英语谚语中隐喻理解与平行结构的相关性研究.pdf 71页

－－：举松化码１０２２４中際分类号．密皱公巧学＾Ｊ２１２１０９８２＾ｉ家每九聲壬页女聲位论义英语ｉ彥语中隐喻理解与平行结构的相关性研究化者张宇导师王晓为副教授学位类热文学硕±所在学膝文法学院…级学科外国语言义学二级学科巧语语言支学二〇—五年六月 独创声明本人声明所呈交的学位论文是本人在导师指导下进行的研究工作及取得的研究成，论文中不包含其他人己果，除了文中特别加Ｗ标注和致谢的地方外。据我所知，也不包含未获得经发表或撰写过的研究成果巧，（：如巧有其他需要特别声明的本栏可巧）或其化教育机构的学位或证书巧用过的材料一同工作的同志对本研究所做的任何贡献均己在论文中作了明。与我确的说明并表示谢意。－学位论文作者签名：円期：方年月／／円＾／宝学位论文版权使用授权书本学位论文作者完全了解学校有关保留、使用学位论文的规定，学校有权保留并向国家有关部口或机构送交论文的复印件和磁盘，允许论文被查阅和借阅。本人授权学校可Ｗ将学位论文的全部或部分内容编入有关数据库进行检索，可Ｗ采用（影印、汇编学位论文。保密的学位论文在解密后适、缩印或扫描等复制手段保存用本授权书）ｖ＿学位论文作者签名：游円期：＞ｒ年＾月々円：円期导师签名：＞５／１年＾月＾円聲Ｉ换和 ClassifiedIndex：Code：10224Confidential(yes/no)：noNO.:121210982DissertationfortheMasterDegreeStudyontheRelationsbetweenMetaphorUnderstandingandParallelisminEnglishProverbsCandidate:ZhangYuSupervisor:ProfessorWangXiaoweiDegreeCategory:MasterofArtsCollege:NortheastAgriculturalUniversityFirstleveldiscipline:ForeignLanguageandLiteratureSecondleveldiscipline:EnglishLanguageandLiteratureHarbinChinaJune2015 目录目录摘要.......................................................................................................................................I英文摘要............................................................................................................................III1引言..................................................................................................................................11.1研究的目的和意义....................................................................................................11.2本文的组织构架........................................................................................................22文献综述..........................................................................................................................42.1谚语...........................................................................................................................42.1.1谚语的定义..........................................................................................................42.1.2国外的谚语研究..................................................................................................52.1.3国内的谚语研究..................................................................................................62.2隐喻...........................................................................................................................72.2.1隐喻的定义..........................................................................................................72.2.2国外的隐喻研究..................................................................................................82.2.3国内的隐喻研究..................................................................................................92.3英语的平行结构概说..............................................................................................102.3.1英语平行结构的定义.........................................................................................102.3.2英语平行结构的本质.........................................................................................112.3.3英语平行结构的功能.........................................................................................122.4小结.........................................................................................................................133理论基础........................................................................................................................143.1概念隐喻理论的定义及特征...................................................................................143.1.1概念隐喻理论的定义.........................................................................................143.1.2概念隐喻理论的主要特征.................................................................................153.2概念隐喻理论的工作机制.......................................................................................153.2.1经验性基础........................................................................................................163.2.2相似性基础........................................................................................................163.2.3跨不同概念域的系统映射.................................................................................173.3概念隐喻的分类......................................................................................................183.3.1莱考夫的隐喻分类方法.....................................................................................183.3.2束定芳的隐喻分类方法.....................................................................................193.3.3本文采用的分类方法.........................................................................................193.4小结.........................................................................................................................204研究方法与数据处理.....................................................................................................214.1研究方法.................................................................................................................21I 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文4.1.1研究对象............................................................................................................214.1.2研究工具............................................................................................................224.1.3实施过程............................................................................................................234.1.4小结....................................................................................................................244.2数据的整理与分析..................................................................................................254.2.1调查结果............................................................................................................254.2.2调查结果分析....................................................................................................274.2.3小结....................................................................................................................305讨论................................................................................................................................325.1基于概念理论框架下英语谚语中隐喻和平行结构的相关性.................................325.1.1名词性隐喻与平行结构的相关性......................................................................325.1.2动词性隐喻与平行结构的相关性......................................................................335.1.3介词性隐喻及句子隐喻与平行结构的相关性...................................................335.1.4形容词性隐喻与平行结构的相关性..................................................................345.2英语谚语中谚语理解与平行结构互动的实现方式.................................................355.2.1名词性隐喻与平行结构的互动关系..................................................................355.2.2动词性隐喻与平行结构的互动关系..................................................................365.2.3介词性隐喻及句子隐喻与平行结构的互动关系...............................................375.2.4形容词性隐喻与平行结构的互动关系..............................................................375.3妥协表达法在汉语中的表现形式...........................................................................385.3.1汉语成语中的妥协表达.....................................................................................385.3.2汉语谚语中的妥协表达.....................................................................................395.3.3汉语中相似本体的妥协表达.............................................................................405.4给英语学习者的建议..............................................................................................415.4.1注重词源的掌握................................................................................................415.4.2更广阔的文化背景.............................................................................................425.4.3夯实汉语句法结构基础.....................................................................................425.4.4熟练英汉平行句法结构的自由转换..................................................................435.5小结.........................................................................................................................446结论................................................................................................................................466.1该研究的主要成果..................................................................................................466.2该研究的局限性......................................................................................................476.3对未来研究的建议..................................................................................................47致谢....................................................................................................................................50参考文献............................................................................................................................51附录....................................................................................................................................53II 目录攻读硕士学位期间发表的学术论文..................................................................................58III CONTENTSCONTENTSAbstractinChinese..............................................................................................................IAbstractinEnglish...........................................................................................................III1Introduction......................................................................................................................11.1PurposeandSignificanceoftheStudy..........................................................................11.2OrganizationoftheThesis............................................................................................22LiteratureReview.............................................................................................................42.1Proverbs.......................................................................................................................42.1.1DefinitionofProverbs.............................................................................................42.1.2PreviousStudiesonProverbsAbroad......................................................................52.1.3PreviousStudiesonProverbsatHome....................................................................62.2Metaphor.......................................................................................................................72.2.1DefinitionofMetaphor............................................................................................72.2.2PreviousStudiesonMetaphorAbroad.....................................................................82.2.3PreviousStudiesonMetaphoratHome..................................................................102.3GeneralIntroductiontoEnglishParallelism................................................................102.3.1DefinitionofEnglishParallelism...........................................................................112.3.2EssenceofParallelism...........................................................................................112.3.3FunctionsofParallelism........................................................................................122.4Summary...................................................................................................................133TheoreticalFoundation..................................................................................................143.1DefinitionandMajorFeaturesofConceptualMetaphorTheory.................................143.1.1DefinitionofConceptualMetaphorTheory..........................................................143.1.2MajorFeaturesofConceptualMetaphorTheory...................................................153.2WorkingMechanismofConceptualMetaphorTheory................................................153.2.1TheExperientialBasis..........................................................................................163.2.2TheSimilarBasis.................................................................................................163.2.3TheCross-domainMapping..................................................................................173.3ClassificationofConceptualMetaphor.......................................................................183.3.1Lakoff’sClassificationofMetaphor....................................................................183.3.2ShuDingfang’sClassificationofMetaphor..........................................................193.3.3TheClassificationAdoptedinThisThesis............................................................203.4Summary....................................................................................................................20V 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文4ResearchMethodologiesandDataCollection...............................................................224.1ResearchMethodology..............................................................................................224.1.1ResearchRespondents.........................................................................................224.1.2InstrumentsoftheResearch.................................................................................234.1.3ImplementationoftheResearch...........................................................................244.1.4Summary.............................................................................................................254.2DataCollectionandAnalysis.....................................................................................264.2.1ResearchResults..................................................................................................264.2.2TheAnalysisoftheResearchResults...................................................................284.2.3Summary..............................................................................................................325Discussion.......................................................................................................................335.1RelationsBetweenMetaphorandParallel-forminEnglishProverbsBasedonConceptualMetaphorTheory..............................................................................................335.1.1RelationsBetweenNounMetaphorandParallel-form..........................................335.1.2RelationsBetweenVerbalMetaphorandParallel-form........................................345.1.3RelationsBetweenPrepositionalandSentenceMetaphorandParallel-form.........345.1.4RelationsBetweenAdjectiveMetaphorandParallel-form....................................355.2RealizationofInteractionsBetweenMetaphorUnderstandingandParallel-form.......365.2.1InteractiveRelationsBetweenNounMetaphorandParallel-form........................365.2.2InteractiveRelationsBetweenVerbalMetaphorandParallel-form......................375.2.3InteractiveRelationsBetweenPrepositionalandSentenceMetaphorandParallel-form......................................................................................................................385.2.4InteractiveRelationsBetweenAdjectiveMetaphorandParallel-form..................385.3ManifestationofCompromisedExpressioninChinese..............................................395.3.1CompromisedExpressionsinChineseFour-characterIdioms..............................395.3.2CompromisedExpressionsinChineseProverbs...................................................405.3.3CompromisedExpressionsinSimilarSourceObjectsinChinese.........................415.4SuggestionsforEnglishLearners..............................................................................425.4.1DeeperExplorationofEtymology........................................................................425.4.2BroaderCulturalContext.....................................................................................435.4.3GreaterAttentiontotheChineseSyntacticStructuralBasis.................................435.4.4MoreFlexibleTransformationBetweenChineseandEnglish...............................445.5Summary......................................................................................................................446Conclusion......................................................................................................................476.1MajorFindingsoftheStudy......................................................................................476.2LimitationsoftheStudy............................................................................................48VI CONTENTS6.3SuggestionsforFurtherStudy...................................................................................48Acknowledgements............................................................................................................50References.........................................................................................................................51Appendix...........................................................................................................................53PapersPublishedinthePeriodofPh.M.education........................................................58VII 摘要摘要谚语是民族文化的精髓，是人们生活经验的浓缩和智慧的结晶。国内外的专家学者把谚语作为一种语言现象进行研究，所涉领域包括修辞、句法特征和文化背景等诸多方便。而隐喻作为修辞手法中最生动形象的分支在谚语中的应用也不胜枚举，已被列为一个独立的研究领域。回顾前人得出的隐喻研究成果，我们发现研究重点更多地集中在词汇、修辞和翻译领域，而在一个特定独立的语言载体中对隐喻的集中研究并不多见，谚语恰恰为这类研究提供了一个合适的平台。另外，谚语以其形式上的特殊性又与平行结构的特征不谋而合，很多经典的谚语都是以平行结构呈现出来的。平行结构是结构相似或相同且内容相关的组合体，因其独特的句法特征也同样活跃在特殊文体的构建中。综合各种因素考虑可得出本文的研究创新点，那就是探讨谚语中平行结构与隐喻理解的相关性。隐喻的相关理论为该研究提供了强大的理论支撑，本文的理论依据来自约翰逊和莱卡夫于1980年提出的概念隐喻理论。该理论认为隐喻的本质就是思维活动，这项理论的提出把隐喻研究带入一个新的阶段，即认知领域。在概念隐喻理论的框架下，隐喻是人们日常生活中的常见现象，这种普遍现象产生隐喻意义，其工作机制就是从源域到目标域的映射。而为了更好更全面的体现英汉之间的转换，尤其是把文化性较强的谚语作为研究对象，隐喻的种类采用的是国内知名学者束定芳的分类方法，也就是名词性隐喻、动词性隐喻、介词性隐喻、形容词性隐喻以及本文作者追加的句子隐喻。在本文中，研究对象确定为东北农业大学大一和大三英语专业的学生，研究方法采用的是问卷调查和对比分析法。为了使研究结果更加科学可信，问卷调查先后实施了两次。在第一次的问卷中，目的确定为找出英语谚语中隐喻理解与英汉句法结构对比的相关性，然而，由于切入点过于宽泛，调查结果并没有显示出普遍性，但在它的基础上，也引出了现在本文的研究重心——英语谚语中隐喻理解和平行结构的相关性研究。在第一次调查结果的基础之上，对问卷做了相应修改，并且此次问卷调查结果清晰地反映出了一些问题。本文诣在解决以下问题：英语谚语中的隐喻理解和平行结构是否存在相关性；被研究者更专注于内容的正确性还是倾向于追求形式上的一致；五种不同隐喻类型理解的难易程度；母语知识对隐喻理解的影响。通过数据采集和分析，得出以下结论：英语谚语中的隐喻理解和平行结构存在相关性，在某种程度上，平行结构促进英语谚语中隐喻的理解，并且理解程度随隐喻类型的不同而不同；大多数被调查者都会倾向于追求形式上的一致，有时不惜牺牲正确的含义，而且这种普遍性并不分专业知识程度高低；五种隐喻类型理解从易到难分别为名词性隐喻、动词性隐喻、介词性隐喻和句子隐喻，I 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文最后是形容词性隐喻；多数被调查者都会无意识地寻求母语知识，因此导致的理解错误被称为“妥协表达”；专业知识程度越高，隐喻理解能力越强。为了更好地理解平行结构谚语中的隐喻，依据调查结果文中提出了几点建议，譬如增加词源知识、扩宽文化背景以及注重英汉句法结构转换等等。与此同时，该项研究的弊端以及对未来此类研究的建议与设想也有所涉猎。