高中英语语法和构词法 58页

高中英语语法和词法高中英语语法Chapter1：Thesentence第一章：句子1.Whenwespeakorwriteweusewords.Wegenerallyusethesewordsingroups;as,当我们使用单词说话或写作时，我们通常使用一组单词。比如：LittleJackHornersatinacorner.Agroupofwordslikethis,whichmakescompletesense,iscalledasentence・像这样的表达完整意义的一组单词叫做句子。KindsofSentences句子的类型2.Sentencesareoffourkinds:句子的类型有四种：1)Thosewhichmakestatementorassertions;as陈述句HumptyDumptysatonawall.2)Thosewhichaskquestions;as疑问句Wheredoyoulive?3)Thosewhichexpresscommands,request,orentreaties;as表达命令、要求或请求的祈使句Bequiet.Havemercyuponus.4)Thosewhichexpressstrongfeelings;as,表达强烈感情的感叹句Howcoldthenightis!Whatashame!AsentencethatmakesastatementorassertioniscalledaDeclarativeorAssertivesentence.做出陈述或声明的句子称为陈述句。AsentencethatasksaquestioniscalledanInterrogativesentenee. 提出问题的句子称为疑问句。AsentencethatexpressesacommandoranentreatyiscalledanImperativesentence・表达命令、或请求的句子称为祈使句Asenteneethatexpressesstrongfeelingiscalledanexclamatorysentence.表达强烈感情的句子称为感叹句。Chapter2:SubjectandPredicate第二章：主语和谓语1.Whenwemakeasentence,wenamesomepersonorthing;andsaysomethingaboutthatpersonorthings.Inotherword,wemusthaveasubjecttospeakaboutandwemustsayorpredicatesomethingaboutthatsubject.Henceeverysentencehastwoparts・当我们造句吋，我们说某人或某事，然后对某人或某事进行说明。换句话说，我们必须有一个谈论的主语,然后必须对那个主语进行说明。1）Thepartwhichnamesthepersonorthingwearespeakingabout.ThisiscalledtheSubjectofthesentence.指明我们谈论的某人或某事的那部分称为句子的主语。2）ThepartwhichtellssomethingabouttheSubject.ThisiscalledthePredicateofthesentence.对主语进行说明的那部分称为句子的谓语。2.Thesubjectofasentenceusuallycomesfirst,butoccasionallyitisputafterthePredicate;as句子的主语通常在前面，但偶尔也出现在谓语的后面。例如Herecomesthebus.DownwenttheRoyalGeorge・3.InImperativesentencestheSubjectisleftout;as祈使句句中，主语省略。例如Sitdown.（省略了主语You）Thankyou.（省略了主语I）ExerciseinGrammar1语法练习一指出下列句子中的主语和谓语：1•ThecacklingofgeesesavedRome.2.Theboystoodontheburningdeck.3.TubalCainwasamanofmight.4・Stonewallsdonotaprisonmake. 5・Thesingingofthebirdsdelightsus.1.MissKittywasrudeatthetableoneday.2.Hehasagoodmemory.&Badhabitsgrowunconsciously.9.Theearthrevolvesroundthesun.10.Natureisthebestphysician.11・Edisoninventedthephonograph. 12.Wecan"tpumptheoceandry・13.Allmatterisindestructible.14.Weshouldprofitbyexperience・15.AllroadsleadtoRome.16.Thebeautifulminbowsoonfadedaway.17.Nomancanservetwomasters.18・Thedewdropsglitterinthesunshine・19.Abarkingsoundtheshepherdhears.20.Ishotanarrowintotheair.Chapter3:ThePhraseandtheClause第三章：短语和从句6.Examinethegroupofwords“inthecornefItmakessense,butnotcompletesense・Suchagroupofwords,whichmakessense,butnotcompletesense,iscalledaPhrase・看一下“inthecorner"这一组单词，它具有意义，但意义不完整。具有意义,但意义不完整的一组词称为短语。Inthefollowingsentence,thegroupsofwordsinitalicsarePhrases:下列句子中斜体部分都是短语：Thesunrisesintheeast.Jacksatonthewall.Therecameagianttomydoor.Itwasasunsetofgreatbeauty.Thetopsofthemountainswerecoveredwithsnow.Showmehowtodoit.1.Examinethegroupsofwordsinitalicinthefollowingsentences:仔细查看下列句子中的斜体短语Hehasachainofgold.Hehasachainwhichismadeofgold.WerecognizethefirstgroupofwordsasaPhrase.Thesecondgroupofwords,unlikethePhraseofgold,containsaSubject(which)andaPredicate(ismadeofgold).Suchagroupofwordswhichfonnspartofasentence,andcontainsaSubjectandaPredicate,iscalledaClause.我们知道第一句中的斜体部分为一短语。第二句中的斜体部分含有一个主语(which)和一个谓语(ismadeofgold)«构成句子的一部分，并包含主语和谓语的这样一组词语称为从句。Inthefollowingsentences,thegroupsofwordsinitalicsareClauses. 下列句子中的斜体部分是从句：Peoplewhopaytheirdebtsaretrusted.Wecan"tstartwhileitisraining.Ithinkthatyouhavemadeamistake.Chapter4:PartsofSpeech第四章：词性1.Wordsaredividedintodifferentkindsorclasses,calledPartsofSpeech,accordingtotheiruse;thatis,accordingtotheworktheydoinasentence・ThepartsofSpeechareeightinnumber:根据单词的使用，即，它们在句子中所起的作用，单词可以分为八种类型。1.Noun2.Adjective3.Pronoun4.Verb5.Adverb6・Preposition7.Conjunction8.Injection9>ANounisawordusedasthenameofaperson,place,orthing;as,名词是用于人名、地名和物质名称的词，例如AkbarwasagreatKing・CalcuttaisontheHoog/ily.Therosesmellssweet.Thesunshinesbright.Hiscouragewonhimhonor・Note:Thewordthingincludes1)allobjectsthatwecansee,hear,taste,touch,orsmell;2)somethingthatwecanthinkof,butcan"tperceivebythesenses.这里的物赁包括我们能够看到、听到、尝到、触摸到或闻到地所有东西，和我们能够想到但靠五官感知不到的东西。10.AnAdjectiveisawordusedtoaddsomethingtothemeaningofanoun;as,形容词是修饰名词使其含义更准确的词。例如，Heisabraveboy.Therearetwentyboysinthisclass.ILAPronounisawordusedinsteadofanoun;as,代词是用来指代名词的词。例如，Johnisabsent,becauseheisill.Thebooksarewhereyouleftthem.12.Averbisawordusedtosaysomethingaboutsomeperson,place,orthing;as,动词是讲述某人、某地或某物的词。例如，Thegirlwrotealettertohercousin・Calcuttaisabigtown. Ironandcopperareusefulmetals.12.AnAdverbisawordusedtoaddsomethingtothemeaningofaverb,anadjective,oranotheradverb;as,副词是修饰动词、形容词或另一个副词的词。例如，Heworkedthesumquickly.Thisflowerisverybeautiful. Shepronouncedthewordquitecorrectly.12.APrepositionisawordusedwithanounorapronountoshowhowthepersonorthingdenotedbythenounorpronounstandsinrelationtosomethingelse;as,介词是和名词或代词一起用来表示名词或代词指代的人或物与其它某物关系的词。例如，Thereiscowinthegarden.Thegirlisfondmusic.Afairlittlegirlsatunderatree.13.AConjunctionisawordusedtojoinwordsorsentences;as,连词是用来连接单词或句子的词。例如，RamaandHariarecousins.TwoandTwomakefour.Iranfast,butmissedthetrain.14.AnInterjectionisawordwhichexpressessomesuddenfeeling;as,叹词是用来表示突然感情的词。例如，Hurrah!Wehavewonthegame・Alas!Sheisdead.9.Aswordsaredividedintodifferentclassesaccordingtotheworktheydoinsentences,itisclearthatwecarftsaytowhichpartofspeechawordbelongsunlessweseeitusedinasentence.由于单词是根据它们在句子中所起的作用来分类的，所以，在没有看到句子前，我们不能说它属于那类词。Theyarrivedsoonafter.（句中after是副词）Theyarrivedafterus.（句中after介词）Theyarrivedafterwehadleft.（句中after连词）Fromtheaboveexamplesweseethatthesamewordcanbeusedasdifferentpartsofspeech.从上述例句中，我们看到同一单词可以用作不同的词性。ExerciseinGrammar2语法练习2Namethepartsofspeechofeachitalicizedwordinthefollowingsentences,givingineachcaseyourreasonfortheclassification:说出下列句子中斜体单词的词性，并给出你的理由。1•Stillwaterrunsdeep.1.Hestilllivesinthathouse.2.Afterthestormcomesthecalm・3.Theaftereffectsofthedrugsarebad.5・Itweighsaboutapound. 6.Hetoldusallaboutthebattle・ 6.Hewasonlyayardoffme.8・Suddenlyoneofthewheelscameoff.1.Don"tspeaksofast.2.Hekeptthefastforaweek.11・Sheisafastrunner.9.Heisonthecommittee.10.Letusmoveon.11.Sitdownandreadawhile・12.Iwillwatchwhileyousleep.13.Theywhileawaytheireveningswithbooksandgames.Chapter5:TheNounsanditsClassification第五章：名词及其分类1&ANounisawordusedasthenameofaperson,placeorthing.名词是用来表示人，地方或物质名称的词Note:Thewordthingisusedtomeananythingthatwecanthinkof.物质指的是我们能够想到的任何东西。19.Lookatthefollowingsentence:请看下面的句子：Asokawasawiseking.ThenounAsokareferstoaparticularking,butthenounkingmightbeappliedtoanyotherkingaswellastoAsoka.WecallAsokaaProperNoun,andkingaCommonNoun.名词Asoka指的是一个特别的国王,而名词king可以用来指任何其他的国王以及Asoka。我们称Asoka为专有名词，king为普通名词。Similarly:同样地，SitaisaProperNoun,whilegirlisaCommonNoun.HariisaProperNoun,whileboyisaCommonNoun.CalcuttaisaProperNoun,whiletownisaCommonNoun.IndiaisaProperNoun,whilecountryisaCommonNoun.ThewordgirlisaCommonNoun,becauseitisanamecommontoallgirls,whileSitaisaProperNounbecauseitisthenameofaparticulargirl.单词girl是一个普通名词，因为它是所有girl共有的名字，而Sita是一个专有名词，因为它一个特别girl的名字。AcommonNounisanamegivenincommontoeverypersonorthingofthesameclassorkind. 普通名词是同一类人或东西共有的名字。AProperNounisthenameofsomeparticularperson,thingorplace.专有名词某一特别的人，东西或地方的名称。Note1:ProperNounsarealwayswrittenwithacapitalletteratthebeginning•注1:专有名词的第一个字母总是大写。Note2:ProperNounsaresometimesusedasCommonNouns;as注2：专有名词有时用来作为普通名词。例如：1)HewastheLukman(=thewisestman)ofhisage.专有名词Lukman作普通名词用指的是最聪明的人。2)KalidasisoftencalledtheShakespeare(=thegreatestdramatist)ofIndia•专有名词Shakespeare作普通名词用指的是最伟大的剧作家。CommonNounsincludewhatarecalledCollectiveNounsandAbstractNouns.