歇后语的隐喻认知理据与翻译 79页

学校代号10530学号201005010976分类号H059密级硕士学位论文歇后语的隐喻认知理据与翻译学位申请人谢娟指导教师舒奇志（教授）学院名称外国语学院学科专业英语语言文学研究方向文化研究与翻译二零一三年六月三日 TheMetaphoricalCognitiveMotivationandTranslationofXiehouyuCandidateXieJuanSupervisorPro.ShuQizhiCollegeCollegeofForeignLanguagesProgramEnglishLanguageandLiteratureSpecializationCulturalStudiesandTranslationDegreeMasterofArtsUniversityXiangtanUniversityDateJune3,2013 湘潭大学学位论文原创性声明本人郑重声明：所呈交的论文是本人在导师的指导下独立进行研究所取得的研究成果。除了文中特别加以标注引用的内容外，本论文不包含任何其他个人或集体已经发表或撰写的成果作品。对本文的研究做出重要贡献的个人和集体，均已在文中以明确方式标明。本人完全意识到本声明的法律后果由本人承担。作者签名：日期：年月日学位论文版权使用授权书本学位论文作者完全了解学校有关保留、使用学位论文的规定，同意学校保留并向国家有关部门或机构送交论文的复印件和电子版，允许论文被查阅和借阅。本人授权湘潭大学可以将本学位论文的全部或部分内容编入有关数据库进行检索，可以采用影印、缩印或扫描等复制手段保存和汇编本学位论文。涉密论文按学校规定处理。作者签名：日期：年月日导师签名：日期：年月日 ChineseDescriptiveAbstract摘要歇后语是中华民族特有的一种语言形式，是汉语习语的一个重要部分，是人们在平时的生活实践经验中创造出来的。歇后语的真实意义经常是隐含的，具有隐喻性本质。所以歇后语的翻译一直是个难题。纵观歇后语的研究历程，大部分的国内外学者都倾向于研究歇后语的由来、命名、归类、结构、修辞特征和在日常生活中及文学作品的应用等等。随着二十世纪末认知语言学在国内外的兴起，部分研究人员开始运用概念隐喻理论、概念整合理论以及认知语法等来自认知语言学领域的理论对歇后语的构建机制和歇后语的翻译进行了探讨。但是认知语言学领域相对比较成熟的概念合成理论指导歇后语研究和翻译仍有其局限性，因为它忽略了认知过程中不同认知主体不同的的隐喻认知机制和不同文化模式等因素的影响。因此本文尝试从认知语言学隐喻的同质性和异质性的角度对歇后语的认知和翻译展开研究。隐喻的同质性和异质性是基于不同认知主体对同一认知对象的相同或者相异的认知活动的结果。不同认知主体对同一个隐喻概念理解的同一性即隐喻的同质性；不同的认知主体对同一个隐喻概念理解或同一认知主体在不同阶段对同一隐喻概念理解的差异性即隐喻的异质性。本文以隐喻的同质性和异质性为理论基础，以歇后语为研究对象，对歇后语进行新的分类和认知性研究。根据不同的类别，文章提出了六种不同的翻译方法。基于歇后语本质上是隐喻性的语言，对歇后语进行同质性和异质性的划分更加有利于源语读者,译者和译入语文化受众者根据不同不同类型的歇后语理解其言外之意，进一步为译者更好传达歇后语的隐喻意义奠定基础。本文的主体部分为四个章节。第一章对歇后语进行了新的界定，并对歇后语的本质特征和认知机制作了详细的说明。第二章分析了歇后语的认知理据，隐喻的同质性和异质性，并根据认知理据将歇后语划分为同质性歇后语和异质性歇后语。同质性歇后语是不同认知主体对歇后语隐喻概念理解的同一性，异质性歇后语体现在不同认知主体或同一认知主体在不同阶段对歇后语概念理解的差异性。第三章分别论述了同质性歇后语和异质性歇后语翻译的认知过程，以及两种不同的认知过程相互之间的关系。同质性歇后语的翻译认知过程即对源语文化中的隐喻概念和目的语文化的隐喻概念进行静态匹配的过程，使用目的语文化中的隐喻概念直接替代源语文化中隐喻概念的过程；异质性歇后语的翻译过程即通过对源语文化中隐喻概念的主体性的确认，然后将其转化为不同认I ChineseDescriptiveAbstract知主体间的主体间性和隐喻间性的过程。第四章针对同质性歇后语和异质性歇后语的不同特点提出了相应的翻译方法。对于同质性歇后语主要采取保留隐喻概念的映射法；对于异质性歇后语语主要采取转换隐喻概念，舍弃隐喻概念，转移隐喻概念或者保留隐喻概念加注映射法。歇后语的新分类主要是以目的语文化中隐喻受众者对源语歇后语中的隐喻概念理解为基础，因此基于这种分类而提出来的翻译方法使目的语文化中受众者能够更加容易理解歇后语的隐喻意义，这为歇后语的认知和研究开辟了一个独特的视角，对于今后对歇后语的研究具有一定的借鉴意义。同时也有一些不足之处，例如例证不够全面，论文中对双关歇后语的研究比较少，以后的研究者可以运用隐喻同质性异质性方面的理论着重深入研究双关歇后语。关键词：歇后语;隐喻;认知;同质性;异质性II EnglishAbstractAbstractXiehouyu(hereinafterXHY)isauniquelanguageformwithcharacteristicsofChinesenationandanimportantpartofChineseidioms.ItiscreatedbyChinesepeopleintheirdailylifepractice.TheintendedmeaningofXHYisalwaysimplicitandit,initsnature,isametaphoricallanguage.Therefore,XHYtranslationhasalwaysbeenregardedasadifficulttask.ThepreviousstudiesofXHYindicatesthatthemostmajorityofscholarsathomeandabroadprimarilyattachemphasisonsuchtopicsasorigin,denomination,division,composition,rhetoricalfeaturesanditsapplicationindailylifeaswellasinliteraryworks.Attheendoftwentiethcentury,withtheriseofcognitivelinguisticsathomeandabroad,cognitivelinguistictheoriessuchasConceptualMetaphorTheory,ConceptualBlendingTheoryandCognitiveGrammarareadoptedbysomeresearcherstostudyconstructivemechanismsandtranslationofXHY.However,ConceptualBlendingTheory,asamatureandauthoritativetheoryincognitivelinguistics,stillhasitslimitations,asitignoresdifferentmetaphorcognitivemechanismsandculturalmodelsofcross-culturecognitivesubjects.Forthisreason,thisthesistriestoconductastudyonXHYcognitionandtranslationfromtheperspectiveofmetaphoricalhomogeneityandmetaphoricalheterogeneityincognitivelinguistics.Metaphoricalhomogeneityandmetaphoricalheterogeneityareidenticalanddifferentcognitiveresultsofdifferentcognitivesubjectsintermsofthesamecognitiveobject.Theuniformityachievedbydifferentcognitivesubjectsinunderstandingacertainmetaphoricalconceptismetaphoricalhomogeneity.Whileunderstandingdiversityobtainedbydifferentcognitivesubjectsorthesamesubjectsindifferentsituationsiscalledmetaphoricalheterogeneity.Basedonthemetaphoricalhomogeneityandmetaphoricalheterogeneity,thethesismakesanewclassificationofXHYandcarriesoutacognitivestudyonthem.Then,sixcorrespondenttranslatingmethodsareputforwardinregardofdifferentcategories.AsXHYhavemetaphoricalmeanings,theclassificationofhomogeneousXHYandheterogeneousXHYcanfacilitatesourcelanguagereaders,translatorsandtargetlanguagereceptorstoreadbetweenthelinesaccordingtodifferentcategoriesandthuslayfurtherfoundationforIII EnglishAbstracttranslators‟renderingmetaphoricalmeaningofXHY.Themain-bodyofthethesisiscomposedoffourchapters.ThefirstonemakesanewdefinitionofXHYandadetailedillustrationoffeatures,natureandcognitivemechanismsofXHY.ThesecondchapterproposesthecognitivemotivationofXHY:metaphoricalhomogeneityandmetaphoricalheterogeneity.Thenthecorrespondentclassification:homogeneousXHYandheterogeneousXHY,isputforward.Meanwhile,itpointsouthomogeneousXHYisdifferentcognitivesubjects‟identicalunderstandingofmetaphoricalconceptsinXHYwhileheterogeneousXHYisthedifferentcognitivesubjects‟disparateunderstandingofmetaphoricalconceptsinXHY.ThethirdchapteranalyzesthecognitiveprocessesoftranslatinghomogeneousXHYandheterogeneousXHYrespectively.ThecognitiveprocessoftranslatinghomogeneousXHYcanberegardedasaprocessofstaticmatchingthemetaphoricalconceptsinsourcelanguagewiththemetaphoricalconceptsintargetlanguagewhilethecognitiveprocessoftranslatingheterogeneousXHYcanbeseenasaprocessofidentifyingsubjectivityinsourcelanguagethenachievingtheinter-subjectivityandinter-metaphoricitybetweendifferentcognitivesubjectsinsourcelanguageandtargetlanguage.ThelastchapterraisesdifferenttranslatingmethodsaimingatdifferentfeaturesofhomogeneousXHYandheterogeneousXHY.ForhomogeneousXHYtranslation,metaphoricalconceptsarealwaysretained.AndforheterogeneousXHY,metaphoricalconceptsareeithersubstitutedorretainedwithnotes.ThenewclassificationofXHYisbasedonthetargetreceptors‟understandingofmetaphoricalconceptsinXHY,sothecorrespondenttranslatingmethodsonaccountofthiskindofclassificationwillmakeiteasierforthetargetreceptorstoperceivethemetaphoricalmeaningsofXHY,whichisauniqueresearchperspectiveonXHYtranslationwithcertainreferentialsignificance.Meanwhile,theresearchhasitslimitations.Forexample,punXHYisrarelyreferredtointhisthesis,sointhefurtherstudy,metaphoricalhomogeneityandmetaphoricalheterogeneitycanbeappliedtomakeadetailedresearchonpunXHY.Keywords：Xiehouyu;metaphor;cognition;homogeneity;heterogeneityIV