottheduration)PastPerfectProgressive过去完成进行时A:Hehadbeenspeaking.N:Hehadnotbeenspeaking.Q:Hadhebeenspeaking?ActiontakingplacebeforeacertaintimeinthepastSometimesinterchangeablewithpastperfectsimplePuttingemphasisonthedurationorcourseofanactionFutureSimple一般将来时A:Hewillspeak.N:Hewillnotspeak.Q:Willhespeak?ActioninthefuturethatcannotbeinfluencedSpontaneousdecisionAssumptionwithregardtothefutureFutureSimple(goingto)一般将要时A:Heisgoingtospeak.N:Heisnotgoingtospeak.Q:Ishegoingtospeak?DecisionmadeforthefutureConclusionwithregardtothefutureFutureProgressive将来进行时A:Hewillbespeaking.N:Hewillnotbespeaking.Q:Willhebespeaking?ActionthatisgoingonatacertaintimeinthefutureActionthatissuretohappeninthenearfutureFuturePerfectSimple将来完成时A:Hewillhavespoken.N:Hewillnothavespoken.Q:Willhehavespoken?Actionthatwillbefinishedatacertaintimeinthefuture FuturePerfectProgressive将来完成进行时A:Hewillhavebeenspeaking.N:Hewillnothavebeenspeaking.Q:Willhehavebeenspeaking?ActiontakingplacebeforeacertaintimeinthefuturePuttingemphasisonthecourseofanactionPresentperfect(现在完成时)Thepresentperfectsimpletenseanactionthatisstillgoingonorthathasstoppedrecently,butstillhasaninfluenceonthepresent.UseofpresentperfectlputtingemphasisontheresultExample:Shehaswrittenfiveletters.ltheactionthatisstillgoingonExample:Schoolhasnotstartedyet.ltheactionthathasstoppedrecentlyExample:Shehascookeddinner.lthefinishedactionthathasaninfluenceonthepresentExample:Ihavelostmykey.ltheactionthathastakenplaceonce,neverorseveraltimesbeforethemomentofspeakingExample:IhaveneverbeentoAustralia.PresentPerfectProgressive（现在完成进行时）Thepresentperfectprogressiveexpressesanactionthathasrecentlystoppedorisstillgoingon.Itputsemphasisonthedurationorcourseoftheaction.Useofpresentperfectprogressivelputtingemphasisonthedurationorcourseofanaction(nottheresult)Example:Shehasbeenwritingfortwohours.ltheactionthathasrecentlystoppedorisstillgoingonExample:Ihavebeenlivingheresince2001.lthefinishedactionthathasaninfluenceonthepresentExample:Ihavebeenworkingallafternoon.Thepresentperfectprogressivefocusesonthecourseoftheactivityoreventwhichmayormaynotbefinished.Thepresentperfectfocusesontheresultoftheactivityorevent,orjustthefactthatsomethinghasbeenachieved. PastPerfect（过去完成时）vs.PastPerfectProgressive（过去完成进行时）PastperfectWeusethepastperfecttotalkaboutapasteventorsituationthatoccurredbeforeaparticulartimeinthepast.Example:Beforehersixthbirthday,Janehadneverbeentothezoo.PastperfectprogressiveWeusethepastperfectprogressivewhenwetalkaboutasituationoractivitythathappenedoveraperioduptoaparticularpasttime,oruntilshortlybeforeit.UseltheactiontakingplacebeforeacertaintimeinthepastlsometimesinterchangeablewithpastperfectsimplelputtingemphasisonthecourseordurationofanactionTenseinConditionalSentences条件状语从句中的时态Fullconditionalsentencescontaintwoclauses:theconditionandtheconsequence.Theconditionisthesubordinateclause,andtheconsequenceisthemainclause.However,thepropertiesoftheentiresentenceareprimarilydeterminedbythepropertiesofthecondition(itstenseanddegreeoffactualness).e.g.Ifitrains[condition],(then)thepicnicwillbecancelled[consequence].Englishconditionalsentencescanbedividedintothetwobroadclassesofreal/factual/predictiveandunreal/hypothetical/counterfactual),dependingontheformoftheverbinthecondition.Thetenseinthecondition(mostlyif-clause):Real真实条件句Unreal非真实条件句Present/futureSimplepresentIfhesaysSimplepast/pastprogressiveIfhesaidpastSimplepastIfhesaidPastperfectIfhehadsaidThetenseintheconsequence/mainclause