普通名词包括集体名词和抽象名词19.ACollectiveNounisthenameofanumber(orcollection)ofpersonsorthingstakentogetherandspokenofasonewhole;as集体名词是许多人或许多东西被看作一个整体的名词。例如Crowd,mob,team,flock,herd,army,fleet,family,nation,parliament,committeeAfleet=acollectionofshipsorvesselsAnarmy=acollectionofsoldiersAcrowd=acollectionofpeopleThepolicedispersedthecrowd.TheFrencharmywasdefeatedatWaterloo.Thejuryfoundtheprisonerguilty.Aherdofcattleispassing.以上句中的斜体均为集体名词。2LAnAbstractNounisusuallythenameofaquality,action,orstateconsideredapartfromtheobjecttowhichitbelongs;as抽彖名词通常是认为与其所属物体分开的表示品质、行动或状态的名词。例如，Quality:goodness,kindness,whiteness,darkness,hardness,brightness,wisdom,bravery,表示品质：善良，友好，白，黑暗，坚硕，明亮，智惹，勇敢Action:laughter,theft,movement,judgment,hatred表示行动：大笑，偷窃，运动，评判，仇恨State:childhood,boyhood,youth,slavery,sleep,sickness,death,poverty 表示状态：童年，少年吋代，青年吋期，奴隶制，睡眠，死亡，贫穷ThenamesoftheArtsandScience(e.g.grammar,music,chemistry,etc.)arealsoAbstractNouns.科学艺术的名称(例如：语法、音乐、化学等等)也是抽象名词。22.AbstractNounsareformed抽象名词的构成 1)FromAdjectives;as由形容词构成。例如，Kindness由形容词kind构成，honesty由形容词honest构成2)FromVerbs;as,由动词构成。例如Obedience由动词obey构成，growth由动词grow构成3)FromCommonNouns;as由普通名词构成。例如，Childhood由普通名词child构成；slavery由普通名词slave构成ExerciseinGrammar3语法练习3PointouttheNounsinthefollowingsentences,andsaywhethertheyareCommon,Proper,CollectiveorAbstract:指出下列句子中的名词，并确定它们属于普通、专有、集体名词或是抽彖名词。I・Thecrowdwasverybig.1.Alwaysspeakthetruth.2.We汕lovehonesty.3.Ourclassconsistsoftwentypupils.5・Theelephanthasgreatstrength.6.Solomonwasfamousforhiswisdom・7.Wesawafleetofshipsintheharbor.&Theclassisstudyinggrammar.9.TheNileoverflowsitsbankseveryyear.10.NelsonisfamousforhisvictoryatTrafalgar.II•Thesoldierswererewardedfortheirbravery.12.Withouthealththereisnohappiness.13.Hegavemeabunchofgrapes・14.Irecognizedyourvoiceatonee.15.Ourteamisbetterthantheirs.16.Nevertellalie・17.Wisdomisbetterthanstrength.18.Hesetsahighvalueonhistime.19.Ioftenthinkofthepappydaysofchildhood.20.Thisroomisthirtyfeetinlength.ExerciseinComposition4构词练习4 WritetheCollectiveNounsusedtodescribeanumberof写出下列词的集体名词1)Cattle,2)soldiers,3)sailorsWritethequalitiesthatbelongtoboyswhoare写出属于以下男孩品质的词1)lazy,2)cruel,3)brave,4)FoolishExerciseinComposition5构词法练习5FormAbstractNounsfromthefollowingAdjectives:由下列形容词构成抽象名词LongYoungShortPrudentSaneStrongTrueGoodBraveBitterWideWiseProudVainDeepBroadPoorJustDarkHumanHighHumbleDecentSweetQuickFormAbstractNounsfromthefollowingVerbs:由下列动词构成抽象名词LaughMoveJudgeActDieBelieveThinkExpectFlatterConverseChooseSeePleasePunishStealDefendLiveSeizeRelieveOccupyFreeHateAdviseKnowSucceedObeyConcealPursueStarveDiscoverServeProtectExcelDepartFormAbstractNounsfromthefollowingCommonNouns:由下列普通名词构成抽象名词KingManThiefWomanAuthorInfantOwnerRogueRegentCowardMotherAgentHeroBeggarPilgrimPriestBoyBondPirateGluttonFriendCaptainRascalPatriotChapter6:TheNounGender第六章：名词的性23.Youknowthatlivingbeingsareofeitherthemaleorthefemalesex.Nowcomparethewordsinthefollowingpairs:我们知道世界上的生物或者是雄性或者是雌性，比较以下成对的单词: Boy/girlHero/heroineLion/lionessCock-sparrow/hen-sparrowWhatdoyounotice?你注意到什么了？Thefirstwordofeachpairisthenameofamaleanimal.Thesecondwordofeachpairisthenameofafemaleanimal.AnounthatdenotesamaleanimalissaidtobeoftheMasculineGender.AnounthatdenotesafemaleanimalissaidtobeoftheFeminineGender.每一组的第一个词是雄性动物的名字。每一组的第二个词是雌性动物的名字。表示雄性动物的名词称为阳性，表示雌性动物的名词称为阴性。24・AnounthatdenoteseitheramaleorafemaleissaidtobeoftheCommonGender;as或表示雄性或表示雌性的名词称为通性；例如Parent,child,friend,pupil,servant,thief,enemy,cousin,person,orphan,student,baby,infant,neighbor25.Anounthatdenotesathingthatisneithermalenorfemale(i.e.,thingwithoutlife)issaidtobeofNeuterGender;as,既不表示雄性，也不表示雌性的名词(比如：无生命的东西)称为中性，例如；Book,pen,room,tree,rock,deskItwillbethusseenthatinModemEnglishtheGenderofanounisentirelyamatterofsexortheabsenceofsex.Ithasnothingtodowiththeformsofanoun.由此看出，在现代英语中，名词的性完全是一个性或者是无性的问题，它与名词的形式无关。Note：CollectiveNouns,evenwhentheydenotelivingbeings,areconsideredoftheneutergender.Youngchildrenandtheloweranimalsarealsoreferredtoasoftheneutergender.注意：集体名词，即使它们表示生物吋，也被认为是中性。小孩子和较低级的动物也被认为是中性。26.Objectswithoutlifeareoftenpersonified,thatis,spokenofasiftheywerelivingbeings.Wethenregardthemasmalesorfemales.TheMasculineGenderisoftenappliedtoobjectsremarkableforstrengthandviolence;as没生命的物体通常被拟人化，即，被说成好像是有生命的东西。那么，我们把它们看作是阳性或阴性。阳性经常应用于具有巨大力量和强烈力量的东西。例如：Thesun,summer,winter,time,deathThesunshedhisbeamsontherichandthepooralike・TheFeminineGenderisoftenappliedtoobjectsremarkableforbeauty,gentleness,andgracefulness;as阴性经常用于表示美丽、温柔和优雅的东西。例如Themoon,theearth,spring,autumn,Nature,libertyJustice,peace,hope,charityThemoonhashiddenherfacebehindacloud・ Springhasspreadhermantleofgreenovertheearth.Peacehashervictoriesnolessrenownedthanwar.Thisuseismostcommoninpoetrybutcertainnounsarepersonifiedinprosetoo.Ashipisalwaysspokenofasshe;as这种用法最常用于诗歌当中，但是某些名词在散文中也被拟人化。轮船总是被说成是雌性；例如:Theshiplostallherboatsinthestorm.WaysofFormingtheFeminineofNouns构成阴性名词的方法27・TherearethreewaysofformingtheFeminineofNouns:构成阴性名词的方法有三种。1)Byusinganentirelydifferentword;as以完全不同的单词构成阴性名词。例如,Masculine/阳性Feminine/阴性Masculine/阳性Feminine/阴性boyGirlearlCountessbrotherSisterfatherMatherBuckDoeganderGoosebullCowhartRoebullockHeiferhorseMarecockHenhusbandWifecoltFillykingQueendogBitchramEwedrakeduckwizardWitch2)Byaddingasyllable(-ess,-ine,-trix,-a,-etc.);as,在阳性词的后血加一个咅节构成阴性名词，例如Masculine/阳性Feminine/阴性Masculine/阳性Feminine/阴性AuthorAuthoressManagerManageressBaronBaronessMayorMayoressCountCountessPatronPatronessGiantGiantessPeerPeeressHeirHeiressPoetPoetessHostHostessProphetProphetessLionLionessStewardStewardessHeroHeroinesultanSultanasignorsignorafoxvixen Notethatinthefollowing-essisaddedafterdroppingthevowelofthemasculineending.注意下列阴性词是去掉阳性词词尾的元音后加-ess,ix构成。Masculine/阳性Feminine/阴性Masculine/阳性Feminine/阴性 actorActressbenefactorBenefactressconductorconductressenchanterenchantressfounderFoundresshunterhuntressinstructorInstructressabbotAbbessnegronegresssongstersongstresstigerTigresstraitorTraitresswaitorwaitressmastermistressemperorempressmurderermurderessAdministratoradministratrixexecutorexecutrix3)Byplacingawordbeforeorafter;as在一个名词的前面或后面加一个单词构成。例如:Masculine/阳性Feminine/阴性Masculine/阳性Feminine/阴性Bull-calfCow-calfgrandfatherGrandmotherCock-sparrowHen-sparrowgreatuncleGreatauntHe-goatShe-goatlandlordLandladyHe-bearShe-bearmilkmanMilkmaidJack-assJenny-asspeacockpeahenMan-servantMaid-servantwashermanWasherwomanChapter7:NumberofNouns第七章：名词的数2&Noticethechangeofforminthesecondwordofeachpair:注意一下每对单词第二个单词形式的变化。Ox/oxenMan/menTree/treesBox/boxesThefirstwordofeachpairdenoteonething,thesecondwordofeachpairdenotesmorethanone.AnounthatdenotesonepersonorthingissaidtobeintheSingularNumber;as每一组单词的第一个词指的是一件西或一个人，第二个词指的是两个或两个以上的东西或人。指一个人或一个东西的名词称作是名词的单数。例如Boy,girl,cow,bird,tree,pen,book,AnounthatdenotesmorethanonepersonorthingissaidtobeinthePluralNumber;as,指超过一个人或一件东西的名词称作是名词的复数。例如：Boys,girls,cows,birds,trees,pens,books,ThustherearetwoNumbersinEnglish■一SingularandPlural.英语中数的形式有两种…单数和复数。 HowPluralsareFormed名词复数的构成29.a).ThePluralofnounsisgenerallyformedbyadding-stothesingular;asBoy/boysBook/booksCat/catsGirl/girlsCow/cowsChair/chairsPen/pensDesk/desksFlower/flowersb).ButNounsendingin-s,-sh,・ch,or-xformthepluralbyadding-estothesingular;as但，以・s「sh「ch或-x结尾的名词在其单数名词的后血加・es构成复数。例如Class/classesBrush/brushesBranch/branchesKiss/kissesMatch/matchesTax/taxesDish/dishesWatch/watchesBox/boxesc).MostNounsendingin-oalsoformthepluralbyadding-estothesingular;as大多数以o结尾的名词也在其单数名词词尾加・es构成复数。例如Buffalo/buffaloesPotato/potatoesNegro/NegroesMango/mangoesCargo/cargoesVolcano/volcanoesHero/heroesEcho/echoesd).Afewnounsendingin-o,generallythosewhichareinlesscommonuseandabbreviations,merelyadd-s;as,少数以P结尾的一般不常用的和缩写的名词只在单数名词的后面加S。