英语语法Lecture30-32 111页

SummaryofLecture27-29 ExistentialSentence?Therestoodthepoorladyagainstamoonasbrightasthesun.Pattern:There+be+NP(notionalsubjectorrealsubject)+locative/temporalexpression(adverbial)Thenotionalsubject,whichisactuallythefocusofinformation,isusuallyanounphrasewithindefinitespecificreference.Thedeterminersincludetheindefinitearticle,thezeroarticle,andotherindefinitedeterminerssuchassome,any,no,several,many,much,more,(a)few,(a)little,less,another,alotof,plentyof,anumberof,enough,etc.. Thereusedtobeapetrolstationnearthepark,______?A.didn"titB.doesn"tthereC.usedn"titD.didn"tthereThereisn’tanythingwrongwiththeradio,______?A.isthereB.isitC.doesitD.doesthereThereappearedtobenobetterway,_______?A.wasthereB.werethereC.didthereD.didn’tthereKey:DAC TagquestionsTheymusthavestayedathotellastnight,______?a.mustn’ttheyb.haven’ttheyc.didn’ttheyd.hadn’ttheyIsupposeyou’renotgoingtoday,______?a.areyoub.doyouc.don’tyoud.aren’tyouIwishtoshakehandswithyou,______?a.shallIb.mayIc.doId.willIKey:CAB EmptyitandanticipatoryitInthesentence“It’snousewaitingforher”,theitalicizedphraseis____.A.theobjectB.anadverbialC.acomplementD.thesubjectYes,hewouldgivethemthreethousandpounds:itwouldbeliberalandhandsome!Itwouldbeenoughtomakethemcompletelyeasy.fromSenseandSensibilityKey:D CleftsentenceandPseudo-cleftsentenceIhavetwogrammarclassestodayatroom210inWenlibuilding.Ihavetwogrammarclassestoday.Ihavetwogrammarclassestoday.Ihavetwogrammarclassestoday.Ihavetwogrammarclassestodayatroom210inWenlibuilding.It+be+focalelement+that/who-clauseIhavetwogrammarclassestoday. Referingitornon-referingit?Emptyit,introductoryitoranticipatoryit?Itisthestoryshetoldmelastnight.Itisthestorythatshetoldmelastnight.Itwasthestoryshewouldalwaystellmewhenshewasbored,whentherewasnothingtodo,wheneverybowlhadbeenwashedandtheFormicatablehadbeenwipeddowntwice,whenmyfathersatreadingthenewspaperandsmokingonePallMallcigaretteafteranother,awarningnottodisturbhim. Lecture30-32CoordinationandSubordination coordinateorsubordinate?1.phraselevel(withoneormoreheads?中心词)abookwithmanypicturesabookandmanypictures2.sentencelevel(main/minorclause?)Idieandmanyotherslive.Idiesothatmanyothersmaylive. Coordinationconstruction并列结构1.什么是并列结构?2.并列结构的各种形式表达什么意义?3.使用并列结构连词时应该注意的问题 Subordinationconstruction从属结构1.什么是从属结构?2.名词性从句/分句3.形容词性从句(定语从句)4.副词性从句(状语从句) ToclarifySentenceClauseTypesofsentencesCoordinateconstructionSubordinateconstructionAbsoluteconstruction TheSentenceisagroupofwordsexpressingacompletethought.expressingacompletethoughtwordswordswordswordswords Everysentencehastwoessentialparts:andThesubjectofasentenceisthepartaboutwhichsomethingisbeingsaid.Theflowerbloomed.Bobpainted.Thegirlsontheteamwereallgoodstudents.Thepredicateofasentenceisthepartwhichsayssomethingaboutthesubject.Billtoldeveryoneaboutthewreck.Marysobbed.Sueplaysthepianowell.subjectpredicate Thesimplesubjectisthemainwordinthecompletesubject.Thesimplepredicate,orverb,isthemainwordorgroupofwordsinthecompletepredicate.Thecompletesubjectisthemainwordandallitsmodifiers.Thecompletepredicateistheverbandallitsmodifiers.Thefournewstudentsarrivedearly.CompletesubjectThefournewstudentsSimplesubjectstudentsSara’ssistertookusbowlingyesterday.SimplepredicatetookCompletePredicatetookusbowlingyesterday Clauses:dependentandindependentWhatisaclause?Aclauseisagroupofrelatedwordscontainingasubjectandaverb.Itisdifferentfromaphraseinthataphrasedoesnotincludeasubjectandaverbrelationship.1.Sentence=Clause2.Sentence≠Clause3.Sentence≧Clause