ContentsContents摘要...................................................................................................................................IAbstract..............................................................................................................................IIIIntroduction.........................................................................................................................1ChapterOneCognitiveNatureandMechanismsofXiehouyu..........................................61.1CognitiveNatureofXiehouyu............................................................................61.1.1SemanticFeatureofXiehouyu....................................................................81.1.2GrammaticalFeatureofXiehouyu..............................................................91.1.3PhonologicalFeatureofXiehouyu............................................................111.2CognitiveMechanismsofXiehouyu.................................................................111.2.1ConstructiveBasisofXiehouyu:Similarity............................................121.2.2ConstructiveProcessofXiehouyu:Categorization.................................131.2.3ConstructivePatternofXiehouyu:ImageSchema..................................14ChapterTwoMetaphoricalCognitiveMotivationofXiehouyu:HomogeneityandHeterogeneity..............................................................................................172.1CharacteristicsandManifestationsofMetaphoricalHomogeneity....................192.1.1SimilarMetaphoricalConceptandConceptualCategory.........................192.1.2SimilarImage-SchemaandCulturalModels............................................212.2CharacteristicsandManifestationsofMetaphoricalHeterogeneity...................242.2.1DifferentMetaphoricalConceptsandConceptualCategories...................242.2.2DifferentImage-SchemasandCulturalModels........................................262.3TheClassificationofXiehouyu.........................................................................292.3.1HomogeneousXiehouyu..........................................................................292.3.2HeterogeneousXiehouyu.........................................................................31ChapterThreeCognitiveProcessesofTranslatingHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyu.........................................................................343.1CognitiveProcessesofTranslatingHomogeneousXiehouyu............................343.1.1IdentificationofSimilarMetaphoricalConcepts......................................34V Contents3.1.2IdentificationofSimilarMentalSpaces...................................................353.2CognitiveProcessesofTranslatingHeterogeneousXiehouyu............................363.2.1IdentificationofCognitiveSubjectivityandInter-subjectivity..................373.2.2TransferringInter-subjectivitytoInter-metaphoricity...............................373.3TheRelationshipBetweentheTwoCognitiveProcessesofTranslating............403.3.1StaticMatchingandDynamicProjection.................................................403.3.2TranslatingMetaphorandTranslatinginMetaphor...................................42ChapterFourTranslatingMethodsofHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyu...................................................................................................444.1TranslatingMethodsofHomogeneousXiehouyu..............................................454.1.1IdenticalMappingwithMetaphoricalConceptsRetained........................464.1.2PartialMappingwithMetaphoricalConceptsRetained............................484.2TranslatingMethodsofHeterogeneousXiehouyu.............................................494.2.1Non-identicalMappingwithMetaphoricalConceptsSubstituted.............504.2.2Non-identicalMappingfromMetaphoricalConceptstoNon-metaphor.........514.2.3EquivalentMappingwithMetaphoricalConceptsTransferred.................534.2.4IdenticalMappingwithNotesApplied.....................................................55Conclusion..........................................................................................................................59Notes...................................................................................................................................61WorksCited.......................................................................................................................62Acknowledgements............................................................................................................66InformativeChineseAbstract...........................................................................................67RésuméandPublicationssinceEnteringtheProgram....................................................70VI IntroductionIntroductionEverylanguagehasalargenumberofidioms.Theyaresoplentifulandcolorfulbecausepeoplecreatethemfromdailylifeandworkoverhundredsofyears.TheChineseXiehouyu(hereinafterXHY)isanimportantpartofChineseidioms.Aswellasidioms,XHYistheproductoftheChinesepeople‟swisdomwhichreflectsthelifeexperienceandemotionoftheChinesepeople.ItisalsotheuniqueformandlivingfossiloftheChineselanguage.ItisgenerallyacknowledgedthatXHYiscomposedoftwoparts.Thefirstpartisalwaysdescribingavividimage,whilethesecondalwayspresentingtherealintendedmessage.WhenapieceofXHYisused,afterthefirstpartisspokenout,andbeforethesecondpartisspokenout,thereisashortpauseforpeopletocomprehendandfigureoutitsmeaning.ForthisreasonXHYacquiresitsname.XHYswhicharecreatedthroughvisualized,imaginativeanddivergentwaysofthinkingarealsoendowedwithrichculturalandlinguisticcolors.TheemploymentofXHYisconducivetoastrongcommunicationeffectsandthediversityoflanguage.ChinesenationalculturecanmanifestitsuniquenessbythelanguageformofXHY.ThetranslationofXHYcanpromoteculturalexchangebetweenChinaandthewesterncountries,boostthetransmissionofChinesecultureandfinallyfacilitateEnglishreceptorstoappreciateChineseculture.AlthoughtheoriginofXHYcanbedatedbacktoancientChina,notuntil1920swasthespecificresearchcarriedoutonthissubject.Inthosedays,thestudiesofitsdefinition,originandclassificationaccountedforalargeproportion.TherewasabigcontroversyinthedefinitionandoriginofXHYamongresearchesstudyingXHY.MaoDun,ChenWangdaoandWenDuanzhengseparatelyputforwardtheirowndefinitionsandorigins.AnothermajorresearchtopicistheclassificationofXHY.FamousscholarsmostlyclassifyXHYbytheinternalrelationbetweentwopartsorthesecondpart.ThestructureofXHYisalsoahotresearchtopic.Inthisregard,manyscholarshaveachievedsuchaconsensusofopinionontherelationbetweenthetwopartsthatthefirstpartsetsthestageforthelatterpartandthesecondpartisextensionofthefirstpart.Inotherwords,thesecondpartisnotonlyinanaturalcohesionwiththefirstpart,butalsoitistheexplanationofthefirstpartandeventherealmeaningofwholesentence.1 