real真实条件句unreal真实条件句Present/futureSimplefuture/presentHewillgo…,hegoes…Modal+Infinitivewould,might,should,couldpastSimplepastHewent…Modal+PerfectInfinitivewouldhave,mighthave,shouldhave,couldhavee.g.Ifheislateagain,Iwillfirehim.(thesituationisreal)Iftheweatherwasnice,sheoftenwalkedtowork.(thesituationisrealbecauseithappened.)Ifitwasn’training,wewouldgoforawalk.(Butitisrainingnow.)Ifhehadbeenlateagain,Iwouldhavefiredhim.(Buthewasn’tlate.)Puttheverbsinbracketsintothecorrectforms.1.Becarefulaboutthetime.Ifyou___________(spend)toolongonthefirstquestionyou__________(nothave)enoughtimetodotheothersproperly.spend,willnothave2.IfI__________(be)you,I_________(go)tonightschool.were,wouldgo3.Ifhe________(say)thattome,I______(run)away.said,wouldrun4.Ifyou_____(call)me,I______(come).hadcalled,wouldhavecome3.ModalAuxiliaries（情态动词）Modalauxiliariesarespecialauxiliaryverbsthatexpressthedegreeofcertaintyoftheactioninthesentence,ortheattitudeoropinionofthewriterconcerningtheaction.Somecommonmodalauxiliariesaremust,can,will,andshould.Forexample1.Shouldministersdecidetoinstigateaninquiry,wewouldwelcomeit.(Shouldministersdecide=Ifministersshoulddecide)2.Whowouldeverbelievethatactresswasseventy?Shedoesn’tlookadayoverthirty.3.Nobillsshallbestuckonthesehoardings.Byorder.(Whenshallisusedwiththethirdperson,itsuggestsstrongdetermination.)4.A:I’mbrokeatthemoment,soIcan’taffordtocometothecinemawithyou.B:Well,youwouldspendallyourmoneyatthecasino.(Stressedwouldisusedtocriticize.Itmeans“Itistypicalofyou…”)WhichofthefollowingsentencesexpressesPROBABILITY?BA.IwilldoasIlike;nothingandnobodyisgoingtostopme.(intention.) B.Ifsomeoneyoulietofindsoutthetruth,willhethankyouforcaring?(probability)C.Maryisinhospitalagain.Well,shewouldnotlistentothedoctor.(willingness)D.Iwillcallyoulater.(intention)4.Adverbs（副词）Adverbsareusedtomodifyverbs,adjectivesorotheradverbs.Thereareseveraltypesofadverbs:Timeadverbsthatconnectthepasttothepresent,suchasrecently,lately,forweeks,areoftenusedwiththepresentperfect.Adverbsthatrefertothedefinitepastareusedwiththepasttense.lAdverbsofmanner（方式副词）Thistypeofadverbshowshowsomethingisdone,suchasaman“drivingcarefully”orasongbeing“passionatelysung.”lAdverbsofdegree（程度副词）Thistypeofadverbtellsthereader“howmuch”ofsomethingisdoneorexperience,asin“Weeatoutalot”or“Thebeerwasextremelycold.”lAdverbsoftime（时间副词）Thistypeofadverbprovidesinformationonthetimingandoccurrenceofanevent,suchaswhenyoupromiseto“sendthereportsinanhour”or“attendafunctionnextweek.”lAdverbsoffrequency（频度副词）Thistypeofadverbshowshowoftensomethinghappens,asin“Iusuallytakethebusaround7”or“Ioftenlosetrackoftime.”lAdverbsofcomment（评论副词）.Thistypeofadverbprovidesanopiniononasituation,suchaswhenremarkingthat,“Unfortunately,Christmasisn"thappeningthisyear.”5.Non-finiteverbs（非限定动词）/Non-predicateverbs(非谓语动词)Anon-finiteverbisaverbformthatisnotlimitedbyasubjectand,moregenerally,isnotfullyinflectedbycategoriesthataremarkedinflectionallyinlanguage,suchastense,aspect,mood,number,gender,andperson.Asaresult,anon-finiteverbcannotserveasapredicateandcanbeusedinanindependentclauseonlywhencombinedwithanauxiliaryverb(e.g.,“Hecanwrite”butnot“Hetowrite”).Rather,itcanbesaidtoheadanon-finiteclause.Englishhasthreekindsofnon-finiteverbs:participles（分词）,gerunds（动名词）andinfinitives（不定式）.Forexample:Annoyed,Lisaatedinnerbyherselfinthebedroom.(participle)Gazingatthepainting,sherecalledthehousewhereshewasborn.(participle)Leonimprovedhisskillsbystudying.(gerund)Idon"thavetimetowaste.(infinitive) Non-finiteVerbFormsasObjectorComplementAnon-finiteverbisaverbformthatisnotlimitedbyasubjectand,moregenerally,isnotfullyinflectedbycategoriesthataremarkedinflectionallyinlanguage,suchastense,aspect,mood,number,gender,andperson.Therearethreekindsofnon-finiteverb:participles,gerundsandinfinitives.Anon-finiteverbcanbeusedasanobject,forexample:Myeveningroutineinvolvesjoggingslowlyaroundtheblock.Anon-finiteverbcanalsobeusedasacomplement,forexample:Hehasalotofthingstodotoday.更多的例句：Theyobjecttobeingspokentolikethat.Ifeltthehouseshakewiththeexplosion.Hehasbeencaughtstealingbythepolice.Weregrettoinformyouthatyourapplicationhasnotbeensuccessful.注：有些词如remember,try,goon,regret,begin,stop,forget,like等后即可接动名词也可接不定式，但词义却不同。6.Inversion（倒装句）Whenweusenegativeadverbialsoronly+adverbialatthebeginningofasentence,thesubjectandverbareinverted.Theauxiliaryappearsbeforethesubject.Whenweputanadverbialphraseofdirectionorplaceatthebeginningofasentence,wesometimesputanintransitiveverbinfrontofthesubject.e.g.Shecouldrarelyhavebeenfacedwithsosevereachallenge.→Rarelycouldshehavebeenfacedwithsosevereachallenge.Moreexamples:1.Undernocircumstancescancustomers’moneyberefunded.=Customers’moneycannotberefundedunderanycircumstances.2.AfewmilesfurtheronliestheenchantingsuburbofBalham.=TheenchantingsuburbofBalhamliesafewmilesfurtheron.3.NowherehadSusanseenamorebeautifullydecoratedroom.=Susanhadnotseenamorebeautifullydecoratedroomanywhere.4.Onnoaccountshouldyoubeabsentfromyourseminars.=Youshouldnotbeabsentfromyourseminarsonanyaccount. Fronting（前置）&Postponement（后置）InEnglish,thefirstelementinadeclarativesentence（陈述句）isusuallythesubject,butifwewanttoemphasizeanotherelement,wecanputitfirstinstead.Wecanputtheobject,thecomplement,thepredicateverb（谓语动词）attheinitialposition.Frontingiscommoninparallelstructures（平行结构）.Forexample:Theyhavepromisedtofinishthework,and[finishit]theywill.(predicateverb)[Hisface]notmanyadmired,while[hischaracter]stillfewercouldpraise.(object)[Aprofessor]hewas,butinnameonly.(complement)Exercises:1.Youwillgrowl,andyoumustgo.(predicateverb)=Growlyouwill,andgoyoumust.2.Hemighthaveagreedunderpressure;hewouldneverwillingly.(adjunct)=Hemighthaveagreedunderpressure;willinglyhewouldnever.3.Wehavealreadydiscussedthisquestionatsomelength.(object)=Thisquestionwehavealreadydiscussedatsomelength.4.HisnameisWilson.(complement)=Wilson,hisnameis.5.MysisterFlorawassittingatherdeskindeepconcentration.(predicate)=SittingatherdeskindeepconcentrationwasmysisterFlora.6.Weplungedintothestiflingsmoke.