关键词隐喻；英语谚语；平行结构；概念隐喻II AbstractStudyontheRelationsbetweenMetaphorUnderstandingandParallelisminEnglishProverbsAbstractAstheessenceofculture,proverbsarethewisdomofpeopleandconcentrationoftheirexperiences.Proverbsarealsosoughtafterbyresearchersandscholarsbothathomeandabroadasakindoflanguagephenomenonthroughstudyingthefiguresofspeech,syntacticfeatures,culturalbackgroundandsoon.Andmetaphorasanimportantandactivepartofrhetoricinproverbsisworthstudyingasasinglefield.Lookingbackthepreviousstudiesonmetaphor,itiswidelyacceptedthatstudyingmetaphorshouldbestartedwiththeperspectiveofvocabulary,rhetoric,translatingandsoon.Itisseldomtouchedtostudymetaphorinanindependentlanguagecarrier.Besides,proverbscanbeanappropriateresearchobjecttotalkaboutandanalyzemetaphordeeply.Proverbsarefamousforthespecialstructurestofollowthefeaturesofneatnessandantithesis,whichmakesparallelismbearelativelypopularformtopresentaproverb.Parallelismisacombinationofmorethantwopartswhichareparalleltoeachother,inotherwords,theyhavethesameorsimilarstructuresandtherelevantcontents.Parallelstructuresareactiveinsomespecialstylesforthesyntacticfeatures.Takingallaboveintoconsideration,anewthemecanbesetasfindingouttherelationsbetweenmetaphorunderstandingandparallelisminEnglishproverbs.Therelevanttheoriesonmetaphorprovidemoreguidancetothetheoreticalfoundationsofthisthesis.Inthisthesis,theConceptualMetaphorTheoryin1980isadoptedasthetheoreticalfoundationwhichthinksthattheessenceofmetaphorliesinmind,whichbringsresearchonmetaphortothecognitivelevelandmakesthisfieldstepintoanewstage.Basedonthistheory,metaphorworksasacommonandpersuasivephenomenongeneratingmetaphoricalmeaning.Theworkingmechanismofmetaphorismappingwhichmeansthetransformationfromthesourcedomaintothetargetdomain.Inaddition,toreflectthetransformationfromEnglishtoChinesebetter,especiallywhenproverbswithstrongculturalbackgroundareusedasresearchobjects,theclassificationofmetaphorinthisthesisisbasedonChinesescholarShuDingfang’sopinions,whicharenounmetaphor,verbalmetaphor,prepositionalmetaphor,adjectivemetaphorandsentencemetaphorwhichisaddedupbytheauthor.Inthisthesis,thequestionnairetestingandcomparativeanalysisisadoptedasresearchmethodology.AndtherespondentsarenarrowedtothestudentsofGradeOneandGradeThreeinEnglishmajorintheNortheastAgriculturalUniversity.TheresearcheshavebeenorganizedforIII 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文twotimestomaketheresultsmorereliable.Forthefirsttime,thequestionnairedesignaimsatfindingouttherelationsbetweenmetaphorunderstandinginEnglishproverbsandthecomparisonbetweenEnglishandChinesesyntactic.However,theresultsdonotshowtheuniversalitybutleadstoanotherimportantfinding,whichshowthediversityofmetaphorunderstandingandtranslatinginparallel-formproverbs.Afterthetworesearchesmentionedabove,thistopicoftheresearchhasbeenmadenow.Basedontheresultsofthefirstresearch,thequestionnairesaremodifiedandthesecondresearchhasbeendone.Forthistime,theresultsreflectthemainbodyclearly.Thisthesisaimsatsolvingthefollowingproblems:AretheresomerelationsbetweenmetaphorunderstandingandparallelisminEnglishproverbs;Dotherespondentslaymoreemphasisoncorrectunderstandingoraccordancewithform;Thesequenceoffivetypesofmetaphorunderstandingfromtoptobottom;Theimpactofmothertongueknowledgeonmetaphorunderstanding.Afterthedatacollectionandresultsanalysis,theconclusionsofthisresearchareasfollows:TherearerelationsbetweenmetaphorunderstandingandparallelisminEnglishproverbs.Tosomeextent,parallelstructureshelpandpromoteunderstandmetaphorunderstanding.Andtheimpactvarieswithdifferenttypesofmetaphor;Mostrespondentsregardlessofprofessionalleveltendtofollowtheparallelstructures;Themetaphorunderstandingsfromtoptobottomarenounmetaphor,verbalmetaphor,prepositionalmetaphortogetherwithsentencemetaphorandadjectivemetaphorrespectively;Mostrespondentsturntotheirmothertongueunconsciously,whichbringsabouttheconceptof“compromisedexpression”;Thehigherprofessionaltherespondentsare,thebettermetaphorunderstandinginparallel-formproverbs.Accordingtotheresearchresults,therelevantsuggestionsforbettermetaphorunderstandinginproverbsofparallelismareproposedsuchasdeeperexplorationofetymology,broaderculturalcontextaswellasmorefocusonsyntacticstructure,especiallytheparallelism.Andlimitationsandcorrespondingadviceforfuturestudyareputintodiscussion.Keywords:Metaphor;Englishproverbs;Parallelism;ConceptualMetaphorCandidate:ZhangYuSpeciality:EnglishLanguageandLiteratureSupervisor:ProfessorWangXiaoweiIV Introduction1IntroductionThisthesisisastudyoftherelationsbetweenmetaphorunderstandingandparallelisminEnglishproverbs.ThequestionnairetestingisadoptedasresearchmethodologyandthestudentsofGradeOneandGradeThreemajoringinEnglishinNortheastAgriculturalUniversityareselectedasresearchrespondents.Thequestionnairetestinghasbeenheldfortwotimessuccessivelytogetmorereliableresearchresults.Afteranalyzingofthedatacollectedinquestionnairetesting,itisfoundthatthereseemstobesomerelationsbetweenparallelismandmetaphorunderstandinginEnglishproverbs.ThehypothesisisassumedthatparallelstructurehelpstounderstandthemetaphorunderstandinginEnglishproverbs.Furthermore,itisexpectedthatthedependenceonmothertongueculturewillplayapartinunderstandingprocess.1.1PurposeandSignificanceoftheStudyMetaphorunderstandingisanimportantsubjectinrhetoricalfield,therelevantresearchesonthistopichavebeenthroughdifferentstagesandgainedoutstandingachievements.Proverbisoneofthelargestcarrierofmetaphorfortheirvividandlivelyfeatures,andresearchesonproverbsfocusmainlyontranslating,thesyntacticfeatures,rhetoricmethodsandsoon.Astotheparallelism,therelevantstudiesaremoreaboutwritingstylesinwhichthiskindofstructurecanbeusedfrequentlyandtheexpressiveeffects.Lookingbackthepreviousstudiesonmetaphor,Englishproverbsandparallelism,eachaspecthasbeenstudiedandgreatachievementshavebeenmade.However,tomakerelationsbetweenthemisseldomreferredto.Andthisthesisbreaksthroughinputtingthethreekeywordstogether.WehaveconsultedanumberexamplesofEnglishproverbstofindoutthatmetaphorandparallelstructuresareveryactiveandthereseemstobesomerelationsbetweenmetaphorunderstandingandparallelisminEnglishproverbs,inotherwords,therelationsbetweenimpliedmeaningincontentandparticularformwithinacertainlanguagecarry,whichprovidesanewperspectivetothisfieldandaddsupmoreresearchsubjects.Itcanprovidereferencestounderstandingmetaphorusedinparallel-formproverbsbetterandbringaboutbroaderresearchscopeaswellaslargerstudyarea.Thisthesisisofsignificancebothinpracticeandtheoryinthefollowingaspects:Firstly,metaphorasapopularresearchsubjecthasbeenexploredforcenturies,itisworthstudyingeitherasrhetoricalmethodorrelevantmetaphoricaltheories.Metaphorisusedwidelyindifferentwritingstylesforitsvividnessandliveliness.Mostresearchesonmetaphorhavebeenmadefromdifferentperspectivesandattractedmanyresearchersandscholarsbothathomeandabroad.Thisthesisstartsanotherviewofmetaphorstudyasanewsparkbasedonthepreviousachievementswhichmayleadtomanyotherideas.Secondly,proverbisoneofthemostvividreflectionsofculture,containingmanyelementssuchasfiguresofspeech,syntacticstructures,culturalbackgroundandsoon.Thestudieson1 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文proverbscanpresentsomuchinformationindifferentfields,that’swhatdrawsmanyresearchersandscholars’attention.Inthisthesis,proverbisnotusedasresearchobjectbutacarrierofmetaphorandparallelism,whichcanprovidesomereferencestothefuturestudyonproverbs.Thirdly,parallelismisusedwhenpeoplewanttoexpressdifferenteffects.Withfeaturesofneatstructureandclearlevel,parallelismcanconveyfeelingseitherstrongorvivid,whichareappliedtomanyparticularwritingstyleslikepoemsorproverbs.Thisthesisregardstheparallelismasapointcuttostudytherelationsbetweenmetaphorunderstandinginproverbsformedinparallelstructurewhichmayinspiremorecreativemethodstostudyparallelism.Lastbutnotleast,itcanrousestudents’interestsofstudyingnotonlytherelationsbetweenmetaphorandparallelisminEnglishproverbsbutalsoeachkeywordasaindependenttopic,whichmayleadtomoreinsightfulthoughtsandideasonnewfieldandencouragemoreexplorationandresearch.1.2OrganizationoftheThesisThisthesisiscomposedofsixparts,whichareorganizedasfollows:Thefirstchapterisintroduction,whichpresentsageneralviewofthethesis.Firstandforemost,thesignificancebothintheoryandpracticearetalkedabouttoprovethenecessityandguidanceofthestudy.Andsomerelevantaspectsoftheresearcharebroughtaboutincludingthetopic,researchmethodology,researchrespondentsandobjectsandsoon.Besides,thehypothesisofthestudyisassumedaroundthethemetoverify.Thesecondchapterisliteraturereview.Thispartconsistsofthreekeywords,Englishproverb,metaphorandparallelism,allofwhichworktogethertomakethethesistenable.Intheproverbspart,thedefinitionsofdifferentversionshavebeenpresentedfromwhichitcanbeindicatedthatproverbshavebeenpopularforalongtimeasacorpus.Andthencomethedetailedpreviousstudiesonproverbsbothathomeandabroad,whichcanprovideguidanceandreferencesforthisstudy.Proverbscanbeusedasthecarrierofbothmetaphorandparallelismthroughthefeaturesanalysisinthischapter.Likewise,astothemetaphorpart,theintroductionisalsocomposedofdefinitionofdifferentversionsandthepreviousstudiesathomeandabroad.Therelevanttheoriesofmetaphorhavebeenthroughseveralcenturieswhichprovidesstrongtheoreticalfoundationandresearchbackgroundtothisstudy.Andintheparallelismpart,besidesthedefinitionandessence,theparallelismpartputsmoreemphasisonthefunctionsforthereasonthatparallelstructureasaparticularformhasinfluencesoncontentexpression.Thethirdchapterisaboutthetheoreticalfoundation.Ithasbeenseveralcenturiessincemetaphorisstudiedasasingletheory.Soanumberoftheoriesfromdifferentperspectiveshavebeenproposed.AndthetheoreticalfoundationofthisthesisisoneofthemostinfluentialandprominenttheoriesproposedbyJohnsonandLakoffin1980namedasConceptualMetaphorTheory.Theworkingmechanismofthistheoryismappingsacrossdifferentdomains,fromwhich2 Introductionitcanbeindicatedthatmetaphorisperceptionofatotallydifferentdomainbasedonthecognitivelevel.However,accordingtotheactualneedoftheresearch,LakoffandJohnson’stypesofmetaphorarenotpickedupbutShuDingfang’sclassificationofmetaphortoachievethegoalofunderstandingmetaphormorecompleteanddetailed.Itisworthmentioningthatthesentencemetaphorisaddedupbytheauthortoshowtherelationsbetweendifferenttypesofmetaphorandparallelismmorethoroughly.Andthenextpartischapterfour,researchmethodologiesanddatacollection.Inthispart,theresearchmethodology,questionnairedesignandproceduresofthetworesearchesareintroducedindetail.Thedataarecalculatedandanalyzedaftercollection,presentedindifferentformsorcharts.Itlaysthestrongfoundationofthemainbody.Thencomesthemainbodypart,chapterfive,whichisdiscussion.Inthispart,therelationsbetweenmetaphorandparallel-formbasedonConceptualMetaphorTheoryareexploredinfivetypesofmetaphorrespectively.ItisfoundthatparallelismhasaninfluenceondifferentmetaphorunderstandinginEnglishproverbstodifferentdegreesandthemetaphorcomprehensionaffectstheparallel-formexpressioninturn,whichleadstothesecondpartsummarizedasthespecificrealizationofinteractionsbetweenmetaphorunderstandingandparallel-form.Inaddition,thenegativeinfluenceofmothertonguemakesroomforintroducingthecompromisedexpression.Atlast,therecomethesuggestionsofunderstandingmetaphorbetterinparallel-formproverbsbasedontheanalysisabove.Thefinalpartischaptersixasconclusion.Itpresentsasummaryofthewholethesisfromthreeaspects.Themajorfindingsaretalkedaboutaswellasthelimitationsofthisresearchandcorrespondingsuggestionsforfurtherstudies.3 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文2LiteratureReviewThischapterisareviewofliteratureonthreekeywords:Englishproverbs,metaphor,andparallelism.Theproverbspartconsistsoftwosections,thefirstisaboutdifferenteditionsofdefiningaproverbfromvariousperspectives,whilethesecondisaboutpreviousstudiesandresearchachievementsonEnglishproverbsbothathomeandabroad.Astothesecondpart,thisthesistalksaboutthereviewofliteratureonmetaphor,alsoincludingthedefinitionandresearchesathomeandabroad.AndthelastpartisabriefintroductiontoEnglishparallelismbyintroducingthedefinitionandnatureofittogetherwiththerhetoricalfunctions.2.1ProverbsProverbsaregreattreasureintheEnglishculturalpalace,beingaveryvividandinterestingpartofalanguagewithlonghistory.Theycomefromfolksandcontainsimpletruths,reflectingcultureofanationandpeople’swisdom.Asselectedandaccumulatedinsocialdevelopmentandcourseoflanguage,proverbsarecharacterizedwithstrongethniccolorsandconcisesentencestructures.2.1.1DefinitionofProverbsEnglishproverbs,formedinthelonghistoryofpeople’ssocialexperienceandpractice,arethereflectionofcultureandwisdom.Proverbsprovidespeoplewiththeprinciplespeopleshouldfollowandthemodeofsociety.Proverbsusehasbecomecommonandhabitualtopeople,whilenooneissureaboutwhenandwherethefirstproverbwasused.TheyarejustthecommonphenomenonpeopletakeforgrantedandthereforeitisnecessarytostudyproverbsinessencetogettothenativeEnglish.Thereisnocleargenerallyacknowledgeddefinitionthoughmanyeffortsfromvariouswayshavebeentriedtodefineaproverbbyscholarsanddictionaries.Therearelotsofdifferenteditionsofdictionariesgivingtheirowndefinitionofaproverb.Forinstance,intheRandomHouseWebster’sCollegeDictionaryofEnglishLanguage(1975),aproverbis“ashortpopularsaying,usuallyofunknownandancientorigin,thatexpresseseffectivelysomecommonplacetruthorusefulthought.”[1]AccordingtoLongmanModernEnglishDictionary(1976),aproverbisthoughtas“abrieffamiliarmaximoffolkwisdom,usuallycompressedinform,ofteninvolvingaboldimageandfrequentlyajinglethatcatchesmemory”.[2]Therearealsoattemptsmadebyscholarstopresenttheessenceofproverbs.Miederpresentedhisideaofproverbsin1993;heheldtheopinionthataproverbischaracterizedwithconcisestructureandvividwordsselection,whichindicateslifeattitude,wisdomandnationalfeatures.Miederalsomadeageneraldefinitionofaproverbwhichis“aproverbisshort,generallyknownsentenceofthefolkwhichcontainswisdom,truth,morals,andtraditionalviewsinametaphorical,fixedandmemorizableformandwhichishandeddownfromgenerationtogeneration.”[3]OtherscholarslikeHoneck(1997)definesaproverbfromacognitiveway,hesaidthattosomeextent,4 LiteratureReviewproverbcanberegardedasadiscoursedeviantsentencewhichdeterminesthatalltheselinguisticfeaturescontributetoitscognitiveideals,soastoplayanimportantroleasabranchofpragmatics.[4]Inaddition,Chinesescholarsandresearchersalsomadegreatachievementsonrelevantstudies.Forinstance,JinLu(1996)holdstheopinionsthataproverbistheproductionofpeople’slongprocessofpracticeandexperienceimplyingallkindsofinstructiveandinspiredtruthwhichcoverseveryaspectofpeople’sdailylife.Mostproverbsarecharacterizedwithconcisestructuresandbeautifulrhymewhichimpresspeoplealotforthefirstsightandmakeproverbseasytounderstandandremember.[5]ZengZili(1983)alsogavethedefinitionofaproverbreferringtothepreviousstudiesondefiningotherkindsofEnglishidiomsincludingmaximsandsayingsas“EnglishproverbsarethesummarizationofthelifeandstruggleexperienceoftheEnglish-speakingpeoplewithinstructiveandpersuasivefunctions,suchasimpartingknowledge,providingadviceandwarning,etc.”[6]Fromallkindsofdefinitionsgivenbydifferenteditionsofdictionariesandscholarsathomeandabroad,wecanfindthatmostofthemsharethecommoncharacteristicsofaproverbasconcisestructure,profoundrangeandrichmeaning.Asasourceofnationalcultureandpeople’swisdom,proverbsareusedandquotedpopularly,whichlimitandguidepeople’sbehaviorandsetsocialregulationsforsocialmodesandmoralthemes.However,thereisnogenerallyacknowledgeddefinitionofaproverbsofar,whichstillneedspainstakingeffortstocontinuethestudy.2.1.2PreviousStudiesonProverbsAbroadFamousEnglishwriterandphilosopherFrancisBacon(1597)oncesaid“Thegenius,witandspiritofanationarediscoveredinitsproverbs”,[7]whichindicatesthatgettingagoodunderstandingofproverbsisoneofthemostimportantwaysoflearningEnglish.Wecanseethatinthehistoryofstudyingproverbs,foreignscholarsbegantheirresearchesquiteearly.Astospecificcontentofstudyingproverbs,itcanbeseparatedintothreeaspects.Thefirstaspectisthatscholarsandresearchersfocusonpursuingthedefinitionandcollectionoftheproverbs.Manyproverbdictionarieshavebeencomeoutthroughtheeffortsofscholarsandresearches.Inthestudiesofclassificationofproverbs,F.L.Lucas(1965)hastobementioned.HisarticletheArtofProverbspublishedin1965emphasizesondistinguishingproverbsfromaphorism.Hearguesitisnationallanguagecharacteristicsthatcharmtheproverbsandmakeproverbsstillpopularandusefultoday.Hecollectslargeamountofproverbsasexamplesfromdifferentnationallanguageswhichhelpshimfurtherexplorethecontentandessenceofaproverb.[8]Intermsofthesecondaspect,thefocusoftheproverbsstudiesshiftstotheculturalsource.Thisnewperspectiveprovidesabundantknowledgeofculturalbackgroundofproverbs,from5 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文whichpeoplecanunderstandproverbsdeeplybyknowingaboutwheretheycomefrom.Forexample,ReynoldsandValentine(2004)thinkitisagoodideatoanalyzeproverbstofindtheirconnectionwithgeneralfeaturesofnationallanguagefromtheviewofculture.[9]Andthethirdaspectisabigchallengetotraditionalfieldofstudyingproverbs,thatistosaytheperspectiveofcognition.Guidedbythisnewpointofview,scholarsandresearchersbegintopayattentiontothecognitivemechanismofEnglishproverbs.Thisisthefirsttimethatstudiesonproverbshavebegantomakesomeconnectionsbetweenlanguageandthinking.Honeck(1997)proposesthattounderstandaproverbistogothroughacognitiveprocess.Intheotherwords,peoplecanfindvaluableexplanationonhowtheproverbsunderstoodbyanalyzinghowthecognitivemechanismworks.[4]Gibbs(1996)togetherwithsomelinguisticsandpsycholiguististsfindthatmetaphorplaysaveryactiveroleinproverbs.HeturnstotheConceptualMetaphorTheory,whichprovidesagoodwaytounderstandproverbswithfigurativecomponents.[10]Tosumup,duringtheseyears,studiesonproverbshavebeenthroughalongprocessofexploringandcreating.Therelevanttopicsextendtomanyfieldsincludingcollection,culturalsourceandcognitivemechanism,etc,whicharealloutstandingandobviousachievements.However,itisseenthattherearefewresearchesdoneontheperspectiveofsyntactic,especiallytheparticularsentencestructures,whicharethisthesismainlyfocuseson.2.1.3PreviousStudiesonProverbsatHomeAsanimportantpartofEnglishstudies,proverbsdrawnotonlytheattentionofforeignresearchersandscholars,butalsohavebeenverypopularinChinaformanyyears.Proverbsmakeitaccessibletogetintothedeepcultureofalanguageaswellashistoricaltraditionandpeople’sopinionsofvalue,whichhasalwaysbeenahottopicamongChinesescholarsdevotedtofindingoutagoodwaytolearnEnglish.BasedontheachievementsmadebyforeignlinguistsandconnectionswithChineseproverbs,Chineseresearchersandscholarsdolargeamountofresearchesonthisspecialandpopularphenomenonfrommanyperspectivessuchascollection,classification,featuresdescription,translation,cultureandthecomparisonbetweenChineseproverbsandEnglishones,etc.FromtheperspectiveofthecollectionofEnglishproverbs,LiYongfang’sDictionaryofEnglishProverbsAnnotatedBilingually(SecondEdition)hastobementionedwhichcontainsnearly7,000itemstoenrichoursocialdictionarysystem.[11](Thisdictionaryisalsotheresourceofthequestionnairesofthisthesis.)IntermsofthefeaturesdescriptionofEnglishproverbs,Chineseresearchersandscholarsdevotethemselvestothistopicfrommanyaspects.Characterizedwithconcisestructure,vividwordsselectionandculturalbackground,Englishproverbsareworthyofstudyingeitherinformsorcontent.Syntacticanalysis,forinstance,hasoccupiedtheforegoingposition.NiJingya(2003)presentstheanalysisofsyntacticfeaturesandstructuralcharacteristicsofEnglishproverbsinher6 LiteratureReviewarticleSentenceStructureandRhetoricalCharacteristicsofEnglishProverbs.Inthisarticle,theauthoranalyzesthesyntacticstructuresandsummarizesthatwecangettheimplicationthroughsentencestructures.[12]AstothemostflourishingachievementsofEnglishproverbs,ChinesescholarspaymuchattentiontothetranslationapproachestotheproverbsandthecomparisonbetweenEnglishandChineseproverbs.HeretakeHuangYumei(2010)asanexample,shethinksthatthestudyshouldaimatmakingthemeaningweexpressunderstoodbyforeignpeople,andthetransformationfromalllevelsbetweenEnglishandChinesecanbeagoodwaytoconveyinformationsuchasfeasibletranslationofproverbsincludingliteraltranslationandfreetranslation.