例如:Dynamo/dynamosCanto/cantosPiano/pianosSolo/solosMemento/mementosPhoto/photosRatio/ratiosQuarto/quartosStereo/stereosf).Nounsendingin-y,precededbyaconsonant,formtheirpluralbychanging-yinto-iandadding-es;as;以y结尾且前面有一个辅音字母的单数名词，把y变为i然后加・es构成其复数。例如：Baby/babiesLady/ladiesStory/storiesArmy/armiesCity/citiesPony/poniesg).Severalnounsendingin-for-feformtheirpluralbychanging-forfeintovandadding-es;少数几个以-f或-fe结尾的名词,把-f或-fe变为v后，然后加-es构成其复数。例如：Thief/thievesLife/livesLoaf/loavesWife/wivesCalf/calvesKnife/knivesWolf/wolvesLeaf/leavesShelf/shelvesExceptions:此规则有例外：Chief/chiefsSafe/safesStrife/strifesDwarf/dwarfsProof/proofsGrief/griefsHoof/hoofsGulf/gulfsBrief/briefsRoof/roofsSerf/serfsBelief/beliefs30・Afewnounsformtheirpluralbychangingtheinsidevowelofthesingular;as Man/menTooth/teethLouse/liceWoman/womenGoose/geeseFoot/feetMouse/mice31.Thereareafewnounsthatformtheirpluralbyadding-entothesingular;as有几个名词的复数是由改变其单数名词里面的元音构成。例如:有几个名词的复数是在其单数名词的后面加-en构成。例如:Ox/oxenChild/children32.Somenounshavethesingularandthepluralalike;as,有些名词单复数形式相同。例如：Swine/swineFish/fishSalmon/salmonSheep/sheepDeer/deerCod/codTrout/troutAlms/almsRiches/riches当Pair,dozen,score,gross,hundred,thousand用在数字丿匸面时，单复数形式相同。例如:Iboughtthreedozenoranges.Thecarcostmesixthousanddollars.33.Somenounsareusedonlyinplural有些名词只用其复数形式。a)Namesofinstrumentswhichhavetwopartsformingakindofpair;as有两部分构成一对的仪器名称。例如：Bellows/bellowsScissors/scissorsTongs/tongsPincers/pincersSpectacles/spectaclesb)Namesofcertainarticlesofdress;as某些衣服的名称，例如:Trousers/trousersc)Certainothernouns;as,某些其它名词；例如：Annals/AnnalsThanks/thanksProceeds/proceedsDrawers/drawersTidings/tidingsEnvirons/environsNuptials/nuptialsBreeches/breechesObsequies/obsequiesAssets/assetsChattels/chattels34.35.Thefollowingpluralformsarecommonlyusedinsingular:以下名词的复数形式通常作为单数来使用。Mathematics,physics,mechanics,politics,news,innings,measles,mumps,billiards,draughtsMathematicsishisfavoritestudy.Nonewsisgoodnews.Measlesisinfectious. Billiardsismyfavoritegame.35.CertainCollectiveNouns,thoughsingularinform,arealwaysusedasplurals;as某些集体名词，尽管是单数形式，但总是作为复数来使用。例如Poultry,cattle,vermin,people,gentryThesepoult/yaremine.Whosearethesecattle?Vermindestroyourpropertyandcarrydisease.Whoarethosepeople（=persons）?Therearefewgentryinthistown.Note:AsaCommonNoun"people"meansa"nation9andisusedinbothsingularandplural;as注：people，作为普通名词指的是"民族",用作单数和复数。例如：TheFrenchareahard-workingandbravepeople.（用作单数）TherearemanydifferentpeoplesinEurope.（用作复数）36.ACompoundNoungenerallyformsitspluralbychangingtheprinciplewordintoplural;as复合名词的复数通常由其主词变为复数构成。例如：Step-daughter/Step-daughterCoat-of-mail/Coast-of-mailMaid-servant/Maid-servantsSon-in-law/Sons-in-lawPasser-by/Passers-byDaughter-in-law/Daughters-in-lawLooker-on/Lookers-onStep-son/Step-sonsMan-of-war/Men-of-war3&Manynounstakenfromforeignlanguageskeeptheiroriginalpluralform;as,许多外来名词保持了其原始的复数形式。例如：Index/indicesBasis/basesRadius/radiiAnalysis/analysesFormula/formulaeorformulasParenthesis/parenthesesEnatum/errataHypothesis/hypothesesMemorandum/memorandaPhenomenon/phenomenaCommander-in-chief/Commanders-in-chiefCriterion/criteriaTerminus/terminiorterminusesAxis/axesMadame/madam39.Somenounshavetwoformsfortheplural,eachwithasomewhatdifferentmeaning.Singular单数Plural复数Meaning意义Brotherbrothers兄弟（同一父母的儿子）brethren一个协会或社区的成员ClothCloths布匹或布匹的种类 Clothes服装DieDies冲模 Dice骰子FishFishes多种鱼Fish鱼（集体名词）GeniusGeniuses天才genii精神IndexIndexes索引Indices指数（代数）40.Somenounshavetwomeaningsinthesingularbutonlyoneintheplural.-些名词的单数形式有两种意义，但复数只有一种意义Singular单数Plural复数Light1）光线Lights灯2）灯People1）民族Peoples民族2）人们Powder1）粉末Powders药粉2）药粉practice1）习惯Practices习惯2）练习41.Somenounshavetwomeaningsinthesingularbutonlyoneintheplural.一些名词单数时冇两种意义，但复数时只有一种意义。Singular单数Plural复数Colour色彩Colours1）色彩2）军旗，舰旗Custom习惯，风俗Customs1）风俗，习惯2）进口关税effect结果Effects1）结果2）财产Manner方法Manners1）方法2）行为举止pain疼痛pains1）疼痛2）努力，辛苦Moral教训morals1）道德2）道德规范，品行Quarter四分之一Quarters1）四分之一2）寓所 Letter字母，书信Leiters1）字母，书信2）文学Ground地面，理由grounds1）庭院，场地，理由2）渣滓40.Somenounshavedifferentmeaninginthesingularandtheplural.一些名词的单复数具有不同的意义。Singular单数Plural复数advice劝告advices通知，情报air空气Airs摆架子Good益处，好处goods货物Compass范围Compasses圆规Respect尊重Respects问候，敬意Physic哄术，医学Physics物理学iron铁Irons手铐，枷锁Force力，影响力Forces部队41.Letters,figuresandothersymbolsaremadepluralbyaddinganapostropheands;as,字母、数字和其它符号通过加撇号和s构成复数。例如；Therearemoree"sthana"sinthispage・Dotyouri"sandcrossyourt，s.Addtwo5，sandfour2"s.42.Itisusualtosay（通常说）：TheMissSmiths.（单数形式为：MissSmith.）Butwealsosay（但我们也说）：TheMissesSmith.43.AbstractNounshavenoplural.Whensuchwordsdoappearintheplural,theyareusedasCommonnouns;as，抽彖名词没有复数。当这样的名词以复数形式出现时，它们作为普通名词来使用。例如：Provocations=instancesorcasesofprovocation（挑衅爭件）Kindness=actsofkindness（友好行为）Namesofsubstancesormaterials,calledMaterialNouns,arealsonotusedintheplural.Whensuchwordsareusedintheplural,theybecomeCommonnounswithchangedmeanings;as,物质名称也不用复数形式，当使用这些名词的复数时，它们变成具有其它含义的普通名词；例如，Coppers=coppercoins（铜币）Tins=cansmadeoftin（锡罐）Irons=fetters（手铐）Woods=forest（森林） Chapter8:TheCaseoftheNoun第八章：名词的格40.Examinethesesentences:请看以下句子。1)Johnthrewastone・2)Thehorsekickedtheboy.Insentence1,thenounJohnistheSubject.Itistheanswertothequestion,“Whothrewastone?二ThegroupofwordsthrewastoneisthePredicate.ThePredicatecontainstheverbthrew.WhatdidJohnthrow?——Astone.StoneistheobjectwhichJohnthrew.TheNounstoneisthereforecalledtheObject.在第一个句子中，名词John是主语。它回答“谁扔的石头？”Threwastone是谓语。谓语中包含动词threwoJohn扔的什么？石头。石头是John扔的物体。因此，名词石头称作宾语。Insentence2,thenounhorseistheSubject.Itistheanswertothequestion,"whokickedtheboy?：ThenounboyistheObject.Itistheanswertothequestion,"whomdidthehorsekick?二在第二个句子中，名词horse是主语。它回答谁踢了那个男孩？名词男孩是宾语。它回答那匹马踢了谁。41.Whenanoun(orpronoun)isusedastheSubjectofaverb,itissaidtobeintheNominativeCase.Whenanoun(orpronoun)isusedastheObjectofaverb,itissaidtobeintheObjectiveCase.当一个名词或代词作动词的主语时，我们称它为主格，当一个名词或代词作动词的宾语时，我们称它为宾格。4&AnounwhichcomesafteraprepositionisalsosaidtobeintheObjectiveCase;as,介词后面的名词也称作宾格。例如，Thebookisinthedesk.ThenoundeskisintheObjectiveCase,governedbytheprepositionin.名词desk是宾格，受介词in的支配。49.Readthefollowingsentences:看下面的句子。Haribrokethewindow.(Object)Thewindowwasbroken.(Subject)ItwillbeseenthatnounsinEnglishhavethesameformfortheNominativeandtheObjective.TheNominativegenerallycomesbeforetheverbandtheObjectiveaftertheverb.Hencetheyaredistinguishedbytheorderofwords,orbythesense.从以上句子中可以看出，英语中名词的主格和宾格形式相同。主格位于动词的前面，宾格位于动词的后面，因此可以通过词序和意义把它们区分开来。50.Examinethesentence:看下面的句子.ThisisRam"sumbrella.Rama"sumbrella=theumbrellabelongingtoRama.罗摩的雨伞二属于罗摩的雨伞ThefonnofthenounRamaischangedtoRama"stoshowownershiporpossession・TheNounRama"sissaid tobeinthePossessiveCase.ThePossessiveanswersthequestion,"whose：名词Rama变为Ramans表示所有权或拥有。名词Ramans被称为所有格。所有格回答“是谁的”问题。Whoseumbrella?Rama"s谁的雨伞？罗摩的雨伞。49.ThePossessiveCasedoesnotalwaysdenotepossession.Itisalsousedtodenoteauthorship,origin,kind,etc.;as,所有格并不总是表示所有权，它也用来表示作者身份、来源、种类等等。例如：Shakespeare^plays=theplayswrittenbyShakespeare莎士比亚戏剧集二莎士比亚写的戏剧集Amother"slove=thelovegivenbymotherThepresident"sspeech=thespeechdeliveredbythepresidentThecourt"sdecree=thedecreepassedbythecourtWellington"svictories=thevictoriesgainedbyWellingtonRamanstemple=thetemplededicatedtoRama50.FormationofthePossessiveCase所有格的构成1)WhenthenounisSingular,thePossessiveCaseisformedbyadding"stothenoun;as单数名词的所有格由单数名词加"s构成。例如Theboy"sbookTheking"scrownNote:Thelettersisomittedinafewwordswheretoomanyhissingsoundswouldcometogether;as,注：有多个s音的少数几个单词只加’不加s。例如：Forjustice"sakeForgoodness"sakeForJesus"sakeMoses"laws2)WhenthenounisPlural,andendsinS,thePossessiveCaseisformedbyaddingonlyanapostrophe;as,名词是复数，且以s结尾时，只在名词的后面加例如：Boys"schoolHorses"school3)WhenthenounisPlural,butdoesnotendsinS,thePossessivesignisformedbyadding"s;as,不以S结尾名词复数，其所有格由名词加’s构成。