(adjunct)=Intothestiflingsmokeweplunged.WecanpostponetheobjectinSVOO,SVOC,SVOAclausepatternsinordertofollowtheprincipleofendweight.(S=subject;V=verb;O=object;C=complement;A=adjunct附加语)Forexample:Theypronouncedguiltyeveryoneoftheaccused.(SVOC)Sendtheparceltomyfathernottomymother.(SVOO)Isawonmywayhomeyesterdayamanwithascaracrosshisfacetryingtoescapewithabaghehadsnatchedfromalady.(SVOA)Exercises: 1.Hehadcalledthemanonwhosejudgmenthenowhadtorelyanidiot.=Hehadcalledanidiotthemanonwhosejudgmenthenowhadtorely.2.Theproblemofwhatcontributionthepublicshouldpaythenarose.=Theproblemthenaroseofwhatcontributionthepublicshouldpay.3.Hegavethesergeantwhooccupiedthetrenchoppositetheparcel.=Hegavetheparceltothesergeantwhooccupiedthetrenchopposite.4.ThestoryofherphenomenalsuccessinAustraliaistold.=ThestoryistoldofherphenomenalsuccessinAustralia.5.SherapidlyspottedthebookthatIhadbeendesperatelysearchingforallmorningrightonmydesk.=SherapidlyspottedthebookrightonmydeskthatIhadbeendesperatelysearchingforallmorning.6.Iconfessedallmydefectstohim.=Iconfessedtohimallmydefects.7.it&therebe itYoucanuseitasthesubjectofalinkverbsuchas“be”.Usuallyitreferstosomethingthathasjustbeenmentioned.Youcanalsouseitasthesubjectofbetosaywhatthetime,distanceorweatheris.Youcanuseitwithalinkverbandanadjectivetodescribeanexperience.Aftertheadjective,youusean“-ing”formora“to”infinitive.Youcanuseitwithalinkverbandanadjectivetodescribetheexperienceofbeinginaparticularplace.Aftertheadjective,youuseanadjunctofplace.Youcanuseitwithanadjectiveornoungrouptocommentonawholesituation.Aftertheadjectiveornoungroup,youusea“that”clause.Youcansometimesusea“wh”clauseinsteadofa“that”clause.(“it”--preparatorysubject/formalsubject形式主语)Forexample:IlikeyourBritishaccent.Ithinkit’squiteattractive.(somethingjustmentioned)It’sseveno’clock.(time)Itwasterriblycold.(weather)It’snicehearingyourvoiceagain.(anexperience)It’simportanttoknowyourownlimitations.(anaction)Itwascozyinthecar.(aplace)ItisluckythatIamgoingabroad.(asituation)It’sfunnyhowpeoplechange.(asituation)Itwillbesurprisingifthetwocountriesdon’treachanagreement. there…Whenyouwanttosaythatsomethingexists,orwhenyouwanttomentionthepresenceofsomething,youcanuse“there”followedby“be”andanoungroup.Thenoungroupisusuallyfollowedbyanadjunct,awh-clause,oroneoftheadjectives“available”,“present”,or“free”.Forexample:lThere’salotoftrafficonthisroadtonight.lTherewillbenoonetohelpyou.8．DirectSpeech（直接引语）&IndirectSpeech（间接引语）Directspeechgivestheexactwordsinthereport,andinwritingandprintusesquotationmarks.Awiderangeofverbscanbeusedtoindicatethetypeofutteranceorthewayinwhichsomethingissaid,suchasanswer,ask,comment,cry,ejaculate,enquire/inquire,exclaim,groan,growl,moan,murmur,mutter,note,observe,reply,respond,retort,scream,screech,shout,shriek,smile,whine,yell.e.g.“Whatdoyoudoondayswhenitisn’tgoingwell?”Dr.Brockwasasked.“NotifIcanhelpit,”Ireplied.Inindirectspeech,verbsaregenerally“backshifted”intensetoalignthemwiththetimeofreporting,andotherchanges,suchasinpronounsandadverbialsoftimeandplace,aremadeforthesamereason.e.g.Astudentaskedifwefounditusefultocirculateinliteraryworld.PracticeChangethesentencesfromdirectspeechtoindirectspeechandviceversa(反过来，相反地).1.