IntroductionInaddition,somescholarsdiscussXHYfromtheperspectiveofculture.TheyhaveamajorresearchontheculturaloriginofXHY,culturalinfluenceonXHYorthemutualrelationshipbetweenXHYandculture.YangGenpeiinhisessayexplainsthetranslationofXHYfromtheperspectiveofculture,“TobetterexpoundthetranslationmethodsoftheChineseXHY,theauthoralsocomparedandcontrastedthattheChineseandtheWesternculturesreflectedinidiomsshowthehistoricalbackgrounds,religiousbeliefs,socialsystems,naturalenvironmentandlivingconditionsoftheirsourcecultures”.FromthedifferencesbetweenChineseandWesterncultures,wecanunderstandwhyandhowChinesepeopleandtheWesternersthinkindifferentways.ThenwecanapplythesefindingsintothetranslationofXHY.YangemphasizesthetranslatorsneedtotaketheculturaldiversitybetweenChinesenationandwesterncountriesintoconsiderationandthenmakeaninnovativeapplicationofdifferenttranslationmethodstoproduceagoodEnglishversion.WithrespecttotheclassificationandtranslatingmethodsofXHY,somescholarshavetheirownperspectives.SomeputforwardtheTranslationoftheIntentionoftheSourceTextandmodifiedprinciples.MostofscholarsclassifytheXHYaccordingtotherelationshipbetweenthetwoparts.However,someinsightfulscholarsofferanewclassificationintermsofthefirstpartofXHY:culturalXHY,linguisticXHY,andnon-cultural-non-linguisticXHY.Thisnewclassificationavoidstoalargedegreetheoverlapsufferedbypreviousscholars.Whatismoreimportant,thisnewclassificationcanprovideapivotforthetranslatingofChineseXHYandhelpchoosepropertranslatingmethods.Thecorrespondenttranslatingmethodsofthosethreecategoriesarealsoputforward.Theyareabsolutetranslation,abstracttranslationandselectivetranslation.Asforotherscholars,theymakeanattempttofigureoutapplicablemethodstotranslateXHYfromtheangleofSkoposTheory.InlinewithSkoposTheory,translationactivityisakindofpurpose-orientedactionandthepurposeoftranslationdetermineswhatkindofthemethodswillbeadopted,whichiscalledthe“SkoposRule”.What‟smore,“coherencerule”and“fidelityrule”arepartofSkoposTheory.SkoposTheoryturnsouttobeeffectiveinguidingXHYtranslationparticularlyinhandlingtheculturalandlinguisticdivergencesbetweendifferentlanguages.UnderthedirectionofSkoposTheory,thethesisisinsearchofthesuitablewaystotranslateXHYinordertoachievethepurposeofeffectiveand2 Introductionsuccessfulcommunication.Literaltranslation,liberaltranslation,thecombinationofliteralandliberaltranslation,equivalenttranslationandliteraltranslationwithnoteswillbeselectedtobeappliedindifferentsituations.ManyscholarsrecommendthatNida‟s“EquivalenceTheory”shouldbeadoptedwhiletranslatingtheXHY.SomeexploredthedifferenttranslatingmethodsinADreaminRedMansionsfromtheperspectiveofequivalencetheoryaimingatinquiringintohowtoachievefunctionalequivalenceinChineseXHYtranslationthroughanalyzingtheconcreteexamples.GreateffortshavebeenmadetoconductthestudyoftranslationofChineseXHYfromtheperspectiveofrelevancetranslationtheory.Thismethodemphasizesthecontextinwhichtheoriginalmeaningisinterpretedor,moretechnically,thecontextualinformationwithwhichthesemanticcontentisinferentiallycombined.AsCognitiveLinguisticswasintroducedtoChina,moreandmorescholarsbegantostudyXHYfromtheCognitiveLinguisticperspective.Cognitivelinguistics,asabranchofcognitivescience,mainlystudiestheinfluenceofthewaypeoplecognize,learnandobservetheworldontheiruseoflanguage,especiallyhowhumanbeingschoosedifferentwords,phrasesorsentencestoexpressthenon-objectivemeanings.WangYinproposesthatthefundamentalviewpointofcognitivelinguisticscanbesummarizedintoaformula,“Reality-Cognition-Language”(583).Thisformulapointsoutthatthereexistsanintermediatelinkbetweenrealityandlanguage,namelycognition.Languageformationisbasedontheinteractiveexperiencebetweenhumanbeingsandobjectiveworld,anditisprocessedinhumancognition.AsaspecialformoftheChineselanguage,XHYoriginatesfromChinesepeople‟sdailyinteractionwiththeworld,andthusisarepresentativeofnaturallanguage.TostudyXHYfromtheperspectiveofcognitivelinguisticshelpsustodiscovertheuniversallawofhumancognition.Atthesametime,itwillhelpustolearntheunderlyingworkingmechanismandmotivation,hencestrengthenourunderstandingofXHY,whichcanalsopavethewayforXHYtranslation.MostthesesmainlyadoptConceptualMetaphorTheory,ConceptualBlendingTheory,andCognitiveGrammartodiscussthemeaningconstructionofXHY.SomeofthemadoptStructureMappingEngine,RelevanceTheory,MentalModelBasedPragmaticReasoningtoexaminethemeaningconstructionofXHY.Intheearlystage,allthesetendtoemployoneor3 IntroductiontwocognitivetheoriestoexplainthemeaningconstructionofallXHY,andtheyjustselectsometypicalexamplestoverifytheirproposalandhavetorelyoncertaincontexttoexplainthemeaningconstructionofXHY.Lateron,somescholarsconductsystematicstudyofXHYwithauniformexplanation.Asismentionedabove,XHYistheproductcreatedbytheordinaryChinesepeopleduringtheirdailylifeandwork,theproductoftheChineselanguagewithitsowncharacteristics.Thus,mostofthestudiesofXHYhavebeenmadebyChinesescholars.However,italsoattractedforeigners‟attentioneventhoughpeoplecannotfinditsequivalentinotherlanguages.Generally,theseforeignscholarsfollowthesuitofChinesescholars‟steps,andtheyhavenotproposedanyinspiringopinions.ThencontributionsofforeignscholarstothestudiesofChineseXHYaretheircollectionandtranslationofXHY,andtheirintroductionofXHYtotheircountryandothercountries,whichplaysaveryimportantroleinbringingChineselanguagetotheworld.EventhoughConceptualBlendingTheoryisarathersophisticatedtheoryinthefieldofcognitivelinguistics,itshouldbesupplementedbymetaphorandmetonymyfor“metonymy,metaphorandconceptualblendingarecomplementarytoeachotherinthemeaningconstructionofXHY”(Zhou87).However,mostscholarsmainlydiscussXHYfromtheperspectiveofConceptualBlendingTheory,whilefewrefertothegapsthatConceptualBlendingTheoryleavesexceptdoctorWangWenbininhisdissertationreferstotheconceptofmetaphorwithhisemphasisontheself-negotiationinmetaphorconstruction.Althoughhebringsuptheconceptofmetaphoricalhomogeneityandmetaphoricalheterogeneity,hedoesnotprobeintoXHYperceptionandtranslationfromtheperspectiveofmetaphoricalhomogeneityandmetaphoricalheterogeneity.Therefore,itleavesthespaceforthisthesis.ThethesisanalyzesthemetaphoricalcognitivemotivationandtranslationofXHY.Thecognitivemotivationisconfinedtotwoconcepts:metaphoricalhomogeneityandmetaphoricalheterogeneity.Metaphoricalhomogeneitymeansdifferentmetaphoruserswillconstructthesamesourcedomainforthesametargetdomainorthesamemetaphotricalconceptforthesamecognitiveobjectanddifferentmetaphorreceptorswillinterpretthesamemetaphoricalmeaningforthesamemetaphoricalconcept.Whilemetaphoricalheterogeneityisthatdifferentmetaphorusersmayconstructdifferentmetaphoricalconceptsforthesame4 