[13]Proverbscannotlivewithoutculture.Asweallknow,proverbsareformedinfolksasaresultofhistoricalsedimentationandculturalinfluence.Culturalbackgroundcanberegardedasorigination,whichmakesiteasytounderstandproverbsfromamorecomprehensiveview.TheculturalelementsinEnglishproverbsinterestChinesescholarsalotandresultinmanyachievementsonthistopic.CaiLiping(2000)putsstressonculturalbackgroundinthebookofByComparison,toLookCulturalDiscrepanciesbetweenEnglishandChineseProverbs,introducingawaytounderstandproverbsfromcognitiveperspectiverelatingtonativeculture.[14]XieYoufu(2005)improvestheculturalelementsonthebasisofadmittingCai’spoint.Hesaysthatcultureisthesymbolofvalue,wisdomandcommonconsciousnessofthesociety.HehighlightsthedifferencesandimportanceofcultureofproverbsunderstandinginhisbookAStudyintheDifferencesbetweenEnglishandChineseProverbsResultingfromCulturalDiscrepancies.[15]2.2MetaphorAsanimportantrhetoricalphenomenon,metaphorhasalwaysoccupiedanindispensablepositioninEnglish.Itexitsinformaldocuments,literatureworks,orevendailylifechatting.Peopleuseittomakewhattheyexpressmorelivelyandvivid.ManygreatscholarsandresearchersbendthemselvestostudyingmetaphorasearlyasAristotle’stimeandtheachievementsonmetaphorhasflourished.Studiesonmetaphorwillbeintroducedinthefollowingthreeparts:thedefinition,thepreviousstudiesathomeandabroadonmetaphor.2.2.1DefinitionofMetaphorGenerallyspeaking,mostpeopletakemetaphorasafigureofspeechwhenwemakeacomparisonbetweenAandBtoexpressAisB.Metaphorcanbeunderstoodbothinthenarrowandbroadsenseandisdistinguishedfromotherrhetoricalformssuchassimile,metonymy,etc.WecanfindthedefinitionofmetaphorgivenbytheLongmanDictionaryofEnglishLanguage&Culture(2004)describedas“anexpressionwhichmeansordescribesonethingorideausingwordsusuallyusedofsomethingelsewithverysimilarqualities.”[16]WecanfindthecontributionmadebyChineselinguiststodefiningmetaphorinaCollectionofWisdomas“Metaphor,asakindoffigureofspeech,whichmakestheconnectionsmoretightthansimile.Simileprovidesakindof7 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文analogizedrelationshipinforms,whilemetaphormakesitcoincided(隐喻，比喻的一种。比之明喻更为紧切，明喻在形式上只是相类的关系，隐喻在形式上却是相和的关系).”[17]Itcanbeseenthatmetaphorputsonething’snameonanotherbasedonthesimilaritiesbetweenthemthoughonethinghasnothingtodowithanotheratall.Wecanseeeachmetaphorasariddle.Thewaytounderstandmetaphoristosolvetheriddlewithactiveandimaginativewayofthinking.Andinbroadsense,allrhetoricalphenomenonscanbecategorizedintometaphoricallanguageaccordingtoAristotle.Heputsforwardhisunderstandingofametaphoras“theapplicationofanaliennamebytransferenceeitherfromgenustospecies,orfromspeciestogenus,orfromspeciestospecies,orbyanalogy,thatis,proportion”inhisPoetics.Inhisopinion,beingalanguagephenomenoninarhetoricalsense,metaphorcanberegardedascomparisonbetweendifferentthings,justlikesimile.[18]Inaddition,famousAmericanlinguistsLakoffandJohnsonhaveclassifiedsimile,metonymy,irony,etc,intometaphoricallanguage.MetaphorismentionedforthefirsttimeintheirmasterpieceMetaphorWeLiveByinwhichtheydefinemetaphorfromanewperspective.Theybringmetaphortothecognitivefield,placingmetaphorinthepositionofcognitivemechanismusedforunderstandingabstractions.Inessence,metaphorisakindofcognitivephenomenonwhichisthekeyforpeopletomakeconnectionsbetweentheobjectiveworldandtheirmind.[19]92-95Wecanfindmetaphorineverysideofourdailylife,withwhichwecanexplainthecognitivetransferfromonefieldtoanother.Theattemptstodefinemetaphorhavebeenthroughalonghistoricalprocess.Wecanseethatmetaphorisnotonlyasimplelanguageformoffiguresofspeech,itbutalsoexitspeople’scognitivesystemeitherinnarroworbroadsense.Theachievementsondefiningmetaphorhavebecomematuretosomeextent.However,theresearchesseldomcovertherelationshipbetweenthemetaphorandstructuralformswhichneedsfurtherstudies.2.2.2PreviousStudiesonMetaphorAbroadThepreviousstudiesonmetaphorabroadbeganmorethan2,000yearsago,whichhasgotmuchoutstandingachievements.Theresearchesonmetaphorgenerallycanbedividedintothreeperiods:Aristotle’straditionalviewsofmetaphorasarhetoricalform,thefocustransitionfromrhetoricalfieldtocognitivefieldandthecognitiveperiod.Beingthefirstpersontodoresearchesonmetaphor,Aristotleanalyzesindetailthedefinitionofmetaphoralongwithclassification,connotationandfunctionsystematically.Hearguesthatmetaphorexpressesimplicationsbymeansofreplacingonethingwithanother.TherearesomesimilaritiesbetweenthetwothingswhichformakindofrelationshipnamedComparisonTheory.Thetheoryholdstheopinionthatthetwopartsbondedinso-calledmetaphoricalrelationshipmusthavesomecharacteristicssimilarorcorrelativeinsomesense.Themetaphorisestablishedaslongasthesimilaritiesarerecognized,whichmeansmetaphor,intraditionaltheoreticalview,isgenerallyusedasalinguisticphenomenonandarhetoricaltool.8 LiteratureReviewBasedonAristotle’sComparisonTheory,RomanrhetoricianM.F.QuintilianproposestheSubstitutionTheory[20],whichbelievesthatmetaphorcanbeusedforsubstitutingatermwithanother.Moreover,Quintilianamplifiesthetermfromawordtoawholesentencewhichmeansmetaphorcanworkinarhetoricalsubstitutionasanexpression.ReplacementisthekeypointoftheSubstitutionTheoryandmetaphorcanbeusedasaninterpretationofliteralmeaningbasedontheexpressionssubstitution.HereAristotle’scomparisontheoryisworthmentioning,thecentralconceptofwhichiscomparisonbetweentwotermsbyfiguringoutsimilaritiesofthem.Thefoundationofthistheoryliesinsharingcommonsimilaritiesbetweentwotermsandrevealingthecomparativerelationship.BothSubstitutionTheoryandComparisonTheoryseemetaphorasarhetoricalforminwordslevelanditsfunctionasakindofdecorationorappendix.Boththeoriesregardmetaphorasadeviationfromnormallanguagerulesintermsofstructureandform.I.R.RichardspublishedthePhilosophyofRhetoricin1930sproposingtheInteractionTheoryforthefirsttime.[21]Later,BlackfurtherimprovesandperfectsthistheorymakingtheInteractionTheoryoneofthemostinfluentialtheoriestogetherwithAristotle’sandQuintilian’s.Richardsholdstheopinionthateachmetaphorcontainstwosubjectsnamed“tenor”asaprimarysubjectand“vehicle”asasecondaryone.Andeachprimaryandsecondarysubjectshouldbeseenasasystemandreaderscanmakeinteractiverelationshipsbetweenthesetwosystemsbyfindingthesimilarcharacteristics.Inaddition,metaphoricalfunctioncomesoutfromthe“vehicle”to“tenor”bymappingbetweentheassociatedimplications.MetaphorisaprocessofmeaningcreatingbytheinteractiveinfluenceoftwosubjectsaccordingtotheInteractionTheory.Itbreaksthelimitationofrhetoricalfieldandshiftstothesemanticdomain.Fromearly1970s,thestudiesonmetaphorhavedevelopedtomultipledirectionsincludingphilosophy,cognitivepsychology,etc,whichpushesmetaphortoanewpeak.Themostoutstandingachievementsinthisperiodarethecontributionincognitivefield.In1980,GeorgeLakoffandMarkJohnsonpublishedMetaphorWeLiveBywhichchallengedthetraditionalviews.Theyputforwardthetheoreticalfoundationofthisthesis.Thistheoryarguesthatmetaphorisawayofthinkingandcognitiveformofpeoplerealizingtheobjectiveworld.Theybelievethattheessenceofmetaphoristounderstandonethingintermsofanother.Inotherwords,metaphorisformedconceptuallynotjustlinguistically.Thisnewperspectiveprovidesawaytoexploremetaphorinadeeperlevelhelpingpeopleunderstandmetaphorintheirmind.Henceforth,researchesonmetaphorhaveenteredintoanewperiod.Inrecentyears,AmericanscholarsMarkTurnerandFauconnierproposedtheConceptualBlendingTheorywhichhadanimpactonrealizingoperativemechanismofmetaphor.[22]Besides,LynneCameronandGrahamLow(2001)publishesResearchingandApplyingMetaphorwhichisasymbolofmetaphorsteppingintoapplied-linguisticsdomainsuchasemphasizingtherelationsbetweenmetaphorandforeignlanguageteaching.[23]9 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文2.2.3PreviousStudiesonMetaphoratHomeComparedwithrecentachievementsabroadonmetaphor,studiesinthisfieldinChinadon’tshowsomuchdiversityeitherinresearchscopeorcontentcreation.Manyresearchesfocusondescriptionoranalysisofforeigntheories.In1992,LiuNingsheng(1992)publishedhisabridgedtranslationofrelevantchaptersofMetaphorsWeLiveBy,startingtopayattentiontometaphorfromacognitiveperspective.[24]Sincethen,thestudiesonmetaphorinChinahavebeendiscussedinthreeaspectsonthewhole.Thefirstaspectisaboutmetaphoritselfincludingthemajorcharacteristics,themechanism,comparisonamongdifferenttheories,theessenceofmetaphorandsoon.HereShuDingfang’sprominentcontributionshouldbementioned.HerStudiesinMetaphor(2000)introducesandanalyzesthecauseaswellastheworkingmechanism,thebasicfeaturesandthefunctions,etc,comprehensivelybasedonthewesterntheoreticalfoundationofmetaphor.Itprovidesimportantreferencestolinguistics,literaturecriticsandcognitivescience,etc.[25]2-10Later,ShupublishedsuchimportantworksasTheComprehensionProcessandFeaturesofMetaphor[26]andTheOperationMechanismofMetaphorandsoon.[27]98-100LinShuwu(2002)alsofocusesontheintroductiontothetrendofmetaphorstudyinStudiesonMetaphor:StateofArts,Focuses,andTrend.[28]Thesecondaspectisaboutstudiesonmetaphorfromacognitiveperspective.HuZhuanglin(2004)introducesmetaphorasadeviceofcognitionmoresystematicallywhichmakestherelationshipbetweenmetaphorandmindcloserinhisMetaphorandCognition.[29]71-84Inthisbook,hemakesadetaileddescriptionofthecognitivefunctionofmetaphorproposedbyLakoff.Inhisopinion,metaphortakesrootindeepcognitivemechanism,structuringourlanguageandendowingitwithproductivity.Inaddition,theapplianceofmetaphorinpragmaticshasalsodrawscholars’attentionandmoreandmoreresearchesaredoneinforeignlanguageteachingorthecomparisonbetweenChineseandEnglish’smetaphorunderstanding.DanSpreberandDeirdreWilson(2008)putforwardtheirideasaboutexplainingmetaphorfrompragmaticsonthephenomenonthatifmetaphordeviatesfromnormallanguagerules.[30]GongYumiao(2005)pointsouttherelationshipbetweenlexicallevelandmetaphorinMetaphorAwarenessandVocabularyTeaching.[31]Furthermore,someissuesofmetaphorstudiescoverotherfieldssuchastherelationshipbetweencontextandmetaphor,theinteractiveconnectionbetweenmetaphorandcultureandsoon.2.3GeneralIntroductiontoEnglishParallelismParallelism,alsocalledparallelstructureorparallelconstruction,showshighfrequencyinallkindsofstyles.Aseitherrhetoricaldeviceorfixedsentencestructure,parallelismmakesexpressiveeffectsmorepowerfulandpersuasive.Mostsentencestructuresofproverbsarecharacterizedwithconcisenessandantithesis,whicharecoincidedwiththefeaturesofparallelism10 LiteratureReviewsothattheproverbsinparallelstructuresarepickedupasstudiesobjectsinthisthesis.2.3.1DefinitionofEnglishParallelismEnglishparallelismhasbeenstudiedasacommonrhetoricalformforalongtime.Itexistsinvarioustypesofstylesbothformalandinformal.TheresearchpeakofparallelismcandatebacktoFrancisBacon’stime.InhisfamousOfStudies[32],thereare15parallelismsofthetotalnumberof19sentences.Today,wecannoticethatparallelismisstillactiveinallkindsofmodernEnglishexpressions.Ourlifeisfullofparallelism,thestudiesofwhichneverstop.ThescholarsandresearchersbothathomeandabroadhavebeenengagedindefiningEnglishparallelism.Wales(1989)providesthedefinitioninADictionaryofStylisticsas“adevicecommoninrhetoricwhichdependsontheprincipleofequivanceinJakboson’sterms,orontherepetitionofthesamestructuralpattern:commonlybetweenphrasesorclauses.Asarhetoricalfigureparallelismisalsoknownasparison.”[33]Hepointsoutparallelismcanbeseenasacollectionofbothrepetitionandcomparisoninforms.AndinTheOxfordAdvancedLearner’sEnglish-ChineseDictionarythe7thEdition,parallelismrefersto“thestateofbeingsimilar,asimilarfeature”[34]whichissimplyregardedasakindofanalogicalrelationsbasedonthesimilarities.AndinChina,QianYuan(1991)startswiththesyntacticfeaturesofparallelismandsummarizesitas“therepetitionofthesameform(e.g.Tense,aspect)andphrase/clausestructureintwoormoreneighboringclauses/structures.Thesimilarityinsyntacticformisadeviceofemphasis.Itreinforcesmainlybycontrastorantithesis,orhelpstobuildupanemotionalclimax.Syntacticparallelismisusuallyendorsedbylexis.”[35]Thisdefinitionbreaksthelimitationofparallelismasarhetoricaldeviceandputsitintothesyntacticcategory.Inaddition,FengCuihua(1995)deepensthespecificsyntacticfeaturesofparallelismbyemphasizing“itisnecessarytobalancewordforword,phrasewithphrase,clausewithclause,sentencewithsentence.”[36]Allthedefinitionsmentionedprovideuswithvariousperspectives.Eachofthemdescribesparallelismfromonesideortwo,whichmakesitdifficulttosummarizeonegenerallyacknowledgeddefinition.However,wecanstillgetthecommonideasofparallelismasfollowsbyanalyzingthesimilaritiesofthepreviousones:parallelismisparallelstructureofmorethantwoelements;itismadeupofsimilarphrasesorsentencestructures.Therefore,moreandfurtherpainstakingeffortswillbetakentomakeacomprehensivedefinitionofparallelism.2.3.2EssenceofParallelismWecanunderstandparallelismbothinnarrowsenseandbroadsense.Innarrowsense,parallelismisusuallyusedasafigureofspeechbelongingtotherhetoricalcategory.That’swhyparallelismcanstrengthentherhetoricaleffectsofexpression.AccordingtotheA.M.Tibbetts(1979),“itispossibletotalksensiblyaboutanythingwithoutemployingparallelism.”[37]Everytypeofstyleneedsexpressiveeffectsnomatteritisgovernmentdocumentordailychatting.Parallelismservesforthisorthatkindofgoalaimingatenhancingtheimposingresults.For11 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文example,inFrancisBacon’sfamousremark“Readingmakesafullman;conferenceareadyman,andwritinganexactman,”[32]therearethreesimilarelementsinthesamestructureusedasparallelismwithinasentence.Baconpersuadesandguidespeopletoreadmorebooksinastrongparallelstructuretoachieverhetoricaleffects.OrintheAbrahamLincoln’sfamousspeech,thereisatypicalparallelstructurewhichis“agovernmentofthepeople,bythepeopleandforthepeopleshallneverperishfromthisland.”Here,parallelismstrengthenstheseriousnessandauthorityofapoliticalspeechinarhetoricalway[38].Withrelevanttheoriesmature,rhetoricbeginstobreaktheoriginalresearchfieldandshiftstotheintegrationwithotherfieldssuchasgrammarpart.Consequently,asafigureofspeechinrhetoric,parallelismbeginstomakerelationshipswithgrammarandworksasagrammaticalunit.Thus,inabroadsense,parallelismpursuitstheaccordanceofgrammaticalconceptsandadjuststhegrammaticalbalanceofthewholesentenceratherthansimplewordsantithesis.Parallelismplaysanimportantroleinplacingthesameweightineachgrammaticalpart,whichisachievedmostlyinproverbs,essaysandprose.Forinstance,inFrancisBacon’s“Craftymencondemnstudies;simplemenadmirethem.”[32]ortheproverb“Gracewilllast.Beautywillblast.”Bothexpressionsarecoordinatedinbalancebytheparallelism.Parallelismworkingmechanismfollowstheprinciplesofequivalence,onwhichparallelismbuildsarelationshipbetweentwoormoreparts.Thesepartsareparallelbothinformsandgrammaticalmeanings.2.3.3FunctionsofParallelismParallelismprovidesreadersasenseofneatnessandpower,whichmakesitnoticeableinformsandforgettableincontent.Itiscapableofmakingreaderstouchedandamazed,whichmanytypesofstylesadoptittoenhancetheeffects.Parallelismaddsemphasis,concisenessandcoherencetothewholesentence.[39]Therearemanyrepetitionsinparallelismbyemphasizingoneormoreconceptsrepeatedly.Inthisway,peoplecanrepeatwhatisrelativelymoreimportantbyusingparallelism.TakeWinstonChurchill’sspeechaddressedin1940asanexample,“Weshallfightonthelandinggrounds,weshallfightinthefieldsandinthestreets,weshallfightinthehills,”Churchillencouragespeopletofightforthecountrybyusingparallelsentencestoemphasizethefaithandcourage.Churchillexpresseshisviewandpositionstronglybyrepeatingthekeypoints.Concisenessmakesitpossibletoomitsomeunnecessaryorrepeatedinformationtomakeparallelismexpresstherichestmeaningwiththeleastwords.Iftwoormoresentencesbasedonthesamestructurearetobeexpressed,therecanbesomecommonpartsrepetitivewhichmaymakethewholepatternsuperfluousandboring.Parallelismsolvesthisproblembyomittingthepartswhichthesimilarstructuresshare.F.EngelsoncesaidatthegravesideofKarlMarx“Hediedbeloved,reveredandmournedbymillionsofrevolutionaryfellowworkers.”Heexpressesthegriefinaconcisewaywhicharousespeople’ssorrowandrespect.12 LiteratureReviewAsparallelismcutsoffsomeunnecessarypartstomakethewholesentencebrevity,italsogetthefeatureofcoherencetobalancethegrammaticalelementstofitthecorrectsyntacticrules.Ifemphasiscontributestothecontentandconcisenesstothepatterns,thencoherenceattemptstomakeanunifiedandsmoothcontextwitheachpartofitwell-connectedandcompleted.Allinall,parallelismworksasafigureofspeechbelongingtotherhetoricalfieldandfollowstheprinciplesofequivalence.Wecanmakethewholesentenceconcise,emphasizedandcoherentwithparallelism.Ascarrieroflanguageglamourandnationalculture,proverbshavegotdistinguishableanduniquefeatureseitherinpatternorrhetoric.Beingatypicalandspecialformofproverbs,anumberofparallelismcanbefoundinproverbs,whichmakestheobjectofthisthesisEnglishproverbsinformsofparallelism.2.4SummaryTosumup,thispartgivesabriefintroductiontothepreviousstudiesonthreeaspects,proverbs,metaphorandparallelism.ThepreviousstudiesonEnglishproverbshavegonethroughalonghistoryofpainstakingeffortsmadetodoresearchesandstudies.Eitherathomeorabroad,theachievementsandresearchresultsareremarkableandhelpful.Astothebreadthanddepthofthepreviousstudiesonthistopic,thefruitscovercollection,classification,featuresdescriptionsasfirst,andthenthefocusofthestudyshiftstotheaspectsuchastherhetoricalfeatures,thecomparativeanalysisbetweenChineseandEnglishproverbsandthetranslationsstrategiesandsoon.Later,theresearchesoncognitivemechanisminproverbsspringup.However,scholarsandresearchersbothathomeandabroadseldomrefertothemorespecificfeaturesanalysissuchastheaspectofsyntacticbranch,let’ssaytheparallel-structureaswellastherelationshipbetweenstructuralformandrhetoricalmeaninginEnglishproverbs.Lookingbackthepreviousstudiesonmetaphorbothathomeandabroad,wecanseetheplenteousfruitsmadebyprominentresearchersandscholars.Lotsofachievementscovertheessenceofmetaphor,thefunction,thecognitivemechanism,therelevanttheories,etc,whichbringmetaphoricalfieldgreatchanges.However,therearealittleresearchesonthecorrelationbetweenmetaphoricalimplicationsandthesyntacticstructures.Guidedbystrongtheoreticalfoundationofthemetaphor,theauthortriestoexplorehowtostrengthentheabilitytounderstandmetaphoricalmeaningstartingwiththesentencestructures.Besides,beingaparticularformofproverbs,parallelismhasthepropertiesofstrengtheningexpressiveeffectsincontentandkeepingtheconcisenessandneatnessinstructure,whichprovidesanewperspectivetostudymetaphorunderstandinginEnglishproverbs.Allinall,takingalltheresearchsituationofthethreeaspectsintoconsideration,thisthesishasbeenset.13 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文3TheoreticalFoundationWhenLakoffandJohnson(1980)finishedtheirpublicationofMetaphorsWeLiveBy,anewperiodofstudiesonmetaphorfocusingoncognitionbegan.Thefollowingresearchesmakegreatcontributionstocognitivemechanismofmetaphorandmetaphoricalcognitiveapproaches.Inthisstage,therearedifferentinfluentialtheoreticalframeworksupportingthisnewfield.ThisthesisadoptstheConceptualMetaphorTheoryastheoreticalfoundation,andinthischapter,ConceptualMetaphorTheorywillbeintroducedinthefollowingparts:thedefinition,majorfeatures,workingmechanismandclassifications.3.1DefinitionandMajorFeaturesofConceptualMetaphorTheoryConceptualMetaphorTheoryisoneofthemostimportanttheoriesmarkingtheresearchesonmetaphortheoriessteppingintocognitivefield.Peoplebegintounderstandmetaphorasreplacementofdifferentconceptualsystems,anditgetsseveraldistinctivefeaturesasuniversality,systematicityandculturalconnection.3.1.1DefinitionofConceptualMetaphorTheoryMetaphorsWeLiveBy(1980)putsstudiesonmetaphorintothecognitivefield.AccordingtoLakoffandJohnson,metaphorcanbeusedasawayofthinkingandcognitivetool,notjustaslanguageimagination.Withmetaphor,wecanexperienceandunderstandtheconceptsbothabstractandcomplicatedbasedonrecognitionofspecificandsimplethings.Inotherwords,tounderstandonethingintermsofanotheristheessenceofmetaphor.Wecandefineitasconceptualmetaphorwhen“metaphorispersuasiveineverydaylife,notjustinlanguagebutinthoughtandactionandthatourordinaryconceptualsystem,intermsofwhichweboththinkandact,isfundamentallymetaphoricalinnature.”