例如：Men"sclubWomen"sdressesChildren"sbooksOxen"sforage51.Whenanounoratitleorconsistsofseveralwords,thePossessivesighisattachedonlytothelastword;as， 当一个名词或头衔含有几个好单词，所有格符号放在最后一个单词的后面。例如：TheNawabofRampufslibraryIsawitatAsquithandLokTs49.Whentwonounsareinapposition,thePossessivesignisputtothelatteronly;as,当两个名词为同格时，所有格符号放在后一个名词的后面。例如： ThatisTagorethepoet"shouse・49.Alsowhentwonounsarecloselyconnected,thePossessivesignisputtothelatter;as,当两个名词紧密相连时，所有格符号放在后一个名词的后面。例如：HuntleyandPalmer"sbiscuitsWilliamandMary"shome50.Eachoftwoormoreconnectednounsimplyingseparatepossessionmusttakethepossessivesigh;as,两个或多个连在一起的含有各自所有含义的名词，在每一个名词的后面加所有格的符号；例如,Gardiner"sandGreen"shistoriesGoldsmith"sandCowper"spoemsUseofthePossessiveCase所有格的使用51.ThePossessiveCaseisnowusedchieflywiththenamesoflivingthings;as,所有格主要和表示生物的名字一起应用。例如：TheGovernor"sbodyguardJack"sbookThelion"smaneDogsfoodSowemustsay:所以我们说：Thelegsofthetable而不说:Thetable"slegsThecoverofthebook而不说:Thebook"scoverTheroofofthehouse而不说：Thehouse"sroof5&ButthePossessiveisalsousedwiththenamesofpersonifiedobjects;as,但，所有格也与拟人化物体的名字一起来应用。例如，India"sheroesAtduty"scallNature"slawAtdeath"sdoorFortune"sfavorite59.ThePossessiveisalsousedwithnounsdenotingtime,spaceorweight;as,所有格也与表示时间、空间或重量的名词--起使用。例如：AstonethrowAfoot"slengthApound"sweightAthiswit"sendAboat"screwAday、workAweekholidayInayear"stime60.Thefollowingphrasesarealsoincommonuse:下列短语中通常使用所有格。Athsfinger"sendsFormercyksakeTohisheart"scontent61.Thepossessiveofapropernameorofanoundenotingatrade,profession,orrelationshipmaybeusedtodenoteabuildingorplaceofbusiness(church,house,school,shop,hospital,theatre,etc.);as, 专有名称或表示行业、职业或关系名词的所有格可以用来表示建筑物或商业地点(教堂、房屋、学校、商店、医院、影院等等)。例如：ThememorialserviceforLordKitchenerwasheldatSt.Paid"s.Fmgoingtohavedinneratmyuncle"stoday.IattendtheTownHighSchoolbutmycousinattendsSt.Xavier"s.HewaseducatedatQueen"s.YoucangetthisatKemp"sorTreacher"s.59.WhenyouareindoubtwhethertouseanouninthePossessivecaseorwiththeprepositionof,rememberthat,asageneralrule,thePossessivecaseisusedtodenotepossessionorownership.Thusitisbettertosay"thedefeatoftheenemy"than"theenemy"sdefeat^eventhoughnodoubtastothemeaningwouldarise.Sometimes,however,anouninthepossessivecasehasadifferentmeaningfromanounusedwiththeprepositionof;as,如果你对使用所有格或介词of不确定，作为一个通用的规则请记住，所有格用来表示拥有或所有权。因此，尽管意义上不会!1!现疑虑，说"thedefeatoftheenemy"要比"theenemy"sdefeat"更好一些。然而，名词的所有格与名词加介词of有时有不同的意义。例如："TheQueen"sreceptioninLondon5meansareceptionorleveeheldbytheQueeninLondon."TheQueen"sreceptioninLondon?指的是女王在伦敦举行的招待会。"ThereceptionoftheKinginLondon"meansthemannerinwhichthepeoplewelcomehimwhenheenteredLondon."ThereceptionoftheKinginLondon5指的是国王到伦敦时人们欢迎他的方式。Thephrase"theloveofafather,maymeaneither4afather"sloveofhischild"or"achild"sloveofhisfather*.短®4theloveofafathef或指"父亲对孩子的爱"或指"孩子对父亲的爱"。DeclensionofNouns名词的变格63.Whenwegiveinorderthevariouscasesofanoun（orpronoun）inthetwonumbers,wearesaidtodeclineitortogiveitsDeclension.Thusthefulldeclensionsofthenounsgirlandmanareasfollows:CasesSingularPluralNominativeCase（主格）GirlGirlsPossessiveCase（所有格）GirFsGirls"ObjectiveCase（宾格）GirlGirlsNominativeCase（主格）manMenPossessiveCase（所有格）Man"sMen"sObjectiveCase（宾格）manmen NominativeofAddress呼格64.Readthefollowingsentence:看下面的句子。Comehere,Rama.IntheabovesentenceRamaisthenameofthepersonspokentooraddressed.WecallitscasetheNominativeofAddress(ortheVocativeCase).ANounusedtonameapersonorthingaddressedisintheVocativeCase；as,在上述句子中，Rama是说话或称呼对象的人名，我们称它为称呼主格(或呼格)。用于称呼一个人或东西的名词称为呼格。例如，Comeon,boys.Comeintothegarden,Maud.Friends,lendmeyourears・LadiesandGentlemen,mayIhaveyourattentionplease・DativeCase与格65.Comparethefollowingsentence比较下列句子1)Ramagaveaball.2)RamagaveHariaball.IneachofthesesentencesthenounballistheObjectofgave.InthesecondsentencewearetoldthatHariwasthepersontowhomRamagaveaball.ThenounHariiscalledtheIndirectObjectoftheverbgave,andissaidtobeintheDativeCase.Thenounball,theordinaryObject,iscalledtheDirectObject,andisintheObjectiveCase・在上面的每一个句子中，名词ball做gave的宾语。第二个句子告诉我们Hari是Rama给予ball的那个人。名词Hari是动词缪ve的间接宾语，称为与格。名词ball是直接宾语，称为宾格。[Dativemeans"oforbelongingtogiving"becausetheverbswithwhichIndirectObjectsareusedmaygenerallybeclassedasverbsofgiving.]与格指的是"给予…的，或属于…的"，因为与间接宾语一起使用的动词通常可以划归为给予动词。Note(注)：RamagaveHariaball=RamagaveaballtoHari.Willyoudomeafavor?=Willyoudoafavor/brme?IboughtRamaaball=IboughtabailorRama・Fetchtheboyabook=Fetchabookfortheboys.ShemadeRuthanewdress=ShemadeanewdressforRuth. Getmeataxi=getataxiforme.WeseethattheIndirectObjectofaverbdenotesthepersontowhomsomethingisgiven,orforwhomsomethingisdone・我们看出动词的间接宾语表示的是某物被给予的人或做某事所为的人。NounsinApposition同位名词64.Readthefollowingsentence:看下面的句子。Rama,ourcaptain,madefiftyruns.WeseethatRamaandourcaptainareoneandthesameperson.ThenounCaptainfollowsthenounsRamasimplytoexplainwhichRamaisrefeiTedto.Anouninappositionisinthesamecaseasthenounwhichitexplains.Intheabovesentencethenouncaptainisinappositiontothenoun,RamaandisintheNominativeCase(becauseRamaisintheNominativeCase.)我们看出Rama和captain指的是同一个人。名词captain跟在名词Rama的后面只是解释Rama指的是谁。同位名词和它所解释的名词是相同的格。在上述句子中，captain是Rama的同位语，做主格(因为Rama做主格)。Furtherexamples:(再看下面的例子)：1)Kabir,thegreatreformer,wasaweaver.(同位语做主格)2)YesterdayImetmyuncle,adoctor.(同位语做宾格)3)HaveyouseenGanguli,theartist"sdrawings?(同位语做所有格)Chapter9:TheAdjective第九章：形容词65.Readthefollowingsentences:看下面的句子1)Sitaisaclever^w.(Whatkindofgirl?)2)Idon"tlikethatboy.(Whichboy?)2)Hegavevaefivemangoes.(Howmuchmangoes?)4)Thereislittletimeforpreparation.(Howmuchtime?)Insentence1,"clever"showswhatkindofgirlSitais;or,inotherwords,"clever"describesthegirlSita.Insentence2,"that"pointsoutwhichboyismeant.Insentence3,"five"showshowmanymangoeshegaveme.Insentence4,"little"showshowmuchtimethereisforpreparation.在第一个句子中，"clever"说明了Sita是一个什么样的girl,换句话说，"clever，描述girlSit"。在第二个句子中，"that"指明了boy指的是谁。在第三个句子中，"five"表示了他给了我多少芒果。在第四个句子中，Tittle"表示了为了准备有多少时间。Awordusedwithanountodescribeorpointout.theperson,animal,placeorthingwhichthenounsname,ortotellthenumberorquantity,iscalledanAdjective・SowemaydescribeanAdjectiveasawordusedwithanoun toaddsomethingforitsmeaning.与一个名词连用来描述或指明名词所命名的人、动物、地方或东西，或说明数字或数量的词称作形容词，所以，我们可以把形容词描述为与名词连用增加其意义的词。64.Lookatthefollowingsentences:看下面的句子。1)Thelazyboywaspunished・2)Theboyislazy.Insentence1,theAdjectivelazyisalongwiththenounboyasanepithetorattributive.Itistherefore,saidtobeusedAttributively.Insentence2,theAdjectivelazyisusedalongwiththeverbis,andformspartofthePredicate.Itis,therefore,saidtobeusedPredicatively.SomeAdjectivescanbeusedonlyPredicatively;as,Sheisafraidofghost.Iamquitewell.KindsofAdjectives形容词的分类Adjectivesmaybedividedintothefollowingclasses:65.AdjectivesofQuality(orDescriptiveAdjective)showthekindorqualityofapersonorthing;as品质形容词(或描述性形容词)表示一个人或东西的种类或品质。例如Calcuttaisalargecity.Heisanhonestman.Thefoolisholdcrowtriedtosing.ThisisaGrammaroftheEnglishlanguage・AdjectivesofQualityanswerthequestion:ofwhatkind!品质形容词回答的问题是"什么类型"？66.AdjectivesofQuantityshowhowmuchofathingismeant;as分量形容词表示一个东西的多少。例如Iatesomerice.Heshowedmuchpatience.Hehaslittleintelligence・Wehavehadenoughexercise.Hehaslostallhiswealth.Youhavenosense.Hedidnoteatanyrice.Takegreatcareofyourhealth.Heclaimedhishalfshareofthebooty.Therehasnotbeensufficientrainthisyear・ Thewholesumwasexpended.AdjectivesofQuantityanswerthequestion:Howmuch?分量形容词回答的问题是不可数名词的"多少"。64.AdjectivesofNumber(orNumeralAdjectives)showhowmanypersonsorthingsaremeant,orinwhatorderapersonorthingstands;as,数词形容词表示人或物的多少，或人或物的排列顺序。