“Whatdoyoudoondayswhenitisn’tgoingwell?”Dr.Brockwasasked.àDr.Brockwasaskedwhathedidondayswhenitwasn’tgoingwell.2.Astudentaskedifwefounditusefultocirculateinliteraryworld.àAstudentasked:“Doyoufinditusefultocirculateinliteraryworld?”3.“Iknowtheanswer,”Janesaid.àJanesaidthatsheknewtheanswer.4.DoristoldRobertthathecouldthenwatchtelevision.àDoristoldRobert,“Youcannowwatchtelevision”.9．PrepositionsandAdverbs（介词和副词） Preposition:awordorgroupofwords,suchasin,from,to,outofandonbehalfof,usedbeforeanounorpronountoshowplace,position,timeormethodAdverb:awordthataddsmoreinformationaboutplace,time,circumstance,manner,cause,degree,etc.toaverb,anadjective,aphraseoranotheradverbRemember:Manywordsareusedasprepositions,buttheycanalsobeusedasadverbs.Aprepositionneverappearsalone.Itisalwaysfollowedbyanobjectwhichwillbeanounorpronoun.Ifthewordhasanounorpronounfollowingit,itisprobablyapreposition.Ifitdoesnothaveanounorpronounfollowingit,itisprobablyanadverb.Forexample:Thecatsleepsonthesofa.(prep.)Pleasesitdownandlisten.(adv.)Afternursingthewholefamilywhentheyhadflu,shewascompletelywornout.(?)Hepretendedtofallinwithmyplanbutsecretlyhewasworkingagainstit.(?)10．Ellipsis（省略）,Substitution（替代）&Reference（照应）InCohesioninEnglish,M.A.K.HallidayandRuqaiyaHasanidentifyfivegeneralcategoriesofcohesivedevicesthatcreatecoherenceintexts:reference,ellipsis,substitution,lexicalcohesion,andconjunction.ellipsis:grammaticalomissione.g.--Whereareyougoing?--Totown.substitution:oneitemissubstitutedbyanother(samestructuralfunction)e.g.Myaxeistooblunt.Imustgetasharperone.YouthinkJoanalreadyknows?Ithinkshedoes.Thescientificstudyofmemorybeganintheearly1870swhenaGermanphilosopher,HermannEbbinghaus,cameupwiththerevolutionaryideathatmemorycouldbestudiedexperimentally.Indoingso…11．Articles（冠词）Anarticle(abbreviatedart)isawordthatcombineswithanountoindicatethetypeofreferencebeingmadebythenoun.Weusethewhenweexpectthelistenerorreadertobeabletoidentifythethingorpersonwearetalkingabout.Weusea/anwhenwedon’t.Wealsousethewhenitisclearfromthesituationwhichpersonorthingwemean. Addthearticleswherenecessaryinthefollowingpassage.Acameraisthepieceofequipmentusedfortakingphotographs.Thecameraletsinlightfromanimageinfrontofitanddirectsthelightontophotographicfilm.Thelighthaseffectonchemicalswhichcoverthefilmandformsthepictureonit.12．ReflexivePronouns（反身代词）Areflexivepronounisaspecialkindofpronounthatisusuallyusedwhentheobjectofasentenceisthesameasthesubject.·I-myself·you(singular)-yourself/(plural)-yourselves·he-himself·she-herself·it-itself·we-ourselves·they-themselvese.g.Shekeptonmutteringtoherself.Fillintheblankswithaproperformof-self/-selvesifpossible.1.DoImake____clear?myself2.Youhaveonly___toblame.yourself3.Hegotoutoftheswimmingpoolanddried________.himself4.Hegotup,washed_______,shaved_______anddressed________./,/,/(Wedon’tuse–self/-selvesafterconcentrate,feel,relax,meet,wash,shave,dress.)5.Ifsomeoneattacksyou,youneedtobeabletodefend_______.yourself13．