[19]3Conceptualmetaphorisakindofexpressionexistingindifferentconcepts,whichisalsothefoundationofmetaphoricalexpressions.AccordingtotheConceptualMetaphorTheory,aconceptualmetaphoriscomposedoftwoparts,thesourcedomainandthetargetdomain.Peopleunderstandthetargetdomainwhichisabstractintermsofthesourcedomainwhichisconcrete.Therelationshipbetweenthetwodomainsiscalled“mapping”,throughwhichpeoplecangettheinterpretationfromtheliteralmeaning.Itisthemappingthatcompletesthetransitionfromonedomaintoanotherintheconceptuallymetaphoricalsystem.Forexample,inthemetaphor“Loveissunshine”,thereaderscangettheconceptof“love”basedontheunderstandingofconcept“sunshine”.“Sunshine”isthesourcedomainbelongingtotheconcreteorphysicalconceptfield,while“love”isthetargetdomainbeingpartofabstractornonphysicalsection.Here,thereiscorrespondingrelationsbetween“love”and“sunshine”orlet’ssaysourcedomainandtargetdomain,whichisbasedontheanalogybetweentwodifferentconceptswithexperience.14 TheoreticalFoundation3.1.2MajorFeaturesofConceptualMetaphorTheoryLakoffandJohnsonholdtheopinionthatpeople’slanguageandmindareallmetaphorical.Asacknowledgedcognitivewayanddeepmechanismoflanguage,conceptualmetaphorischaracterizedwithuniversality,systematicityandculturalconnection.Differentlanguageshavetheirownfeatures,butconceptualmetaphorseemsuniversal.Notconfinedtothewordsreplacement,metaphorcanbeusedaspeople’sideasindifferentformsofdomains.Aconceptinonedomaincanbeconceptuallymetaphorizedbyanotherone.Metaphorworksasbothlinguisticformandcognitivedevice.Itexistsinpeople’smindandhelpsthembuildtheconceptualsystem.Metaphorisseenasagrantedphenomenonwhichpeopleuseconsciouslyorunconsciouslyinbothwrittenandspokencommunication.Thelanguageweuseisbuiltonthefoundationofmetaphorinessence.However,peopleareaccustomedtothiskindofexpressionsintheirlifebutseldomrealizethatthepremiumoftheseexpressionsaremetaphor.Thesecondfeatureissystematicity.LakoffandJohnsonbelievethatthesystematictyofconceptualmetaphormakesthemetaphoricalexpressionssystematicaltoo.“Systematicity,referstothewaythatametaphordoesnotjustsetupasinglepointofcomparison:featuresofthesourceandtargetdomainarejoinedsothatthemetaphormaybeextended,orhaveitsowninternallogic.”[40]Mappingcannotliveifeithersourcedomainortargetdomainstopsworking.Thereisaninteractiveconnectionbetweenthetwodomains.Astringsofmappingoccurinaconceptualmetaphorsystematicallytoexpressmetaphoricalimplications.Eachparthiddeninorganizedmetaphoricalsystemsisstimulatedtowakeupotherrelevantconceptsinpeople’scognitivespace.Inthiscaseofthinkingcontext,thereaderscanunderstandthewholemetaphoricalmeaningthroughanalyzingthewholesystemofmetaphor.[29]75Still,withthe“Loveissunshine”asanexample,wetalkabout“love”withtheconcept“sunshine”.“Love”canwarmpeople’sheartsorlightthedarknessjustlikethe“sunshine”.Theinteractiveconnectionsoccurbetweenconceptualsystemsofboth“love”and“sunshine”.Inotherwords,featuresof“sunshine”domaininfluencestheconceptualdomainof“love”inasystematicalway.Thirdly,culturalconnectionisalsoseenasanotherfeature.LakoffandJohnsonarguethat“themostfundamentalvaluesinculturewillbecoherentwiththemetaphoricalstructureofthemostfundamentalconceptsintheculture.”[19]22-25Peopleofdifferentenvironmentshavedifferentcultures,whichcouldbeinfluencedbymanyelementsincludingbirth,religion,education,historyandsoon.Peopleinacertainenvironmentsharesimilarconceptsofthingswhichresultsinsimilarmetaphoricalexpressions.Onthecontrary,peoplefromdifferentbackgroundsmakedifferentideasaboutonecertainthinginametaphoricalway.Conceptualmetaphorcanbeatypicalsymbolofrelationsbetweenpeople’scognitivewayandacertainculture.3.2WorkingMechanismofConceptualMetaphorTheoryMetaphorhappenswhenaconceptualsystemismappedtoanotheroneaccordingto15 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文ConceptualMetaphorTheory.Inthisprocess,experientialbasisandsimilarbasisprovidefundamentalelementstomakethemappingcometrue.Sotheworkingmechanismcanbethoughtasthemappingbetweenthesourcedomainandthetargetdomainbasedonthebodilyexperientialbasisandthesimilarityofthetwodomains.3.2.1TheExperientialBasisLakoffandJohnson(1990)holdtheopinionthatmetaphorcannotbeunderstoodorfullyexpressedwithoutexperientialbasis.[41]Theyalsoproposetheexperientialrealismtheorywhichis“conceptualmetaphorismeaningfulbecauseitisembodied,thatis,itrisesfrom,andistiedto,ourpreconceptualbodilyexperience”.[42]Metaphorisrootedinourcorrespondingexperience,whichcanberegardedastheexperientialbasisinmodernmetaphortheorysystem.Anylanguagehasitsownconceptualsystem,whichisfullofconceptualmetaphor.Let’sputitinanotherway,theconceptualmetaphorworkswhentheinternalstructureofaconceptinthesourcedomainismappedtothecorrespondingstructureinthetargetdomain.People’smindandcognitionarerelevanttothebody.Theyusetheirconceptualsystemofbodyexperienceinreallifetounderstandanddescribesomeabstractconceptsinametaphoricalway.Fromtheperspectiveofcognition,peoplebuildtheirconceptualmetaphorsystemsonthebasisoftheirbodilyexperiencewithoutawareness.Aslongasonemetaphorconceptisformedonthefoundationofexperientialbasisandisgenerallyaccepted,itwillgenerateanewcorrespondingrelationshipwiththehelpoflifeexperienceandputsitsinternalstructureonreallifetomakemetaphoricalrelationshipcometrue.Onceanewcorrespondingrelationshipbuiltbysomemetaphorisacknowledgedbythisgeneration,thenitisprobablyregardedastheexperientialbasisofthismetaphoramongthenextgeneration.However,itisnoticedthatnotallmetaphorisbasedonexperience,whichmeanssomemetaphorcomefrompeople’sbodilyexperience,whileothersdonot.AccordingtoWangYin(2006),itisnotenoughtounderstandmetaphoronlywiththehelpofbodyexperience,otherelementssuchassocietyandculturealsomakegreatinfluence.[43]Taking“Tomisapieceofiron”asexample,asweknow,the“iron”inthesourcedomainischaracterizedwithhardandsolid.When“iron”ismappedto“Tom”,hewillhavesomefeaturesofitsuchashemaybeastoughandstubbornasiron.Therefore,wecanunderstandthemetaphoricalmeaningas“Tom”isstrictandfirmtoeverything.Metaphorworkswhen“iron”inthesourcedomainismappedto“Tom”inthetargetdomain.3.2.2TheSimilarBasisAsweknow,metaphorisformedwhentheconceptualsysteminthesourcedomainismappedtotheoneinthetargetdomainonthefoundationofexperientialbasis.Thenwearewonderingwhatconditionsdoesthemappingworkin?Theremustbesomerelevantrelationshipsbetweentwodomainstomakethemappinghappen,whichisthesimilarity.Similarityliesinthesimilaraspectssharedbytwothings.AccordingtoShuDingfang,similarityiscomposedofphysicalsimilarityandpsychologicalsimilarity.[25]172-178Thephysicalsimilarityreflectsinmanyaspect16 TheoreticalFoundationsuchasappearance,functionorformandsoon,whilethepsychologicalsimilarityiscausedbyculturalorothermentalelementstomakerelationsbetweenthephysicalexperienceandpsychologicalexperienceofemotions.Metaphorbasedonthesimilaritytakesadvantageofthecommonlysharedaspectsamongdifferentthings,whilethemetaphorcreatingthesimilarityputstworelevantthingstogetherwiththeaimofbuildingsomerelationshipbetweenthemtoformmetaphor,withthehelpofwhichpeopleobtainanewperspectiveorideastoknowthings.Inaword,similarityistheessentialelementtoformmetaphor.Metaphorisnotsemanticconflictbutanewresponsetothedifferentconflicts.Metaphorisameaningfulself-contradictoryexpressiongeneratedfromameaninglessself-contradictorystatement.Inthisprocessofmeaningtransformation,similaritycomesout.Thesimilarityplaysaroleofdescribingfeaturesofaobjectnotjustthereplacementofaconcept.Thenewsemanticrelevanceis“proximity”betweentwodifferentwordswhichmakesbothofthemcloseinthiscondition.[25]179Taking“footofmountain”“mouthofriver”asexamples,theybothtakeadvantageofthephysicalsimilarityofdifferentthingsinform.Inaddition,whensomeonesays“I’mfeelingup”or“I’mfeelingdown”,metaphorbasedonpsychologicalsimilarityofexperientialemotionhappens.Itcanbeindicatedthatmetaphorcatchesthesimilaritybetweenthephysicalbasisandsomementalexperiencetoexpressmetaphoricalmeaning.Ingeneral,peoplekeepstraightposeswhentheyareinpositivemoodwhiletheybenddownindepressedorsadmood.Therefore,similaritybetweentwoconceptualsystemsisanotherbasicelementtohelpsystematicmappingsfromsourcedomaintotargetdomainhappen.3.2.3TheCross-domainMappingWhenthereadershear“Loveissunshine”,theyareverylikelytounderstandthemetaphoricalimplicationsthroughtheliteralmeanings.Thisresultsfromtheworkingmechanismofconceptualmetaphor.AccordingtoLakoffandJohnson(1993),theworkingmechanismofconceptualmetaphorismapping.[44]Aswementionedinthedefinitionpart,theyholdtheopinionthatmetaphoroccursinthemappingbetweentwocognitivedomains,whicharerespectivelysourcedomainandtargetdomain.Sourcedomainischaracterizedwithconcreteness,simplicityandspecificationwhilethetargetdomainisstrange,abstractandsophisticated.Thereaderscangettheconceptualmeaningofwordsfromthemappingbetweensourcedomainandtargetdomain.Themainwayofmetaphorworkingisunderstandingonethingintermsofanother.Inthisprocess,themappingfromsourcedomaintotargetdomainisactivated,whichdrawsmanyscholarsandresearchers’attention.LakoffandTunnerbelievethatmetaphorhasaninternalstructure.Eachmappingcontainsthefollowingprocesses:thevacanciesofsourcedomainaremappedtotheonesoftargetdomain,soaretherelationships,featuresandknowledgeofthesourcedomaintotheonesofthetargetdomain.[45]Metaphoricalimplicationsaretheresultsofthepartsoffeaturesmappingfromsourcedomaintothetargetdomain.ShuDingfangsummarizesthethreemajorworkingmechanismsof17 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文conceptualmetaphorasinteraction,mappingandblendingintheWorkingMechanismofMetaphor.Furthermore,shepointsoutthatthebasicelementsofnewmeaningproductionaresimilarities.[27]101Tosumup,thebasicideasofmodernConceptualMetaphorTheoryareasfollows:conceptualmetaphoristhefoundationofpeople’scognitionandmind,whichisalsothedeepmechanismlyinginthemetaphoricalexpressionsinthedailycommunications;thesystematicityofconceptualmetaphorexistsinalllanguageformstogetherwiththediversitiesofdifferentcultures;conceptualmetaphorischaracterizedwiththenatureofthinking.Withmoreandmorechangesanddevelopmentofthecognitivemechanismofpeople,thespaceofconceptualmetaphorisendless.3.3ClassificationofConceptualMetaphorAstotheclassificationoftheconceptualmetaphor,thereareseveralacknowledgedideasthroughtheresearchhistory.Amongthem,Lakoff’sandShuDingfang’sclassificationrankinthemostoutstandingachievementslist.Theyhavelotsofideasincommon.Guidedbythesetwoclassificationsandtakingalltheconditionsintoconsideration,ShuDingfang’sclassificationwithalittlemodificationhasbeenadoptedastheclassificationofthisthesis.3.3.1Lakoff’sClassificationofMetaphorAccordingtoLakoffandJohnson’sopinions,conceptualmetaphorisdividedintothreeformsnamedstructuralmetaphor,spatialmetaphorandontologicalmetaphor.Amongthem,thestructuralmetaphorshowsthemostcompletedandtypicalcharacteristicsinconceptuallymetaphoricalsystematicity.[19]4Itexistsinpeople’smindandisseldomrecognizedandnoticed.Itbuildsakindofconceptualstructurebasedonanotheroneanddescribesitwithallfeaturesofanotherone.Itisformedwhentwoconceptualsystemscomeacrossandtakeadvantageofeachother,describingoneconceptinsystemAwiththemodifiedpartsoftheotherconceptualsystemB,asaresult,onewordservingmanyconceptsbecomesacommonlanguagephenomenon.Spatialmetaphorisanothermaincategory.Thespatialmetaphorisverycommoniseverydaylife,whichlaysthefoundationofpeople’sbuildingabstractconcept.[19]14Theconcretespatialconceptsareborrowedtoexpresstheabstractandcomplicatedfeelingsandthecontentsintheaspectofsocialattributes,quality,etc,arealwaystogetherwithspatiallysemanticfeatures.Spatialmetaphorisformedduetothemappingfromspatiallyconceptualdomaintononspatiallyconceptualone.Itisaseriesofconceptuallymetaphoricalsystemsreferringtothespatialconcepts.Peoplealwaysusespatialmetaphortoexpresssomeabstractrelationsoremotions.Spatialmetaphorisalwaysreferredtowhenpeopletendtoexpresssomeemotionalfeelingssuchasspatialwordsstandingforstraightorupmeanspositivemoodwhiletheoppositeaimsatnegativespirit,whichmakesthespatialmetaphoristhemostcloselyrelatedtopeople’slife.Theontologicalmetaphorisadescriptionofabstractconceptbasedontheexperiencedrecognitionoffamiliarthingsindailylife.InLakoff’sopinion,theoriginalwayoflifeisakindof18 TheoreticalFoundationmaterial,whichprovidesthefoundationforpeopletotransfertheobscureconceptintotherealmaterialtheycantouchandfeel.That’swhatbringsaboutontologicalmetaphor.Themosttypicalanddistinctiveontologicalmetaphoristhecontainermetaphor.[19]26AccordingtoLakoff,peoplearelikecontainers,whichhasaboundingsurfacehelpingtobesetofffromtheworldandtheycanalsoexperiencetherestoftheworld.3.3.2ShuDingfang’sClassificationofMetaphorLakoff’sclassificationofmetaphorinspirestheauthortocontactwiththesimilarachievementsofChinesescholar,ShuDingfang,shedividesmetaphorintonounmetaphor,verbalmetaphor,adjectivemetaphorandprepositionmetaphor,etc,accordingtothesyntacticfeaturesofmetaphor.[25]60-66Therearesomecoincidencesinthesetwoclassifications,tobespecific,westartswithShuDingfang’sideaasfollows:Asthenameshows,nounmetaphorisusedwhenanounworksinametaphoricalway.Nounmetaphorcanplayaroleassubject,objectandsoon.Itgetsthesamefeaturesofstructuralmetaphorwithexplainingoneconceptinsteadofanother.Forexample,“Youarethelightofmylife”withanounmetaphorasobjector“Theflowerinhisheartblooms”withanounmetaphorassubject.Actually,nounmetaphoristhemosttypicalmetaphoricalexpressions,withthehighestfrequencyinallkindsoflanguage.Ingeneral,itiseasiertorecognizenounmetaphorthananyotherformsofmetaphor,whichisalsothemostcomprehensivetoreaders.VerbalmetaphorandadjectivemetaphorcanbefoundinLakoff’sontologicalmetaphor.Thefeaturetheyshareisthatmetaphoricalexpressionhelppeopletodescribeandexplainoneabstractconceptwithaconcreteone,whicharetheessentialfunctionsofverbsandadjectives.Verbalmetaphorisusedwherethereisaconflictbetweenlogicalsubjectorobjectandtheverb.Forinstance,“Hisfaithdied.”Here,“faith”cannotdiesinceitisnotalive.Verbalmetaphormakesithappenthroughtheconflict.Verbalmetaphorismorevividandlivelythannounmetaphor,whichtransitsamentalprocessintoaphysicalone.Itmakesthereadersfeelandimaginewiththepowerfulverbswhicharethemostactivepartinlexicalsystem.Ifweuseadjectiveaspartofapredicateortodescribemetaphorically,theadjectivemetaphorisdefined.Liketheverbalmetaphor,adjectivemetaphoraimsatdescribingthetargetconceptwithsomecertainfeaturesoftheoriginalone.Forexample,“Soundinbody;soundinmind”,weusetheadjective“sound”todescribe“body”metaphorically.Prepositionalmetaphorisusuallyconsideredasthespatialmetaphorasaderivedformofconceptualmetaphor.Itoftenoccurswhenthereisashiftbetweenspaceandtime,providingathree-dimensionalspacewithspatialconceptsforpeopletoimagine.Take“outofsight,outofmind”asanexample,“out”isaspatialconceptwhichisusedmetaphoricallytoexpressthatpeopledon’tthinkitanymore.19 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文3.3.3TheClassificationAdoptedinthisThesisBasedontheguidanceofthetheoreticalfoundationsabove,thisthesisadoptsShuDingfang’sclassificationtakingalltheconditionsintoconsideration.Firstly,aswementioned,onthebasisoftheLakoff’sclassification,wehavegotageneralviewofmetaphor.Andguidedbythistheoreticalframework,ShuDingfang’sbuildsanotherclassificationfromtheperspectiveofsyntaxwhichismorespecificandpersuasive.Secondly,thisthesisstartswiththeparallelismworkingasaspecialsyntacticform,whichisaccordancewithShuDingfang’sperspectiveofclassification.Lastbutnotleast,astherespondentsofthequestionnairetestingareChinesecollegestudentswholearnEnglishinthisresearch,itiseasierforthemtounderstandanddealwiththeclassificationwhichfollowstheirmindandexpressivecustoms.Takingalltheaspectsaboveintoconsideration,ShuDingfang’sclassificationisadoptedinthisthesis.Besides,torealizethespecificpurposeandthecompletenessofthequestionnairetesting,alittlemodificationhasbeenmade,thesentencemetaphorisaddedtotheclassificationbytheauthor.Thesentencemetaphoriscomposedofmorethantwosentences,whichareallfeaturedwithmetaphoricalmeaningandparallelstructures.Thatistosay,onesentenceisparalleltoanothersentence.Comparedwithothertypesofmetaphor,sentencemetaphorismorecompletedandbalancedsoastobeusedasamoretypicalmodetotestthemetaphorunderstanding.Tosumup,themetaphorisdividedintofivetypeswhicharenounmetaphor,verbalmetaphor,adjectivemetaphor,prepositionalmetaphorandsentencemetaphorinthisthesis.3.4SummaryThetheoreticalfoundationpartgivesadetailedintroductiontotheConceptualMetaphorTheory,includingdefinition,majorfeatures,workingmechanismandclassifications.ConceptualMetaphorTheorybreaksthesituationwhererhetorictakestheleadingpositioninmetaphorresearchandbringsmetaphortheoriesstudyintoanewera,thecognitivetime.ConceptualMetaphorTheoryproposesanewwaytodefineametaphorunderstandingwhichistorecognizeandexperienceonemetaphoricalmeaningwiththehelpofanotherconceptualsystem.AccordingtotheConceptualMetaphorTheory,peopleallhaveametaphoricalsystemintheirmindregardlessofdifferentculturesandlanguages.Theyusemetaphorunconsciouslyinmostcases.Alltheconceptualmetaphorstructuresaresystematic,whichmeanstransformationbetweentwodifferentconceptualsystems.Themetaphoricalexpressionsarealsosystematicsincethetwodifferentsemanticsystemshavebeenformed.ConceptualMetaphorTheorypointsoutthatculturalconnectionsinfluencethemetaphorunderstanding.Foroneconcept,differentculturesmayhavedifferentsemanticsystems,whichleadstothedifferentmetaphorunderstandingandconceptualsystemsbuilding.TheworkingmechanismisthecoreofConceptualMetaphorTheory,withtheessencebeingthemappingfromthesourcedomaintothetargetdomainbasedonpeople’sexperientialbasisandsimilaritybetweentwodifferentconceptualsystems.Astotheclassification20 TheoreticalFoundationofmetaphor,ittakeslotsofeffortssinceitwillbeusedforthequestionnairetestinginthisresearch.BasedonthestrongtheoreticalfoundationofLakoffandShuDingfang,andthethinkingfeaturesofChineserespondents,ShuDingfang’sclassificationwhichisaddedonemoremetaphortype,thesentencemetaphor,bytheauthorisadoptedastheclassificationofthisthesis.21 