TypesofsentencesCommunicativefunctionstatement,question,commandandexclamation.Grammaticalstructuresimple,compoundandcomplex.Twoormorecoordinatedclausesmakeacompoundsentence.Amainclauseandone(ormore)dependentclause(s)constituteacomplexsentence. Coordination Lecture30CoordinationAcoordinateconstructionisasequenceofsemantically-relatedgrammaticalunitsthataresimilarinform,equalinrankofstructure,identicalinfunctionandareconnectedbycoordinators.Coordinators(conjunctions)and,but,or,nor,so,therefore,yet,however,for,hence,aswellas,both…and,notonly…butalso,either…or,neither…nor,（and）then 30.1Typesofcoordinateconstructions1)Formationofcoordinateconstructions2)Coordinatingdevices3)Insertionbetweencoordinateditems4)Symmetricalorganizationofcoordinateconstructions 1)FormationofcoordinateconstructionsDifferentranks:asequenceofcoordinatedwords,asequenceofcoordinatedphrases,orasequenceofcoordinatedclauses.CompoundsentenceTwoormorecoordinatedclausesmakeacompoundsentence. 2)CoordinatingdevicesAcoordinateconstructionisformedwithcoordinatingdevicesincluding1.Byacomma(commas)andcoordinatingconjunction(and,but,or,nor,for,yet,andsometimesso).2.Byasemicolontoshowcontrast3.Byasemicolonaccompaniedbyaconjunctiveadverb(suchashowever,moreover,nevertheless,asaresult,consequently,etc.).4.And,bycolontoamplify Youcanfoolallofthepeoplesomeofthetime.Youcanfoolsomeofthepeopleallofthetime.Youcan’tfoolallofthepeopleallofthetime.Youcanfoolallofthepeoplesomeofthetimeandsomeofthepeopleallofthetime,butyoucan’tfoolallofthepeopleallofthetime.-----AbrahamLincoln AvoidingRun-onSentencesArun-onsentenceisoneinwhichtwoclauseshavebeenconnectedincorrectly.Somestudentsthinktheycanstudyforanimportantexamby“cramming”allnighttheyareprobablywrong. AvoidingRun-onSentences1.Wecaninsertaperiodandstartanewsentence.Somestudentsthinktheycanstudyforanimportantexamby“cramming”allnight.Theyareprobablywrong.2.Wecaninsertacommaplusacoordinatingconjunction.Somestudentsthinktheycanstudyforanimportantexamby“cramming”allnight,buttheyareprobablywrong.3.Wecanuseasemicolon.Somestudentsthinktheycanstudyforanimportantexamby“cramming”allnight;theyareprobablywrong. 3)Insertionbetweencoordinateditemsconjunctiveadverbprepositionalphraseadverbialclausedisjunctiveadverb 4)SymmetricalorganizationofcoordinateconstructionsTelevisionhasbeencalledintheUnitedStatesasourceofinformation.Itisalsocalledameansofentertainment.Itsseverestcriticscallita“plug-in”drug.IntheUnitedStatestelevisionhasbeencalledasourceofinformation,ameansofentertainmentand,asitsseverestcriticscallit,a“plug-in”drug. 30.2CoordinatorssemanticallyconsideredAccordingtogrammaticalfunctionsThreebasiccoordinators:and,or,but.Bothasconjunctionsandasconjunctivesadverbs:yet,so,nor.Correlativepairs:both…and,notonly…butalso,not…nor,neither…nor,either…or,etc.Quasi-coordinators:aswellas,asmuchas,ratherthan,morethan,etc.Conjunctionbothasacoordinatorandasasubordinator:for. 30.2CoordinatorssemanticallyconsideredAccordingtosemanticfunctionscoordinatorsdenoting“addition”,andcoordinatorsdenoting“alternation”,orcoordinatorsdenoting“contrast”,but 1)And-groupcoordinatorsThisgroupincludesand,both…and,notonly…butalso,not…nor,neither…nor,etc.E.g.HeisJackofalltradesandmasterofnone.(contrast)Heopenedthedoorandwentin.(temporalsequence) AttentionTomaketheseriesmoveslowlyandseemlengthyanddrawn-out,werepeatthecoordinatorallthroughtheseries,eliminatingthecommas.Inadditiontosemanticextension,andcandenoteothermeanings,suchastemporalsequence,result,condition,contrast,anditcanalsofunctionasanattitudinaldisjunct.E.g.Customer:Canyougivemearoomandabath?Hotelclerk:Icangiveyouaroom,butyouhavetotakeyourownbath,sir.Grammaticalconstructionslike“niceand…,goodand…,goand…,”seemtobe,butactuallyarenot,coordinateconstructions:Heisgoodandhungry.(very,extremely.)You’reallniceandhardworking.Keepitsweetandshort. 卜and前的修饰后面的，表示程度,限于少数表性质和程度的形容词和副词。最典型的是niceandgood.还有：fine,rare,sweet,bright,big,clear,lovely,pure,well等：It’srareandhotinside.Sheisbigandbusy.Ishallgointobusinessbrightandearlyinthemorning.Ididn’tlikethespeech,butatleastitwasniceandshort. 这种结构第二个形容词在名词前作定语时,and往往可以省略Iprefergoodblackcoffee….浓浓的咖啡。Youscoldmesomuchinthenicelongletter.…长长的信。And连接两个相同名词表“不同类型”的概念，且常有“有好的，也有坏的”的含义：Thereareteachersandteachers.Youcanfinddoctorsanddoctors.Therearetranslationsandtranslations.Therearewomenandwomen. 但如重复两次，则表“众多”:Wesawdogsanddogsanddogsallovertheplace.两个或两个以上的简单句关系如不很紧密，并列连词可引导单独一个句子：You’realive!Andshe’sdead.I’msorrytotroubleyou.Butcanyoudirectmetothenearestpostoffice? 口语中，and与be或go的完成体搭配表示说话人对另一人所做某蠢事感到恼怒或埋怨：ThatidiotAntoniohasgoneandlockedourdoor.…这个笨蛋，竟把我们的门锁了。You’vegoneandwakedhim.He’ssotired.你怎么把他弄醒了！他可累坏了。You’vebeenandboughtsuchapairofshoes.你怎么买了这么一双鞋！Who’sbeenandtakenmydictionary?真讨厌，谁拿了我的字典？ Andthat(而且)用来补充说明前面的内容以加强语气。其中that代替上文中某个词、短语或句子，以避免重复。有时只用and:Returntoyourwork,andthatatonce.回去干活，马上去！Hewillcome,andthatsoon.……而且马上就来。 表示并列成分都被否定时，在not,nothing,without,never等后宜用or,不用and,因为and连接的并列成分在否定词后有歧义：Hedoesn’thavelonghairorwearjeans.=He…andhedoesn’twear….Hedoesn’thavelonghairandwearjeans.=1)同上。2)Eitherhedoesn’thavelonghairORhedoesn’twearjeans.要么…要么…Shecan’tsingordance.=She…andshe….She…………..and…….=1)….2)Eithershecan’tsingorshecan’tdance. And连接的分句表主从意义。第一分句是第二分句的条件或时间：Gobytrainandyou’llgettherequicker.=Ifyougo…Onemoreeffort,andyou’llsucceed.=Ifyoumake…Onemoreboot,andI’llhaveapair.如并列分句均为祈使句，第一句仍可表条件，第二句表结果：Surrenderandlive;resistanddie.=Ifyousurrender,you’lllive;…Don’tdrinkanddrive.=Ifyoudon’tdrink,youcandrive.Or:Ifyoudrink,youcan’tdrive.不许酒后开车。C.f.Don’tdrinkordrive.=Don’tdrinkanddon’tdrive. 有时用and表示部分否定，即否定其中一个，通常是否定后者：Heisnotateacherandawriter.他是教师，不是作家。Hedidn’tspeakclearlyandcorrectly.他讲得清楚，但不正确。 2)Or-groupcoordinatorsThisgroupincludesorandeither…or,denoting“alternation”.Besides“alternation”,orandeither…orcanalsodenoteanegativecondition.Theuseofeither…or,neither…nor,isdifferentfromthatofboth…and,notonly…butalsointhatthelatermustbefollowedbysimilarconstruction.(Page343)E.g.Notonlydidthegarageoverchargeme,buttheyhadn’tdoneaverygoodrepairjobeither.（句首）Eitherthepresidentwillresignthroughill-health,orhewilldieinoffice.（句首）Hebothlikesfictionandpoetry.(correct)Henotonlylikesfictionbutalsopoetry.(correct) 在否定句中，一般用or不用and连接同等成分。Or一般不表示所择关系：Hehasnomoneyorfood.=Hehasneithermoneynorfood.Ididn’tfindhimcleverorgood-looking.=Ifoundhimneitherclevernor….Asheepwasnotmovingaboutoreatinggrassliketheothers.有一只羊的行动和(？或)吃草的样子跟别的羊不一样。Spidersneverdotheleastharmtousorourbelongs.蜘蛛从不危害我们，也(？或)不危害我们的财物。 3)But-groupcoordinatorsThisgroupincludesbut,not…but,while,whereas,yet,only,etc,denoting“contrast”oraturninmeaning,e.g:Thiscoatisnotminebutyours.Itneverrainsbutitpours. 1.Earlyasitwas,butalotofpeoplewerewaitingtobuynewstampsinfrontofthepostoffice.（correctthemistake）But错。并列连词不可用于as,though,although引导的从属句中。2.MynameisRobert,___mostofmyfriendscallmeBobforshort.A.thenB.insteadC.howeverD.but选D,C是连接副词，在连接分句时，前面用“;”或前后用“,”，but后一般不用逗号。Exercises 3.IneverseeherbutIwanttokissher.(Translation)错：我从未……但我想……正：我没有一次见到她而不想……IneverthinkofsummerbutIthinkofmychildhood.IneverseethepicturebutIthinkofmycollegeyears.