SubjunctiveMood（虚拟语气）Averbisinthesubjunctivemoodwhenitexpressesaconditionwhichisdoubtfulornotfactual.Itismostoftenfoundinaclausebeginningwiththewordif.Itisalsofoundinclausesfollowingaverbthatexpressesadoubt,awish,regret,request,demand,orproposal.Theseareverbstypicallyfollowedbyclausesthattakethesubjunctivemood:ask,demand,determine,insist,move,order,pray,prefer,recommend,regret,request,require,suggest, andwish.Puttheverbsinbracketsintothecorrectforms.1.Iwishhe_____kindertome.were2.ButIblametherealculpritevenmore.Ifhe_________(admit)hisguilt,Peter____________(notbe)expelled.hadadmitted,wouldn’thavebeen3.Wecameinlastjustbecausewegotlost.Ifwe__________(notget)lost,we___________(come)insomewhereinthemiddle.Wecertainly__________(notbe)last.hadn’tgot,wouldhavecome,wouldn’thavebeen4.Becarefulaboutthetime.Ifyou_________(spend)toolongonthefirstquestion,you__________(nothave)enoughtimetodotheothersproperly.spend,willnothave5.Hisrequirementisthateveryone___computerliterate.be14．Punctuation（标点）Thepurposeofpunctuationistomakeclearthemeaningofwhatwewrite.Thefullstopmarkstheendofastatement.Thecommaismainlyusedtogroupwordsthatbelongtogetherandtoseparatethosethatdonot.Itcanalsobeusedtosetoffnonessentialclausesandnonessentialparticipialphrases.Punctuatethefollowingsentences,usingcommasorfullstops.1.Thebutterflyisamarvelitbeginsasanuglycaterpillarandturnsintoaworkofart.àThebutterflyisamarvel.Itbeginsasanuglycaterpillarandturnsintoaworkofart.2.It’swarmenoughhereinLondonalittletoowarmifanything.àIt"swarmenoughhereinLondon.Alittletoowarm,ifanything.3.IwasfeelinghungrysoImademyselfasandwich.àIwasfeelinghungry,soImademyselfasandwich.4.BothJohnandIhadmanyerrandstodoyesterdayJohnhadtogotothepostofficeandbookstoreIhadtogotothedrugstorethetravelagencyandthebank.àBothJohnandIhadmanyerrandstodoyesterday.Johnhadtogotothepostofficeandbookstore.Ihadtogotothedrugstorethetravel,agencyandthebank.5.Thechildhidbehindhismother’sskirtforhewasafraidofthedog.àThechildhidbehindhismother’sskirt,forhewasafraidofthedog. 例题:1.下列哪个句子是错的:1．WhichofthefollowingsentencesisINCORRECT?　　A．Twentymilesseemslikealongwalktohim．　　B．Nooneexcepthissupportersagreewithhim．　　C．Fewstudentsinmyclassarereallylazy．D．NeitherJulianorIweregoingtotheparty．2．WhichofthefollowingsentencesisINCORRECT?　　A．Howstrangefeelingstheyare!　　B．Howdareyouspeaktomelikethat!　　C．Whatnoisetheyaremaking!　　D.Whatamesswearein!3．WhichofthefollowingsentencesisINCORRECT?A．Newmachinerywereintroducedinthefactory．B．Poultryareveryexpensiveinthecity．　　C．Thepoliceareinvestigatingthemurdercase．D．Themilitiawerecalledouttorescuefloodvictims．4．WhichofthefollowingisINCORRECT?　　A．Manyaboyandmanyagirlhaveseenthefilmbefore.　　B．HesaidhewouldgotoShanghaionbusinessthenextday.　　C．Iforgottobringyourumbrellawithme.　　D．Hisfatherhaslefthishomelandforfiftyyears.5．WhichofthefollowingisINCORRECT?　　A．Weknowwhateachotherthinks.　　B．Theyknowoneanother"sweakpoints.　　C．Noneofthebooksisinteresting:　　D．Hedidn"tstaytheresolongasshe.2.关于限定词:1．Whichofthefollowingdeterminers(限定词)canbeplacedbeforebothsingularcountnounsandpluralcountnouns?A．manyaB．fewC．thenextD．such 3.关于反身代词和同位语:1．Whichofthefollowingreflexivepronouns(反身代词)isusedasanappositive(同位语)?　　A，Hepromisedhimselfrapidprogress．　　B．