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文4ResearchMethodologiesandDataCollectionThischapteristhefoundationofthemainpart,andalsotheguidanceandbasisofthewholethesis.Tomaketheresearchresultsmorereliable,tworesearcheshavebeendonewiththeinstrumentofquestionnairetesting.Andafterthespecificandcarefuldatacollectionandanalysis,differentformsbasedondifferentstandardscomeouttoreflecttherelationshipbetweenmetaphorunderstandingandparallelisminEnglishproverbs.Thischapteriscomposedoftwoparts:thedetailedintroductiontotheresearchmethodologyandtheresearchresultstogetherwiththeresultsanalysis.4.1ResearchMethodologyThemethodologychoseninthisthesisisthequestionnairetestingandcomparativeanalysis.Andinthispart,theresearchmethodologyisintroducedfromthreesides:researchrespondents,questionnairedesignandtheimplementationprocess.SincethefirstresearchresultsshowedsomeproblemsanddefectswhichcausedthemainrelationshipbetweensyntacticstructureandmetaphorunderstandinginEnglishproverbs,somerelevantmodificationstothequestionnairedesignandrespondentshavebeenmadebasedontherepetitiveconsiderationanddiscuss.AnotherquestionnairetestinghasbeenorganizedaimingatfindingtherelationshipbetweenmetaphorunderstandingandparallelisminEnglishproverbs.4.1.1ResearchRespondentsThisresearchaimsattestingwhetherChinesestudents’abilityofunderstandingmetaphorinproverbshassomethingtodowiththesyntacticforms.Inordertomaketheresultsmorespecificandtargeted,westartwiththerangeofrespondents.WelimittherespondentstothestudentsofEnglishmajorintheNortheastAgriculturalUniversity.Takingtherespondents’differentlearningstagesandlanguageproficiencyintoconsideration,weselectallthestudentsofGradeOneandGradeThree.Furthermore,thestudentsofGradeThreearedividedintotwogroupsaccordingtotheboundaryofpassingtheTEM4tosetanotherstandardofsamelearningstagewithdifferentproficiencylevels.Meanwhile,thewholeGradeThreeandGradeOnearetestedtogetherintermsofthedifferentlearningstages.Andthetimeoftestingissetonthesecondhalfofthesemesterin2013to2014.Sinceitisprovedthatthefirstquestionnairetestingresultsdidnotreflectthemainrelationswell,thequestionnairesweremodifiedandanotherquestionnairetestinghavebeenorganized.Basedonthehelpfulexperiencesofthefirstresearch,thetargetgroupstillfocusesonthestudentsofEnglishmajorinGradeOneandGradeThreeintermsofdifferentlearningstagesandlanguageproficiencylevels.However,theyarenotthepreviousrespondentsbuttheonesofbothgradesinthefirstsemesterin2014to2015.ThedifferencelyinginthetwotestingsintermsoftherespondentsisthatweomitthedivisionbetweentheinternalGradeThreebuttogroupthewhole22 ResearchMethodologiesandDataCollectionGradeOneandGradeThreeastwosections.4.1.2InstrumentsoftheResearchInthisthesis,questionnairetestingisadoptedasthemethodologyandthequestionnairesdesignedbytheauthorworkastheinstruments.ReferringtothequestionnairemodeintheStudiesonComparisonofMetaphorComprehensionbetweenChineseandAmericanUniversityStudentswrittenbyYuanFengshi[46],theauthorconsultsthefeaturesandevaluationof32metaphoricalsentencesfromKatz’sresearch[47]tomakeherownquestionnairesfortheresearchwiththegoalofbeingmoreauthoritativeandreliable.AlltheproverbsarefromaDictionaryofEnglishProverbs(secondedition)publishedbyShanghaiForeignEducationPressin2009.Almost7000proverbsareincludedinthisdictionary,coveringtruth,commonsense,principles,etc.EachproverbisparaphrasedandexplainedinEnglishandalsoprovidedwithChinesetranslationandsimilarChineseproverbsorrelevantidioms.Wehavedesignedfourquestionnaires,namingQuestionnaireA,B,CandDrespectively.Forthedifferentlanguageproficiencylevels,thatistosayGradeOneandGradeThree,wedistributethemQuestionnaireAandB.Andforthesamelearningstage,inotherwords,theonespassingTEM4andtheoneswhodidnotfromGradeThreearedistributedwithQuestionnaireCandD.BecauseofthestudentsofGradeThreehaveacceptedtwoyears’ofprofessionaleducationmorethanthestudentsofGradeOne,sothedifficultyofQuestionnaireCandDdistributedamongGradeThreeisalittlemoredifficultthanQuestionnaireAandBreceivedbybothGradeOneandGradeThree.Thequestionnairescantakeeffectaslongastheproverbsareselectedexactlyandscrupulously.Anyword’smeaningisgiventohelpstudentsunderstandthemetaphorinproverbswithapurposeofnotlettingthenewwordsbeobstacles.Asaresult,respondentscanfixtheirattentiononmetaphorunderstandingandmodificationofparallel-structureswithoutvocabularydifficulties.Weselect80proverbswhichcontainsametaphorineachonewiththeguideofsupervisorsandsomeprofessorsprudentlyandeachquestionnaireisdesignedaccordingtothefivetypicalEnglishsentencestructures—SV,SVO,SVC,SVOCandparallelism.Withfourproverbspersentencestructure,wecanget20proverbsineachquestionnaire,andaltogetherthereare80proverbsintotal.Wesetfourproverbseachsentencestructure.Thereare20proverbseachquestionnaireandthetotalproverbsofthefourquestionnaireamountto80sentences.Everyproverbismarkedwith5points,whichmakesthewholequestionnaireahundred-markwithinthetimelimitationofanhour.ThestandardofevaluationreferstothetranslationevaluationofTEM8.However,theresultsshowthatmostrespondentstendtopursuitthedistinctivelysyntacticfeatureofproverbswhichisneatandparallelinformandsometimestheyignoretheoriginalstructuresinEnglish.That’swhathitstheauthor’smindthatitcanbemorepersuasiveandreasonabletostartwiththeperspectiveofparallel-formproverbs.Sotherelevantmodificationshavebeenaddeduptothequestionnaires.Onthebasisofthefirstedition,wemodifythe23 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文questionnairewithamorespecificpurpose.Likethefirstquestionnairetesting,thesecondonestilltakestypicalproverbsfromtheDictionaryofEnglishProverbs(secondedition)asexamplesforthereasonthatthisdictionarycanberegardedasamoreauthoritativesourceonthebasisofthefirstresearch.Withthehelpofthesupervisor,twentyproverbsformedinparallelstructureareselectedcarefullyasexamplesandareclassifiedintofivedifferenttypesofmetaphorasmentionedabove.Theproverbsusedinthisquestionnairearemoretargetedandcoverwiderfieldsincludingbeautyandmorality,etc,tomakethetestingmorecomprehensiveandpersuasive.ThequestionnairewedesignedforthesecondresearchisnamedasQuestionnaireEwhichissharedbytheGradeOneandGradeThreeintermsofdifferentlearningstagesandlanguageproficiencylevels.ItisnecessarytomentionthattherespondentsofGradeOneandGradeThreearenotthepreviousgroupsbecauseofthetimepassing.Tobemorespecific,inthisquestionnaire,therearefourproverbsformedinparallelstructurepermetaphoricalcategory,andtherearealsofivecategoriesarechosenasnounmetaphor,verbalmetaphor,adjectivemetaphor,prepositionalmetaphorandsimplesentencemetaphor.Differentfromthefirstresearch,theevaluationstandardshavebeenmodifiedintotwomajoraspects,whichalsocomposethemainrelationsbetweenmetaphorunderstandingandparallelisminEnglishproverbs:theinsistenceinmeaningandtheaccordancewiththeform.Thisquestionnairetestingresultswillbeevaluatedaccordingtothefollowingaspects:iftherespondentspreferinsistingonthecontentortheform;astotherightpart,thepercentagesofbeingaccordancewiththeparallelismshouldbeclarifiedtogetherwithhowmuchofthemaretranslatedwordbywordandhowmuchofthemaretranslatedwiththestructuralmodification.Astothewrongpart,theratioofhowmuchthenativelanguageimpactsonmetaphormisunderstandingshouldbefoundoutaswell.Inaddition,thewords’meaningarestillprovidedtoclearthewayofvocabularyasthefirstresearchmentionedandthetimelimitisstillwithinonehour.4.1.3ImplementationoftheResearchThereare16weeksforteachingactivities,from3rdMarchto22ndJune.Becauseofthelastvacation’srelaxation,wegivetherespondentsoneweektoadjusttheirmentalconditions,makingthemgetintothetensestudylife.Soweselectthesecondweektodotheresearch.Weoccupiedthreeclassroomsforthetestingontherespectivetimeswiththeallowanceofprofessors,oneisforQuestionnaireAandBforGradeOne,anotheroneisforQuestionnaireAandBforGradeThree,andthelastoneisfortheQuestionnaireCandDforGradeThree.Thistestinghasbeenfinishedon11thMarch,2014underthesupervisionoftwopostgraduatesandoneprofessorwithinonehour.However,theresearchresultscollectedarenotinaccordancewiththeassumptionswhattheauthorproposedbeforeafterhavinganalyzedallthequestionnaires.Theproblemsindicatedintheresultsreflectnotonlythecorrelationbetweensyntacticstructuresandmetaphorunderstandinginproverbseithernegativeorpositive,butsomeotherproblemssuchastheculturalbackgroundand24 ResearchMethodologiesandDataCollectionexcessiveinterferenceofmothertongue,etc,havecomeouttoinfluencetheresearchresultsandchangethedirectionofthestudy.Especially,therespondents’differentideasofanalyzingproverbsofparallelismshowgreatdiversityofmetaphorunderstanding.Theresearchresultspresenttherearemorepossibilitiestostartwithamorespecificperspectivetofigureouttherelationshipbetweenmetaphorunderstandingandsyntacticstructuresinproverbs.Furthermore,themosttypicalstructureinproverbs,parallelism,whichreflectsthemostproblems,ischosenastheresearchobjects.Asaresult,tomaketheresearchmoretargeted,thequestionnaireshavebeenanalyzedandrevisedtohighlightthecorrelationwhichshouldbeeasierforstudentstorecognize,whichmeanstherelationshipsbetweenmetaphorunderstandingandparallelisminEnglishproverbs.Basedontheexperienceandguidanceofthefirstresearch,thesecondquestionnairetestingwasdoneonthe1st,the3rd,andthe5thofDecemberin2014.Andforthistime,thequestionnaireaimsattestingwhetherthereissomerelationshipsbetweenmetaphorunderstandingandparallelisminproverbs.Aswementionedbefore,thereare16weeksineachsemesterintheNorth-EastAgriculturalUniversity,thistestingdateissetonthe13thweek,whichissoclosetothefinalexaminationthatstudentstestedcanbeallpresentandhard-working.Withtheallowanceofprofessors,thequestionnairetestingisdonewiththetimelimitationofonehouronMonday,WednesdayandFridayofthe13thweekinseparatedclassroomsunderthesupervisionoftwopostgraduatesandoneprofessor.4.1.4SummaryQuestionnairetestingisatraditionalandeffectivemeasuringinstrument.Itispopularandacceptableamongthecollegestudents.Inthisresearch,allthequestionnairescomefromtheDictionaryofEnglishProverbspublishedbyShanghaiForeignLanguageEducationPress,whichcanensurethequestionnairesauthoritative.Besides,therespondentsarenarrowedtothestudentsofNortheastAgriculturalUniversitymajoringinEnglishtomakesurethegroupresearchedmorespecificandpersuasive.Especially,thestudentsofGradeOneandGradeThreeareselectedasrespondentswiththegoalofsettingastandardofdifferentprofessionallevels.TheoriginalexpectationofthisresearchistofindouttherelationshipbetweenmetaphorunderstandingandthesyntacticformsinEnglishproverbs.Becauseoftheelementsbeyondexpectation,thefirstresearchdoesnothighlighttherelationshipbetweenmetaphorunderstandingandthesyntacticstructuresofEnglishproverbs,whichalsogivesanotherperspectivetostartwiththeparallelstructuretotestthemetaphorunderstandinginEnglishproverbs.Someotherproblemscameoutespeciallythedifferentopinionsonunderstandingmetaphorinparallelismwhichpresentsmorequestionstotalkabout.Inotherwords,thefirstresearchissoimportantthatitlaysthefoundationofthesecondone.Withthedetailedmodificationofquestionnairedesign,whichmeansallthequestionnairesareformedinparallelismalsofromtheDictionaryofEnglishProverbsbasedonthemetaphor25 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文classificationsofShuDingfang’s.Basedontheexperiencesandresultsofthefirstresearch,anotherquestionnairetestinghasbeendone.TheresultsofthesecondquestionnairetestingshowtherelationsbetweenmetaphorunderstandingandparallelisminEnglishproverbsclearlyandareworthstudying.4.2DataCollectionandAnalysisAftertherepetitivemodificationandconsiderationofthekeyconceptsofthestudyandquestionnairedesign,tworesearcheshavebeendonetoreflectthemainrelationshipbetweenmetaphorunderstandingandparallelisminEnglishproverbs.Afterthedatacollectionandcalculationoftheresearchresults,thefollowingformshavebeendrawn.Andwiththehelpofcarefulanalysis,theresultsreflectclearlythecomparisonbetweenGradeOneandGradeThreeinmeaningandform,thecomparisonamongfivetypesofmetaphor,theinfluenceofmothertongueandsoon,whichareallthefoundationofthemajorfindingsofthethesis.4.2.1ResearchResultsThequestionnairesshouldbehandedouttoalltherespondentsofGradeOneandGradeThree,thenumberofwhichreaches116.Amongthem,54studentsofGradeOnearepresentwhilethetotalnumberofGradeOneis58.While57studentsofGradeThreeattendthequestionnairetestwithinthetotalnumberofGradeThree58.Astheresearchresultsshowthat110validatedquestionnaireshavebeencollectedforthepurposeoftheresearch,oneinvalidatedquestionnairehasbeenabandoned.AllthequestionnairesareAfterthespecificanalysisofallthequestionnairescollected,wecangetthefollowingtwotables.Table4-1:DifferentUnderstandingDegreesofMeaningandParallel-formofGradeOneMeaningParallel-FormCorrect(47.20%)False(52.80%)MetaphorComprehension&59.28%Compromised17.37%GradeParallel-FormAccordanceExpressionOneMetaphorComprehension&15.85%47.92%Structural-ModificationLiteralTranslation24.87%Non-Compromised82.63%NativeCultureConnection56.88%Expression26 ResearchMethodologiesandDataCollectionTable4-2:DifferentUnderstandingDegreesofMeaningandParallel-formofGradeThreeMeaningParallel-FormCorrect(68.10%)False(31.90%)MetaphorComprehension&63.61%Compromised28.84%GradeParallel-FormAccordanceExpressionThreeMetaphorComprehension&7.13%59.31%Structural-ModificationLiteralTranslation29.26%Non-Compromised71.16%NativeCultureConnection64.34%ExpressionFromthetwotables,ingeneral,wecanseethatthethemaintrendisthatthehigherprofessionallevelwhichthestudentsareat,thebetterunderstandingofthemetaphorinparallelproverbs.Andatthemeantime,themorestrongerthebasicknowledgetherespondentshave,themoreattentiontokeepaccordancewiththeparallel-structures.Indetail,therespondentsofGradeOneoccupies47.20%inmeaningunderstandingwhile47.92%inparallel-formaccordance.WhiletheGradeThreetakesthepositionof68.10%inmeaningunderstandingwhile59.31%inparallel-formaccordance.ForthecorrectpartofGradeOne,therespondentswhocanunderstandthemetaphorandshowmetaphorcomprehensioncompletelystillpursuittheparallel-formoccupy59.28%,whilethepartofGradeThreeis63.61%.WhiletheonesofGradeOnewhoalsopresenttheirmetaphorcomprehensionprefertothemodificationoftheparallel-forminsteadofthefollowingtheoriginalsentencestructureshold15.85%,whiletheonesofGradeThreeis7.13%.However,notalltherespondentscanunderstandandexpressthemetaphor,therespondentsofGradeOnegivebacktheliteraltranslationtotheproverbswhichtakeup24.87%,whiletheGradeThreepartholds29.26%.Besides,theresearchresultsshowthatthereisaphenomenonthatsomerespondentsturntothemothertongueknowledgeandputthenativeproverbsonthecorrespondingEnglishproverbs.Itcannotbejudgedeasilythattheydon’tunderstandthemetaphorinproverbsjustuse“similar”nativeproverbsfortheircuttingacross.The56.88%partofGradeOnecanbeexplainedthatmothertongueknowledgeexercisesagreatinfluenceonunderstandingmetaphorinproverbs,whiletheGradeThreepartis64.34%.Forthefalsepart,theresultshowsaninterestingpartcalledthe“compromisedexpression”whichmeansthatsomefalsetranslationsarecausedbytheignoranceofthemetaphorinEnglishwhileatthesametime,theycatchsomealikeproverbsinmothertongueandregardthemastherightones.However,thesimilaritybetweenChineseandEnglishdoesnotleadtothecorrectunderstanding.ThecompromisedexpressionsofGradeOnetakeup47.92%,whiletheGrade27 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文Threetakesup28.84%.4.2.2TheAnalysisoftheResearchResultsThefollowingfigure4-1presentstherelationshipbetweenthemeaningandformaswellasthecomparisonbetweentheGradeOneandGradeThreeonthewhole.Inthemeaningrespect,GradeThreehasgotlargercorrectsharethantheGradeOnewiththeratioof4.33%.TherespondentsofhigherGradeshouldbemoreprofessionalandskilledinunderstandingmetaphoricalproverbsthantheonesoflowerGradeundernormalcircumstances.Whileintheformrespect,wecanseethatinthemostrespondentspersistinfollowingtheoriginalparallelform,inparticular,theGradeThreehasgot11.39%higherthantheGradeOne.ItcanbeseenthatmostrespondentstendtodealwiththesentenceformaccordancewithexpressivehabitsbothinEnglishandChinesewhenEnglishproverbsaretakenasresearchobjects.ThoughitisobviousthattherespondentsofGradeOnehashighererrorratethantheonesofGradeThree,however,itisalittlebeyondexpectationthatinthefalsepart,thecompromisedexpressionofGradeOnewith17.37%islowerthantheonesofGradeThreewith28.84%.Itdisobeysthelogicthatthereislowerrorratebuthighcompromisedexpressionsshare.Therespondentswithmoreproficiencyandskillsdonotbalancetheirabilityofanalysisandthesupportoftheirmothertongue.Inotherwords,thecompromisedexpressioncanbeexplainedasthe“borrowlism”tomothertonguewithrightintentiononlytogetthewrongone,whichmayresultfromcarelessnessandoverrelianceonmothertonguelanguage.TherespondentsofGradeThreeshouldhaveavoidedthismisunderstandingmoreeasilythantheonesofGradeOne.Actually,therespondentswithhigherproficiencyprefertomaketheirexpressionmorematureandpursuittheperfectionofbothformandmeaningratherthanweighandconsidertheirexpressionisrightorwrongattheriskofmisunderstandingmetaphoricalmeaning.Itistruethatmostproverbsarepresentedinparallelandneatformwithrichmeaningandmetaphoricalexpressions,butitcannotasaneternalevaluationwhichalltranslationrulesshouldkeepwith.Itisnicetofollowthenativeexpressions,butitisperfecttomakeitonthefoundationofunderstandingwhatthemetaphormean.28 ResearchMethodologiesandDataCollection80.00%GradeOne68.10%70.00%GradeThree59.31%60.00%52.80%50.00%47.20%47.92%40.00%31.90%28.84%30.00%20.00%17.37%10.00%0.00%CorrectParallel-FormFalseCompromisedExpressionFig.4-1:Comparisonofcorrectratesandparallel-formfollowersratesoftwogradesTheresearchresultswillbeanalyzedindetailinthefollowingparts.Accordingtotheclassificationofmetaphormentioned,themetaphoricalproverbsonthequestionnairearedividedintofivetypes,whicharenounmetaphor,verbalmetaphor,prepositionalmetaphor,adjectivemetaphorandthesentencemetaphorwhichtheauthornewlyaddedup.Afterthestatisticanalysis,wehavegotthefigure4-2whichshowsthatamongthefivetypesofmetaphor,thegeneraltrendofGradeOneisthatthenounmetaphorholdsthelargestcorrectpart23.79%.Thentheverbalmetaphortakethesecondplacewith22.47%part.Thefollowingpartsarethesentencemetaphorwith20.70%,theprepositionalmetaphorwith19.82%,andtheadjectivemetaphorwith13.22%successively.Incontrast,fortheGradeThreepart,nounmetaphorholdsthetoppositionamongfivetypes,too,with22.70%.Still,verbalmetaphorranksthesecondoutofthefivewith21.43%.DifferentfromtheGradeOne,thetypefollowingverbalmetaphorisnotsentencemetaphorbutprepositionalmetaphorwith20.92%andthenthesentencemetaphorinhotpursuittakesup20.15%.Similarly,theadjectivepartgetstheleastmetaphorunderstandingwith14.80%.Theresultsaboveareexpectedforthemostpart,especiallythenounmetaphorandverbalmetaphoraccountforhighsharesoutofthefivemetaphortypes.Accordingtotheconceptualtheory,metaphorareformedinthemappingfromthesourcedomaintothetargetdomain.Inotherwords,thereflectionofsourcedomainaimingatthetargetdomaininmindisessentialtothemetaphorunderstanding.Nounhasgotthefeatureofconceptualmode.Nounmetaphorofthesourcetargetcanbeseenandtouchedindailylife,whichmakesiteasierforpeopletomakerelationsbetweenimagesandtheirmetaphoricalmeanings.Nounmetaphorisacompletesysteminwhichpeoplecaneasilymaketheirfamiliarmaterialthingsinlifedirecttothecorrespondingabstractconceptsincognition.Theverbalmetaphor’stakingupthesecondplaceinbothGradeOneandGradeThree29 