例如Amanhastwohands.Fewcatslikecoldwater.Therearenopicturesinthisbook.Ihavetaughtyoumanythings.Allmenmustdie.Herearesomeripemangoes.Mostboyslikecricket.Thereareseveralmistakesinyourexercise・Sundayisthefirstdayoftheweek.AdjectivesofNumberanswerthequestion:Howmany?数词形容词回答的问题是可数名词的"多少"。65.AdjectivesofNumberorNumeralAdjectivesareofthreekinds:数量形容词有三种。1）DefiniteNumeralAdjectives,whichdenoteanexactnumber;as,表示准确数字的定量形容词。例如：One,two,three,etc.（这些词称为基数词，表示多少）First,second,third,etc.（这些词称为序数词，表示一系列东西的顺序，序数词实际上起指代形容词的作用）2）IndefiniteNumeralAdjectives,whichdonotdenoteanexactnumber;as不定量形容词，不表示准确的数字：例如：All,no,many,few,some,any,certain,several,sundry,etc3）DistributiveNumeralAdjectives,whichrefertoeachoneofanumber;as,个体数量形容词，指一个数字中的每一个。例如，Eachboymusttakehisturn.Englandexpectseverycitizentodohisduty.Everywordofitisfalse.Eitherpenwilldo.Oneithersideisanarrowlane.Neitheraccusationistrue. 64.ThesameAdjectivemaybeclassedasofQuantityorNumberaccordingtoitsuse.根据其应用，同一个形容词可以划归为分量形容词或数词形容词。AdjectivesofQuantity分量形容词AdjectivesofNumber数词形容词Iatesomerice.Someboysareclever.Hehaslostallhiswealth.Allmenmustdie.Youhavenosense・Therearenopicturesinthisbook.Hedidnoteatartyrice.Arethereanymango-treesinthisgarden?Ihaveenoughsugar.Therearenotenoughspoons.可以看出分量形容词修饰不可数名词可以看出数词形容词修饰可数名词65.DemonstrativeAdjectivespointoutwhichpersonorthingismeant;as指代形容词表示指的是那一个人或那一个东西。例如ThisboyisstrongerthanHari.Thatboyisindustrious.Thesemangoesaresour.Thoserascalsmustbepunished・YonderfortoncebelongedtoShivaji.Don"tbeinsuchahurry・Ihatesuchthings.DemonstrativeAdjectivesanswerthequestion:which?ItwillbenoticedthatthisandthatareusedwithSingularnouns,theseandthosewithPluralnouns・指代形容词回答的问题是那一个。注意：this和that与单数名词连用，those和these与复数名词连用。66.What,which,andwhosewhentheyareusedwithnounstoaskquestionsarecalledInterrogativeAdjectives;as,what,which和whose与名词连用提出问题时称作疑问形容词。例如，Whatmannerofmanishe?Whichwayshallwego?Whosebookisthis?ExerciseinGrammar6语法练习6PickoutalltheAdjectivesinthefollowingsentences,andsaytowhichclasseachofthembelongs:挑出下列句子中的所有形容词，并说出他们中的每一个属于那一类。1.Theshipsustainedheavydamage・13.Hecomeshereeveryday.2.Ihavecalledseveraltimes.14.Ihavenotseenhimforseveraldays.3.Everydoghashisday.15.Thereshouldnotbemuchtalkandlittle 4.Aliveassisbetterthanadeadlion.work・5.Everymanhashisduties.16.Abdulwonthesecondprize.6.Saythesamethingtwiceover.17.Thechildfelldownfromthegreatheight.7.Severalpersonswerepresentatthetime.1&Hewasabsentlastweek・&Heisamanoffewwords.19.Hediedagloriousdeath.9.Neitherpartyisquiteintheright.20.Asmallleakmaysinkagreatship.10.Whattimeisit?21.Goodwineneedsnobush・11.Whichpendoyouprefer?22.Itisanillwindthatblowsnobodyany12.Thewaywaslong,thewindwascold,andgood.theminstrelwasinfirmandold.64.InthefollowingsentencesthewordsownandveryareusedasEmphasizingAdjectives:下列句子中，形容词own和very作强调形容词。Isawitwithmyowneyes.Hewasbeatenathisowngame・Mindyourownbusiness-Heishisownmaster.Thatistheverythingwewant.65.ThewordwhatissometimesusedasanExclamatoryAdjective;asWhat有吋作感叹形容词。例如Whatgenius!Whatfolly!Whatanidea!Whatablessing!Whatapieceofworkisman!78・Asalreadypointedoutin74,thisandthataretheonlyAdjectiveswhichareinflectedorchangedinformtoshownumber.This,theseindicatesomethingneartothespeaker・Thatandthoseindicatemoredistantobjectsfromthespeaker.如74条所指出的那样，this和that是表示数量形式发生变化的仅有的形容词。This和these表示离说话者较近的东西，that和those表示离说话者较远的东西。Thisgirlsings.Thesegirlssing.Thatboyplays.Thoseboysplay.79.FormationofAdjectives形容词的构成1)ManyAdjectivesareformedfromNouns.许多形容词由名词构成。 NounAdjectiveNounAdjectiveboyBoyishdirtDirtyfoolfoolishstormStormycarecarefulpardonPardonableuseusefullaughLaughablehopehopefuloutrageOutrageousventureventuresomecourageCourageoustroubletroublesomegloryGloriousshameshamelessmanManlysilksilkenkingkinglygoldgoldengiftGifted2)SomeAdjectivesareformedfromVerbs.VerbAdjectiveVerbAdjectivetiretirelessceaseCeaselesstalktalkativeMovemoveablehateHatefuldependdependable3)SomeAdjectivesareformedfromotherAdjectivesAdjectiveAdjectiveAdjectiveAdjectivetragictragicalblackBlackishwholewholesomewhiteWhitishthreethreefoldsickSicklyeconomiceconomicalhistoricHistoricaldeaddeadly•ExerciseinComposition7构词法练习7SupplysuitableAdjectives:1・Thetownstoodasiege.2.TheprizewaswonbyaHindu.3・Thewomanlivesinawretchedhut.4.Thisisaveryseriousmatter.5・ThebattleofWaterlooendedinavictory.6.Suddenlytherearouseastorm・7.Itisalie・8.Thetidingswereaheavyblowtotheoldman. 6.Hereisadollar.Paythefareandkeepthemoney.7.Hisreadingidofaveryrange.8.Theinjuredmanwantsadvice.9.Youcan"thaveityourways.10.Thebirdcatchestheworm・11.Haveyouanyreasontogive?15•Therewereriotsinplaces・16.Idon"thavecash.17.Healwayswalkswithastep・18.Hewaslistenedtoinsilence.ExerciseinComposition8构词法练习8FormAdjectivesfromthefollowingNouns:给出下列名词的适当的形容词。EaseTimeHealthLovePityHeavenWealthHill NeedChildWoodTempestGreenPrinceDoubtSenseRoomMountainArtistQuarrelCostRidiculeWonderThoughtPainPictureProgressHopePeaceLaborSlaveFriendExerciseinComposition9构词法练习9UseeachofthefollowingAdjectivesinasentence:用一个句子中使用下血的每一个形容词。HappyPoliteLongKindSadRudeShortCruelLazyWiseQuickHealthyIndustriousFoolishSlowDutifulBigRichStrongDistantSmallPoorWeakCertainSoftYoungUglyHandsomeHarshNewCleverHardOldDullExerciseinComposition10构词法练习10UseasuitableAdjectivewitheachofthefollowingNouns:给下列名词前加上适当的形容词。StormBlowFlowerHusbandSiegeSilenceCitySubjectSleepHandsArtistChildVictoryWaterDealerKingAdviceServantVoiceDogExerciseinComposition11构词法练习11UseasmanysuitableAdjectivesasyoucanwitheachofthefollowingNouns:给下列每一个名词前加上尽量多的合适的形容词。例子：anarrowstreet,awidestreet,adirtystreet,acleanstreet,ashortstreet,alongstreet,etc.FortuneStormProgressBookManHealthRoomFlowerNewsNovelIncidentTableWritedowntheAdjectivesoppositeinmeaningtothefollowing:写出下列形容词的反义词。Courageous,many,wild,hot,heavy,costly,barren,beautiful,patient,honest,civilized,careful,experienced,slow,friendly,cruel,soft Chapter10ComparisonofAdjectives79.Readthesesentences:1•Ramansmangoissweet.2.Hari"smangoissweeterthanRama"s.3.Govincfsmangoisthesweetestofall.Insentence1,theadjectivesweetmerelytellusthatRama"smangohasthequalityofsweetness,withoutsayinghowmuchofthisqualityithas.Insentence2,theadjectivesweetertellsusthatHarinsmango,comparedwithRama"s,hasmoreofthequalityofsweetness.Insentence3,theadjectivesweetesttellsusthatofallthesemangoesGovincTsmangohasthegreatestamountorhighestdegreeofthequalityofsweetness.第一个句子只告诉了我们Rama的苹果是甜的，没有告诉我们甜的程度。第二个句子中的形容词sweeter告诉我们，与Rama的芒果比较，Hari的芒果更甜。第三个句子中的形容词sweetest告诉我们，所有的这些芒果中Govind的芒果最甜。WethusseethatAdjectiveschangeinform(sweet,sweeter,sweetest)toshowcomparison.TheyarecalledthethreeDegreesofComparison.TheAdjectivesweetissaidtobeinthePositiveDegrec.TheAdjectivesweeterissaidtobeintheComparativeDegree・TheAdjectivesweetestissaidtobeintheSuperlativeDegree.我们看tl!形容词形式的变化(sweet,sweeter,sweetest)表示比较，称作比较的三种级。Sweet称为原级，sweeter称为比较级，sweetest称为最高级。ThePositiveDegreeofanAdjectiveistheadjectiveinitssimplefonn.Itisuseddenotethemereexistenceofsomequalityofwhatwespeakabout.Itisusedwhennocomparisonismade.形容词的原级是其简单的形式。它用于表示我们谈论的某种品质的仅仅存在，用于没有比较的情况。TheComparativeDegreeofanAdjectivedenotesahigherdegreeofthequalitythanthePositive,andisusedwhentwothings(orsetsofthings)arecompared;as,形容词的比较级表示比原级的品质更高，用于两件东西或两个装置的比较。例如，Thisboyisstrongerthanthat.WhichofthesetwopensisbettedApplesaredearerthanoranges-TheSuperlativeDegreeofanAdjectivedenotesthehighestdegreeofthequality,andisusedwhenmorethantwothings(orsetsofthings)arecompared;as,形容词的最高级表示品质的最高级别，用于两件以上东西(或两套装置)的比较。例如，Thisboyisthestrongestintheclass.Note:a)Thereisanotherwayinwhichwecomparethings.Insteadofsaying"RamaisstrongerthanBalu/wecansay"BaluislessstrongthanRama/Insteadofsaying"Hariisthelaziestboyintheclass"wecansay"Hariistheleastindustriousboyintheclass". 