ThemanagerherselfwillinterviewMary．　　C．Ihavenothingtosayformyself．D．Theyquarreledthemselvesredintheface．4.关于句子的意思：1．WhichofthefollowingsentencesexpressesWILLINGNESS?　　A．Bynowshewillbeeatingdinner．　　B．Ishallneverdothatagain．　　C．Youshallgetapromotion．D．Mybrotherwillhelpyouwiththeluggage．2．Whatdoes"Youcannotgivehimtoomuchmoney"mean?　　A．Youshouldn"tgivehimtoomuchmoney.　　B．Themoremoneyyougivehim,thebetter.　　C．Youcan"tgivehimalotofmoney.　　D．Yououghttogivehimlessmoney.3．"Iwasgoingtoseethefilm,butheremindedmeofseeingitbefore."Thesentencemeansthat　　A．heremindedmetoseethefilm,andIwouldgotoseeit.　　B．Iwasabouttoseethefilm,butheremindedmethatIhadseenitbefore.　　C．Iwouldn"tremembertoseethefilmifhedidn"tremindme.　　D．IforgetthatIhaveseenthefilmbeforeifhedidn"tremindme.4．"He"snomoreabletoreadJapanesethanIam."Thesentencemeansthat　　A．neitherhenorIamabletoreadJapanese.　　B．IcanreadJapanesebuthecan"t.　　C．myJapaneseisbetterthanhim.　　D．bothheandIareabletoreadJapanese.5．In"Whatdoyouthinkhelikes?"whatis__ofthesentence．　　A．thesubject　　B．the adverbial　　C．theobject　　D．thecomplement6."Heisthelastpersontobefitforthejob."hasallthefollowingpossiblemeaningsEXCEPT　　A．Heistheonethatisn"tfitforthejob.　　B．Heistheonethatisnotsuitableforthejob.　　C．Heisthefittestpersonforthejob.　　D．Hemightbethepersonthatisleastwanted.5.关于主语从句:1．Whichoftheitalicizedpartsfunctionsasasubject?　　A．Weneverdoubtthatherbrotherishonest．　　B．Theproblemisnotwhowillgobutwhowillstay．C．Itisclearthatthecrimewasdonedeliberately．D．Youmustgiveitbacktowhoeveritbelongsto.6.关于宾语从句:1．Whichoftheitalicizedpartsfunctionsasanobject?　　A．Heliketheideaofmyspeakingatthemeeting．　　B．Itisnouseyourpretendingnottoknowthematter．　　C．Herfallingintotheriverwastheclimaxofthewholetrip．D．Myparentsstronglyobjecttomygoingoutaloneatnight．7.关于同位语：1．AllthefollowingsentenceshaveanappositiveEXCEPT　　A．Onlyoneproblemstillremains---thefood．　　B．Sheboughtherselfapairofnewshoes．　　C．Myfriendsallunderstandandsupportme．D．Shelikedhercurrentjob，teachingEnglish．8.关于间接引语： 1．Whichofthefollowingbestexplainsthemeaningof“Shallwebuytheticketsfirst”?　　A．Hesaidthatweweregoingtobuytheticketsfirst．　　B．Herequestedthatwebuytheticketsfirst．　　C．Hesuggestedthatwebuytheticketsfirst．D．Headvisedustobuytheticketsfirst．9.关于原因状语从句：1．Whichofthefollowingcontainsanadverbialclauseofcause?　　A．IgotajobassoonasIleftuniversity．　　B．Astherewasnoanswer,Iwroteagain．　　C．YoumustdotheexercisesasIshowyou．D．Wealthyasheis，Markisnotahappyman．10.关于介词短语：1．Whichofthefollowingprepositionalphrasescanfunctionasanadverbial?　　A．Despitetherain，everyoneenjoyedthetrip．　　B．Themanwithabeardistalkingtothemanage.　　C．Everyprecautionwastakenagainstthefailureoftheplan．　　D．AreyousureofSimon"sdisappearance?2．Whichofthefollowingprepositionalphrasesisanadverbialofconcession?　　A．Theyusedtheboxforkeepingtreasures．　　B．Isteppedasideforhertogetinfirst．　　C．Forallthatheseemstodislikeme，Istilllikehim．　　D．Theparentsboughtabirthdaycakefortheirson．2010年第51题WhichofthefollowingitalicizedphrasesindicatesCAUSE?A.Whydon’tyoudoitforthesakeofyourfriends?B.IwishIcouldwriteaswellasyou.C.Forallhisefforts,hedidn’tgetanA.D.Hereyeswereredfromexcessivereading.