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文isforthereasonthattheactioninthesourcedomaincanbeeasilyimaginedbecauseverbalmetaphorhasgotthefeaturesofbeingvividandactive.Thereadersarefamiliarwiththeverbalfeaturesofexplicitobject,whichiseasyforthemtomakeconnectionsbetweenthetenorinthesurfacestructureandvehicleinthedeepstructurewiththesameaction.Inthemappingprocess,theverbinthesourcedomainactingonthewholesentencealsoappliestotheverbalpartinthetargetdomain,whichneedsthereaders’imaginationtounderstandthemetaphoricalmeaningwiththesameverbswitchingfromdifferentsubjectsandobjects.Thereisalittlebitdifferenceinthesharesoftheprepositionalmetaphorandsentencemetaphor.Asmentionedabove,sentencemetaphoriscomposedofatleasttwosentenceswhicharecorrespondingwitheachothersoastogetmorecompletedandcontrastive.WhiletheprepositionalmetaphorissimilartothespatialmetaphoraccordingtoLakoffandJohnsonwhichisalsoaspatialintegratedsystemexistedinpeople’smind.AsfortheGradeOne,sentencemetaphortakesupmorespacethanprepositionalmetaphorwhiletheGradeThreestaysattheoppositestatus.BothofthetwoGradescannotunderstandadjectivepartverywellforthereasonthatadjectiveitselfismoreabstractwhichcanmodifyanysubjectssoastothereaderscannotcatchthehiddenmetaphoricalmeaninginsuchahugerange.30.00%GradeOne23.79%GradeThree25.00%22.47%20.92%20.70%20.00%22.70%21.43%19.82%14.80%20.15%15.00%13.22%10.00%5.00%0.00%n.prep.v.adj.SFig.4-2:ComparisonofdifferentunderstandingdegreesoffivetypesofmetaphoroftwogradesAstothedetailsofcorrectandfalsepart,wecanlistthefollowingfivestandardsinfigure4-3.Forthecorrectpart,therespondentsofGradeOnewhocanbothreflectmetaphorunderstandingintranslationandpursuittheparallel-structureaccordanceare59.28%.Theoneswhopresenttheirmetaphorunderstandingintranslationbutmodifythesentenceoriginalstructureare15.85%.Therearealsosomerespondentswiththeshareof24.87%whodon’tgetthemetaphoricalmeaningandjuststicktotheliteraltranslationwhichstillconformstotheparallelstructures.Besides,thenativeculturalelementsalsoaffectthemetaphorunderstandingtoalargeextentwith56.88%.Andforthefalsepart,thecompromisedexpressionsareworthanalyzing30 ResearchMethodologiesandDataCollectionthoughtheydon’ttakeuplargeproportionwith17.37%.Atthemeantime,therespondentsofGradeThreewhounderstandthemetaphorhiddenintheproverbsandsticktotheparallelstructureare63.61%.Incontrast,theonesofGradeThreewhounderstandthemetaphoraswellbutfailtopursuittheparallelstructureare7.13%.Theoneswhodon’tcatchthemetaphoricalmeaningprefertoliteraltranslationare29.26%.Thenativeculturalknowledgeinfluencetheirunderstandingmetaphorwiththeratioof64.34%.Forthefalsepart,thecompressedexpressionparttakeupfor28.84%.Fromtheresultscanweseethatthemoreprofessionaltherespondentsare,thebetterunderstandingofmetaphoricalmeaning,whichisalsothesameastheaccordancewithparallelstructures.ItiseasilyseenthattherespondentswithmoreknowledgestoragebothEnglishandChinesecandealwiththebalancewithmetaphorunderstandingandaccordancewithparallelform.Morethanhalfoftheallrespondentssticktotheaccordancewithparallelstructurebasedonthecomprehensionofhiddenmetaphorandreflectionontranslation.Similarly,mostoftherespondentsofbothGradesshowtheirstrongdependenceontheirmothertongueknowledgebasewhichisnotbeyondpreviousexpectation.ThereareacompletemothertonguesysteminmindwithdecadesofaccumulationwhichhelpreadersunderstandmetaphorinEnglishproverbswithjustsomerelevantcluesintheirnativelanguage.SomecommonbackgroundandculturesharedwithChineseandEnglishallowtherespondentsunderstandthemetaphoricalmeaningwithnotsomucheffortsbuttograspthecorrespondingorsimilaronesintheirmothertonguelanguagethoughnotappropriateallthetime.inthisway,thereasonwhycompromisedexpressionscomeintobeing,whosepartdoweightoomuchbutstillprovethedependenceonthenativeculture.BothoftheGradesshowthewordbywordtranslationwhichmaybecausedbylittlecomprehensionofmetaphorbutstillinsisttheaccordancewiththeparallelstructure.Besides,itiseasilyseenthattherespondentswithmoreknowledgestoragebothEnglishandChinesecandealwiththebalancewithmetaphorunderstandingandaccordancewithparallelform.100.00%90.00%GradeOne80.00%63.61%64.34%70.00%GradeThree60.00%50.00%59.28%56.88%40.00%29.26%30.00%28.84%15.85%20.00%24.87%17.37%10.00%7.13%0.00%MetaphorLiteralMetaphorNativeCulturalCompromisedComprehension&TranslationComprehension&ConnectionExpressionParallel-FormStructural-AccordanceModificationFig.4-3:Comparisonofdifferentmetaphortranslationmethodsoftwogrades31 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文4.2.3SummaryInthispart,theresearchresultshavebeenanalyzedandpresentedintwotablesandthreefiguresfromdifferentperspectives,mostofwhicharewithinexpectationandalsotherearesomeunexpectedconclusionswhichneedmoreconsiderationandanalysis.Ononehand,itisgenerallyacceptedthatthemoreprofessionaltherespondentsare,thebettercomprehensionofmetaphoricalmeaning.Ontheotherhand,morethanhalfoftherespondentsinsistontheaccordancewiththeparallelstructurenomatterwhattheygiveisrightorwrong.Formostrespondentswhounderstandthemetaphoricalmeaninghiddenintheproverbsstillchoosetokeepthesamewithstructure,whichmakessensebecausetheytrytofollowthedistinctivefeaturesofproverbs.Itcanbeseenthattheypursuittheperfectionofproverbsintheirunconsciousmind.Theoneswhodonotcatchthemetaphoricalmeaningarewillingtosolvetheproblemwithwordbywordtranslationwhichcanbeselectedasasafeway.Thehighshareofconnectingnativecultureprovesthestrongdependenceonmothertonguelanguage,whichremindsthereadersofmoreattentiontotheirownlanguagesysteminfluences.Amongthefalsepart,thecompromisedexpressionsdonottakeuptoomuchweightthough,thereshouldbemoreeffortstofixonthat.Compromisedexpressionscanexplainmanyproblemsaboutpeople’smisunderstandingandtheimbalancebetweenmeaningandform.Theresearchresultsanalysisshowthegeneralrelationshipbetweenmetaphorunderstandinginproverbsandparallelformasfollows:thebasictrendcanbeexplainedthatthemoreprofessional,thebettercomprehension;mostrespondentswhocannotgetthemetaphoricalmeaningsticktoboththeliteraltranslationandaccordancewithparallelstructure;thenativeculturedoesmakeagreatinfluenceonunderstandingandtranslationofproverbs;thecompromisedexpressionslisttheproblemsofwhatvaluablemistakescanbring,whichhelpChinesereaders’experiencesaccumulationofmetaphorunderstandinginparallel-proverbs.32 Discussion5DiscussionAfterthecollectionandanalysisofthedataintheresearchresults,themainlineoftherelationsbetweenparallelstructureandthemetaphoricalproverbsisclearshowsupaswellasanotherproblemas“compromisedexpression”foundintheresearch.ThispartisthemainbodyofthewholethesisexplainingtherelationsbetweenmetaphorunderstandingparallelstructuresinEnglishproverbsandthecorrespondingrealizations,themanifestationofcompromisedexpressioninChineseandthesuggestionsofhelpingunderstandthemetaphoricalmeaninginparallel-formproverbsforEnglishlearners.Thefollowingfourpartsarepresentedindetail.5.1RelationsBetweenMetaphorandParallel-forminEnglishProverbsBasedonConceptualMetaphorTheoryAccordingtotheanalysisbasedonthedatacollectionsabove,themajorframeinwhichparallel-formactsonmetaphoricalproverbunderstandingcomesout.Themorespecificdiscussionwillbetalkedaboutinthefollowingpartsasrelationsbetweenparallelstructureandnounmetaphor,verbalmetaphor,prepositionalmetaphortogetherwithsentencemetaphorandadjectivemetaphorrespectively.5.1.1RelationsBetweenNounMetaphorandParallel-formNounmetaphoristhemostactiveandrepresentativetyperelativetootheronessincenounitselfcanbeunderstoodasacompletesemanticunit.Anounisalsothemostintuitivewaytomanifestaconcept.Associationbroughtbytherolewhichnounplaysinthewholecontextisusuallyinvolvedinsemanticnetwork.Bylighteningthenounsinthemetaphoricalsystem,othercomponentscanbeactivatedtoreflectthemetaphoricalmeaning.Besides,parallelstructuresprovidesacarrieronwhichnounmetaphoraffectsitsfunctionsbetterforthereasonthatnounmetaphorcanbecorrespondedandcoherent.Fortheconvenienceofparallelisminform,metaphoricalmeaningbehindthenounhasgotstrongercontrastive,coordinativeorotherrelationswitheachother.Inthisway,parallelismoffersnounmetaphorappropriatestructuretotakeeffectandthroughwhichnounmetaphorcangetamoreperfectplatformtoconveymessage.Forexample,inthenounmetaphor“Jackofalltrades,masterofnothing”,whichmeansthatifyouconcentrateoneverything,youwilllearnnothing(事事通，事事松).Inthisproverb,“Jack”and“master”togetherwith“alltrades”and“nothing”areplacedinparallelism,withwhichmetaphoricalmeaningimpliedinthenounisreflected.Here,“Jack”isnotjustanamebutreferstoapersoninthetargetdomain,whichmakessenseifconnectedwith“master”,inthiscase,themappinghappens.Theconditionsprovidedbytheparallelstructurehelpbuildtheconstrastiverelationsbetweenthetwokeynounstoenhancethesemanticexpressionofnounmetaphor.“Alltrades”alsohasgotthemetaphoricalfeatureswhichmeansnotjustthebusinessstuffbutallfieldsbecause“nothing”inthelatterhalfgiveshintto“alltrades”tohelpmetaphoricalunderstanding.33 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文Hereisanotherexampleofnounmetaphor“Anilllife,anillend.”whosemeaningisevilwillberewardedwithevil(恶有恶报).Thetwopartsoftheproverbarethesame,eventheadjective,exceptfor“life”and“end”,whichthestressshouldbeputonnaturally.Peoplecangettheconceptofdosomethingevilallone’slifeinthetargetdomainthrough“anilllife”inthesourcedomain,andlikewise,“anillend”inmappingtotheretribution.Theparallelstructureprovidesthecluetocompete“life”and“end”,whichisanimportantconditiontofindoutthemetaphoricalmeaning.5.1.2RelationsBetweenVerbalMetaphorandParallel-formVerbalmetaphorisformedintheconflictbetweentheverbanditslogicalsubjectorobject.Ifitisacceptablethatnounmetaphoristhemostvividandintuitivetype,thenverbalmetaphoraddsmoreimaginableandspecificelementstothewholemetaphoricalexpression.Withtheoriginallogicalsubjectorobjectinthesourcedomain,theverbcanbuiltitsownsemanticsystem.Thereisnodoubtthatverbcanbringaboutassociationonconditionthatitmusthavesomethingtodowithnounswiththeresultthattheoriginalsemanticnetworkwillbechangedbychangingthematchbetweenverbandnounandanewsemanticassociationwillbeformed.Themappinghappensaslongasthesubstitutionofdifferentobjectsfromthesourcedomaintothetargetdomain.Inaddition,accordingtothetheoreticalfoundationofGoatly’sactionprocess[48],metaphorcanbeseenasthesubstitutionofdifferentactionprocesses.TheMappingTheorythinksthatpeoplemakeperceptualconnectionsbetweentwototallyunrelatedobjectstomakemappingsformsourcedomaintotargetdomaincometrue,whichisalsosuitabletheverbmetaphor.Tobemorespecific,intheverbalmetaphor“Takeawaymygoodnameandtakeawaymylife.”whichmeansgoodreputationistheessenceofone’slife(好名声至关重要),theverbphraseservestwoobjectsatthesametime.Themappingshowsupwhenthe“goodname”whichhasbeen“takenaway”transformsto“mylife”.Let’sseeanotherexampleofverbalmetaphor“Seenoevil,hearnoevil,speaknoevil.”withthemeaningofdoingnothingbadorevil.Thesensoryverbs“see”,“hear”and“speak”areeasyforpeopletoimagineandtouchfortheyarethecommonactionsineverydaylife.Oncethemostfamiliarbehaviorschangetheirobjects,thatistosaythatthesourceobjectsarereplacedwithabstractonesinthetargetdomain,themappingison.Peoplecangetthemetaphoricalmeaningbymakeassociationbetweenabstractconceptandrealaction.Inthisway,verbalmetaphorcanbeusedmoreflexibletoexpressmetaphoricalmeaning.Thosetwoproverbsarecharacterizedwithparallelismandtheverbenumerationinthisstructurecanstrengthentheexpressiveeffects.5.1.3RelationsBetweenPrepositionalandSentenceMetaphorandParallel-formTherearemanyprepositionsorprepositionalphrasesstandingforspatialorientation.Inmostcases,theyareusedmetaphorically.Spatialorientationmetaphorcomesfromdirectphysicalcontactwhichmakesiteasierforpeopletofindinallkindsofmaterialprocess.Metaphoricalmind34 Discussionisoneofthebasicapproachestoknowingtheworldanditcanbesurethatspatialorientationmetaphorisanimportantaspectbecausepeoplearetendtomappingsomespatialconceptstotheabstractonesofmood,positionsorphysicalconditions,etc.Asaresult,therecomessomeorientationalwordsexpressingtheabstractmeaning.Someprepositionsandprepositionalphrasesarethereflectionofspatialmetaphoraregenerallyacceptedsuchas“up”and“down”canbereferredto“happy”and“sad”andsoon.Intheprepositionalmetaphor“Outofsight,outofmind”meaningnothingcanbotheryouifyoudon’tpayattentiontoit(眼不见，心不烦),“outof”meansbeyondtherangeornotinthescope.One“outof”servesthe“sight”whichbelongstothesourcedomainwhiletheother“outof”contributestothe“mind”inthetargetdomain.Themappingworksintheparallelstructurewhichhelpsenlightenthemetaphoricalmeaningexpression.Thereasonwhytheauthorputthesentencemetaphorintotheprepositionalmetaphorpartisthatspatialorientationmetaphorprovidespeopleenoughspacetofeelwhichcoincideswiththefeaturesofsentencemetaphorascompletenessandcorrespondence.Spatialorientationmetaphorformsaspaceinpeople’smindbasedonwhichtheycanmakeassociationsabouttheimpliedmeaninginthetargetdomain,that’sthesentencemetaphoralsocando.Relativetowordsandphrases,themostdistinctivefeatureofsentencemetaphoriscomprehensiveandcomplete,whichfollowssomecharacteristicsofspatialmetaphor.Takingasentencemetaphorasanexample“Absencesharpenslove,presencestrengthensit”whichmeansseparationandmeetcanmakerelationshipcloser(小别增进情感，相守加浓爱意).Thisproverbiscomposedoftwosimplesentenceswithcompletestructure,especially,eachpartiscorrespondingwiththehelpofparallelism.Theyconveyacompletemessagetogetherwithnopartlackedsoastointegratethemetaphor.Inanothersentenceproverb“Pridegoesbefore,andshamefollowsafter”meaningprideleadstofallingbehind(骄傲使人落后).Thetwosimplesentencesofferpeopleapicturelikethespaceprepositionalmetaphorcanprovideandtheparallelstructurefacilitatesthemappingworkinginthecomparisonbetweensourcedomainandtargetdomain.5.1.4RelationsBetweenAdjectiveMetaphorandParallel-formAdjectivehasthefunctionofdescribingandmodifying,makingtheabstractconceptmorespecificandparaphrasingtheconcretestuffmoreoutstanding.Adjectivecancontrolwiderangewithflexibleandvariousmeaning.Sinceoneadjectivecandescribemorethanoneconceptbelongingtodifferentfields,thenitisimpossibletomatchoneadjectivewiththecorrespondingnoun.Inotherwords,itcanbethoughtthatadjectiveischaracteristicoffuzzinessanduncertainondefiningaconcept,whichthedataofadjectivemetaphorunderstandingalsoprovesintheresearch.Asadjectiveisnotexactlyobviousmarkinanexpression,itisnoteasytorecognizeandunderstandwhentheadjectivegetsthemetaphoricalatmosphere.Inotherstructuresexceptforparallel-form,theadjectivemetaphorunderstandingneedsthepartsdecoratedbyadjectivesorthewholecontexttomakeassociationsacrosstwodomains.Theroleparallelstructureplayshelps35 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文understandadjectivemetaphorliesintransformingflexiblybetweenthesourcedomainandthetargetdomainunderthemodificationofoneadjectiveorrelativeones.Inotherwords,parallelstructurecontributestounderlinetherelationsbetweencorrespondingadjectivescarryingthemetaphoricalmeaning.Intheadjectivemetaphoricalproverb“Soundinbody,soundinmind”whosemeaningishealthinbothphysicalandmentalcondition(身体康健自然头脑清醒),oneadjective“sound”supportsthewholeparallelform.Sincepeoplegenerallyacceptthatthe“body”inthesourcedomainis“sound”,thenthelatter“sound”modifying“mind”inthetargetdomaincanbeinferredthatithasgotthemetaphoricalmeaning.Theparallelstructuredoesgivethecluetomappingof“sound”.Inaddition,anotheradjectivemetaphorproverbgivesanothercasewithagroupofcomplementaryantonyms.Themeaningof“Luckyinlife,unluckyinlove.”ispeoplecannotbesuccessfulineveryfield(赌场得意，情场失意).“Lucky”istheoppositeof“unlucky”,whichmakesanotherobviouscorrespondingmarkincontrastbesidestheparallel-form.Theimpliedmeaningbehindtheadjectivescanbeindicatedfortheillogicalmatchwiththekeywords.However,theproverboffersanappropriateenvironmenttopresenttherelativeadjectivesasacarrier,eithersimilaroropposite.Inadditiontothis,otherwritingstylesmaynotbeconvenienceforthespecialadjectivegroup.5.2RealizationofInteractionsBetweenMetaphorUnderstandingandParallel-forminEnglishProverbsContentandformcannotbeseparatedfromeachother,parallelstructurehelpsexpressthemetaphoricalmeaninginanytypemetaphormoreorlessinEnglishproverbs.Basedontheresultsfromtheresearch,theinfluencesofparallelstructuresontheunderstandingoffivetypesofmetaphorarefromtoptobottomare,inorder,nounmetaphor,verbalmetaphor,prepositionalmetaphorandsentencemetaphorandadjectivemetaphor.Thefollowingpartswilltalkaboutthespecificrealizationofinteractionsbetweenmetaphorunderstandingandparallel-form.5.2.1InteractiveRelationsBetweenNounMetaphorandParallel-formThenounitselfisaconceptualsystem,givinganimageforpeopletoperceive.Inanycontextorwritingstyle,therolenounplayscannotbeignoredwhichdecidestheobjectsaffectedbytheactionorthesituationandtheonestakingactionsinthewhilesentence.Thenounswithmetaphoricalmeaningcanbejudgedbytheactionstheytakeortheirmodifyingparts.Proverbsasakindofwritingstyleischaracterizedwithconciseandclear,expressingrichmeaningwithsimplestructure.Usually,twoormorenounsareenoughtosupporttheproverbinparallel-form.Andtheparallelstructuredoesgiveachancefornounmetaphortofinditscorrespondingonesoastothereaderscanmakecomparisonbetweenthenounsandcatchtheimpliedmeaningbyanalyzingothercomponentsmodifyingthenouns.Theparticularityprovidedbyproverbsinparallelstructuremakesthemodifyingpartsofthenounssimilaroropposite.Andtheproverbsselectedinthequestionnairefollowthosefeatures.Inonecase,thereisamodeofdifferentnounswiththesame36 Discussionorsimilarmodifyingpartslikethenounmetaphor“Merrymeet,merrypart.”Withthesameadjective,thereaders’focuswillbeputonthenounpartsnaturally,that’sthekeypointtosolvetheproblem.Throughtheunmatchedrelationsbetweenthemodifyingpartandcenterwordguidethereaderstomakeassociationsfromthesourcetargettothetargetdomain,inthisprocess,themetaphoricalmeaningwillbeturnedto.Inanothercase,differentnounswithoppositemodifyingpartssuchastheexampleof“Greatboast,smallroast”or“Jackofalltrades,masterofnothing”.Here,theparallel-formpresentsthedistinctivecorrespondingrelationsofallpartsandprovidesguidancetograspmetaphoricalmeaning.Asforothercasesofdifferentnounswithirrelevantmodifyingparts,theimportanceofothercorrespondingcomponentsexceptforthenoungivenbythehintofparallelstructureshouldnotbeignored.Theessenceofconceptualmetaphortheoryisthewholemappingacrossthedifferentdomains,that’swhatmakesthattherearecorrespondencesbetweentenorsandvehiclesinthesourcedomainandtargetdomainrespectivelywiththehelpofparallel-form,whichhighlightsthethedifferencesofdifferentdomains.5.2.2InteractiveRelationsBetweenVerbalMetaphorandParallel-formVerbalmetaphorissoflexibleandvividthatitissecondlyonlytothenounmetaphor.Ifnounisthesoulofacontext,thentherelevantverbisthepowercontrollingthesoul.Verbgivesthenounsomecertaindynamicalfeaturestorecognizetheconcept.Eachactionhasitsownsubjectorobject,themetaphoricalmeaningshowsuponcetherelationsbetweenthemmakenosenselogically,whichmeansthereadersshouldmappingtothetargetdomainiftheverbinthesourcedomaincannotmatchwithitssubjectorobject.Theparallelstructurestrengthenstheexpressiveeffectsbyenumeratingcorrespondingparts.Likenounmetaphorinparallel-formproverbs,verbmetaphorcanbealsosummarizedintosomecases.Inonecase,thesameorsimilarverbwithdifferentsubjectsorobjectsliketheverbalmetaphor“Takeawaymygoodnameandtakeawaymylife”canreflectthemetaphoricalmeaningwiththetransformationofobjectsfromthesourcedomaintothetargetdomaincontrolledbyoneverb.Theadvantagesofthiscasebroughtbyparallelstructurelieinputtingtheattentiontothedifferentpartsnottheonestheyshared.Anothercaseshowedupintheverbalmetaphorinparallel-formproverbsisoppositeverbswithdifferentsubjectsorobjectssuchas“Tellthetruth,shamethedevil”.Theparticularrelationshipbetweenthetwoverbsgivesthereadersanassociationthattheobjectorpersonaffectedbytheverbmayhavesomethingtodowitheachother.Theunmatchedrelationshipisbasedontheconflictsverbswhichmakesitpossibleformetaphoricalmeaningcometrue.Thereisanothermodeofverbalmetaphorasaseriesofverbscontrollingdifferentobjectslike“Seenoevil,hearnoevil,speaknoevil”.Inthiscase,theverbsarerelevantmoreorlesswhichmakestheobjectsareinthesimilarconceptualsystem.Usually,themappinginthiscasecanbeeasilyrecognized.Inaddition,theirrelevantverbswithdifferentnounsalsoexitwhichcannotbeseparatedwiththewholecontext.37 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文Tosumup,theparallel-formcontributestoverbalmetaphorunderstandingrestsoncomparingthemainstructureofdominancerelationshipinverbalmetaphoricalproverbs.5.2.3InteractiveRelationsBetweenPrepositionalandSentenceMetaphorandParallel-formTheprepositionsareindispensabletoreflectthespatialorientationmetaphor,providingacubicalspaceforthereaderstoperceive.Everythinglocatesonitspositionandplaysarolebelongingtoacertainfieldwhichisbuiltbyprepositions.Oncethesubjectdoesnotbelongtoafiled,itstillworksasapartofit,themetaphoricalmeaninghappens.Parallelstructuremakesthespacemorecompleteandfull,providingconvenienceforassociation.Thecasesofprepositionalmetaphorinparallel-formarealwaysclassifiedintotheseconditions:thesimilarorsameprepositionswithdifferentsubjects,theoppositeprepositionswithdifferentsubjectsandirrelevantprepositionswithdifferentsubjects.Forthefirstcase,forexample,intheprepositionalmetaphor“Outofsight,outofmind”,thesame“outof”inparallel-formdrawsthereaders’attentiontothesubjectinthisspace,andtheunmatchedlocationinthesourcedomainbringsaboutthemetaphoricalmeaninginthetargetdomain.Andinthesecondcaseofliketheoppositeprepositionswithdifferentsubjectslike“Alein,truthout”,“in”and“out”aretwooppositeprepositionsmodifyingdifferentsubjectswhichisworthpeoplereconsideringthetwooppositeprepositionsortherelationsbetweentheprepositionsandthesubjects.Inthisprocess,theparallelstructuremakesthemappinghappen.Thefeaturessharedbyprepositionalmetaphorandsentencemetaphorarethatbothofthemarerelativelycompleteandsystematic.Sentencemetaphorinparallel-formhastwoormoreindependentlycorrespondingstructures.Likeprepositionalmetaphor,thesentencemetaphorcanpresentpeopleamorecompleteandfullpicturetoimaginewithparallelstructure.Sentencemetaphorinproverbsiscomposedofatleasttwosimplesentences,eachofwhichmaybesometypeofmetaphor,whichleadstostrengtheningthemetaphoricalmeaningdeeplybymetaphorenumeration.Inthesentencemetaphoricalproverb“Pridegoesbefore,andshamegoesafter”,bothofthemarecompletesubject-predicatestructureswithametaphorin.