上列各句中but是butthat的省略式。它引出的从句带有结果含义，主句总是否定，并含有never,too,so,such等词。换言之，当主句是否定时，but作”without”解，译为“一…就”,“如果不…就不会…”,“除…外，就不…”又如： 4.Nomanistooold__hecanlearn.A.thatB.asC.whenD.butD.人不管多老，都可以学习。IamnotsuchafoolbutthatIunderstandyou.我不至于蠢到连你都不了解。Itneverrainsbutitpours.直译：除了倾盆下外，就总不下雨。/每次下都是倾盆而下。/一下雨就是倾盆大雨。可译为：不雨则己，一雨倾盆。 5.Thereis_wouldbesurprisedatthenews.A.nomanbutwhoB.nomanbutC.nomanD.notanymanB.上句的but是关系代词，相当于that…not,who…not.在从句中充当主语。这种从句除but外不会再有其它主语。又如：There’snoonebutknowsthat.没有人不知道这件事。There’snooneofusbutwishestohelpyou.我们中没有一个人不愿意帮助你。Thereareveryfewbutadmirehistalents.很少有人不敬佩他的才华。Thereisnorulebuthasexceptions.没有无例外的规则。/凡规则都有例外。 6.Itisoneofthosetruesayingsthatthereisnoone__errs.A.thatB.whoC.whatD.but7.Therewasnotasinglepersontherebutwhothoughtyouwereintheright.(改错)8.Withtheintroductionoftheelectroniccomputer,therearenocomplicatedproblems__canbesolved.A.thatB.asC.butD.which 9.翻译Hewasanythingbutahero./Thereisanythingbuteasy.基本用法和意义相同，都强调“某人或某事绝非…”，但1)后跟名词或代词时可有两种译法：”除…外什么都是/行/可以;绝不,根本不，一点儿也不”。2)后跟形容词时则只译“绝不，根本不”。例：Mydoctorwon’tletmedrinkanythingbutchampagne.…只让我喝…“除…外，不让”Thelittlebridgeisanythingbutsafe.…一点也不安全。Heisanythingbutpolite.他没有一点礼貌。Heisanythingbutafool.他绝不是傻瓜。 10.Itisnot“terrible”atall.Itis__“terrible”A,butforB,allbutC,nothingbutD,anythingbut比较：Heisnothingbutafool.他只不过是/仅仅是个傻瓜。Heisallbutafool.Butfor引出的介词短语相当一个非真实条件句，谓语词要用虚拟：ButforJohntheywouldallhavedied.Butfor表例外(除…之外)意义与用法近似exceptfor,但不及它普通。 1.连接主语alongwith,togetherwith,asmuchas,aswellas,and:Ann,asmuchasherbrothers,wastoblame.Theocean,aswellasthegulf,providesgoodfishing.Theambassador,andperhapshiswifetoo,islikelytobepresent.Catty,andnobodyelse,isabletodothejob.2.连接主语以外的成份：Aswellas(并列连词或介词)Aswellasbreakinghisleg,hehurthisarm.(介)Sheiscleveraswellasbeautiful.AaswellasB侧重点常在A(notonlyAbutalsoB侧重点在B)。A往往当作新信息加以强调。一般译为“不仅B,而且A;既B又A;A和B一样也…;除B外还有A”:I’maChinese,butIhaveforeignfriendsaswellasChinesefriends.(如对调则强调不对)Quasi-coordination准并列 Noticethataforcehasdirectionaswellasmagnitude.要注意,力不但有大小,而且有方向。Electricenergycanbechangedintolightenergyaswellasintosoundenergy.电能既可变为声能,又可变为光能。HooverwantedmenwhocouldhandleateacupaswellasaTommy-gun.胡佛需要既会使用自动步枪又懂社交礼仪的人。跟and,or一样,连接的成分要对等：Thomaswasarealfriend,forheadvisedmeaswellashelp(ing)mewithmyArabic.？ 在现代英语里,aswellas有时也表达A和B同等重要，相当于and,andalso:Youhelpedhimaswellasme.=…both…可见,这个结构究竟在语意上强调A还是表示A,B同等重要,需对上下文进行具体分析才能确定。Aswellas还可作比较结构,意为“跟..一样好”：HespeaksEnglishaswellashisteacher.IlikeJoeaswellasJack.可有三解：1)我跟Jack一样地喜欢Joe.关联从属连词,asJack(likes).2)我喜欢Joe,同样喜欢Jack.从属连词,as从句省略Ilike.3)我不仅喜欢Jack,也喜欢Joe.准并列连词。 Ratherthan(从属连词、介词、或并列连词),相当于andnot或insteadof:Shetelephonedratherthanwrite从属/writing介词/wrote并列.用作从属连词或介词时，如果强调，其前可带逗号:Weoughttocheckup,ratherthanjustaccept/acceptingwhathesays.Ifnot和nottosay(=ifonemaynotsay)与只能引导名词词组的nottomention/nottospeakof/tosaynothingof意义不同:Itwouldbefoolish,ifnot/nottosaymad,tosellyourcar.不然的话,否则/虽说不上Hehasexperience,tosaynothingof/nottomentionscholarship.(更)不用说,当然HecanspeakGermanandFrench,nottospeakof/tosaynothingofEnglish. Stillless(=muchless),stillmore(=muchmore)：Idon’tlikehim,stilllessrespecthim.Ilikemusic,stillmore(muchmore)dancing..Morexthany=xratherthany:Iwasmoreangrythanfrightened.Heismoredeadthanalive.