我们可以用另一种方法表示比较，我们可以说"Balu不如Rama强壮"来替代^Rama比Balu强壮。我们可以说’Hari是班里最不勤奋的’来替代"Hari是班里最懒惰的’。b)TheSuperlativewithmostissometimesusedwherethereisnoideaofcomparison,butmerelyadesiretoindicatethepossessionofaqualityinaveryhighdegree.ThisusagehasbeencalledtheAbsoluteSuperlative9,as,带有most的最高级有吋用于无比较含义的地方，只是仅仅表示具有最高程度的品质。这种用法称为绝对最高级。例如：Thisismostunfortunate.Itwasamosteloquentspeech・Truly,amostingeniousdevice!FormationofComparativeandSuperlative比较级和最高级的构成79.MostAdjectivesofonesyllable,andsomeofmorethanone,formtheComparativebyadding-erandtheSuperlativebyadding-esttothePositive.大多数单咅节形容词和一些多咅节形容词在原级后加-er构成比较级，加-est构成最高级。Positive原级Comparative比较级Superlative最高级SweetSweeterSweetestSmallSmallerSmallestTallTallerTallestBoldBolderBoldestcleverClevererCleverestKindKinderKindestYoungYoungerYoungestgreatGreaterGreatestWhenthePositiveendsine,onlyrandstareadded.如果原级形容词以e结尾，只加「和st。Positive原级Comparative比较级Superlative最高级BraveBraverBravestFineFinerFinestWhiteWhiterWhitestLargeLargerLargestAbleAblerAblestNobleNoblerNoblestWiseWiserWisestWhenthePositiveendsiny,precededbyaconsonant,theyischangedintoibeforeaddingerandest.当原级以y结尾，前面有一个辅音，变y为i然后加-er和-est。Positive原级Comparative比较级Superlative最高级 HappyHappierHappiestEasyEasierEasiestHeavyHeavierHeaviestMerryMerrierMerriestWealthyWealthierWealthiestLazyLazierLaziestWhenthePositiveisawordofonesyllableandendsinasingleconsonant,precededbyashortvowel,thisconsonantisdoubledbeforeaddingerandest.当原级为单音节词，并以单个辅音结尾，前面有一个短元音时，双写该辅音再加-er和-est。Positive原级Comparative比较级Superlative最高级redRedderReddestBigBiggerBiggestHotHotterHottestThinThinnerThinnestSadSadderSaddestFatFatterFattest82.AdjectivesofmorethanAvosyllables,andmanyofthosewithtwo,formtheComparativebyusingtheadverbmorewiththePositive,andtheSuperlativebyusingtheadverbmostwiththePositive・两个音节以上的形容词和许多双咅节形容词在其原级前加副词more构成比较级，加副词most构成最高级。Positive原级Comparative比较级Superlative最高级SplendidMoreSplendidMostSplendidBeautifulMoreBeautifulMostBeautifulDifficultMoreDifficultMostDifficultIndustriousMoreIndustriousMostIndustriousCourageousMoreCourageousMostCourageousLearnedMoreLearnedMostLearnedProperMoreProperMostProper83.TheComparativeinerisnotusedwhenwecomparetwoqualitiesinthesamepersonorthing.IfwewishtosaythatcourageofRamaisgreaterthanthecourageofBalu,wesay,当我们比较同一人或同一物的两个品质时，不用er形式的比较级。如果我们想说Rama比Balu勇敢,我们说：RamaisbraverthanBalu.ButifwewishtosaythatthecourageofRamaisgreaterthanhisprudence,wemustsay,但是，如果我们想说R“ma的勇敢大于谨慎，我们必须说：Ramaismorebravethanprudent. 84.Whentwoobjectsarecomparedwitheachother,thelattertermofcomparisonmustexcludetheformer;as,如果两个物体相互比较，比较的后一项必须排除前一项。例如：Ironismoreusefulthananyothermetal・Ifwesay,Ironismoreusefulthananymetal.Thatis,thesamethingassaying"Ironismoreusefulthaniron"sinceironisitselfametal.如果我们说"铁比任何金属更有用’，由于铁本身是一种金属，那也就等于说"铁比铁更有用"。IrregularComparison不规则形容词85.ThefollowingAdjectivesarecomparedirregularly,thatis,theirComparativeandSuperlativearenotformedfromthePositive:以下形容词为不规则形容词，W：它们的比较级和最高级不是由原级构成。Positive原级Comparative比较级Superlative最高级Good,wellbetterBestBad,evil,illworseWorstlittleLess,lesserLeastmuchmoreMost（不可数）manymoreMost（可数）LateLater,latterLatest,lastoldOlder,elderOldest,eldestfarFarther,furtherFarthest(8E离)，FurthestNighnigherNighestforeformerforemost(in)innerInmost(up)upperupmost(out)Outer,utterUtmost,utteimostNote:TheformsenclosedinparenthesesarenotusedasAdjective;theyareAdverbs.注：括弧里的单词不用来作为形容词，它们是副词。ExerciseinGrammar13语法练习13ComparethefollowingAdjectives:把下列形容词变为比较级和最高级。BlackBadTimidAgreeableinUnjustUglyDifficultGloomyGayTrueLittleMadAbleServeFewSafeDryExactMerry 84.ThedoubleformsoftheComparativeandSuperlativeoftheAdjectivesgivenin85areusedindifferentways.上述85中给出的形容词副词比较级、最高级的两种形式用法不同。Later,latter;latest,last:Laterandlatestrefertotime;latterandlastrefertoposition・Later和latest指时间；latter和last指位置。例如：HeislaterthanIexpected.Ihavenotheardthelatestnews.Thelatterchapterarelackingininterest・Thelastchapteriscarelesslywritten.Oursisthelasthouseinthestreet・Elder,older;eldest,oldest:Ederandeldestareusedonlyofpersons,notofanimalsorthings;andarenowconfinedtomembersofthesamefamily.Elderisnotusedwiththanfollowing.Olderandoldestareusedofbothpersonsandthings.Eder和eldest仅用于人，不用于动物或东西，且现在限于同一家庭成员之间。Elder不与than连用。Older和oldest即用于人，也用于物。例如：Johnismyelderbrother.Tomismyeldestson.HeisolderthanhissisterRamaistheoldestboyintheeleven.ThisistheoldesttempleinCalcutta.Farther,further:Fathermeansmoredistantoradvanced;furthermeansadditional.Father指的是更远或更进一步；further的是额外的。例如：Calcutta[^fartherfromtheequatorthanColombo.Afterthishemadenofurtherremarks.Imusthaveareplywithoutfurtherdelay.Nearest,next:nearestdenotesdistance;nextdenotesposition・Nearest指距离；n如指位置。例女U:BombayistheseaportnearesttoEurope.Osler"sshopisnexttothePostOffice.Myunclelivesinthenexthouse.ExerciseinComposition14构词法练习14a).Filltheblankspaceswith“later”orMattef:1・Themajorityacceptedtheproposal.2.Thepartofthebookshowssignsofhurry.3.Ata_date,hewasplacedinchargeofthewholetaluka. 2.Ipreferthe_propositiontotheformer.5・Isthereno_newsthanlastweek^s?b)Filltheblankspaceswith"older"or"eldeF:1•Ihavean_sister.2.Ramais_thanHaribytwoyears.3.His_brotherisintheIndianCivilService.4.Sheisthe_ofthetwosisters.5・Thenephewis_thanhisuncle.c)Filltheblankspaceswith"oldest"or"eldest":1•Rustamisthe_ofmyuncle"ssons.2.Heistheoldest_memberoftheSchoolCommittee.3.ThatisAntonio,theduke"s_son.4.The_mosqueinthetownisneartherailwaystation.5.Mr.Smithis_EuropeanresidentofJamshedpur.d)Filltheblankspaceswith4farther5or"further":1・Broachis_fromBombaythanSurat.2.No_reasonsweregiven.3.Hewalkedoffwithout_ceremony.4.Until_ordersMr.K.S.DavewillactasHeadmasterofNiraHighSchool.5.Tolet,abungalowatRidgeRoad.For_particularsapplytoBoxNo.65.e)Filltheblankspaceswith"latest"oriasf1・The_newsfromChinaisverydisquieting.2.The_timeIsawhim,hewasinhighschool.3.Todayisthe_dayforreceivingtenders.4.Weexpecttogetthe_newsinafewhours・5.The_MoghulEmperorcametoanignominiousend.f).Filltheblankspaceswith"nearest"or"next":1・Thisisthe_Postofficetomyhouse.2.Thepillar-boxis_tomyhouse.3.Theburglarwastakentothe_policestation.4.Hishouseis_tomine.5.The_railwaystationistwomilesfromhere・84.CertainEnglishComparativeshavelosttheircomparativemeaningandareusedasPositive.Theycan"tbefollowedbythan.Theseare:英语中的某些比较级失去了他们比较的意义，作原级使用，后面不能跟than.这些词有：Former,latter,elder,upper,neither,inner,outer,utter Examples:例句Boththetigerandtheleopardarecats;Reformeranimalismuchlargerthanthelatter.Theinnermeaningofthisletterisnotclear.Thesoldierrantodefendtheouterwall.Myelderbrotherisanengineer.Thismanisanutterfool.8&CertainComparativesborrowedfromLatinhavenoPositiveorSuperlativedegree.Theyallendinor,noter.Theyaretwelveinall.FiveofthemhavelosttheirComparativemeaning,andareusedasPositiveAdjective.Theseare:从拉丁语中外借来的某些形容词没有原级或最高级，它们以or结尾，而不是以er结尾，共有12个，其中5个已经失去了它们的比较意义，作原级形容词使用。它们是：Interior,exterior,ulterior,major,minorTheexteriorwallofthehouseismadeofstone;theinteriorwallsareofwood.Hisageisamatterofminorimportance・Ihavenoulteriormotiveinofferingyouhelp・TheothersevenareusedasComparativeAdjectivesbutarefollowedbytoinsteadofthan(see89).其它7个形容词用于做比较级，但后面跟to,而不是than。89.ThecomparativedegreeisgenerallyfollowedbythcmbutComparativeAdjectivesendingin-orarefollowedbytheprepositionto;as.形容词的比较级通常跟着连词than,但是以-oi•结尾的形容词跟介词to。例如：Inferior,superior,prior,anterior,posterior,seniorJuniorHariisinferiortoRamainintelligence・Rama"sintelligenceissuperiortoHarins・ThedeathofKingEdwardwaspriortotheGreatWar.Hesjuniortoallhiscolleagues.Allhiscolleaguesareseniortohim.90.Adjectivesexpressingqualitiesthatdonotadmitofdifferentdegreecan"t,strictlyspeaking,becompared;as严格来说，表达品质程度没有差别的形容词无法比教。