名师串讲自考英语语法 54页

名师串讲综合英语（二）(珍藏版)上册Grammar&UsageSubjectVerbAgreement(Ⅰ)1.主谓一致的三条原则（1）语法一致，即在语法形式上取得一致。Humanbeingsenjoylearning.Everybody’sunderstandingisincomplete.(2)意义一致，即根据意义来处理一致关系。Thepeopletherearefightingfortheindependenceoftheircountry.Tendollarswasalotofmoneyatthattime.（3）就近原则，即谓语动词的单、复数形式取决于最靠近它的词语。Thereisapen,twopencilsandaneraserinthepencilbox.Neithertheboynorhisteachersknowtheanswer.2.集体名词作主语时与动词的一致(1)当主语为furniture,equipment,machinery等词时，谓语动词通常用单数。ThefurnitureinthatshopisallmadeinChina.Officeequipmentisveryexpensivenowadays.(2)集体名词如people,cattle,police,poultry等往往作复数用。Somepeopledrivemadlyinthiscountry. Manycattlehavediedbecauseoftheflood.(3)family,government,class,committee,audience,team,public等词被视作一个整体时，其后的动词用单数；被视为构成整体的个体时，其后的动词则为复数。Hisfamilyisahappyone.Hisfamilyareallinterestedinstampcollecting3.并列主语与动词的一致（1）当“名词+名词”表示一种事物时，用单数形式。BaconandeggsisaverypopularBritishbreakfast.(2)当主语是由and,both...and连接的并列结构时，如果主语所指的不是一种事物，动词则用复数形式。JackandMaryareinlovewitheachother.BothTomandJohnareabsenttoday.(3)在由or或nor连接的并列结构中，动词单、复数形式一般与or或nor后面的名词或代词保持一致。Heorhisbrothersaretoblameforthis.Neithershenoryouaremistaken.(4)notonly...butalso连接的结构作主语时，动词的单、复数形式依据butalso后的名词或代词。NotonlyFredbutalsohisparentslovethissmallpetdog.Notonlytheboysbutalsotheirmotherisveryill.SubjectVerbAgreement(Ⅱ) 4.带确定数量词的名词词组作主语时的主谓一致(1)当主语是表示数目、时间、重量、距离等的复数名词时，如果该名词所表示的数量看作一个整体，其后的动词用单数。Fouryearsistoolongformetowait.Sixtymilesisashortruninacar.(2)当主语是表示数目、时间、重量、距离等的复数名词时，如该名词所表示的数量看作单个个体，其后的动词用复数。Thepastthreeweekswerethehardesttimeinhislife.Hundredsofbuildingswereputupinthecitylastyear.(3)当主语为“分数或百分数+of+名词”时，其后的动词形式依照of后名词的单复数形式来定。Thirtypercentoftheoilinthatcountryisimported.Tenpercentoftheeggshavegonebad.（4）当主语为sheep,fish,deer,aircraft,means,steelworks等单数与复数同形的词时，动词的形式以名词单、复数意义为准。Threeaircraftarereportedmissing.Tenfishhavebeencaughttoday.5.all的主谓一致（1）代词all表示可数的人或物时，其后的动词用复数形式。Allwerehungryanddesperate(渴望)forfood.Allwhohaveseenthefilmloveit.(2)代词all表示不可数的名词时，其后的动词用单数。 Allisgoingwell.(一切顺利。)Allisquietinthemiddleofthenight.(3)形容词all+可数名词时，其后的动词用复数形式。AllroadsleadtoRome.(条条道路通罗马。)Allthingsaredifficultwhenwebegintodothem.(4)形容词all+不可数名词时，其后的动词用单数形式。AllworkandnoplaymakesJackadullboy.Notallfoodisgoodtoeat.6.带none的词组作主语时，其后面的动词单数或复数形式都可用。Noneofyouhave/hashadmyexperience.Noneofthehotelsare/isreadyforguestsyet.NounPronounAgreementNounPossessiveCaseAgreement7.名词与代词和名词所有格的一致一般来说，代词和名词所有格对名词的指代在数的形式上是一致的。Thetwosistershavetheirowndifferenttoys.Themenarediscussingtheiropinionsatthemeeting.当名词为audience,class,committee,enemy,family,faculty,gang,government,jury,media,public,staff,team等既可视为整体名词又可视为个体名词的集体名词时，则要根据它们在句中的意思来确定代词和所有格的形式。 Thepublicdemandedthatthegovernmentaccountforitsneweconomicpolicy.Thegovernmenthaddiscussedthisproblemforalongtimebuttheyhadshownnosignofagreement.8.不定代词的一致问题one,everyone,everybody,noone,nobody,anyone,anybody,someone,somebody等作主语时，在正式的文体中其相应的代词一般用him,所有格用his，也有人用himorher和hisorher，但是这种用法显得累赘。Everybodymustfinishhishomeworkbytomorrow.Nobodyinthatpositionwillgivehisopinionrightaway.注意：one作主语时，其相应的代词也可以是one，所有格可以是one’s。Onehastobecarefulaboutwhatonesaysbeforechildren.在非正式文体中，也可根据意义，用复数代词。而且，由于him和his有语言性别歧视之嫌，虽然谓语动词仍用单数形式，现在人们普遍用复数代词。Noonehashandedintheirpaperyet.Everyonehasgiventheiropinionontheissue.但everything,anything,something,nothing作主语时，其相应的代词要用单数形式。Somethinghasgonewrong,hasn’tit? TagQuestions9.附加疑问句的构成由两部分构成：陈述句+附加成分。附加成分也由两部分构成：助动词或be的一种形式+人称代词（应与陈述句的主语相应）附加疑问句主要用于口语，表示期望对方的同意或对所陈述之事的首肯。附加疑问句有下列几种形式：（1）肯定陈述句+否定附加成分（附加成分除极为正式场合或老式英语中都要用缩略形式）Yousuregettoseethingsdifferently,don’tyou?You’veheardthenews,haven’tyou?(2)否定的陈述句+肯定附加成分Peterdoesn’tsmoke,doeshe?Thepartywon’tstartuntilseven,willit?10.附加疑问句的几点特殊用法（1）凡是带有no,none,noone,nobody,nothing,hardly,seldom,rarely,never,barely,few,little,neither等否定词的陈述句，都应看作否定陈述句，后面接肯定附加成分。Sheseldomleavestheroominwinter,doesshe?Peoplerarelygothatfartothatsmallvillage,dothey?(2)当陈述句的主语everybody,everyone,someone,somebody,anyone,nobody,noone,neither,none时，附加成分中的代词一般用they。Everyoneatthepartyhadagoodtime,didn’tthey? Neitherofthemsaidaword,didthey?(3)陈述部分是there引导的存在句时，附加成分由助动词或be的一种形式+there构成。Thereissomethingwrongwiththechild,isn’tthere?Thereisnobodyintheroom,isthere?(4)陈述部分是肯定的I’m...结构时，附加成分为aren’tI。I’mthedoctor,aren’tI?I’mlate,aren’tI?(在老式或极为正式的英语中用：Iamlate,amInot?)(5)陈述部分是一个带有that从句作宾语的主从结构时，附加成分应与主句的主语和谓语动词保持对应关系。Youthink(that)Ididit,don’tyou?Hedidn’tsayMarywouldcome,didhe?注意：当陈述部分的主句是Ithink,Isuppose,Ibelieve等时，附加成分往往与that从句中的主语和谓语动词保持对应关系，但要注意Idon’tthink等结构对从句的否定用法。Isupposeyouareheretostudy,aren’tyou?Idon’tthinkhecameherejusttosaygoodbye,didhe?Ibelieveyouareinurgentneedofhelp,aren’tyou?如果想核实对方的看法是否与你一致，附加部分则与主句相应。