(=Heisdeadratherthanalive.) NotsomuchXasY=moreYthanX=YratherthanX:Idon’tmuchdislikehimashatehim.Heisnotsomuchunintelligentasuneducated.It’snotsomuchthatIdon’twanttocomeas(that)/but(that)Ijusthaven’tgotthetime. SummaryofcoordinationDifferentranks:words,phrases,orclauses.CompoundsentenceTwoormorecoordinatedclausesmakeacompoundsentence.Coordinatingdevicesacomma(commas)andcoordinatingconjunctionasemicolonasemicolonaccompaniedbyaconjunctiveadverbcolonAvoidingRun-onSentences Choosetheoptionwiththebestremedy.Thisisgoingtobethemostdifficultexamofyourcollegecareer,youhadbetterstartstudyingforitimmediately.A.Thereisnothingwrongwiththestructureofthissentence.B.Fragment:putacommaafterimmediatelyandfinishthesentence.C.Run-on:replacethatcommawithasemicolon. AvoidingSentenceFragmentsAsentencefragmenttriesitsbesttobeasentence,butitjustcan’tmakeit.It’smissingsomething.Often,it’smissingaverborpartofaverbstring:Johnworkingextrahardonhishookshotlately.Here,forinstance,we’remissinganauxiliary—hasbeen,inthiscase,probably—thatwouldcompletetheverbstringandthesentence. IncompleteVerbAsentencefragmenttriesitsbesttobeasentence,butitjustcan’tmakeit.It’smissingsomething.Spendinghourseverydayafterschoolandevenonweekends.Thistimewe’remissingawholeverb.“Spending”isaparticiplewantingtomodifysomething,butthereisnosubject-verbrelationshipwithinthesentence.Often,it’smissingaverborpartofaverbstring: AvoidingSentenceFragmentsSometimesasentencefragmentcangiveyouagreatdealofinformation,butit’sstillnotacompletesentence:Afterthecoachencouragedhimsomuchlastyearandheseemedtoimprovewitheachpassinggame.Herewehaveasubject-verbrelationship—infact,wehavetwoofthem—buttheentireclauseissubordinatedbythedependentwordafter.Wehavenoindependentclause. AvoidingSentenceFragmentsBealertforstringsofprepositionalphrasesthatnevergetaroundtoestablishingasubject-verbrelationship:ImmediatelyafterthefoundingofthecollegeandduringthoseearlyyearsasthepredominanteducationalinstitutionintheAmericanMidwest.Again,becarefulofsentenceswhichgivetheirshareofinformationbutstilldon’tcontainasubjectandverb. Subordination CoordinationandSubordinationSubordinateclause(adverbialclause)NotesonadverbialclausesP352Focus：subordinatorsintroducingadverbialclauses Coordinatevs.subordinateGenerallyspeaking,coordinationestablishesarelationshipbetweenideasofapproximatelyequalimportance,whilesubordinationestablishesakindofrelationshipwhichindicatesthatoneideaismoreimportantthantheother.Therainstopped.Thesuncameout. Coordinationvs.subordinationDevicesforcombiningandrelatingideasTherainstopped.Thesuncameout.Coordinationandsubordinationcanhavesimilarmeanings(butandalthougharequitealike,forexample,intheir“concession”meaning). 1.Coordinationtendstoworkatthephraselevel. Fewcompoundsentencesareusedincomparisontotheoverwhelmingdominancebycomplexsentences. Indeed,itisprobablethattherearemoresimplesentencesthantruecompoundsentences. However,coordinationiswidelyusedforcombiningelementswithinsentences--compoundsubjectsorverbsorpredicates,forexample.Coordination&SubordinationinAcademicWriting TessoftheD’Urbervilles/teisiduo"boweir/Chapter4PhasetheFirst:theMaidenInalargebedroomupstairs,thewindowofwhichwasthicklycurtainedwithagreatwoolenshawllatelydiscardedbythelandladyMrs.Rolliver,weregatheredonthiseveningnearlyadozenpersons,allseekingbeatitude;alloldinhabitantsofthenearerendofMarlott,andfrequentersofthisretreat.NotonlydidthedistancetoThePureDrop,thefully-licensedtavernatthefurtherpartofthedispersedvillage,renderitsaccommodationpracticallyunavailablefordwellersatthisend;butthefarmoreseriousquestion,thequalityoftheliquor,confirmedtheprevalentopinionthatitwasbettertodrinkwithRolliverinacornerofthehousetopthanwiththeotherlandlordinawidehouse. 