例如：Square,round,perfect,eternal,universal,unique.Strictlyspeaking,athingcannotbemoresquare,moreround,moreperfect.Butwesay,严格来说，一件东西不能更方，更圆，更完美，但我们可以说：ThisisthemostperfectspecimenIhaveseen.ExerciseinGrammar15语法练习15 PointouttheAdjectivesandnametheDegreeofComparisonofeach:指出下列中的形容词并说出每一形容词的比较级。1.Thepoorwomanhadseenhappierdays.2.Donottalksuchnonsense・3.Makelessnoise.4.Thatchildhasaslightcold.14.Ihopethematterwillbeclearedupsome5.Aliveassisstringerthanadeadlion.day.6.Saythesamethingtwiceover.15.Yoursonmakesnoprogressinhisstudies.7.Solomonwasoneofthewisestmen.16.Openrebukeisbetterthansecretlove.&Hungeristhebestsauce.17.Weneverhadsuchsport・9.Hissimplewordisasgoodasanoath.1&Ihaveotherthingstoattendto.10.Therewasnottheslightestexcuseforit.19.Hariistheidlestboyintheclass.11.Myknifeissharperthanyours.20.Ipromiseyouafairhearing・12.Smallpeoplelovetotalkofgreatmeru21.Hehasmanypowerfulfriends.13.Oftwoevilschoosetheless.22.Leadisheavierthananyothermetal.ExerciseinGrammar16语法练习16Makethreecolumns,andwritethefollowingAdjectivesinthePositive,ComparativeandSuperlativeDegrees:HopefulDelightfulFortunateShamefulHonestStupidPleasantCleverImportantAttractivePrettyPatientHeavyInterestingRudeBeautifulExerciseinComposition17构词练习17Supplytheproperform(ComparativeorSuperlative)oftheAdjective:在下列空白处填上形容词合适的形式(比较级或最高级):［注：两个物体之间的比较用比较级，不用最高级］1.Good:Howisyourbrothertoday?Ishe_?2・Hot:Mayis_herethananyothermonth.3.Pretty:Herdollis_thanyours-4.Idle:Hariisthe_boyintheclass.5・Sharp:Yourknifeissharp,butmineis_・6・Dear:Honoris_tohimthanlife.7.Rich:Heisthe_maninourtown.&Old:Maniistwoyears_thanRati.9・Large:Namethe_cityintheworld. 10.Good:Heisthe_friendIhave.11•Bad:Heisthe_boyofthetwo.12.Bad:Ramanosworkisbad・HarinsisbutGovincfsisthe13.Ferocious:Thereisnoanimal_thanthetiger.14.Bad:Thetradeisina_conditiontodaythanitwasayearago.15.Tall:Heisthe_ofthetwo.16-Dry:Sindisthe_partofPakistan.17.Useful:Ironis_thananyothermetal.18.Useful:Ironis_ofallmetals-19.Great:Whoisthe_livingpoet?20.Good:Thepublicisthe_judge.21•Proud:Itwasthe_momentofhislife.22.Light:Silveris_thangold.ExerciseinComposition18构词练习18SupplyappropriateComparativesorSuperlativestoeachofthefollowing:在下列空白处填上合适的比较级或最高级。1・Preventionisthancure.2・Akbarhada_regionthanBabar.3・Londonisthe_cityintheworld.4.Thepenis_thanthesword・5・The_buildingsarefoundinAmerica.2.ThePacificis_thananyotherocean・3.Whichofthetwogirlshasthe_dress?4.Honoris_tohimthanlife.9・Thispenis_thantheother・10.Whoisthe_boyintheclass?11.TheEiffelToweris_thanKutabMinar.12.Myuncleis_thanmyfather・13.Hewritesa_handthanhisbrother.14.Hewritesthe_handinhisclass.15.Heisoneofthe_speakersinthePunjab・16.Whowasthe_general,AlexanderorCaesar?17.TheArabianNightsisperhapsthe_story-book・ 10.Ofallcountries,Chinahasthe_populationintheworld・11.Itisgoodtobeclever,butitis_tobeindustrious.12.Thisisthe_thatIcando.ExerciseinComposition19构词练习19Changethefollowingsentencesbyusing"less"or"least"withoutchangingthemeaning:利用"less"和"least，转变下列句子，但不改变句子的意义。1・Themangoissweeterthanthepine-apple・2・Silverismoreplentifulthangold.3.Thisisthemostuselessofallmybooks.4.Wolframisoneoftherarestminerals.5.Thewild-appleisthesourestofallfruits.6.Ironismoreusefulthancopper.InterchangeoftheDegreeofComparison比较级的互换9LAsthefollowingexamplesshow、itispossibletochangetheDegreeofComparisonofanAdjectiveinasentence,withoutchangingthemeaningofthesentence:如下列例子所示，在句子中改变形容词的比较级而不改变句子的意义是可能的。DegreeofComparison比较级SampleSentences例句SuperlativeLeadistheheaviestofallmetals.ComparativeLeadisheavierthanallothermetals.ComparativeBangaloreiscoolerthanHyderabad・PositiveHyderabadisnotsocoolasBangalore.PositiveHeisaswiseasSolomon.ComparativeSolomonwasnotwiserthanheis.SuperlativeShakuntalaisthebestdramainSanskrit.ComparativeShakuntalaisbetterthananyotherdramainSanskritPositiveNootherdramainSanskritissogoodasShakuntala.SuperlativeMadrasisoneofthebiggestIndiantowns.ComparativeMadrasisbiggerthanmostotherIndiantowns.PositiveVeryfewIndiantownsaresobigasMadras.SuperlativeTennysonisnotthegreatestofallpoets.ComparativeTennysonisnotgreaterthansomeotherpoets.SomepoetsarenotlessgreatthanTennyson.PositiveSomepoetsareatleastasgreatasTennyson・ ExerciseinComposition20构词练习20ChangetheDegreeofComparison,withoutchangingthemeaning:改变下面句中的比较级，但不改变句子的意义。1.TheTimesisthemostpowerfulnewspaperinEngland・2.Somebeansareatleastasnutritiousasmeat.3.InIndia,nootherexerciseissohealthyasswimming.4.VeryfewboysaresoindustriousasLatif.5.Hewouldsoonerdiethantellalie.MeansIwouldprefertodiebeforeIdidthat,(i.e・,Iwouldratherdiethandothat)6・BombaymangoisthebestinIndia.3.ShakespeareisgreaterthananyotherEnglishpoet.8・SamudraGuptawasoneofthegreatestofIndiaKings・9・Thetigeristhemostferociousofallanimals.10.Australiaisthelargestislandintheworld.11•Leadidheavierthananyothermetal.12.Somepeoplehavemoremoneythanbrains.13.Awiseenemyisbetterthanafoolishfriend.14.TheMarwariesarenotlessenterprisingthananyothercommunityinIndia.15.Iknowhimquiteaswellasyoudo.16.YoudonotknowhimbetterthanIdo.17.NoothermanwasasstrongasBhim・18.MountEverestisthehighestpeakoftheHimalayas.19.Itiseasiertopreachthantopractice.20.Thepenismightierthanthesword・Chapter11:AdjectivesUsedasNouns第十一章：形容词作名词用92.AdjectivesareoftenusedasNouns.形容词经常用来做名词使用。a).AsPluralNounsdenotingaclassofpersons;as,作复数名词用特指一类人；例如：Thecautions=cautiouspeopleTherich=richpeopleThepoor=poorpeopleThewicked=wickedpeopleTherighteous=righteouspeople a).AsSingularNounsdenotingsomeabstractquality;as作单数名词指某一抽彖的品质。例如Thefuture(=futurity)isunknowntous.Heisaloverofthebeautiful(=beautyingeneral).b)SomeAdjectivesactuallybecomeNouns,andarehenceusedinbothnumbers:一些形容词实际上已变为名词，因此可用于单复数。1.由专有名词衍生而来的形容：Australians,Canadians,Italians2.—些扌旨示人的形容i司：juniors,seniors,mortals,inferiors,superiors,nobles,elders,minors3.少数几个指示物的形容词：secrets,totals,valuables,eatables,sweets92.TheuseofNounsasAdjectivesisverycommoninEnglish;as,名词作形容词用在英语里非常普遍。例如Imetalittlecottagegirl.TheRajahlivesinamarblepalace.Chapter12:PositionoftheAdjectives第十二章：形容词的位置93.AsingleAdjectiveusedattributivelyisgenerallyplacedimmediatelybeforethenoun;as单个形容词通常直接放在所修饰名词的前面作定语。例如：KingFranciswasaheartyking,andlovedaroyalsport.Whereareyougoingmyprettymaid,withyourrosycheeksandgoldenhair?OCaptain!MyCaptain!Ourfearfidtripisdone.Observethedifferenceinmeaningbetween:观察下列两短语意义的区别。a)Agreatnobleman"sson,andb)Anobleman"sgreatson.94.Inpoetry,however,theAdjectiveisfrequentlyplacedafterthenoun;as在诗歌中，经常把形容词放在所修饰名词的后面。例如：Childrendear,wasityesterday.Weheardthesweetbellsoverthebay.Omanwithsistersdear95.WhenseveralAdjectivesareattachedtoonenountheyaregenerallyplacedafteritforemphasis;as当几个形容词修饰一个名词吋，为了强调通常把它们放在名词的后面。例如：Theredweltamillerhaleandbold.TheKing,fearlessandresolute,atonceadvanced.Franklinhadagreatgenius,original,sagacious,andinventive.96.WhensomewordorphraseisjoinedtotheAdjectivetoexplainitsmeaning,theAdjectivealwayscomesafterthenoun;as 当某些词或短语与形容词联起来解释其含义，形容词总是放在名词的后面。例如：Hewasaman/亦〃幺inresource.ASikh,tallerthananyofhiscomrades,rushedforward・9&IncertainphrasestheAdjectivealwayscomesafterthenoun;as在某些短语中，形容词总是在名词的后血。例如：Heirapparent,timeimmemorial,lordparamount,presidentelect,letterspatent,knightstemporal,notarypublic,bodypolitic,GodAlmightyChapter13:TheCorrectUseofSomeAdjectives第十三章：某些形容词的正确使用99.Some,any-Toexpressquantityordegreesomeisusedinaffirmativesentences,anyinnegativeorinterrogativesentences.Some用于肯定句中表达数量或稈度，any用于否定句或疑问句中表达数量或程度。Ishallbuysomemangoes.Ishallnotbuyanymangoes.Haveyouboughtanymangoes?Butsomeiscorrectlyusedinquestionswhicharereallycommandsorrequests;as但在命令或请求的问句中使用some。