Ithinkhe’sthebestpersonforthejob,don’tyou?(6)在祈使句后加一个附加疑问成分可缓和语气，附加成分一般用will you和wouldyou，但也可用won’tyou或can’tyou。Openthewindow,wouldyou?Givemeahand,won’tyou?(7)Let’s型祈使句中附加成分用shallwe。Let’sgoforawalk,shallwe?Let’sgetdowntowork,shallwe?（8）陈述部分带有usedto时，附加成分用did形式，偶尔用usedto形式。Heusedtosmokefiftycigarettesaday,didn’the?有的语法书将usednot缩略式定为usedn’tto，这是老式的用法，现在很少有人使用。11.附加疑问句的回答要针对所陈述的内容，不受附加疑问成分的制约。—Youdidn’tgotherealone,didyou?—No,Ididn’t.—Youlovecoffee,don’tyou?—Yes,Ido.TypesofSentence:theImperative12.祈使句的作用（1）表示命令和指示Don’tmakeanynoise.Lettheboysaywhathewants. (2)表示建议、劝告或警告Don’tbeupset.Writetomeifyouneedfurtherinformation.(3)请求和呼吁Comequickly.Help!Dohelpme,please.(4)邀请Dropinwheneveryouhavetime.Comeinandhaveacupoftea.(5)解释TakeClass5forexample.LookatthesituationintheMiddleEastforexample.13.祈使句的基本形式祈使句的第二人称主语you通常省略，以动词原形开头，句尾用句号或感叹号。Sitdown.Takeyourshareofthewater!祈使句的否定形式是在动词前加don’t,但在正式文体中则用donot。Donotlitterinthepark!Donotfeedtheanimals!也可在动词前加never。Neverforgetthepast. Neverputoffuntiltomorrowwhatyoucandotoday.(谚语)14.祈使句的委婉形式（1）在句首或句尾加please。Passmethesalt,please.Pleasedon’tforgettocomehereateighttomorrow.(2)用附加疑问成分willyou?/won’tyou?/wouldyou?等。Comeandhavedinnerwithus,wouldyou?Don’tcomelateagain,willyou?15.祈使句的强调形式（1）在动词前可加上助动词do。Docomeinandhaveacupofcoffee.Dotellmewhat’sbotheringyou.(2)祈使句表示命令、建议或警告时，动词前加“you”。Youshutup.(不客气的说法)Yougofirst.16.祈使句的第三人称形式祈使句的句首或句尾也可加人名和第三人称代词如everyone，everybody,nobody,anybody等，但它们不是句子的主语，只是称呼，用以唤起注意，不影响动词的形式。Tommovethetablethere,andJohntaketherubbishout.PassengersforFlight104pleasewaitatGateFour.17.Let’s型祈使句 如果祈使的对象包括说话者本人，就用Let’s型祈使句：Let’shaveameetingthisevening.Let’sgoinandhavealook.Let’s型祈使句的否定式为Let’snot...和Don’tlet’s...:Don’tlet’sargueanymore.Let’snotargueanymore.注意letmedosth.表示“提出做某事”。Letmecarryyoursuitcase.在极为正式的文体中，let表示愿望。Letjusticeandpeacelive!Letallgoodpeoplebehappy!18.祈使句的被动结构祈使句的被动结构多用于否定式。Don’tbefrightenedbywhathesays.Don’tbesurprisedatwhatyouaregoingtosee.RhetoricalQuestions&Ellipsis19.修辞性疑问句是用疑问句的形式表达说话人态度、感情而无需回答的疑问句。（1）形式①一般疑问句的肯定形式（起否定陈述句的作用）Doyouthinkyouhavetherighttotalktomelikethat?（你觉得你有权利跟我这样说话？意思是你无权这么做。） Isthatthereasonforgoingtherealone?(这就是你单独去那儿的理由吗？意思是这不能成为理由。)②一般疑问句的否定形式（起肯定陈述句的作用）Don’tyouwanttoknowwhatitis?(难道你就不想知道这是什么东西吗？意思是你肯定想知道。)Haven’tyouhadenoughofhercomplaints?(你还没受够她的抱怨吗？意思是你已经受够了。)③特殊疑问句的肯定形式（相当于否定的陈述句）Nowthatyou’vegotawellpaidjob,whatelsedoyouwant?(你还要什么？意思是你不应该再要求别的什么了。)Whatdifferencedoesitmake?(那有什么区别？意思是没有区别。)④特殊疑问句的否定形式（相当于肯定的陈述句）Whodoesn’tknow?(谁不知道？意思是谁都知道了。)Whydon’tyouquit?Youcan’tholdout!(你为什么不罢手？你不可能坚持到底的！)（2）用法①表示惊讶、感叹Don’tyouloveyourownparents?(你难道不爱自己的父母吗？)Isn’tthatalovelypark?(那公园真美！)②表示愤怒Howdareyouspeaktomelikethat?(你居然跟我这样说话，太不像话了！) Whydon’tyoushutup?(你给我闭嘴！)③表示建议或委婉的批评、责备Whydon’twehavelunchinaneatingplacearoundhere?Can’tyoucomeabitearlynexttime?④表示邀请Won’tyousitdownandhaveacupoftea?Whydon’tyoucomeinandhavealook?用修辞性疑问句表达以上态度和感情时语气比一般陈述句要强烈。20.句子结构的省略英语句子的某些成分在一定的情况下可以省略，如祈使句省略主语，比较从句省略谓语、宾语等。这里着重归纳并列句和复合句中的省略。（1）并列句中的省略一般说来，第二个并列从句中与第一个并列从句相同的成分通常都可省略。MysisterlikesmusicandI(like)painting.(省略谓语)Peopletherewillgosailinginsummerand(theywillgo)skiinginwinter.(省略主语、谓语)HewonanOscarAward(奥斯卡奖)in1976andhiswife(wonanOscarAward)in1977.(省略谓语、宾语)（2）复合句中的省略省略如果出现在主句，则多出现在句首。(Itis)NowondershespeakssuchgoodChinese. (You’d)Betterstaywhereyouare.(It’sa)PityIcan’tgowithyou.复合句中的省略多出现在状语从句中。I’mhappyaslongasyouare(happy).You’llhavetowashthedishestodaybecauseIwon’t(washthedishes).If(itis)necessary,Icanexplainthistohim.(3)复合句中若有两个以上的宾语从句，则从第二个宾语从句开始that不能省略。Hetoldme(that)heenjoyedtheconcertverymuchandthathewouldliketomeettheconductor.Everybodycansee(that)thisisanimportantissueandthattheycannotaffordtooverlookit.(4)缩略状语从句如果主句和从句的主语一致，状语从句可以省略主语以及谓语的一部分。WhenIfinished,hewaitedasif(hewas/were)expectingmore.While(hewas)recoveringfromhisoperation,Davidrenewedanoldinterestinstockcarracing.When(theyare)ripe,thetomatoestastedelicious.ObjectComplement21.名词、形容词、介词词组作宾语补足语Theclasselectedhimmonitor.(名词) Ifoundthefilmveryinteresting.(形容词)I’dliketofindeverythinginitsproperplacewhenIcomeback.(介词词组)22.动词不定式、分词作宾语补足语Whatdidyoutellhertodo?(不定式)I’msorrytohavekeptyouwaiting.(现在分词)23.as+名词/形容词/分词作宾语补足语Heseemedtoregarditashisownachievement.(名词)Herteacherspokeofherasgentle,kindandhardworking.(形容词)Youmustn’tthinkofmeasbeingrudetoyou.(分词词组)ThePredictiveTheSubjectComplement24.表语置于系动词后，构成主语+系（动词）+表语结构（1）名词词组、形容词词组和介词词组作表语Sheisaveryresponsibleteacher.(名词词组)Itwasindeedaterriblethingtohappen.(形容词词组)Yourroomisonthethirdfloor,Sir.(介词词组)（2）不定式结构作表语Thequestioniswheretogetthemoneyandhowtoorganizethework.Anartist’sbusinessistoshowtheworldasheseesit,nottomakeit better.注意be+todo不一定都是系表结构，这一结构常常用来表示命令或安排。Youaretowearuniformsatwork.（命令）Theplaneistotakeoffat8∶30p.m.(安排)（3）动名词和分词词组作表语Hisfavouritesportisplayingfootball.(动名词词组)Thedoorremainedlockedforawholeday.(名词)注意：过去分词作表语时，起形容词作用，没有被动的意思。Hewastooexcitedtobeabletotakepartinthecontest.(4)代词作表语Thisroomisyours;thenextoneismine.Don’tworry.It’snothingserious.(5)名词从句作表语Theirideaisthatweshouldbuildanotherschoolinthisdistrict.ThefactisthatIcan’tdomuchaboutthis.25.主语补足语是在句中补充说明主语状况的成分在主语+谓语+主补结构中谓语表示主语的行为，主补表示主语的状况。（1）谓语为不及物动词die,return和beborn后面可跟形容词或名词作补语。Hediedyoung.(形容词)Hediedahero.(名词) 一般不及物动词后只能跟形容词或过去分词作主语补足语。Thestudentswalkedhomeproundandsatisfied.(2)谓语为及物动词时可由形容词或过去分词作主语补足语。Hegazedatherspeechless.Shestaredattheboxwideeyed.(3)带有宾语补足语的句子变成被动语态时，宾语补足语则变成了主语补足语。Thedoorwaskickedopen.(形容词)XiaoWangwaselectedPresidentoftheStudents’Association.(名词)Thepatientwastoldnottotaketoomuchsalt.(不定式词组)Thetapwasleftrunningallnight.(分词词组)Adjectives(Ⅰ)26.形容词用来说明人、物、事等的性质、特点、类别Iopenedthetwobagswithmypersonalbelongings.(类别)Agreatarmyitwas,andagreatstoryforme.(特点)Thesherrywasalittletoodry.(性质)27.形容词在句子中作定语、表语以及（主语或宾语的）补足语Hughielookedverymiserableinthosedays.(表语)Personallyhewasastrange,roughfellow,withafreckledfaceandred,roughbeard.(定语)Hiseyeskeptwatchingme,narrowanddangerous.(主补)28.形容词句型 （1）形容词+介词词组Laura’sfatherwasveryfondofHughie,butwouldnothearofanengagement.Humansarecapableofgreatmutualcompassion,love,andtenderness.类似的词组还有：afraidof,ashamedof,(un)awareof,fullof,guiltyof,innocentof,sureof,tiredof,trueof等。Theywereveryvaluabletomeinreportingthearmy’svictories.Thelittlegirlfeltclosetothebirdsandplantsandanimals.类似的词组还有：accustomedto,connectedto,devotedto,familiarto,relatedto,similarto,uniqueto等。常用于形容词之后的介词还有：about,at,for,in,with等。Iamoftenuncertainaboutwhethertogiveintomanyofmychildren’srequests.Don’tgettrappedbythefirstthingyoufindyourselfgoodat.(2)形容词+不定式①名词或代词作主语Manyparentsareunabletostanduptotheirchildren’sunreasonabledemands.Youareboundtovacillateattimes.以上这类形容词几乎总是与不定式连用。还有一些表示人的情绪或愿望的形容词既可与不定式连用也可与介词词组或名词从句连用。 Theboyisafraidtogooutafterdark.I’mgladtoseeyouinmycountry.He’sashamedtotellyouwhatreallyhappened.I’msorrytobreakthenewstoyou.另有一类形容词与含有被动意思的不定式连用，说明主语的情况。Thematerialiseasytowash.Heisdifficulttogetalongwith.形容词前可加too,后可加enough。You’retooprettytobesoheavy.Hethinksheisoldenoughtomanagehisownaffairs.②不定式作主语的两种形式（a）Itis+adj.(+forsb./sth.)+todosth.常用于此句型的形容词有：common,dangerous,difficult,easy,important,(un)necessary,(im)possible等。(b)Itis+adj.+ofsb.todosth.常用于此句型的形容词有：brave,careless,clever,generous,good,kind,mean,stupid,wise等。WasitpossibleforthewritertogethisdiariesoutofBerlinsafely?Itisdifficultformediacelebritiestopassthroughacrowdwithoutbeingrecognized.③形容词+名词从句 许多形容词可用于此句型，如afraid,angry,anxious,aware,certain,confident,glad,happy,pleased,proud,sad,sorry,sure,surprised,unaware等。Hefeltterriblysorrythathehadgiventhemillionaireapound.Hewasafraidthatthemillionairewouldthinkhimfoolish.名词从句也可作主语。Itistoobadthatyoumissedyourflight.Itseemspossiblethatpeacewillberestoredinthatcountrybytheendoftheyear.Preposition+Which/Who+RelativeClausesSplitRelativeandAppositiveClauses29.定语从句中的介词+关系代词结构英语正式的文体，尤其是法律和科技文献中，定语从句中的关系代词（主要是which）前往往加介词，介词的选择有时取决于从句中的动词结构，有时又取决于主句中关系词前面的名词结构。因此介词的选择既要注意其后的也要注意其前的搭配关系。Physics,aboutwhichIknownothing,doesn’tseemsodullasubject.(定语从句可以转换成Iknownothingaboutphysics,可以看出about与know有关。)Thisdependsonthepurposeforwhichtheexaminationis given.(定语从句可以转换成theexaminationisgivenfor...purpose，介词for与purpose有关。)注意：在语义上相当于一个简单动词的短语动词中的介词不能前置，只能用在动词后。Thisisaphaseofhistorywhichitissadtolookbackon.Thebabywhomsheistakingcareofisverylovelyindeed.口语中要避免这种结构，关系代词which往往省略。There’salimit(which)nobodyshouldgobeyond.That’ssomething(which)theycanneverputupwith.30.分隔型定语从句一般情况下，定语从句紧跟在它所修饰的名词或代词之后，但有时由于修辞和语法的需要，定语从句与它所修饰的先行词分开，这就是分隔型定语从句。它有以下几种情况。（1）先行词+介词短语+定语从句Heistheonlyfriendofminewhoisnotinterestedinmusic.ThatwasthemostimportantdayinmylifethatIcanremember.(2)先行词+主动态动词+定语从句Helaughsbestwholaughslast.(谁笑到最后谁笑得最好。)Thedaywillcomewhenyouwillbeproudofme.（3）先行词+分词短语+定语从句Thereissomeonewaitingforyououtsidewhosayshemustseeyoupersonally. Therearefewplacesleftonearthwheremanhasn’tputhisfoot.(4)先行词+定语从句HeisoneofthosepeopleIknowwhodonotcareaboutmoneyatall.ThatistheonlyfilmI’veeverseenwhichusesthattechnique.31.分隔型同位语从句和定语从句一样，同位语从句一般紧接与之对应的名词，但有时也可分开。Thesuggestionwasmadethattheyshouldbepackedoffatonceinaspecialtrain.Withinaweekortwohereceivedaletterfromtheuniversitythathehadbeenaccepted.Both,Either,Neither32.both表示一个和另一个两者都……，用复数动词。Bothsidesofthestreetaredecoratedwithcolourfullights.Shehastwobrothers,Bothworkinthecity.both...and连接同类的语法结构（名词、动词、形容词、介词短语等），表示强调。