2.Subordinationtendstoappearattheclauselevelwiththeuseofavarietyofsubordinateclausestoaddadditionalcontenttothecoreindependentclause. Anysampleofacademicwritingshowsthisfeature--mostofthesentenceswillbecomplexsentenceswithafewsimplesentences(orveryshortcomplexsentences)usedforstylisticvariation.Coordination&SubordinationinAcademicWriting ATaleofTwoCitiesItwasthebestoftimes,itwastheworstoftimes,itwastheageofwisdom,itwastheageoffoolishness,itwastheepochofbelief,itwastheepochofincredulity,itwastheseasonofLight,itwastheseasonofDarkness,itwasthespringofhope,itwasthewinterofdespair,wehadeverythingbeforeus,wehadnothingbeforeus,wewereallgoingdirecttoHeaven,wewereallgoingdirecttheotherway--inshort,theperiodwasso,farlikethepresentperiod,thatsomeofitsnoisiestauthoritiesinsistedonitsbeingreceived,forgoodorforevil,inthesuperlativedegreeofcomparisononly.(chapter1)byCharlesDickens 那是最美好的时代，那是最糟糕的时代；那是智慧的年头，那是愚昧的年头；那是信仰的时期，那是怀疑的时期；那是光明的季节，那是黑暗的季节；那是希望的春天，那是失望的冬天；我们拥有一切，我们一无所有;我们全部在直奔天堂,我们全都在直奔相反的方向--简而言之，那时跟现在非常相象，某些最喧嚣的权威坚持要用形容词的最高级来形容它。说它好，是最高级的；说它不好，也是最高级的。孙法理译 这是最好的年代，也是最坏的年代；这是智慧的时刻，也是愚蠢的时刻；这是信任的时代，也是怀疑的时代；这是光明的季节，也是黑暗的季节；这是希望的春天，也是失望的冬天；我们前方光芒万丈，却又感到希望渺茫；我们一起奔向天堂，却又在歧路不断彷徨。。。。——双城记 前言 PrideandPrejudiceItisatruthuniversallyacknowledged,thatasinglemaninpossessionofagoodfortunemustbeinwantofawife.(chapter1)byJaneAusten 1.MyNephewcannotsolvebasicadditionproblems,norcanhewritewelleither.2.Bythis,Webermeantthatasociologist"svaluesshouldnotaffecthisorhersocialresearch.3.Jimcandohishomeworkorhischoresinthenexttwohours.4.Ericisblindinoneeye,yetheisabletodriveacar.Coordinationorsubordination SubordinationSubordinationmeansputtingagrammaticalunitinalowerrankorposition.Agrammaticalunitthatfunctionsasaconstituentofanotherunitofequalorlowerrankofstructureiscalledasubordinateconstruction,whichmightbeafiniteclause,anon-finiteclause,averblessclause,oraphrase. 31.1CoordinationandsubordinationCoordinationIdeasofapproximatelyequalimportanceCoordinatorsorcoordinatingdevicesCompoundsentences(e.g.clauses)Therainstopped.Thesuncameout. 31.1CoordinationandsubordinationSubordinationOnideaismoreimportantthantheotherSubordinatorsComplexsentences(e.g.clauses) Subordination1)WaysofsubordinatingminorideasE.g.Astheywerecuriousabouttheirnewneighbours,theJohnsonswentandvisitedthematthefirstopportunity.finiteclause,anon-finiteclause,averblessclause,oraphrase2)Subordinators(introducesubordinateclauses)a)Simplesubordinatorsafter,immediately,unless,although,lest,until,because,like,when,before,like,since,where,directly,that,whereupon,for,though,while,if,till,whilst,etc. b)complexsubordinatorsSomeoftheseendin“that”assuming(that),insofarthat,butthat,intheeventthat,consideringthat,etc.Someendin“as”accordingas,forasmuchas,aslongas,inasmuchas,assoonas,insomuchas,etc.Othersinclude:asif,incase,asthough,etcc)correlativesubordinatorsas…as,as…so,barely/hardly/scarcely…when,more/less…than,nosooner…than,notso…as,so…that,such…as,such..that,the…the,whether…or,etc d)marginalsubordinators:freelexicalcombinationevenif,forthereasonthat,ifonly,byreasonthat,justas,forfear(that),etc 31.2Subordinateclauses(finite)Structurally,subordinateclausesmaybefinite,non-finite,orverbless.Afinitesubordinateclauseinonewhosepredicatorisafiniteverbphrase.Syntactically,subordinateclausescanbedividedintonominal,relative,andadverbialclauses. 31.2Subordinateclauses(finite)1)NominalclausesNominalclausescanfunctionassubject,object,subjectcomplement,appositive,andprepositionalcomplementation,e.g.Thiskindofclauseisoftenintroducedby‘that”,orbyawh-wordsuchaswho,what,which,where,when,how,why,etc.Itisquiteclearthatthecrimewasdonedeliberately.Ican’timaginewhatmadehimbehavelikethat. 