例如：Willyoupleaselendmesomemoney?100.Each：every・Eachandeveryaresimilarinmeaning,butevetyisastrongerwordthaneach;itmeans,"eachwithoutexception5.Eachisusedinspeakingoftwoormorethings;everyisusedonlyinspeakingofmorethantwo.Eachdirectsattentiontotheindividualsforminganygroup,everytothetotalgroup•Eachisusedonlywhenthenumberinthegroupislimitedanddefinite;everywhenthenumberisindefinite・Each和every意义类似，但every比each意义强烈，指的是"每一个，没有例外"。谈论两个或两个以上的东西吋用each,谈论两个以上的东西吋用every。Each重点扌旨的是形成群体中的个体，every重点指的是整个群体。群体的数目有限并且确定时用each,群体的数目不确定时用everyo例如：Everyseatwastaken.Fiveboyswereseatedoneachbench・Everyoneofthesechairsisbroken.Leapyearfallsineveiyfourthyear.Hecametoseeuseverythreedays.Itrainedeverydayduringmyholiday・Itwasawaytendaysanditrainedeachday.101.Little,alittle,thelittle.Notecarefullytheuseoflittle,alittleandthelittle.Little=notmuch(ie,hardlyany).Thus,theadjectivelittlehasanegativemeaning.注意little,alittleandthelittle的使用。Little相当于不多(几乎没有)，因此形容词little有否定意义。例如： Thereislittlehopeofhisrecovery,i.e.heisnotlikelytorecover.Heshowedlittleconcemforhisnephew・Hehaslittleinfluencewithhisoldfollowers.Heshowedlittlemercytothevanquished.Hehaslittleappreciationofgoodpoetry.Alittle=somethoughnotmuch."Alittle"hasapositivemeaning.Alittle具有肯定的意义，意指虽然不多但有一些。例如：Thereisalittlehopeofhisrecovery,i.e.hemaypossiblyrecover.Alittletactwouldhavesavedthesituation.Alittleknowledgeisadangerousthing.Thelittle=notmuch,butallthereis.Thelittle指的是不多，仅有的那一点。例如：Thelittleinformationhehadwasnotquitereliable・Thelittleknowledgeofcarpentrythathepossessedstoodhimingoodstead.ExerciseinComposition21构词练习21Insert"alittleorkthelittle,whicheverissuitable:在适当的地方填上"alittle"或’thelittle,1・graintheyhadwasdamagedbyseawater.2・precautionisnecessaryinhandlingthatmachine.3._carecouldhavepreventedthecatastrophe.4._influencethathehas,heusestothebestadvantage.5._knowledgeofFrenchthathehasislikelytobeveryusefultohimontheContinent.99.Few,afew，thefew.Notecarefullytheuseoffew,afewandthefew.Few=notmany,hardlyany,"few"hasanegativemeaning・注意few,afewandthefew的使用。Few指的是不多（可数）几乎没有，具有否定意义。例如：Fewpersonscankeepasecret.Fewpeoplearesohopelessasdrunkards-FewtownsinIndiahavepubliclibraries.Fewmenarefreefromfaults.Afew=some."Afew"hasapositivemeaning,andisopposedto"none"・Afewwordsspokeninearnestwillconvincehim.AfewParseeswriteGujaraticorrectly.Thefew=notmany,butallthereare.Thefew指的不多，仅有的那一点、。例如：Thefewremarksthathemadewereverysuggestive・Thefewfriendshehasareallverypoor.Thefewclothestheyhadwerealltatteredandtom. ExerciseinComposition22构词练习22Insert"afew"or"thefew"whicheverissuitable:在适当的地方填上"afew"或"hefew"。1.publiclibrariesthatwehavearenotwellequipped・2・daysthatarelefttohimhespendsinsolitudeandmeditation.3.days,restisallthatisneeded・4.Itisaquestionofspendingrupees.5.WhenImethimyearslater,helookedoldandhaggard・6・Inwordsheexpressedhisgratitudetohisfriends.7.AmericanshavetheirofficesinCalcutta.8.trinketsshehasarenotworthmuch.9・monthsthathespentinOotydidhimalotofgood・10.poemshehaswrittenareallofgreatexcellence.Chapter14:Articles第十四章：冠词99.TheAdjectivesaoranandtheareusuallycalledArticles.TheyarereallyDemonstrativeAdjectives.形容词a(an)和the通常称冠词。它们实际上是指示形容词。100.TherearetwoArticles-a(oran)andthe.冠词有两个a(an)和the。101.AoraniscalledtheIndefiniteArticle,becauseitleavesindefinitethepersonorthingspokenof;asA(an)称作不定冠词，因为它使谈及的人或物处于不确定状态。例如Adoctor;thatis,anydoctor,adoctor指任何一个陕生102.TheiscalledtheDefiniteArticle,becauseitpointsoutsomeparticularpersonorthing;as,The称为定冠词，因为它指示某一特指的人或物；例如：Hesawthedoctor;meaningsomeparticulardoctor.指某一特指的陕生。A(An)不定冠词103.Thechoicebetweenaandanisdeterminedbysound.Beforeawordbeginningwithavowelsoundanisused;as,是否选择a还是an取决于后面单词的发音，如果后面的单词以元音开始，则用an。例如：AnassAnorangeAnhonestmanAnenemyAnumbrellaAnheirAninkstandAnhourItwillbenoticedthatthewordshour,honest,heirbeginwithavowelsound,astheinitialconsonanthisnotpronounced・10&Beforeawordbeginningwithaconsonantsoundaisused;as, A用于以辅音开头的单词前。例如AboyAholeAunicornAreindeerAuniversityAusefularticleAwomanAunionAone-dollarnoteAyardAEuropeanAone-eyedmanAhorseAeweThewords(university,union,ewe,oneetc.)beginwithconsonantsound,jorw.单词(university,union,ewe,one等)以辅音丿或w开头。109.Beforewordsbeginningwithhandnotaccentedonthefirstsyllable,anisoftenused;asUseoftheDefiniteArticle定冠词的使用109.TheDefiniteArticletheisused:定冠词the用于1・Whenwespeakofaparticularpersonorthing,oronealreadyreferredto;as,当我们谈及某一特别的人或物，或已经提及过的人或物。例如：Thebookyouwantisoutofprint.(特指你要的那本书)Idislikethefellow.(谈话人之间都知道的那个家伙)Letusgototheclub.(谈话人之间都知道特指的那个俱乐部)2・Withnamesofgulfs,rivers,seas,oceans,groupsofislands,andmountain-ranges;as,用于海湾、河流、海洋、岛屿及山川的名字前。例如： ThePersianGulfTheGangesisconsideredholybytheHindus.LondonisontheThames.TheRedseaTheIndianOceanTheBritishIslandsTheAlps3・Beforecommonnounswhicharenamesofthingsuniqueoftheirkind;as,用于世上独一无二的物体名称的前面。例如ThesunThemoonTheYellowRiverTheearthTheGreatWallTheYangtseRiver1.BeforeaPropernounonlywhenitisqualifiedbyanadjectiveoradefiningadjectiveclause;as.用于仅有形容词或限定性形容词性从句修饰的专有名词的前血。例如ThegreatCaesarTheimmortalShakespeareTheMr.Roywhomyoumetlastnightismyuncle.5・WithSuperlatives;as,用于最高级前。例如Thedarkestcloudhasasilverlining・Thisisthebookofelementarychemistry.6・Withordinals;as,用于序数词前。例如Hewasthefirstmantoamve.Theninthchapterofthebookisveryinteresting・7.Beforeanadjectivetorepresentaclassofpeopleorthins;as,用于形容词前代表一类人或物。例如Thenew（新生爭物）Thedeaf（聋哑人）Theyoung（年轻人）Thepoor（穷人）Thewhite（白人）Therich（富人）Theblack（黑人）Theblind（盲人）Theold（老人）8.Beforemusicalinstruments;as用于乐器的前面。例如Hecanplaytheflute.Shebegantoplaytheviolinattheageof6.Hecanplaythepiano.9.Beforeafamilynametorepresentthewholefamily;as, 用于姓氏的前面代表整个家庭。例如TheSmithsaregoingtoChinanextmonth.（史密斯一家下月去中国）UseoftheIndefiniteArticle不定冠词的用法109.TheIndefiniteArticleisused不定冠词用于1).Initsoriginalnumericalsenseofoneas表达其原始的数字意义一介。例如：Twelveinchesmakeafoot.Notawordwassaid.Awordtothewiseissufficient.Abirdinthehandisworthtwointhebush.2).Inthevaguesenseofacertain;as表达"果*一"的模糊含义。例如：ARanchodPitamber(=acertainpersonnamedRanchodPitamber)issuspectedbythepolice.Oneeveningabeggarcametomydoor.3).Inthesenseofany,tosingleoutanindividualastherepresentativeofaclass;as表示任何的含义，挑选出一个个体作为一类的代表。例如：Apupilshouldobeyhisteacher.Acowisausefulanimal.4).Tomakeacommonnounofapropernoun;as把一个专有名词变为一个普通名词。例如：ADanielcometojudgment!(ADaniel=averywiseman)OmissionoftheArticle冠词的省略110.TheArticleisomitted:冠词在以下情况下被省略1).Beforeacommonnounusedinitswidestsense;as用其最广意义的一个普通名词前。例如：Manismortal.Whatkindofflowerisit?2).Beforenamesofmaterials;as材料名称的前面省略冠词。例如：Goldisapreciousmetal.CottongrowsinIndia,AmericaandEgypt. 1).UsuallybeforePropernouns;as专有名词的前血通常省略冠词。例如：DelhiisthecapitalofIndia.Bombayisabigcity.Newtonwasagreatphilosopher.Note:WhentheArticleisusedbeforePropernouns,theybecomeCommonnotins;as,注：当专有名词前加冠词时，它们变为普通名词。例如：ThismanisasecondNewton.HewastheNapoleonofhisage.BombayistheManchesterofIndia・HeistheShakespeareofthecountry.2).BeforeAbstractnotinsusedinageneralsense;as用于普遍意义的抽彖名词前省略冠词。例如：Wisdomisthegiftofheaven.Falsehoodisodious.Honestyisthebestpolicy.Virtueisitsownreward・Note:AnAbstractnoun,whenitisqualifiedbyanadjectiveoranadjectivalphraseorclause,mayhavethearticle;as,注：当一个抽象名词被一个形容词或形容词性短语或句子修饰时，前面可以加冠词。例如：ThewisdomofSolomonisfamous.Heshowedacourageworthyofanolderman.Icannotforgetthekindnesswithwhichhetreatedme.3)・Beforelanguages,as语言名称的前面省略冠词。例如：WearestudyingEnglish.HeprefersFrench・4). MadrasisoneofthebiggestIndiantowns.Knowledgeofthesubjectstoodhimingoodstead.的这门学科的知识对他很有好处。HandoverfistKeepyourcardsclosetoyourchestHope,charity,love,kindness OnceandforallRcpctitiondoesnottransformalieintoatruth.車复并不能把谎言变成真理。Theworstbankruptisthepersonwholosthisenthusiasm.最惨的破产就是丧失自c的热情。Whilethecat"saway,themicewillplay.