Hehasboththeknowledgeandcapabilitytodothisjob.Bothsheandherhusbandwereverypleasedwiththegirl.33.either(1)表示两者中的任何一个，用单数动词。 Youmaytakeeitheroftheroadstogetthere.Hecouldwritewitheitherhand.(2)表示两边。Youcanseealotoftreesoneithersideofthestreet.Manyconversationsareakindofcompetitionthatrarelyleadstodiscoveryoneitherside.(3)作副词，表示也，用于否定句。Alittlebitofexercisewon’tdoyouanyharm,either.Hedidn’tgotothemeetingandshedidn’tturnup,either.(4)和or连用，连接相同的语法结构，表示或是……或是，不是……就是，既……又，既不……又不，它所带的动词在数上与or后面的名词或代词保持一致。EitheryouorDickisresponsibleforit.Eitherheorhisbrothershavetocleantheroom.34.neither(1)作代词，表示两者都不……，后面的动词多用单数形式。Neitherofthebooksisofanyhelptome.Ifyourunaftertwohares,you’llcatchneither.(2)作副词，表示也不。用于句首，句子的主语与谓语必须倒装。—Ihaveneverbeenherebefore.—NeitherhaveI.HecannotspeakEnglish,andneithercanhereadit. (3)与nor连用，连接相同的语法结构，表示既不……也不。它所带的动词在数上与nor后面的名词或代词保持一致。Neitherhisfriendsnorheknowsanythingaboutit.I’mafraidIhaveneitherthetimenorthemoneytohelpyou.Negation35.否定词英语中的否定结构多以否定词来表示，常用的否定词有：not,no,never,none,nothing,nobody,nowhere,neither,nor,还有表示近似否定的hardly,seldom,scarcely,barely,rarely,little,few等。Noonehasanydoubtabouthisability.Noneofthecandidateshasarrivedyet.Ishallneverforgetyourkindness.Iseldomgetanysleepafterthebabywakesup.Hehashardlyspokentoanyonewhodisagreeswithhimonthispoint.Mr.Smithhadbarelystartedspeakingwhenhewasinterrupted.注意：否定词若放在句首时，句子的主谓要倒装。Notforonemomentdidhestopworking.LittledoIknowaboutthecity.但否定的名词词组作主语并放在句首时，不能倒装。Notallofthepassengersescapedunhurt.Notasinglemanwaskilled,andonlythreewounded.36.否定结构 否定结构在英语中是一个常用的结构，它有几种常用的形式。（1）一般否定。在这种结构中，not用以否定全句的意义。Thisisnottherightthingtodo.Ifyouarenotmovingahead,youarefallingbehind.(2)部分否定。否定词not不否定全句，仅否定句中的某一部分。Whathewantsisnotsympathybuttrust.Don’tbeafraid.Iamyourfriend,notyourenemy.(3)转移否定。believe,suppose,think后面所带的that从句若是否定从句时，其否定词移到主句动词前。Idon’tbelieve(that)youtwohavemet,haveyou?Idon’tsuppose(that)anyonewillobjecttomyabsence.(4)接续否定。这种结构指的是在同一句子中重复使用同一否定词，以加强语气。Althoughautumnwaswelladvanced,notaleafhadfallenfromthetrees,notevenone.Ican’tgoonmoving,noteven(for)oneinch.也可用不同的否定词。Nonationcanaffordtooffenditsallies,noteventheUnitedStates.(5)转换否定。英语中有不少形式上像肯定而实际上表示否定意义的句子。同样，也有不少形式上像否定而实际表示肯定意义的句子。Catchmedoingthatagain!(我决不再犯了！)Heisthelastpersontotellalie.(他不可能说谎。) That’sthelastthingIshouldexpecthimtodo.(他不可能做那样的事。)Wholikestodothatsortofthing?(没人愿意做那种事。)Thisistoomuchformetobear.(我受不了。)Youcan’tbetoocarefulwhenyoucrossthestreet.(过马路越小心越好。)Icouldn’tagreewithyoumore.(我完全赞成你的观点。)Whichfamilydoesn’thaveproblems?(家家有本难念的经。)（6）省略否定。在上下文提供足够语境的情况下，否定结构可有省略的形式。—Doyouknowtheanswertothismathproblem?—I’mafraidnot.Someparentsdon’tknowwhethertheyshouldsatisfyalltheirchildren’sneedsornot.37.动词的非谓语形式的否定在这种结构中，否定词要放在动词不定式、分词或动名词短语前。Wecan’taffordnottobelieveit’sreal.Therealpurposeofthediscussionisnottotellparentshowmuchorhowlittletogivetotheirchildren.Nothavingreadthebook,Ican’ttellyouwhetherit’sworthbuying.OtherWaysofComparingThings英语中表示比较的方法很多，除以前介绍过的形容词和副词的比较级外，还有许多习惯的比较方法，以下是几种常用的方法。38.用such...as(像……那样的)表示比较 as后面既可接名词也可接句子。Heneverrememberedhavingknownsuchhappinessashefeltthen.we’vegotsuchfruitsasyou’veneverheardof.39.用thesameas(和……一样的)表示比较HewasaboutthesameheightasGeorge.Thiscityisnotthesameasitwastenyearsago.40.用like（像）或alike(一样)表示比较Thelittlegirl,likemanypeople,feelsthatthesewondersofNaturearepreciousandpermanent.Thetwoofficebuildingsarealikeinbothsizeandshape.41.用“a+名词1+ofa+名词2”表示比较（将名词2表示的内容比成名词1表示的内容）That’sahellofathingtodo.(干那种事太糟糕了！直译为：那简直是件地狱般的事！)Whatadevilofanamethatis!(那个是魔鬼般的名字啊！)Agiantofamanrushedintotheroom.(一个巨人般的男人冲进房间。)Weareallafraidofhim.Heisatyrantofafather.(他是个暴君般的父亲。)42.用asif/though引导一个从句表示比较Irememberwhathappenedasvividlyasifitwereonlyyesterday.I’vealwayslovedyouasifyouweremyowndaughter.MoreandMostUsedOtherThaninComparison 43.more是much,many的比较级，但它有时却没有比较的意思。下面是more的几种常用的非比较级的用法。（1）more...than相当于...ratherthan...，表示“与其说是……，不如说是……”。Heismorequickwittedthanhardworking.(与其说他肯干，不如说他脑子快。)Afterthreeday’sjourney,Iarrivedhomemoredeadthanalive.(经过3天的旅行，我回到家时已半死不活。)Heismorecunningthanwise.(与其说他聪明，不如说他狡猾。)Shewasmorehurtthanfrightened.(与其说她害怕不如说她受到了伤害。)注意：同样的意思也可以用less...than来表示，只要把被修饰词语的位置对调一下就行了。Heislesswisethancunning.Shewaslesshurtthanfrightened.(2)nomore+名词+than+名词，表示“不是……，也不是……”。Heisnomoreawriterthanapainter.I’mafraidyou’vegotthewrongperson.Iamnomoreascientistthananartist.(3)morethan表示“极其”、“不只”。WhenItoldthemIneededtheirhelp,theyweremorethanwillingtogive meahand.Shewasmorethanhappytobeleftalone.Fromthewaytheytalk,Icanseethattheyaremuchmorethanjustacquaintances.Itismorethanprobablethathewillgiveitanothertry.44.most是much,many的最高级形式，放在多音节的形容词或副词前面构成该词的最高级形式，一般来说它的结构为“themost...”。