2)Relativeclauses3)Adverbialclausesadverbialclausesoftime,place,manner,cause,result,purpose,condition,concessionWheneverImetwithanydifficulty,hecametomyhelp.Wherethereisawill,thereisaway. 31.3Somefewnotesonadverbialclauses1)AdverbialclausesoftimeA)Sametimewhen,whenever,if,while,aslongas,assoonas,justas,theinstant,themoment,directly,immediately,hardly/scarcely…when,nosoonerthan…When(ever)hegoestotown,hevisitshisaunt.B)Earliertimeandlatertimetill,until,when,since…Shelookedbothwaysbeforeshecrossedtheroad.Afterhepaintedthewindows,hepaintedthedoors. 2)AdverbialclausesofcauseA)Bothbecauseandforcandenote“directreason”—explanationforafact,and“indirectreason”–explanationforthespeaker’sopinionaboutafact.Wehurriedbecause/foritwasgettingdark.Itmustbeverylate,because/forthestreetsarequitedeserted.indirectreasonOtherdifferences(Page.355)BecauseorForwhenusedtodenotedirectreason?MobileCanstandaloneasaresponsetoawh-questionCanbenegatedbynotorbemodifiedbyanadverborbynot…but…Canfunctionasthefocalelementofacleftsentence CoordinatorfororSubordinatorforWhenIsawherintheriver,Iwasfrightened.Foratthispointthecurrentsweredangerous.Itmustbeverylateforthestreetsarequitedeserted. B)Comparedwithsinceandas,becauseisthestrongestintone,sinceranksnext,andasnexttosince.(Page.356)newinformationknowninformation C)Adverbialclausesofcausecanalsobeintroducedbyinthat,inasmuchas,nowthatandseeingthat.Whatareyougoingtodoseeing(that)theywon’tagree.Now(that)I’mhere,I’dbetterstayforafewdays.d)Adverbialclausesofcausecanalsobeintroducedbymarginalsubordinatorssuchasontheground(s)that,forthereasonthat,forfear(that),etc. 3)sothat（目的,结果）vs.so…that（结果）Sothatwecanseebetter,wewillsetnearertothefront.目的We’llsitnearertothefrontso(that)wecanseebetter.目的Theaccidentwassoterrible(that)wecan’ttalkaboutit.结果4)unless（真实，非真实）andif…notWecan’twritetoMr.Whiteunlesshesendsushisaddress.5)thoughandalthoughP.358Iforgotmyappointmenteventhoughmysecretaryremindedme.Thougheverybodydesertyou,Iwillnot. Lecture32Subordination(II) 非限定分句non-finiteclause无动词分句verblessclauses独立结构absoluteconstruction 非限定分句non-finiteclauseAnon-finiteclauseisaclausewithanon-finiteverbphraseaspredicator. 非限定分句nonfiniteclause不定式分句infinitiveclause-ing分词分句-ingparticipleclauses-ed分词分句-edparticipleclausessyntacticfunction Infinitiveclause不定式分句Aninfinitiveclauseisa“subject+predicate”constructionwithaninfinitiveaspredicator. Rewritethefollowing,usingtheinfinitiveclauseIhopethatIcanfinishthepaper.Weconsiderthatthegirlsistrustworthy.Wethinkitstrangethatheshouldsayathinglikethat.WhetherhehadchangedhismindaboutwhathewouldsayIdidnotknow. Infinitiveclause不定式分句Ihopetofinishthepaper.Weconsiderthegirlstobetrustworthy.Wethinkitstrangeforhimtosayathinglikethat.WhetherhehadchangedhismindaboutwhattosayIdidnotknow. 32.1Infinitiveclauses1)TypesofinfinitiveclausesA)InfinitiveclausewithoutexpressedsubjectIhopetobeabletocome.B)InfinitiveclausewithexpressedsubjectThebestthingwouldbeforyoutotelleverybody.C)Infinitiveclauseintroducedbywh-wordorsubordinatorIdon’tknowwhattodo/howtodoit/wheretogo. 2)syntacticfunctionsofinfinitiveclausesSubjectSubjectcomplementObjectObjectcomplementAdverbialofpurpose,resultandcauseInorderto/soastoso…asto,such..asto;too…to,enoughtoModifierinNPComplementationinadjectivephrase Ourpurposeinlifeistoservethepeople．Wethinkitnecessarytobeginrightnow．Weprovedthesestatementstobecorrect．Hecanbedependedontosolvethisproblem．Thereisnokeytoopenthedoorwith．Weuseelectricityinordertorunmachines．Tohearhimsing,youmighttakehimforagirl．