“Pride”cannot“goes”,neitherdoes“shame”.Byanalyzingtheillogicalmatch,themappingcanbecaughtbyrecognizingthesourcedomainandtargetdomain.Theparallelstructurehelptoconstructtheassociatedspacetounderstandthemetaphoricalmeaning.5.2.4InteractiveRelationsBetweenAdjectiveMetaphorandParallel-formAdjectiveisdifficulttodefineforitisabstractandchangeableforoneadjectivecanusuallymodifymorethanonesubjectinmostcases.Tojudgetheadjectiveischaracterizedwithmetaphoricalfeaturesornotisbasedonthepartmodified.Amongthefivetypesofmetaphor,adjectivemetaphorunderstandingisenjoyedtheleastpopularity.Theparallel-formseemstobeweakincontrollingtheexpressiveeffectsofadjectivemetaphorinEnglishproverbs.Adjectivedescribessomecertainfeaturesofasubject,themappingworkswhentheirrelevantrelations38 Discussionappearsintwodifferentdomains.Thereadersturnstothetargetdomainwhentheycannotfindtheappropriatematchbetweenadjectiveinthesourcedomainandthesubjectmodified.Inthisprocess,parallelstructuresdoeshaveinfluencesonadjectivemetaphorunderstandingmoreorlessbylistingthecorrespondingadjectivestohighlightthepositionofthem.Theadjectivemetaphorinparallelstructuralproverbsinthequestionnaireareselectedwithsometypicalandspecificfeaturesasthesameorsimilaradjectivewithdifferentsubjects,theoppositeadjectiveswithdifferentsubjectsandtheirrelevantadjectiveswithdifferentsubject,bywhichitaimsattryingtodrawthecommonpersonalityfromtheindividualcase.Forexampleinthefirstcase,intheadjectivemetaphorproverbs“Soundinbody,soundinmind”or“Thehigherthemonkeyclimbs,themoreheshowsinhistail”,“sound”appearsfortwotimesand“higher”and“more”canbecategorizedintheadjectiveofdegree.Thereaderscanrecognizethemetaphoricalmeaningcauseoneorsimilaradjectivescanmodifythedifferentsubjectsindifferentdomainswithclearcorrespondingpositionswhichisallowedbyparallel-form.Intheexampleoftheoppositeadjectiveswithdifferentsubjectslike“Luckyinlife,unluckyinlove”orthe“Sweetintheontaking,butsourintheoffputting”,theobviousmarkofsemanticconflictinthesameformdrawsthereaders’attentiontoguidethemcomparetherelationsofthesubjectsintwodifferentdomains.Nomatterwhatsituationis,eventheirrelevantadjectiveswithdifferentsubjects,othercomponentsespeciallythepartsmodifiedcannotbeignoredwiththehelpofparallelstructures.5.3ManifestationofCompromisedExpressioninChineseThecompromisedexpressionsarecausedbythe“borrowlism”ofsimilarexistingChineseidiomswithoutdiggingintothemetaphoricalmeaningimpliedintheproverb.AsChinesereadershavestrongconnectionswiththeirmothertongue,itisinevitablethattherespondentsturntotheirnativeculture,whileitdeservesreconsideringhowthecompromisedexpressioncomeouttomakethemetaphoricalunderstandingexact.Themajorthreetypesofcompromisedexpressionsareasfollows:compromisedexpressionsinChinesefour-characteridioms,ChineseproverbsandsimilarsourceobjectsinChinese.5.3.1CompromisedExpressionsinChineseFour-characterIdiomsChinesefour-characteridiom(ChengyuinChinese)isapartoffixedexpressionsasphraseandshortsentence.AsadistinctivefeatureofChineseculture,Chinesefour-characteridiomstandsforcertainmeaningusuallyappliedincontextasawholeusedasanexistingquotationcompetingwithidiomsandproverbs.Andalsoasafixedstructure,mostChinesefour-characteridiomscomefromclassicalworks,historicalstoriesandverballegendinfolkandandhavebeenpopularsinceancienttimeswhichleadstoalotofdifferencesindictionwithmodernChineseexpression.Chinesefour-characteridiomcontainsrichandimpliedmeaningwithsimpleandneatstructure.Intermsoftheform,Chinesefour-characteridiomsarefeaturedasfixedstructuresoffourcharactersformostcases,whilemorethanfoursometimes.Simplyspeaking,Chinesefour-characteridioms39 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文arequotedinhighfrequencywithrichmeaningandconciseparallelstructure.Theresultsshowthatinthecompromisedexpressionpart,alotofrespondentsunderstandandtranslatetheEnglishmetaphoricalproverbsintoChinesefour-characteridioms.Ononehand,itcanbeindicatedthatChinesestudentsdependonmothertonguetoalargeextent.Ontheotherhand,thereasonwhythistypeofcompromisedexpressionscomeoutshouldbefiguredouttomaketheexpressionexact.Aftertheanalysisofquestionnaires,mostcompromisedexpressionsaremainlyfocusedonthefollowingproverbs.Takingthenounmetaphor“说得多，做得少”(Greatboast,smallroast)asanexample,whichoriginallymeansgreattalkingbutlessdoing.Thetruthisthatmanyrespondentsfocusonthecomparisonbetween“great”and“small”whileignorethemetaphoricalmeaningof“roast”and“boast”.Tofollowthedistinctivelystructuralfeatureofproverbs,theysticktokeepingtheaccordancewithparallel-form.Withtimelimit,therespondentsquitdiggingtheimpliedmeaningandgivetheexistingsimilarChinesefour-characteridiomswithacomparisonbetween“great”and“small”inthewholestructuresuchas“大材小用”or“狼多肉少”,etc.Andintheprepositionalmetaphor“Inforapenny,inforapound”,whoseoriginalmeaningis“一不做，二不休”(tostickitoutonceyoubegin,inmostcases,itreferstothenegativeaspect).Andthekeytothecompromisedexpressionformationisabouttherelationshipbetween“penny”and“pound”.Thecomparisonoffinialamountgivepeopleanillusionthatitissortofaccumulationofmaterialratherthanreconsiderthemetaphoricalmeaningbehindthemoney.Asaresult,therelativelysimilarChinesefour-characteridiomsarepresentedsuchas“积少成多”,“日积月累”or“集腋成裘”andsoon.Andintheadjectivemetaphor“Sweetintheontaking,butsourintheoffputting”,whichoriginallymeans“获取乐淘淘，付出惨兮兮”(itisgladtogainbutunwillingtogive).Alotofrespondentstranslatethisproverbinto“吃苦在前,享乐在后”.Differentwithtwotypicalcasesabove,itcanbeseenthatmostrespondentswhomakethiscompromisedexpressioncanunderstandthemetaphoricalmeaningof“sweet”and“sour”whiletheyfailtodealwiththerelationshipbetween“taking”and“offputting”.Maybethetwogroupsofdiscoursemarkers“taking”,“offputting”and“sweet”,“sour”aresosimilartosomecertainChineseelementsthatitiseasytomakecompromisedexpressions.5.3.2CompromisedExpressionsinChineseProverbsLikeChinesefour-characteridiom,proverbisapartofthesystemofvocabulary,aimingatmakingtheexpressionsmoreactiveandvivid.Beingabranchofidioms,proverbsarepopularinfolkswiththefeatureofconcisenessandcomprehension.Aproverbusuallycontainsacompletemeaningunderstoodeasilywithoralizedandsimplestructure.Mostproverbsreflecttheexperienceinpeople’slifeandhavebeenpasseddownverballyfromgenerationtogeneration.Generallyspeaking,proverbsareformedwithsimpleandshortsentencesorphrases.SincethisresearchobjectisEnglishproverb,thecorrespondingproverbsinChineseareeasilyrecognizedandcaughtbytherespondents.Asaresult,thecompromisedexpressioninChineseproverbsare40 Discussionformed.Takingtheprepositionalmetaphor“Fromhearingcomeswisdom,fromspeakingcomesrepentance”asanexample,whoseoriginalmeaningcanbetranslatedas“智慧源于倾听，懊悔来自多舌”(peoplecanbecomewiseriftheyfollowothers’advice,onthecontrary,theymayregretiftheyaretoogossipy).Thismetaphoricalmeaningreflectstherelationshipbetween“comes”and“wisdom”togetherwith“repentance”.Mostrespondentscangraspthekeypointbutfailtomakethemetaphoricalrelationshipexact.Thetranslatedversionwithhighfrequencyare“智者善听，愚者善言”,“不听老人言，吃亏在眼前”or“流言止于智者”fromwhichwecanseethattherespondentscanclarifytheobjectsthatshouldbecomparedwhiletheyextendthemetaphoricalrelationshipintothedeeperleveltomatchtheclassicalChineseproverbs.Likewise,intheprepositionalmetaphor“Outofsight,outofmind”,whichmeansthatyouwillnotbebotheredifyoudonotseeit(眼不见，心不烦).Obviously,themetaphoricalmeaningdependsontheorientatedfeaturesof“sight”and“mind”.Therespondentswhomakethiscompromisedexpressionusuallyignorethetypeoforientationmetaphorandputstressonthe“outof”soastothetranslatedversionareasfollows:“心有多大，舞台就有多大”or“望尘莫及”.Theystrengtheneithertherelationshipbetween“outof”and“sight”ortheonebetween“outof”and“mind”.Whattheyfailistoholdthemtogetherwhichleadstothecompromisedexpressions.Besides,theadjectivemetaphor“Thehigherthemonkeyclimbs,themoreheshowsinhistail”whichoriginallymeansthehigherpositionyouarein,themoredefectsyouwillshow(地位越高处,缺点越暴露)givesanotherformofcompromiseexpression.Clearly,the“monkey”and“tail”arecharacterizedwithmetaphoricalmeaninginthisproverb,whicharerecognizedanddealtwithwellbymostrespondents,whiletheirblindrelianceonChinesebasicknowledgegivesthecompromisedexpressionsas“站得高，看得远”or“爬得越高，摔得越惨”.Itcanbeseenthattherespondentsunderlinethe“high”butignorethesubjectofit.Coincidentally,therearemany“high”inChineseproverbsforthemtocompetewiththeEnglishone,providingaplatformforthecompromisedexpression.5.3.3CompromisedExpressionsinSimilarSourceObjectsinChineseTheso-calledsourceobjectistheconceptextendedfromthemappingoftheConceptualMetaphorTheory.Thesourceobjectisthetenorinrealliferelativetotheobjectinthetargetdomain.Themappingbetweenthemischaracterizedwithmetaphoricalfeature.AccordingtotheConceptualMetaphorTheory,metaphoriscomposedofthreeparts,theobjectinthesourcedomain,theoneinthetargetdomainandthemappingbetweenthem.Somerespondentsarenotsuretheexactmeaningoftheproverbs,sotheychooseaconservativewaytoexpress,inotherwords,totranslatewordbyword.Thoughitcanbeunderstoodthroughtranslatingliterally,therespondentsdon’treflectthethemetaphoricalimpliedmeaning.Englishproverbshasthegeneralcharacteristicwhichtheproverbsofotherculturesalsoshare,makingthereaderscanfindthesameorsimilarobjectsinthesourcedomainwhichdon’tpointatthesamemetaphoricalobjectinthe41 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文targetdomaininsomecases.That’swhatmayleadthethecompromisedexpressionsinsimilarsourceobjectinChinese.Intheverbalmetaphor“Takeawayfuel,takeawayflame”whichoriginallymeans“无风不起浪”or“扬汤止沸不如釜底抽薪”(youcansolvetheproblemifyouknowwherethecruxis).Therespondentsputemphasisonthekeyconcept“fuel”and“flame”accurately,whilesomeofthemstayonthesurfaceratherthangivetheimpliedmetaphoras“远离燃料，远离烟火”.Theycatchthefeaturesof“fuel”and“flame”butfailtomakerelationshipbetweenthemand“takeaway”.ThesamesourceobjectsimpresstherespondentswiththeconnectionbetweenEnglishandChinesewhichweakenthesubjects’controlofbehavior.Likewise,takingtheproverb“Tellthetruth,shamethedevil”asanexample,whoseoriginalmeaningistruthbeatsanythingbad(真理使邪恶蒙羞).Thetranslatedversiongivenbysomerespondentsconcentrateeitheronthe“truth”orthe“devil”andignoretheinfluenceof“shame”whichcarriesthemetaphoricalmeaningas“事实胜于雄辩”or“不做亏心事,不怕鬼叫门”.Theseversionswithhighfrequencymagnifypositionof“truth”or“devil”.Inthesentencemetaphor“Thechildhoodshowstheman,asmorningshowstheday”whichmeansanadult’sbehaviordependonhischildhoodtoagreatextent(三岁看到老).Asmentioned,sentencemetaphorisrelativelythemostcompleteoneofthefivetypeswhichhelpsthereadersunderstandmetaphorfromvariousperspectives.Manyrespondentsunderstandandtranslatetheproverbas“一天之计在于晨，一年之计在于春”whichindicatesthattheirfocusliesonthelatterpartsimilartoChinesesourceobjectswhilethemetaphoricalexpressioninthefirsthalfhasbeentransformedintoanotherparaphraseofthelatterhalf.ThistypeofcompromisedexpressioniscausedbythesameobjectsinthesourcedomainandtheircorrespondingChineseproverb.5.4SuggestionsforEnglishLearnersBasedontheanalysisabove,itcanbeindicatedthatparallelstructureshelpstounderstandthemetaphoricalmeaninginEnglishproverbsbyplacingthekeypartsinthecorrespondingpositions.AccordingtothedeepinfluencesofmothertonguebasisinsyntaxandculturetogetherwiththefeaturesofEnglishproverbs,thefollowingsuggestionsareproposedforEnglishlearnerstounderstandmetaphoricalproverbsinparallelstructures.5.4.1DeeperExplorationofEtymologySinceallnewwords’meaningaregiveninthisquestionnairetesting,therearesomerespondentspresentthewrongmeaningoftheproverb,evenignoretheword’sdefinitionfortheconvenienceofprovidingtherighttranslatedversiontheythink.Inmodernforeignlanguageteaching,mostopinionsareheldthatthetranslationofanyliteraryformshouldputmuchstressonthevocabularytohelpunderstanding.Thereisnodoubtthatvocabularyisanimportantpartfromanyperspective,however,itdoesnothelpmuchifthefocusonvocabularyjuststandfromtheteethoutwardsnotthedeeper-levelexploration.Inthiscase,etymologyprovidesawaytohelpunderstandingfromboththeword’sexactmeaningandtheoriginandbackgroundoftheword.42 DiscussionAnyword’sformationattachestosomeculturalelementswhichhelpsthereadersunderstandthewholemeaninginacertainmetaphoricalcontextbyknowingaboutasingleword.Wordisthesmallestunitofacontext,eachofwhichplaystheirownroleinorderwithanindependentsysteminside.Anyword’sformationhasexperiencedalongprocessduringwhichsomefigurativeelementshavebeenaddedup.Astheconceptualmetaphortheorybecomesmoreandmorematureandcompleted,researchersandscholarshavesuccessfullymadethemappinghappenfromthesourcedomainhiddenintheexplicitconcepttothetargetdomainbehindtheimpliedmeaning.Ifaconceptisgiventoametaphoricalmeaning,agoodwaytounderstanditcanbetograsptheword’s“environmentforgrowth”forthereasonthatthesourcedomainofaconceptisthebasisofthetargetdomain.Aslongasthereadersarefamiliarwiththefeaturesoftheobjectinthesourcedomain,itiseasierforthemtounderstandthesefeaturestakeneffectonthemetaphoricalobjectinthetargetdomainsoastograspthemetaphoricalmeaning.5.4.2BroaderCulturalContextLanguageisthemostintuitiveexpressionofitsownculture.Anyformoflanguageeitherspokenorwrittencanberegardedasacarrierwithmoreorlessculturaldecoration.Abroaderculturalcontextisaskedornotonlythenativelanguagebutalsothetargetone,whichmeansaslongaspeopleknowwellbothoftheculturalbackgroundtheycanmakethetransformationmoresmoothlyandauthenticbetweenthetwolanguages.Particularly,asonestandardoftheresearchresultsbeingnativeculturalconnectionshowthatmorethanhalfofbothGradeOneandGradeThreeprefertoconsulttheirownculturalknowledgebasis.ProverbsineitherEnglishorChinesearefullofmetaphoricalexpressionsrelatedtocertainculturalbackground.WhiletranslatingthemetaphorinEnglishproverbs,mostChineserespondentschoosetoborrowthefixedproverbsorexpressionsinChineseaccordingtothesimilarfeaturesoftheEnglishoneandviceversainmostcases.Itisanunconsciousbehaviortoturntotheculturalsystemofmothertonguethoughscientificallyspeaking,itisnotadvisedtoresorttonativelanguageblindly,whichleadstothecompromisedexpressionseasily.However,theinveteracyandsubconsciousnessarethedistinctivefeaturesofculturalconnectionwithmothertongue,itisnearlyimpossibletoavoidtheinfluencewhichnativeculturebrings.Chinahassuchaprofoundanddiversifiedculturethattheproverbsasrepresentativesamplesarefeaturedwithvividnessandconcisenesswiththeaidofmetaphoricalexpressions.Someculturalelementsaresharedamongdifferentcountriesaccordingtowhichpeoplecanmakerelationsbetweenthemandhelpunderstanding,whileothersarenotincommonusefeaturedwithdistinctivelynationalculturalbackground.Asaresult,ifametaphoricalproverbwouldbetotallyunderstood,oneoftheessentialconditionsistotrytoknowverywellabouttheculturalbackgroundofbothsourcelanguageandtargetlanguage.5.4.3GreaterAttentiontotheChineseSyntacticStructuralBasisTakingthesyntacticcomparisonbetweenEnglishandChineseintoconsideration,Chinahasa43 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文longhistoryofstructuralchanges,whichmakesChinesesyntaxpursuittheimplicitstructuremorewhileEnglishischaracterizedwithdominantstructure.Chinesesyntaxiscarriedinpeople’smindstronglyascomplicatedstructureandimplicitexpressionwhichfocusesonparataxiswhileEnglishleavesanimpressionashypotaxiswhichmeanssimplestructureandconciseexpression.Chinesesentencestructureincludesawiderangeoftypeswithmoreaspectsworthdiscussing.That’swhytheauthorchoosestoexplorethecorrelationbetweenthemetaphorunderstandinginEnglishproverbsandthesyntacticcomparisonbetweenChineseandEnglishforthefirsttime.AlthoughtheresearchresultsshowthatitdoesnotworkifallkindsofChinesesentencestructuresareprovidedasresearchobjectsforthereasonthatparallelismcanreflectmoreproblemsinmetaphorunderstanding.However,itdoesnotmeantheimportanceofChinesesentencestructurecanbeignored,itdoesprovideanuniqueperspectivetoanalyzetherelationamongdifferentcomponents.Inthisresearch,facingtheparallelproverbswithdifferenttypesofmetaphor,therespondentsshowtheirdifferentunderstandingofmetaphoricalmeaningwithdifferentsentencestructures,mostofwhichkeepaccordancewiththeparallelstructure,whiletherearealsoanumberofonesthatdonotpursuittheparallelismbutmakesenseandevenbetterthanfollowtheoriginalsentencestructure.Relativelyspeaking,ChinesereadershavemoresolidfoundationinChinesesyntacticstructureandgainmoreproficiencyinuse.Theyaregoodatexpressingmetaphoricalmeaningindifferentsentencestructurestowardsoneproverbinparallelism.Thebettermodificationtothesentencestructure,themorenativeandcorrectthemetaphoricalproverbsbecome.Meaningisthesoulofstructure,whilestructureisthebodyofmeaning.Syntacticstructureisthemostintuitivefeatureofasentence,throughwhichanyimpliedmeaningcanbeexpressed.ToknowabouttheflexibletransformationofChinesesyntacticstructureisthepreconditiontoknowaboutthemeaning.TofocusonChinesesyntacticstructuredoeshelpcontentunderstandingalot.5.4.4MoreFlexibleTransformationBetweenChineseandEnglishParallelismParallelismfeaturedasneatnessandbalancedformmakesitnotonlyservetheproverbsbutalsootherstylessuchasidioms,sayingsandpoems,etc,whichneedsmoreattentiontotheparallelstructureitself.Asmentionedabove,hypotaxisisadistinctivefeatureofEnglishsoastotheparallelisminEnglishismoreclearandintuitivethanChineseparallelismasalanguageofparataxis.Besides,fromtheperspectiveofsyntacticconstruction,therearemanydifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglish,whichleadstonon-correspondingbetweentwolanguagestowardsoneparallel-formsentence.That’swhyweneedtostartthistopicwithparallelisminbothChineseandEnglishbesidesmetaphorandproverbs.Parallelismhasbeenhotformanycenturiesforbeingasthepopularcarrierofmanystylesmorecharacterizedwithvividnessandrhythmicbeautyinwhichfiguresofspeechareactivelyused.Thewayofrhetoricalexpressioncannotdependonform44 