ThisisthemostdifficultquestionIhaveeverbeenforcedtoanswer.Amongallmyemployees,Jimworksthemostefficiently.然而，most也可以表示“非常”、“很”的意思，这时most前面不加the，这一用法较正式，口语中用very更好。Iwillbemostgratefulifyoucouldgrantmethescholarship.Itwasamostbeautifulmorningandthebirdsweresinginginthetrees.Sheisamostpleasantpersontotalkto.IshallbemosthappytogodowntownwithyouifIshouldnotbeintheway.(要是不妨碍你们的话，我非常愿意和你们一起去市中心。)Hearguedhiscasemostpersuasively(有说服力地).Whateverhappens,Ishallmostcertainlyattendthemeeting.下册LinkVerbs 英语除动词be之外，还有一些动词也可以作系动词，如表示状态或情况的：keep,look,feel,appear,lie,remain,seem,stay,smell,sound,taste等；以及表示变化的：get,grow,turn,fall,run,become,go等。下面我们来分析一下带系动词的句子结构。1.系动词后面带名词从句Goodmannersarethehappywayofdoingthings.Itseemedtohimthathehadneverworkedsohardinhislife.2.系动词后面带形容词Shesoundedrathersurprisedonthephone.Sitdown.Juststaycalmandyouwillbealright.3.tobe可以加在seem,prove,remain,appear等系动词和其后的名词或形容词之间，但也可以省略。Thetaskproved(tobe)impossible.Theyseem(tobe)suchfriendlypeople,buttheyneverrepliedtoourinvitation.Whathashappenedremains(tobe)amystery.Theproblemfirstappeared(tobe)unsolvable,butlaterwecameupwithaverygoodsolution.注意：在seem,appear等词后，可加其他非tobe的不定式，但这时，它们则不是系动词而是不及物动词。4.系动词后面带介词词组 TheirweddingwillbeinlateJune.Theshopstaysroundtheclock.ImpersonalItit在句中可以作代词，代表刚提到的东西或一个彼此都知其所指的东西；此外它还可用来代表时间、天气、自然环境、距离等。it还有一个很重要的用法，那就是作先行词，代表句子的实际主语或宾语；它也可以用来改变句子结构，使句子的某一成分得到强调。5.作句子的形式主语（1）代表不定式It’sabsurdtobeafraidundersuchcircumstances.It’sagreatprivilegetoknowyou.(2)代表动名词It’snousingcryingoversplitmilk.It’snogoodwaitingforhimthismorning.Hewon’tcomebackuntilfiveintheafternoon.(3)代表that引导的从句Itisbelievedthatheisoneofthebestpianoplayersintheworld.Itissuggestedthathe(should)besenttohospitalimmediately.（4）代表wh引导的从句Aslongashefinisheshiswork,itdoesn’tmatterwhenhecomestotheoffice.IthasnotbeendecidedyetwhetherornotIshouldgoonwithmystudy. 6.作句子的形式宾语（1）代表不定式Theyfounditdifficulttogetalongwithhim.Ifeelitmydutytoreportthis.(2)代表从句Ithinkitbestthatyou(should)staywithme.Youmaydependonitthatthesestonesarereallyveryvaluable.7.用来改变句子结构，使句子的某一成分得到强调（1）强调主语Itwasshewhoputforwardthatsuggestion.Wasityouwhowrotethesewordsontheblackboard?(2)强调宾语Itisthatpaintingthathesoldatagoodprofit.Itwasthefootballmatchthattheyweretalkingabout.(3)强调状语Itwasthroughmethathehadgotthepresentjob.ItwasonacoldMondaynightthathewasshot.MoreWaysofEmphasis表示强调有很多种方式，在书面语中可以将要强调的成分用黑体或斜体表示出来，也可以用大写字母表示强调的成分。在口语中可以用重读来表示强调。除此之外，下面几种方法也常用来强调句子的某一部分。 8.将强调的表语、主语补语或宾语提前，把句子的其他成分放在其后。AnutterfoolIfelttoo.(表)Relaxationyoucallit!(主补)Excellentfoodtheyservehere.(宾)这种强调方法多用于表示对比关系。9.用so强调听者同意说者所言，这种用法只将so提到句首，其他成分位置不变。—You’respilledcoffeeonyourdress.—SoIhave.—It’sraininghardoutside.—Soitis.10.用wh词引导的名词从句表示强调Weneedmoretime.Moretimeiswhatweneed.Whatweneedismoretime.He’sspoiltthewholething.Whathe’sdoneis(to)spoilthewholething.11.用反身代词表示强调Johntoldmeeverything.Johnhimselftoldmeeverything.Johntoldmeeverythinghimself.Thequeenattendedthemeeting. Thequeenherselfattendedthemeeting.Thequeenattendedthemeetingherself.12.用感叹词和感叹句表示强调，Oh,Wow表示吃惊；Ah,Aha表示满意，肯定等；Ouch,Ow表示痛苦；Ooh表示高兴，舒适等。Oh,whatabeautifulpresent!Ah,that’sjustwhatIwanted.Aha,theseslidesareexactlywhatIwaslookingfor.Wow,whatafantasticgoal!Ouch,myfoot!Ooh,thiscreamcake’sdelicious.13.重复表示强调It’sfar,fartooexpensive.Iagreewitheverywordyou’vesaid,everysingleword.14.文字材料中用斜体表示强调Isthattheonlything?“Yousayitcouldn’t”saidBeamish.AbsoluteStructure独立结构一般用于正式语体，是描写性的文学语言。从形式上来说，独立结构可分成四类：不定式独立结构、现在分词独立结构、过去分词独立结构和无动词独立结构。Fourlittlegirlsfollowedthebride,twotoholdherweddinggown,twotoholdflowers.(不定式) DinnerwasJapanese,thefamilysittingonthefloorinthetraditionalway.(现在分词)Hereyeslookedfrommyfacedowntomyfoot,withthechalkgrippedbetweenmytoes.(过去分词)Acaseinbothhands,Mabelwalkedoutofthehouse.(无动词)15.独立结构的构成（1）不定式独立结构：名词词组+不定式结构Thefootballstartestifiedincourtthismorningthathehadnottakenanyillegaldrugs,thedetailstobereportedthisevening.Wehaveworkedoutaplantomakefulluseofourlimitedmoney,myhusband’ssalarytopayforourdaughter’seducationfeesandminetobuydailynecessities.(2)现在分词独立结构：（介词+）名词词组+现在分词结构Here!Changeintoaglassbowlfullofwaterwithgoldfishswimminginit.Withoutanyonenoticing,Islippedthroughthewindow.(3)过去分词独立结构：（介词+）名词词组+过去分词结构Iwouldn’tdaregohomewithoutthejobfinished.Mr.Fotheringaystoodwithaforefingerstretchedoutandthetroubledfaceofoneexpectingaterriblecrash.(4)无动词独立结构：（介词+）名词词组+（介词词组）+（形容词词组或副词词组或名词词组）Thesummerholidaysover,wewentbacktowork. Twothousandpeoplediedintheearthquake,manyofthemchildren.16.独立结构在句中通常作状语，口语中常用状语从句表达相应的内容（1）表示时间Lunchfinished(Whenlunchwasfinished),theguestsretiredtothelounge.Theirexamsfinished,thestudentswentonanouting.