答案：DA中的forthesakeof表目的；C中的forallhisefforts“尽管他付出很多努力”表让步，只有D表原因。 2010年第61题Inthesentence“It’snousewaitingforher.”,theitalicizedphraseis.A.theobjectB.anadverbialC.acomplementD.thesubject答案：D2010年第62题WhichofthefollowingsentencesisINCORRECT?A.Allhislecturesareveryinteresting.B.Halftheirsavingsweregone.C.Manyhisfriendscametotheparty.D.Bothhissistersarenurses.答案：Call,half,many,both都可作不定代词，后接of+名词，many后面的of不可以省略，其余三个都可以。2010年第63题Whichofthefollowingsentenceshasanobjectcomplement?A.ThedirectorsappointedJohnmanager.B.IgaveMaryaChristmaspresent.C.YouhavedonePeterafavour.D.SheisteachingchildrenEnglish.答案：A英语中动词后接两个宾语有两种可能：1.双宾语(指人的为间接宾语，指物的为直接宾语)2.复合宾语(两者为宾语和宾语补足语，构成逻辑上的主谓关系）。此题BCD为双宾语，A中的宾语为复合宾语）2011年第52题WhichofthefollowingsentencesisaCOMMAND?A.Whatnoiseyouaremaking!B.Neverdothatagain!C.Haveagoodtime!D.Begyourpardon.答案：B祈使句可用于表达命令、请求、劝告、警告、禁止等。ACD分别表示抱怨、祝愿、请求，只有B表示命令。2011年第53题Whichofthefollowingitalicizedphrasesindicatespurpose?A.Shesaiditforfun,butotherstookherseriously.B.Forallitseffort,theteamdidn’twinthematch.C.Lindahasworkedforthefirmfor20years.D.HesetoutforBeijingyesterday.答案：A本题考查for的含义。B是表示让步的状语“尽管出力”，C表示时间，D表示方向。只有A表示目的。2011年第55题Inphraseslikefreezingcold,burninghot,orsoakingwet,the–INGparticipleisusedA.forconcession.B.foremphasis.C.asacommand.D.asacondition.答案：B2011年第58题Whichofthefollowingitalicizedpartsisusedasanobject?A.Whatdoyouthinkhashappenedforher?B.Whodoyouthinkthevisitingprofessoris?C.Howmuchdoyouthinkheearnseverymonth?D.Howquicklywouldyousayhewouldcome? 答案：C本题考查特殊疑问词的句法功能。A中的作主语，B中的作表语，D中的状语。所有的doyouthink都是插入成分，去除后理解结构会很清晰。2011年第60题Whichofthefollowingitalicizedpartsisasubjectclause?A.Itissheerluckthattheminersarestillaliveaftertendays.B.Hehastofacethefactthattherewillbenopayrisethisyear.C.Shesaidthatshehadseenthemanearlierthatmorning.D.Wearequitecertainthatwewillgetthereintime.答案：A本题考查从句的语法功能。B为fact的同位语从句；C为宾语从句；D为表语从句。2011年第62题Inthesentence“ThemanagerinterviewedJimhimselfinthemorning.”,theitalicizedwordisusedtomodify.A.theobjectB.theverbC.thesubjectD.theprepositionalphrase答案：C反身代词可以做同位语，加强被修饰语的语气，放在被修饰名词后或句末。2011年第64题ThesentencethatexpressesOFFERis.A.I’llgetsomedrinks.What’llyouhave?B.Doessheneedtobookaticketnow?C.MayIknowyourname?D.Canyoureturnthebooknextweek?答案：A本题考查句子的语用功能。此题只有A表达提供帮助；其它都表疑问。2011年第65题Whichofthefollowingitalicizedphrasesindicatesasubject-predicatedrelation(主谓关系)?A.Mr.Smith’spassporthasbeenissued.B.John’straveldetailshavenotbeenfinalized.C.Thevisitor’sarrivalwasreportedinthenews.D.Thenewbookstoresellschildren’sstories.答案：C本题考查名词s-属格的意义。A和B中’s表示所有关系，即相当于Mr.Smithhasapassport和Johnhastraveldetails；C表示主谓关系，相当于Thevisitorarrived；D表示事物的类别，相当于storiesforchildren。2011年第69题(词汇)Johnisuptohiseyesinworkatthemoment.Theunderlinedpartmeans.A.veryexcitedB.verybusyC.verytiredD.veryefficient答案：B(Uptoone’seyesinwork意为“工作特忙”，近义表达还有：uptoone’searsinwork;uptoone’sneckinwork.)2011年第70题(词汇)Victoriabumpedintoherbrotherquitebychanceinthesupermarket.Theunderlinedwordmeans.A.riskB.opportunityC.luckD.possibility答案：C2011年第71题（词汇）“Lookatthoseprettygirls’skirts”is,becauseitisnotclearwhetherthegirlsortheskirtsare“pretty”. A.ambiguousB.hiddenC.indirectD.indistinct答案：A(ambiguous可表示“引起歧义的”，indistinct“不清晰的”)