Tobehonest,Idon’treallylikeyou．Howtodoitisadifficultquestion． 32.2–ingparticipleclauses1)Typesof–ingparticipleclausesA)–IngparticipleclausewithoutexpressedsubjectorsubordinatorHedeniedhavingbeenthere.B)–ingparticipleclausewithsubordinatorWhensleeping,Ineverhearathing.C)–ingparticipleclausewithexpressedsubjectDoyoumindmy/memakingasuggestion? 2)syntacticfunctionsof–ingparticipleclausesA)Both–ingparticipleandinfinitiveclausescanbeusedassubject,object,andsubject/objectcomplement.Ilikegettingupearlyinthemorning.Iliketogetupearlyinthemorning.B)Asadverbials,-ingparticipleclausescanbeusedinvarioussenses.Climbingtothetopofthetower,wesawamagnificentview.Beingahard-workingyoungman,hewaspraisedbyhisteachers. -ingclause-------adverbialclauseWhenyouhavelefttheauditorium,youmustbuyanothertickettoreenter.Oncehavinglefttheauditorium,youmustbuyanothertickettoreenter.WhetherI’mwakingorsleeping,thesubjectisalwaysinmymind.Whetherwakingorsleeping,thesubjectisalwaysinmymind. -ingclause1.Whentwothingshappenatthesametime,e.g.---I"vejustseenCarol.She"sinthebarhavingadrink.2.Woneactionhappensduringanotheraction,-ingforthelongeraction.e.g.---Jimhurthisarmwhenplayingtennis.(=whilehewasplaying) 3.oneprecedesanotheraction,weusehaving(done)forthefirstaction:e.g.---(After)Havingfinishedherwork,shewenthome.4.Ifoneshortactionfollowsanothershortaction,youcanusethesimple-ingform(doinginsteadofhavingdone)forthefirstaction:e.g.----Takingakeyoutofhispocket,heopenedthedoor. 5.toexplainsomethingortosaywhysomebodydoessomething;the-ingclauseusuallycomesfirstmoreinwrittenEnglishthaninspokenEnglish.Havingalreadyseenthefilmtwice,Ididn"twanttogotothecinema.Beingunemployed,hehasn"tgotmuchmoney.Nothavingacar,shefindsitdifficulttogetaround. 32.3–edparticipleclauses1)Typesof–edparticipleclausesA)–edparticipleclausewithoutexpressedsubjectorsubordinatorCoveredwithconfusion,shehurriedlylefttheroom.B)–edparticipleclausewithsubordinatorOncepublished,thebookcausedaremarkablestir.C)–edparticipleclausewithexpressedsubjectThejobfinished,wewenthomestraightaway. 2)syntacticfunctionsof–edparticipleclauses–edparticiple:pre-modifierofnoun,complement;–edparticipleclausescanbeusedaspost-modifierofnounandadverbial.Oneofthehouseswreckedbythestormbelongedtomybrother.Asadverbials,-edparticipleclausescanbeusedinvarioussenses.United,westand;divided,wefall.Deeplymoved,hethankedheragainandagain. 32.4Verblessclauses(AdjP,NP,PP,AdvP)isaclausewithoutanyformofverbelementaspredicator.AverblessclauseisjustanSVCconstructionwithitssubjectandpredicatoromitted. Themenwereeagertobegintheclimbandtheyroseatfirstlight.Whenthesnowwasfresh,itaffordednosurefoothold.Twohundredpeoplediedintheaccidentandmanyofthemwerechildren.thesnow Eagertobegintheclimb,theyroseatfirstlight.Whenfresh,itaffordednosurefoothold.Twohundredpeoplediedintheaccident,manyofthemchildren. 1)TypesofverblessclausesA)VerblessclausewithoutsubordinatorRightorwrong,Ihavegivenhimapieceofmind.Anexcellentspeaker,hewasneveratalossforaword.B)VerblessclausewithsubordinatorWhateverthereason,hiscordialityhaswonhimafriend.Althoughveryhelpful,hewasnotmuchlikedbypeople. C)VerblessclausewithexpressedsubjectTwohundredpeoplediedintheaccident,manyofthemchildren.2)SyntacticfunctionsofverblessclausesasmodifierofnounandadverbialYoumusteatitwhenfresh.Thecardboardislight-proofwherethick.32.5“Absoluteconstructions”详见Lecture21-22slide39-471)Typesof“absoluteconstructions”2)Usesof“absoluteconstructions”Hishomeworkdone,Jimdecidedtogoandseetheplay.Hershirtcaughtonanail,shecouldnotmove.