（2）表示原因Christmasthenonlydaysaway(AsChristmaswasonlydaysaway),thefamilywaspentupwithexcitement.Theweatherhavingimproved(Astheweatherhadimproved),weenjoyedtheremainderofthegame.(3)表示条件Withthemonourside(Iftheyareonourside),wearesecure.Weatherpermitting(Ifweatherpermits),we’llgofishingtomorrow.(4)表示伴随情况Thelamphungupsidedownintheair,burningquietlywithitsflamepointingdown.Withoutatearonherface,thegirlwatchedherfatherbeingledaway.TheSubjunctiveMoodinIt’stime...,Iwish...,I’drather...,Ifonly...虚拟语气表示假设的情况或主观的愿望。我们已经学过虚拟语气在由if引导的虚拟条件句中的用法，如： Incaseaftercasethedifficultycouldhavebeenovercome—ormightneverhavearisen—ifthepeopleinvolvedhadjusttreatedoneanotherwithcommoncourtesy.IthinkthatifIwereallowedtoaddonesmallbeatitudeasafootnotetotheotheritmightbe:Blessedarethecourteous.虚拟语气还有许多其他的用法，本课再介绍以下几种。17.It’s(high)time+带有虚拟式动词的从句It’stime(that)youlearnedtobecourteous.It’stime(that)wegotdowntobusiness.18.Iwish+带有虚拟式动词的从句（1）Iwish+主语+动词过去时形式或were,表示与现在事实相反IwishIcouldspeakEnglishasfluentlyasyoudo.It’sunbearablyhot.Iwishitwerespring.(2)Iwish+主语+动词过去完成时形式，表示与过去事实相反I’mfeelingsosleepy.IwishI’dgonetobedearlierlastnight.Iwishedmyformerbosshadshownsomeappreciationformywork.Ifhehad,Iwouldn’thavelefthim.19.wouldrather+带有虚拟式动词形式的从句I’dratherhetoldmethetruth.Iwouldratheryoudidnothingforthetimebeingandjustthoughtaboutit.20.Ifonly+带有虚拟式动词的从句 （1）Ifonly+主语+动词过去式形式，表示与现在事实相反IfonlyEnglishwasn’tsodifficulttolearn.Ifonlymygrandmothercouldunderstandmydesireforprivacy.(2)Ifonly+主语+动词过去完成式形式，表示与过去事实相反Pollutionisaseriousproblem.Ifonlymanhadcaredmoreaboutnature.IfonlyIhadgonetothatfootballmatch!Theyallsayitwasmagnificent.21.虚拟条件中隐含在句中的介词、动词不定式、动名词或分词等短语中Iwouldhavedonethesameinsimilarcircumstances.(介词短语)Legalizingthisdrugwouldhaveveryseriousconsequences.(动名词短语)Todrinkthelastcanteenofwaterwouldmeandeathtoallthesailors.(不定式)ReportedSpeech22.由直接引语变成间接引语时，一般要往前推一个时态，即：现在时变成过去时；过去时变成过去完成时；将来时变成过去将来时；现在完成时或过去完成时变成过去完成时，表示时间的状语也相应调整。“Iambeingpaidbythehour,”shesaid.Shesaidthatshewasbeingpaidbythehour.“Theexhibitionfinishedlastweek,”explainedAnn.Annexplainedthattheexhibitionhadfinishedtheweekbefore.(注意时间状语的变化) 直接引语在变成间接引语时，如果其内容在当时仍然没过时，时态则可往前推也可保持不变。试比较下面两句话：Hesaid,“Theearthislikearollingball.”Hesaidthattheearthwaslikearollingball.Hesaidthattheearthislikearollingball.“Nothingcanharmagoodman,”saidSocrates.Socratessaidthatnothingcouldharmagoodman.Socratessaidthatnothingcanharmagoodman.23.直接引语变成间接引语时，在人称上也要根据情况做适当调整，把第一人称和第二人称变为第三人称，或者把第二人称变为第一人称。“I’llbehavemyself,”hepromised.Hepromisedthathewouldbehavehimself.“Ilikeyourtie,”shetoldJohn.ShetoldJohnthatshelikedhistie.注意美国人往往在间接引语里也用现在时态表示过去的情况。“Mymothercandriveacar,”hesaid.Hesaidthathismothercoulddriveacar.(英式英语)Hesaidthathismothercandriveacar.(美式英语)英国人不接受美国人的这一用法。24.直接引语变成间接引语时，在时间状语上也要做适当调整。以下是几个常见的时间状语的变化形式。直接引语间接引语nowthen todaythatdayyesterdaythedaybefore/thepreviousdaythedaybeforeyesterdaytwodaysbeforelastnight/week/monththenight/week/monthbeforetwodaysagotwodaysbeforetomorrowthenextday/thefollowingdaythedayaftertomorrowtwodayslaternextweek/month/yearthenextweek/month/year“Wesawthemovieyesterday,”hesaid.Hesaidthattheyhadseenthemoviethedaybefore.“I’mreadingthenewspapernow,”theboysaid.Theboysaidthathewasreadingthenewspaperthen.25.直接引语变成间接引语时，指示代词this要变成that，these变成those；地点状语here变成there。“Iwantthisbook,”hesaid.Hesaidthathewantedthatbook.“Thiskindgentlemanbroughtmehere,”hermothertoldher.Hermothertoldherthatthatkindgentemanhadbroughtherthere.Cohesion 英语的句子中各个部分、句子之间、段落之间都须前后照应，有机地联系起来，这就是衔接。衔接有多种手段，如用and,however等衔接词。本课介绍另一种衔接手段——前后照应。要了解某一词语所表示的含义，必须从该词语所指的对象中去寻找。26.照应前面出现的人或事物（1）用人称代词和物主代词IfIloveyou,Icanseeyouasaseparateperson,withyourownvaluesandthoughtsandfeelings.Peoplearereadytoenjoyanythingamusingthatcametheirway.it作为人称代词，表示照应关系时不仅可以指物也可以指人或是整个句子或从句。Distancecanintensifyalovingbond,anditcanhelpusrediscoverourselves.Thepoornannyshookthebabytoohardthatitdiedsoonafteritwassenttothehospital.Igotintotheroombybreakingthekitchenwindow,notknowingthatitwouldcausemesomuchtrouble.(2)用定冠词照应前面Amanandawomanwerestrugglingupthehill.Themanwasverystrongbutthewomanseemedveryweak.AnairplanecrashedintothePacificyesterday.All88peopleonboardtheplanedied.(3)用指示代词this,that,these和those以及相应的限定词组如this statement和thosestatements等来照应前面ThewordingofthisletterisalmostthesameasthatusedearlierbymyEnglishteacher.Doyourememberthe1940s,thoseterribleyears?Sixweeks!Ican’twaitthatlong.在表示时间、空间概念时，指示代词this/these一般表示的含义近一些而that/those表示的含义远一些。Sometimeswelaughwhenwerecognizeourselvesinwhatwehearorsee.Thisstatement,therefore,oftenreceivesasmile：“Adviceisalwaysgivenbutnevertaken.”Wewenttothesuburblastweekandthatwasourfirstoutingthisyear.在含有比较级的句子中，that/those可以照应上文提到过的具有特指意义的可数名词，而this/these不能这么用。