Discussiononlythough,parallelstructureexercisesagreatinfluenceonrhetoricalmeaningoutput.Takethisresearchasexample,somerespondentsreachacompromiseonpreferringkeepingaccordancewithparallelformtoidentifyingtheaccuratemeaning.Thentherealizationofwin-wincanbeexploredfromtheviewofcomparisonofparallelismbetweenChineseandEnglish.Inthisresearch,translationofmetaphoricalproverbsinparallelstructurefromEnglishtoChineseisrequired,andtheresearchresultsdoshowsomeproblemstoreflecttherelationbetweenmeaningandform.Meanwhile,someothersparkshittheauthor’smind,itisafeasibleproposaltodothetranslationintheoppositedirection.Inthisway,moreandmoreexamplesshowthedifferenteffectsthroughtranslatingfromEnglishtoChineseandalsofromtheotherdirection.Moreflexibletransformationbetweentwolanguagescouldbringsomedifferentunderstandingofonesentence.Anditcanbepracticaltogainsomehelpfulmethodstodealwiththerelationbetweenformandmeaning.5.5SummaryTosumup,amongthefivetypesofmetaphor,wecanobtainalistofmetaphorunderstandingdegreesfromtoptobottominparallel-formproverbswhicharenounmetaphor,verbmetaphor,prepositionalmetaphortogetherwithsentencemetaphorandadjectivemetaphor.Besides,theparallelismplaysanimportantroleinthisprocessofmetaphorunderstandinginEnglishproverbs,whichisreflectedintheproverbstranslations.Tobemorespecific,proverbseitherinEnglishorChinesearecharacterizedasvividnessandneatness,inwhichparallelismisoftenreferredtoasthiskindofformcanstrengthentheexpressiveeffects.Asaresult,mostrespondentsunderstandmetaphoricalmeaninginEnglishproverbsonthebasisofstickingtotheparallelstructure.However,parallelismcanaffectmetaphorunderstandingpositivelyornegatively.Andinmostcases,parallelstructureprovidesabettercarrierfortherespondentstounderstandmetaphorthoughithasdifferentinfluenceindifferenttypesofmetaphor.Neithercontentorformcansurvivewithouteachother.Itcannotbeeasilysaidtheformhaspositiveornegativeeffectonthecontent.Theyaffecteachotherinsemanticinteraction.However,howcanthiskindofinteractiverelationshipcometrue?TogetthegeneralruleofinteractioncanhelptounderstandmetaphorinEnglishproverbsofparallelstructure.Aninterestingphenomenonissummarizednamedascompromisedexpressioninthisthesis.Itiscausedbythestrongdependenceonthemothertongue.Solidknowledgefoundationofnativelanguagemakestherespondentsturntotheirmothertongueunconsciously.ThecompromisedexpressionshappenwhenaparallelEnglishproverbhassimilarpartswithacorrespondingChineseone.Inthiscase,somerespondentsmay“borrow”theexitingChineseproverbsasthecorrecttranslationoftheEnglishoneregardlessofreconsideringthedifferentpartsbetweenthem.CompromisedexpressionsreflectmainlyinthefollowingthreeconditionswhichareChinesefour-characteridioms,ChineseproverbsandsimilarsourceobjectsinChinese.Amongthem,Chinesefour-characteridiomisthemostactivemanifestation.Chineseexpressessomemeaningin45 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文aconciseandneatway,conveyingabundantinformationjustwithfourcharacterssometimes.SomerespondentstendtochoosethisformtofollowtheChineseexpressivecustomsontheriskofpresentingthewrongmetaphoricalmeaning.AndastheresearchobjectsofthisthesisareEnglishproverbs,sotheChineseproverbsappearintherespondents’answerswithhighfrequency.NotalltheChineseproverbsareformedinaneatandparallelway,leavinglargerspacefortherespondentstomakeconnectionsbetweenChineseandEnglishproverbs.Besides,thesimilarsourceobjectssharedbyChineseandEnglishproverbspresentmoreintuitivelytoprovidetherespondentsseveralcluestobelieveanEnglishproverbequalstotheoneinChinese.Forthethreeconditionsofcompromisedexpressions,themostimportantprincipleistopayattentiontonotonlythesimilarpartssharedbybothlanguagesbutalsotheirrelevantandtinydifferences.StrongdependenceonmothertonguedoeshelpEnglishunderstanding,whileitalsoaffectstheprocessnegatively.Basedonallthediscussionsabove,thispartgivestherelevantsuggestionsforEnglishlearnerstohaveabetterunderstandingofmetaphorandparallelisminEnglishproverbs.Englishlearnerscantakepainstakingeffortsinthefollowingaspectssuchasdeeperexplorationofetymology,broaderculturalcontext,greaterattentiontotheChinesesyntacticstructuralbasisandmoreflexibletransformationbetweenChineseandEnglishparallelism.46 Conclusion6ConclusionInthischapter,theresearchresults,thesolutiontotheproblemsbasedontheanalysisofthedataandthesuggestionswillbediscussed.Alsothelimitationsofthestudycanbereflectedintheresearchresultswhichlaythefoundationforfurtherstudyinthisfield.Thefollowingpartsaresummariesoftheprocessandresultsofthestudytogetherwiththelimitationsandfurtherdirections.6.1MajorFindingsoftheStudyThethesisaimsatfindingouttherelationsbetweenmetaphorunderstandingandparallelisminEnglishproverbs.Toachievethisgoal,thequestionnairetestinghasbeenorganizedfortwotimeswithdifferentemphasis.Forthefirsttime,thefocusofthestudyisontherelationshipbetweenmetaphoricalmeaninginproverbsandthecomparisonbetweenChineseandEnglishsyntacticstructures.Theresearchresultsdon’tshowthemainlineveryclearly,however,theybringaboutsomeotherproblemsbeyondthetopic.TheimportanceofthefirstresearchliesinrecognizingtheirrationalityofthekeywordssettingsuchasthecomparisonbetweenEnglishandChinesesyntacticstructureswhichistoobroadtostartwithandmakingwayforthesecondresearchwiththekeywordsnarrowedasparallelstructuralmetaphorunderstandinginEnglishproverbs.Astheresultsshow,GradeThreewithhigherproficiencydobetterinmetaphorunderstandinginEnglishproverbsthanGradeOnewithrelativelyweakknowledgebasis.Alltherespondentstendtokeepaccordancewiththeparallelstructuretofollowthefeaturesofproverbs.ThemetaphorunderstandingofEnglishproverbsinparallelstructurefromthetoptobottominorderarenounmetaphor,verbalmetaphor,prepositionmetaphorandsentencemetaphor,adjectivemetaphorrespectively.Mostrespondentsshowtheirstrongrelianceontheirmothertonguecultureandthecompromisedexpressionspresentthedeepresearchvalueinthefalsepart.Aftertheresultsdiscussion,thehypothesisassumedatthebeginningispartlyrightontheimportanceofnativelanguagecultureandthefacilitationofparallelismformetaphorunderstandinginEnglishproverbs.Besides,theresultsalsoshowsomeotherproblemsinthecomprehensionprocess.Thispapertriestomakeinnovationsandbreakthroughinthefollowingseveralaspects:firstly,thisstudywouldfindouttherelationshipbetweentheparallel-formandmetaphorunderstandinginproverbs,whichcanshednewlightonmetaphorlearningtoseekoutanewstartpointandproposeanewmethodtodevelopingmetaphorunderstanding.Itmaybreakthelimitsofthepointcutsoftraditionalstudies.Secondly,thethesisproposesanewconceptas“compromisedexpression”whichrevealssomepotentialsolutionstounderstandingandtranslatingmoreappropriatelyandcorrectlyonsomelevel.Thirdly,thethesismakesadetailedcomparisonamongfivetypesofmetaphorinEnglishproverbsformedinparallelstructure.Finally,thisstudymayraiseEnglishlearners’interestsoflearningproverbsandknowingmoreabouttheircultural47 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文background.6.2LimitationsoftheStudyNothingisperfectintheworld.Tomakethethesismorereasonableineachaspect,thequestionnairetestinghasbeenheldfortwotimes.Still,therearemanydeficienciesoftheresearchaccordingtotheresults.Thelimitsofthestudymainlyshowinthefollowingaspects.Firstly,astheinevitabletimeandgeographicalrestrictions,theresearchisorganizedintheNortheastAgriculturalUniversityandselectsthestudentsoftwogradesmajoringinEnglish,whichdecidestheunavoidablelimitationsonresearchobjectsandtheuniversalityoftheresearch.Secondly,thequestionnairetestinghasthedeficiencyofoneness,withoutprovidingadeepdiveintothetopicasaresearchtool.Thefollow-upbasedonthequestionnairetestingshouldbeaddeduptomakethetestingmethodsmorecomplete.Thirdly,thequantityoftheproverbsinthequestionnaireshouldbeaddedforthereasonthattheuniversalitycanbedrawnfromenoughindividualcases.Inthisresearch,40proverbsareselectedasquestionnairesforthetwotestingsarenotenoughtoshowtheuniversality.Besides,thetypesofmetaphorinEnglishproverbscanbeaddeduptogetamorecomprehensiveviewofmetaphorunderstandinginproverbsaffectedbyparallelstructures.Tosumup,inordertomaketheresearchresultsasreliableaspossible,moreworkisneededinthisareaanditcallsformoremassiveresearchesandmoreextensiveinvestigationsfromdifferentwaysforitplaysanimportantroleinthestudyofmetaphorunderstandinginproverbs.6.3SuggestionsforFurtherStudyThisthesiscanbeusedasareferenceinthestudiesonmetaphorunderstandinginEnglishparallel-formproverbs.Althoughithasmanydeficiencies,itdoesreflectsomeproblemsthatmeritattention.Basedontheresearchresultsinthisthesis,inthefuturestudiesonthisfield,somesuggestionsshouldbetakenintoconsideration.Firstly,thetestingsystemshouldbeperfectedbyaddingupvariousmethodssuchastracksofindividualcase,cognitivestyleassessment,nativelanguagetestingandsoon.Theresearchresultswillbemorecomprehensiveandcompletebytakingmultipleprongedapproaches.Secondly,theemphasishasbeenputonthedifferenttypesofmetaphorinthisresearchtocheckouttherelationsbetweenmetaphorunderstandingandparallelism,whichcanbemodifiedthatthefocusistransformedtothedifferenttypesofparallelstructures.Inthisway,thecomparisoncanbemadenotonlybetweenthedifferentmetaphorandparallel-form,butalsothehowdifferentparallelstructuresaffectmetaphorunderstandinginEnglishproverbs.Thirdly,thefuturestudiesshouldextendcoverageoftheresearchobjects,fromthestudentsinuniversitytoEnglishlearnersinotherfields,fromtherespondentsofEnglishmajortothepeopleofotherspecializedskills,etc.Inaddition,Englishproverbsinparallelismwithmetaphorincanbealsousedasapointcut,othermetaphoricalwritingstyleshouldbeturnedtoasanothertestingmethod.Inotherwords,metaphorunderstandinginEnglishparallel-formproverbsmaybedifferentfromtheoneinotherwritingstyles,fromwhichitcanbegraspedandpresentthe48 ConclusionspecificityofmetaphorinEnglishparallel-formproverbsbetter.Allinall,plentyofmeasuresfromdifferentperspectivesshouldbetakentoperfectthefuturestudiestocontributetoreflecttherelationsbetweenmetaphorunderstandingandEnglishproverbsinparallelism.49 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文AcknowledgementsWithoutthepeoplewhohelpedmetocompletethethesis,Icannotachievemygoalinthisresearchsuccessfullyandsmoothly.I’dliketoexpressmysincereappreciationtotheirkindnessandguidance.Firstandforemost,I’dthankmysupervisorProfessorWangXiaoweiwhogavemeincrediblehelpandcare.Sheenlightenedmewithherprofoundknowledgeandguidanceforselectingtheresearchtopic.Sheencouragedmetoexploremyfavoritefieldandofferedthenecessaryhelptomeintime.Duringthethesisproposal,ProfessorWangwassufferingfromspondylodyniaandaskedforleavetorecuperateathome.Despiteallthis,sheneverforgotmypresentationandofferedmeinsightfulinstructionsandgenerousencouragementconstantly.Withouthercarefulcorrectionandguidance,itisimpossibletocompletemythesis.Itishersupportthatencouragedmetoperfectthethesisbetterandbetter.Besidesmysupervisor,IalsowanttoextendmyheartfeltthanktoProfessorLiLi,ProfessorLiTianpu,ProfessorHeDajunandsoon.Theyofferedmetheresearchrespondentsandclassroomformytworesearches.TheysacrificedtheirowntimetohelpmeholdthequestionnairetestingandgivesmescrupulousinstructionwhenIturnedtothem.Withouttheirkindness,myresearchcannotbeorganizedsmoothly.Meanwhile,I’malsogratefultomyfriendsandclassmates.Theyhelpedmehandoutthequestionnairesandgavemeadviceunselfishlyintheprocedures.Theircooperationandparticipationgavemelotsofcourage.Theirideasonmythesisinspiredmetoaddupmorecreativesparks.Lastbutnotleast,Iwouldthankmyfamilyforgivingmesupporteitherinemotionormaterial.Theyaremymotivationstocompletethisthesis.50 ReferencesReferences[1]RandomHouseWebster’sCollegeDictionaryofEnglishLanguage[M].NewYork:CrownPublisher,Inc.,1975:1456.[2]WatsonOwen.LongmanModernEnglishDictionary[M].LongmanGroupLtd.,1976:899.[3]MiederW.ProverbsareNeveroutofSeason[M].NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1993:24.[4]HoneckRP.AProverbinMind:TheCognitiveScienceofProverbialWitandWisdom[M].London:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates,1997.[5]金路.中国俗语[M].上海:东方出版社,1996:1-4.[6]曾自立.英语谚语概说[M].北京:商务印书馆,1983:7.[7]FrancisBacon.NovumOrganum[M].London:ForgottenBooks,1597:67.[8]FLLucus.TheArtofProverbs[M].CitedfromPopularDewoftheProverbbyMieder.DeProverbio-Issue9&10.Amonzon.com.1999:10-11.[9]ReynoldsS,ValentineD.GuidetoCross-CultureCommunication[M].NewJersey:PatienceHall,2004:74.[10]GibbsRW,ColstonHL&JohnsonMD.ProverbsandtheMetaphoricalMind[J].MetaphorandSymbolicActivity.1996(11):207-216.[11]李永芳.英语谚语辞典[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,2009.[12]倪景亚.英语谚语的句式结构和修辞特点[J].韶关学院学报,2003(5):59-61.[13]黄玉梅.OntheUnderstandingandTranslationofEnglishandChineseProverbs[J].海外英语,2010:179-181.[14]蔡丽萍.从英汉谚语的比较看中英文化差异[J].天津外国语学院学报,2000(3):40-46.[15]谢友福.从不同文化看英语谚语的差异[J].襄樊学院学报,2005(3):54-58.[16]SummerD.LongmanDictionaryofEnglishLanguage&Culture[M].北京:商务印书馆,2004.[17]张静.英语谚语句法结构的象似性研究[D].海南:海南大学外语学院，2011:14.[18]Aristotle.Poetics[M].California:OrangeStreetPress,1998:38.[19]LakoffG,JohnsonM.Metaphorweliveby[M].Chicago,London:UniversityofChicagoPress,1980.[20]梁改萍.论隐喻在英语经济类报刊文章中的应用[J].广东外语外贸大学学报,2007,18(4):53.[21]顾曰国.西方古典修辞学和西方新修辞学[J].北京外国语学院外语教学与研究,1990(2):13-16.[22]王斌.隐喻系统的整合翻译[J].上海理工大学外国语学院学报,2002,23(2):24-27.[23]Cameron,Low.ResearchingandApplyingMetaphor[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,2001:51 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文68-112.[24]刘宁生.我们依存的隐喻[J].修辞学习,1992(6):7-9.[25]束定芳.隐喻学研究[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,2000.[26]束定芳.论隐喻的理解过程及其特点[J].外语教学与研究,2000(4):253-257.[27]束定芳.论隐喻的运作机制[J].外语教学与研究,2002(2).[28]林书武.隐喻研究的基本现状、焦点及趋势[J].外国语,2002(1):38.[29]胡壮麟.认知隐喻学[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2004.[30]斯波伯,威尔逊.隐喻的语用解读[J].外语学刊,2008(2):76-80.[31]龚玉苗.培养隐喻意识与扩展英语词汇的关系研究[D].甘肃:西北师范大学,2005:36-44.[32]FrancisBacon.TheEssays[M].London:PenguinBooksLtd,1985.[33]WalesK.ADictionaryofStylistics[M].LondonandNewYork:LongmanGroupLtd.,1989:335.[34]OxfordAdvancedLearner’sEnglish-ChineseDictionary[M].London:OxfordUniversityPress,2009:1444.[35]钱瑗.实用英语文体学(上)[M].北京:北京师范大学出版社,1991:95.[36]冯翠华.英语修辞大全[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社,1995:33-34.[37]AMTibbetts,Charlene.StrategiesofRhetoric[M].ScottForemanandCompany,1979:170.[38]雷应传.语言形式与认知:英语平行结构风格性的关联阐释[D].福建:福建师范大学,2004:17.[39]SaeedJL.Semantics[M].Beijing:ForeignLanguageTeachingandResearchPress,2000:304.[40]LakoffG,JohnsonM.PhilosophyintheFlesh---theEmbodiedMindanditsChallengetoWesternThought[M].Chicago:TheUniversityofChicagoPress,2003:56.[41]Nation.Teachingandlearningvocabulary[M].NewYork:NewburyHouse,1990:86-102.[42]LakoffG.Women,FireandDangerousThings:WhatRevealabouttheMind[M].Chicago:TheUniversityofChicagoPress,1987.[43]王寅.认知语言学探索[M].重庆:重庆出版社,2006:46-146,223-245.[44]George,LakoffG.“TheContemporaryTheoryofMetaphor”inMetaphorandThought[M].Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1993:203.[45]LakoffG,MTurner.MoreThanCoolReason:AFieldGuidetoPoeticMetaphor[M].ChicagoandLondon:UniversityofChicagoPress,1989:63.[46]袁凤识,许保芳,王立非.中美大学生隐喻理解能力比较研究[J].外语界,2012(1):73-81.[47]KatzANetal.Questionnairesfor204literaryand260nonliterarymetaphorson10psychologicaldimensions[J].MetaphorandSymbolicActivity,1988,3(4):191－214．[48]AndrewGoatly.TheLanguageofMetaphors[M].LondonandNewYork:RoutledgePlaceofPublication.1997:87.52 AppendixAppendixAppendixI学生姓名：QuestionnaireA1Bloodwilltell.2Anemptysackcannotstandupright.3Muck(垃圾)andmoneygotogether.4Charity(慈善)beginsathome.5Manyhandsmakelightwork.6Justicehaslongarms.7Practicemakesperfect.8Yearsbringwisdom.9Painpastispleasure.10Waristhesportofkings.11Beautyisbutablossom(开花).12Loveisblind.13Customsmakeallthingseasy.14Illnewsfliesapace.15Thepot(壶)callsthekettle(水锅)black.16Thelastdropmakesthecuprunover.17Gracewilllast,beautywillblast(爆炸,一阵).18Seenoevil,hearnoevil,speaknoevil.19Whatthekingwills,thatthelawwills.20Nocross,nocrown(王冠).问卷发放日期:____年__月__日调查对象年级:____高考成绩：53 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文AppendixII学生姓名：QuestionnaireB1Cheatsneverprosper(繁荣).2Deathdefies(藐视)thedoctor.3Goodandquicklyseldommeet.4Forcedlovedoesn’tlast.5Courtesy(礼貌)costsnothing.6Amousemayhelpalion.7Loveruleshiskingdomwithoutasword(剑).8Loveshortensdistance.9Acontented(满足的)mindisaperpetualfeast.10Unionisstrength.11Thetailiswagging(摇摆)thedog.12Bedisamedicine.13Sorrowmakesuswise.14Eachbirdlovestohearhimselfsing.15Lovemakesallhardheartsgentle(温和的).16Ahedge(障碍)betweenkeepsfriendgreen.17Greatboast(吹牛),smallroast(烘烤).18Merry(愉快的)meet,merrypart.19Outofsight,outofmind.20Anilllife,anillend.问卷发放日期:____年__月__日调查对象年级:____高考成绩：54 AppendixAppendixIII学生姓名：QuestionnaireC1Intheend,thingswillmend.2Birdsintheirlittlenestsagree.3Envyneverdies.4Astheoldcockcrows,theyoungonelearns.5Curiositykilledthecat.6Adoghashisday.7Therotten(腐烂的)appleinjuresitscompanion.8Loveseesnofaults.9Moneyistherootofallevil.10Acockiscrouse(大胆的)onhisain(自己的)midden(粪堆).11Beautyandfolly(愚蠢)areoftencompanions.12Thepenisthetongueofthemind.13Abosom(知心的)friendafarbringsadistantnear.14Letnotyourtonguecutyourthroat.15Letthedeadburythedead.16Absencemakestheheartgrowfonder(多情的).17Harmset,harmget.18Jackofalltrades,masterofnone.19Fullofcourtesy(礼貌),fullofcraft(诡计).20Anidle(无所事事的)youth,aneedy(贫困的)age.问卷发放日期:____年__月__日调查对象年级:____专四成绩:____55 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文AppendixIV学生姓名：QuestionnaireD1Ahousedividedagainstitselfcannotstand.2Afterastormcomesacalm.3Awormmayturn.4Amerryheartgoesalltheway.5Aclosedmouthcatchesnoflies.6Acleanconsciencelaughsatfalseaccusations(控告).7Thescalded(烫伤的)catfearscoldwater.8Theleopard(豹)cannotchangehisspots.9Hungeristhebestsauce(调味汁).10Hellispaved(铺就)withgoodintentions.11Lifeisn’tabedofroses.12Povertyisastrangertoindustry.13Ale(麦芽酒)willmakeacatspeak.14AllworkandnoplaymakeJackadullboy.15Letpatiencegrowinyourgardenalways.16Theowl(猫头鹰)thinksherownyoungfairest.17Greatpromisesandsmallperformances.18Loseinhake(鳕鱼),gaininherring(青鱼).19Goodhand,goodhire.20Outofdebt,outofdanger.问卷发放日期:____年__月__日调查对象年级:____专四成绩:____56 AppendixAppendixV学生姓名：QuestionnaireE1.Greatboast,smallroast.2.Merrymeet,merrypart.3.Anilllife,anillend.4.Jackofalltrades,masterofnothing.5.Fromhearingcomeswisdom;fromspeakingcomesrepentance(后悔).6.Outofsight,outofmind.7.Ale(麦芽酒)in,truthout.8.Inforapenny,inforapound.9.Takeawayfuel,takeawayflame.10.Takeawaymygoodnameandtakeawaymylife.11.Tellthetruth,shamethedevil.12.Seenoevil,hearnoevil,speaknoevil.13.Soundinbody,soundinmind.14.Luckyinlife,unluckyinlove.15.Sweetintheontaking,butsourintheoffputting.16.Thehigherthemonkeyclimbs,themoreheshowsinhistail.17.Absencesharpenslove,presencestrengthensit.18.Gracewilllast,beautywillblast.19.Pridegoesbefore,andshamefollowsafter.20.Thechildhoodshowstheman,asmorningshowstheday.问卷发放日期:____年__月__日调查对象年级:____57 东北农业大学文学硕士学位论文PapersPublishedinthePeriodofthePh.M.education[1]张宇.解析张爱玲作品的独特语言魅力[J].短篇小说(原创版),2014(30):5-6.[2]王晓为,张宇.从汉语句法结构角度分析母语迁移现象对外语学习的影响[J].天津中德职业技术学院学报，2015(01):103-104.58