Themanager’ssalaryistwiceasmuchasthatofhissecretary.Thesecomputersarenicertolookatthanthosewehaveinourcompany.(4)用so和not代替前面提到过的事情或情况Weareverybusyandwillremainsoforacoupleofweeks.“Youhaven’tlostyourticket,haveyou?”“Ihopenot.”(5)用theformer,thelatter,theformer照应前者，thelatter照应后者（theformer,thelatter常一起使用，故把它们放在一起来讨论）。JohnandWilliamarebothhardworkingstudents.Theformerexcelsinmath,thelatterinhistory. Theplaceyouaregoingtostayinissomethingbetweenahotelandahome.Thoughitsomewhatlackstheconvenienceoftheformeryetithasallthecomfortsofthelatter.27.照应后面将要出现的人、物或者事（1）用人称代词和物主代词AfterhehadretiredfromtheserviceIwasacquaintedwiththelatecolonelJohnBrowne.Theyunderstoodoneanotherallright,Jackandher.(2)用指示代词this和theseWell,youmightnotbelievethisbutIdon’tdrinkverymuch.Idon’tknowwhetherthisisrightbutIdothinktheboyshouldbereturnedtohisfather.(3)用following和below等词来照应后面Pleasereadthefollowingdialogueandthenanswerthesequestions.Nowlet’sexaminethereportgivenbelow.ReportedQuestions,CommandsandExclamations28.引用他人的问句时可直接引用，也可间接引用。（1）由wh引导的特殊疑问句变成间接引语时，把疑问句形式改成陈述句形式，人称代词、时态和状语作适当调整。“Whatwouldyoulikemetobuyforyou?”heaskedme.HeaskedmewhatIwouldlikehimtobuyforme.“Howoftendoyouvisityourparents?”theteacheraskedBob. TheteacheraskedBobhowoftenhevisitedhisparents.(2)一般疑问句变成间接引语时，先加if或whether，再把疑问句变成陈述句形式，人称代词、时态和状语也要注意适当调整。“Areyoureadynow?”Motheraskedherboy.Motheraskedherboyif/whetherhewasreadythen.“Willyoubewaitingformethisafternoon?”SusanaskedJohn.SusanaskedJohnif/whetherhewouldbewaitingforherthatafternoon.29.祈使句变成间接引语时，将祈使句改换成动词不定式，然后置于引导间接引语的I/we/he/she/theytold/asedhim等之后。“Bequiet!”Itoldhim.Itoldhimtobequiet.“Sitdownanddon’tmove,”thepolicemansaidtotheyoungman.Thepolicemantoldtheyoungmantositdownandnottomove.30.感叹句变成间接引语时，有两种转换形式：一种以原来的感叹词what或how为引导词，原来的词序不变；一种以that为引导词，词序由感叹句形式变成陈述句形式。“Whatagoodideaitis!”Hesaidwhatagoodideaitwas.Hesaidthatitwasagoodidea.“Howfantasticthestudents’performanceis!”Hesaidhowfantasticthestudents’performancewas.Hesaidthatthestudents’performancewasfantastic. ModalVerbs:need,dare,usedto,oughtto31.need作情态动词时，主要用于否定句和疑问句，表示“没有必要……”或“有必要……吗？”Youneedn’tcomeallthewayjusttoseethefilm.Needweaccompanyouragingparentswherevertheygo?(1)needn’thave+ed分词表示虽然已完成但却是没必要的行为。Youneedn’thavepaidtheadmissionfee,forthelecturewasfreeformembersoftheclub.Heneedn’thaveboughtsuchalargeTVset.Hischildrenwouldhavebeenquitehappywithasmallerone.(2)needn’thave+ed分词与didn’tneedtodosth.的区别：后者表示“不一定非干某事，而通常也并没有这样做”。Ineedn’thaveboughtthecheese,forthereisplentyathome.(我本来是根本没必要买奶酪的，家里还有很多。)Ididn’tneedtobuyanycheese,forinmyhomenooneenjoysit.(我不用买奶酪，因为家里没人爱吃。)注意：在didn’tneedto结构中，need不是情态动词而是实义动词。32.dare作情态动词主要用于否定句、疑问句和感叹句，其否定式是darenot和daren’t,过去式为dared，过去否定式为darednot。Darenot和darednot为正式语言，daren’t普遍使用。Hedarednottelltheoldwomanthebadnewsbecauseshehadaweakheart. Shedaren’taskherbossforleaveasheseemstobeinabadmood.Howdareyoureadmydiary!在肯定陈述句中，dare只有Idaresay/daresay这一固定搭配，用于口语，表示“我想”，“我敢说”，“我估计”，“我承认”。Idaresaysomeoneiscookinginthehouse;itsmellsdelicious.Idaresaywe’regoingtohaveaveryhotsummerthisyear.注意：dare做实意动词时，常用于肯定句。Hedaredtobehavelikethatinmyhouse!33.usedto表示过去经常的活动或方式、习惯Sheusedtodislikespeakinginpublic,butnowshequiteenjoysit.Weusedtohaveablueskyandclearwater,butallthisisgonenow.其否定式为usednot/usedn’t/didn’tuseto,但usednot最普通。SheusednottogetupearlyonSundaysbutnow,sinceshehaschangedherjob,shehasto.Iusednottogotoworkbycar.Irodeabike,whichwasgoodexercise.其疑问式最自然的形式是didyouusedto/didheuseto另一种形式usedyou/usedthey/usedhe不如前一种。Didyouusetoknowhim?Youseemtounderstandhimverywell.Didn’tthereusetobealotoftreesbehindthehouse?注意：usedto与be/getusedto的区别。be/getusedto表示“习惯于……”，它可以有各种时态形式。I’musedtohardworkandheatandthat’swhyIcanworkinIndia. WhenyouareinLondon,youmustgetusedtodrivingontheleft.34.oughtto与should的意思和用法基本相似，常可相互替换（1）oughtto表示“义务”。Whatweoughttodoistogivepeoplememorablethingsaccordingtoourability.Yououghttodrivewithinthespeedlimit.It’sforyourowngood.(2)oughtto表示“推测”。Iftheprofessorsaysso,thenitoughttobetrue.Davidoughttobeinhisofficeatthistimeofday.(3)oughtto+have+ed分词，表示该履行而未履行的义务。Ioughttohavereturnedthebookslastweek.NowtheyareoverdueandIhavetopayafine.Yououghttohavewarnedtheboyofthedangerofplayingwithfire.Thenhewouldn’thaveburnthishands.(4)否定式为oughtn’tto/shouldn’t,疑问式为shouldyou/he/she等。—Yououghtn’ttoeatbetweenmeals.—IknowIoughtn’tto,butIoftengethungry.Yououghtn’ttosmokesomuch;youareinvitingtrouble.RelatednessofNonFiniteVerbstotheSubjectofaSentence 35.一般来说动词非谓语形式（不定式、分词和动名词）的逻辑上的主语应该跟主句谓语动词的主语保持一致。Thechildren,havingeatentheirmeal,wereallowedtoleavethetable.Reachingtheriver,wepitchedcampforthenight.Persuadedbyouroptimism,hegladlycontributedtimeandmoneytothescheme.36.动词非谓语形式的逻辑上的主语在固定用法中跟主句的主语不一致。Strictlyspeaking,nobodyisallowedinhere.Providedthatafilmentertains,fewpeoplecareaboutitsothermerits.Toputitfrankly,thereisnothingmoreIcandoaboutit.SequenceofTenses37.一个句子中的多个动词如果表示同时或几乎同时发生的动作或状态，其时态应保持一致。Wheneverthealarmclockringsinthemorning,Iyawn,stretch,androlloverforanotherfiveminutesofsleep.(一般现在时)ThefollowingTuesdayIracedhomefromschool,putthebagovermyshoulder,dumpedthemagazinesinandembarkedonthehighwayofjournalism.(过去时)Ontheonehand,thegovernmentwilldowhatitcantohuntforthehackers(黑客)and,ontheotherhand,internetuserswillhavetolearnhowtoprotectthemselves.(将来时) 38.在并列句中，如两个或两个以上的动词所表示的动作不是同时或几乎同时发生（或不是同时期的状态）动词的时态按照动作发生的具体情况而定。Inthepast,mostfamiliesinChinadidn’thaveaTVset,butnow,alotofthemhavenotonlyTVsets,butalsocomputers.(一般过去时和一般现在时)Hebrokehislegintheaccident,andaccordingtothedoctors,hewillneverbeabletowalkagain.(过去时和将来时)39.在主从复合句中，从句动词的时态取决于主句动词的时态。一般来说，主句动词为现在时，从句动词的时态则根据从句动词和主句动词所表示的动作先后次序来确定。Manypeoplebelievethatmorningexercisesdothemalotofgood.Hethinksthatitwillraintomorrow.Weknowthatwehavemissedanopportunityandthatitmaynevercomeagain.IamingoodshapebecauseIusedtodoalotofexercises.HesaysthattheyareworkingonanewmodelofBoeing(波音飞机).当主句动词为现在完成时时，从句动词一般为过去时。Scientistshavestudiedtheuniverseeversincetelescopewasinvented.40.若主句动词为过去时，从句动词一般为过去时或过去完成时，情态动词也要相应地改成过去时。引导间接引语的动词是过去时态时，也要用时态呼应的规则Centuriesago,peopleheldabeliefthatthesunmovedaroundtheearth. Hethoughtthatitwouldrainthenextday.若主句动词为过去完成时，从句动词一般用过去时。Hehaddoneallthatwasnecessary.Bythetimetheyfoundthehacker,hehadalreadybrokenintothecomputersystemofthebank.在使用过去时态呼应规则时，应注意过去时态只与过去的事件有关，与现在的情况无关。IgotthejobbecauseIwasagooddriver.(并不表示我现在就不是好司机)Iwantedtojointhepolice,butIwasn’ttallenough.(不表示我现在就高了)41.若主句动词是将来时或将来完成时，从句动词一般现在时或现在完成时I’llwritetoyouassoonasIfinish/havefinishedthefinalexams.Theworkmenwillhavecompletedtheirrepairsbythetimetheairportisreopened.UnusualPrepositions:but,except,from,insteadof42.but除去，除开 （1）but作介词不能放在句首，它后面除了像其他介词一样可跟名词和代词外，还可跟介词短语、形容词、不定式和从句。Everyonebutmewastired.(代词)Finally,wehadpackedeverythingbutthetypewriter.(名词)Thecarisanythingbutslow.(形容词)Putitanywherebutonthefloor.(介词短语)Wehadnochoicebuttoobeyhim.(不定式短语)WeknownothingofournewneighbourbutthathewasaCambridgegraduate.(从句)注意：在donothingbut和thereisnothingtodobut后面的不定式通常省略to。Thesewomentheredidnothingbutcomplain.Therewasnothingtodobutwaituntilhecameback.(2)区分介词but与连词butEveryonehadagoodtimebutJohn.(介词)ThestudentshadagoodtimebutnotJohn/butJohndidnot.(连词)43.except除去，除掉（1）与but一样，expect后面除了像其他介词一样可跟名词和代词外，还可跟介词短语、不定式和从句。Theywereallrescuedexceptthecaptain,whostayedbehindtosafeguardthevessel.（名词）Everybodyishereexcepthim.(代词)Theweatherintheareawillbefinetomorrowexceptinthe southeast,wherewewillhavesomedrizzle.(介词短语)Topointouthismistakedirectlywillhavenoeffectexcepttomakehimangry.(不定式)Idon’tknowmuchaboutLondonexceptthatitisthecapitalofBritain.(从句)注意：在donothing/everything/anythingexcept的句型中，其后的不定式多省略to。Theycoulddonothingexceptwaitforhelptoarrive.I’lldoeverythingforyouexceptwashyourunderwear.(2)except和exceptfor的区别except后面的成分和主语或宾语的成分属于同一种类，而exceptfor后面的成分跟主语或宾语的成分不属同类。Theofficewasempty,exceptforadeskandachair.(theoffice与adeskandachair不同类)AllthestudentsintheclasswenttothelectureexceptLiHong.(LiHong也是个student)(3)but和except的区别but后面的成分一般不重要，而except则强调它后面所跟的成分，but多放在否定句或否定词nobody,nothing等之后，而except则不一定。Forawhile,therewasn’tanythingtodoforeitherofusbutdrinkbeer.Mypapersseemtobeeverywhereexceptwheretheyoughttobe.44.from的几个主要用法 （1）表示来源，根源Thetouristsarecomingtothiscountryfromallpartsoftheworld.ItisaquotationfromShakespeare.(2)表示原因Thevictimssufferedfromcoldandhunger.Themanwasrushedtohospitalbuthediedfromhisinjuriesshortlyafterwards.(3)表示“从……到……”Ihavetodriveahundredmilesfromhometowork.Wherewereyoulastnightfromtentotwelve?(4)表示“用……材料”（成品中看不出原材料）Wineismadefromgrapes.Paperismadefromwoodorrages.注意from与同样表示材料的of与outof的区别。of表示成品中看得出来原材料。I’dliketohavealookattheblouseofpinksilk,please.Thehouseisbuiltofstone.outof强调得用某物做……Shemadeajacketforhersonoutofanoldcoatofherhusband’s.TheymadecurtainsoutofthecottonprinttheyhadbroughtfromEgypt.(5)可跟表示方位的介词词组或副词under,behind,above,before连用Hepulledapistolfromunderthepillow. Suddenlyaboyjumpedonhimfrombehindthedoor.ThistreehasbeenherefrombeforetheFirstWorldWar.Thecouplehasjustreturnedfromabroad.Orderstowithdrawcamefromabove.45.insteadof取代，代替（1）后面跟名词、代词、动名词Insteadofascolding,Iwasrewardedwithapatonthebackforhavingthegoodsensetobuyfruitinsteadofcandy.(名词)Toeveryone’sdisappointment,hissecretarycametothemeetinginsteadoftheministerhimself.(代词)Insteadofsittingthere,youcouldhelpmecleanthekitchen.(动名词)（2）跟介词短语I’dliketogotherebytraininsteadofbyair.Wefoundhiminthelibraryinsteadofinhisstudyasweoftendo.