Introductioncognitiveobjectandeventhesamemetaphoruserindifferentsituationsmayconstructdifferentmetaphoricalconceptsforthesamecognitiveobject.Metaphoricalheterogeneityalsoexistsinthemetaphorinterpretationofmetaphorreceptors.Asdifferentmetaphorreceptorsmaydecodedifferentmetaphoricalmeaningsforthesamemetaphoricalconceptandeventhesamemetaphorreceptorinthegivensituationmaydecodedifferentmetaphoricalmeaningsforthesamemetaphoricalconcept.AlthoughConceptualMetaphorTheoryandConceptualBlendingTheoryarefeasibleinXHYcognition,thetwotheoriesalsooverlookmanyfactorsrelatingtodifferentculturalconnotations,differentculturalbackgroundsanddifferentmetaphoricalconceptsindifferentcultures.Therefore,inthisthesis,metaphoricalhomogeneityandmetaphoricalheterogeneityarepreferredtoguideXHYtranslation,whichisacross-culturalcommunicativeactivity.Basedonthetwoconcepts,thethesisgivesanewclassificationofXHY.Meanwhile,thethesissumsupthecharacteristicsofthetwocategories.Inaddition,therelationshipbetweenthetwotranslatingprocessesofhomogeneousXHYandheterogeneousXHYgetsexpounded.Intheend,thethesisputforwardthecorrespondingtranslatingmethodstoeachcategory.XHYisaspecialformofChineselanguage,thediscoveryofitsmotivationandworkingmechanismwillhelpusexaminethegroundingofXHY.ThebasicconceptsinthefirstpartofXHYcanbesummarizedtocomparewiththemostfrequentlyusedsourcedomainsofconceptualmetaphorsinmodernEnglish.Iftheyarethesame,XHYcanbesaidtohavehumanexperiencesastheirground.Atthesametime,themostfrequentlyusedconceptsChinesepeopleusetolearnabouttheworldcanbedetermined,whichcanhelptounderstandXHYbetter.AndthemostfrequentlyusedconceptsinXHYcanbecomparedwiththemostfrequentlyusedsourcedomainsinEnglishmetaphorstorevealsimilaritiesanddifferencesofthebasicconceptsorsourcedomainsbetweenXHYandEnglishmetaphors,whichalsocorrespondwithhomogeneityandheterogeneityinthisthesis.Moreover,accordingtoWangYin‟sproposal,“[l]anguagecanserveastheobservablematerialforpeopletostudyhumancognition”(583).Therefore,tostudyXHYandfindoutitsunderlyingcognitivelawcanhelpusunderstandtheuniversallawofhumancognitionontheonehand,andthetruthoftheobjectiveworldontheother.Lastbutnotleast,themethodologyadoptedinthestudyofXHYwillcontributetoenrichingthestudiesoftheChineselanguage.5 ChapterOneCognitiveNatureandMechanismsofXiehouyuChapterOneCognitiveNatureandMechanismsofXiehouyuInthepreviousstudies,thereisahugecontroversyaboutthedefinitionofXHYandclassificationofit.IntermsofXHYclassification,manyscholarshaveproposeddifferentmethods.SomesuggestionsareputforwardtoclassifyXHYintometaphoricalonesandhomophoniconesaccordingtowhetherthesecondpartemployshomophones.OtherscholarsdivideXHYintoliterally-statedonesandmetaphorically-statedones.Inaddition,someevengiveabrandnewclassificationofXHY:homophonicpuntype,semanticpuntype,directanalogytypeandallusionanalogytype.However,inthisthesis,wewillgiveXHYanewdefinition,whichwillautomaticallynegateallkindsofclassification.WeregardXHYasakindofmetaphoricallanguagenomatterwhattheformitis.Inordertofurtherverifyouraffirmation,wewilllistorexplainthemetaphoricalfeaturesofXHYindetail.ThenwewillshedlightontheessenceandcognitivemechanismsofXHY.BasedonthemetaphoricityofXHY,wecanusethemetaphortheorytorealizethecognitionandtranslationofXHYsinthefollowingparts.1.1CognitiveNatureofXiehouyuXHYclassificationisahotlydebatedtopic.DifferentpeopletrytodivideXHYintodifferentcategories.Inthisthesis,theresearchobjectisXHYandtheguidingtheoryismetaphoricalcognitivemotivation.SowhycanweapplymetaphoricalcognitivemotivationtoconductthecognitionandtranslationofXHY.Therewillbetwopossibilities.OneisthatXHYcanbedividedintometaphoricalXHYandliteralXHY,thenwecananalyzemetaphoricalonesseparatelyfromtheperspectiveofmetaphoricalcognitivemotivation;theotheristhatthereisinternalunitybetweenXHYandmetaphor,namelyallofXHYcanbecognizedasakindofmetaphoricallanguage.Therefore,inthefollowingpart,firstwewillmakeaclassificationandthenverifywhethertheclassificationisfeasible.Ifitisunfeasible,wewillshedlightontheintrinsicrelationbetweenmetaphorandXHY,andthengivethereasonwhyallofXHYcanberegardedasakindofmetaphoricallanguage.ThefollowingpartgivesadetailedillustrationontheallegedmetaphoricalXHYandtheallegedliteralXHYsothenatureofallegedmetaphoricalXHY,allegeliteralXHYandevenXHYasawholewill6 ChapterOneCognitiveNatureandMechanismsofXiehouyubeself-evident.Inthepreviousstudies,metaphoricalXHYreferstoXHYofdoublemeanings.Oneisliteralmeaningandtheotherismetaphoricalmeaning.Metaphoricalmeaningisachievedindirectlybyliteralmeaning.MostXHYareconsideredtobelongtometaphoricaltype,ofthefirstpartisasimileorametaphorandthesecondpartistherealintention.Therelationshipbetweenthefirstpartandthesecondpartcanbeseenclearly.Thefollowingaresomeexamples:Adogtryingtobiteahedgehog—nowaytomakeanapproach(狗咬刺猬——无从下口).Thetailofarabbit—beingimpossibletobecomelong,orwon‟tlastlong(兔子的尾——长不了).LikethedogthatbitesLuTung-pin—youbitethehandthatfeedsyou(狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心).LiteralXHYdoesnotpossessdualismofexpressingthemeaning,whichmeansliteralmeaningcorrespondswiththeactualapplicativemeaning.Inotherword,literalXHYshowsuniformityinexpressingmeaning.AccordingtotheessenceofXHY,thesemanticsofliteralXHYusuallybelongstolanguagemeaninganddoesnotchangewiththelanguageenvironmentorcontext.WhenliteralXHYreflectssomething,itsshowsunityinangleanditssemanticorientationisalsoone-dimensional.Namely,itssemanticfieldisrestrictedtoonlyone.Forexample:Afroginawell—havinganarrowview(井底之蛙——见识短浅).Intheexample“afroginawell—havinganarrowview”,whenwehearof“afroginawell”,wecanperceivethemeaningofthesecondpart.BecausethispieceofXHYprovidesusavividpicture“afrogsittinginawelllooksupattheskyandonlypicksupasmallpartoftheskyasthevisionbecomessmallfromthewellhead”.Therefore,themeaningofthispieceofXHYisself-obvious.However,theaboveclassificationisnotwell-grounded.Infact,theabovetwocategoriescanbeassignedtometaphoricalone.Asweallknow,ChineseXHYareusuallycomposedoftwoparts.Fromtherhetoricperspective,thefirstpartisusuallyafigureofspeech,itcanbecalled“vehicle”or“comparison”,andthesecondpartshowsthetrue7 ChapterOneCognitiveNatureandMechanismsofXiehouyumeaningortheexplanationofthefirstpart,itcanbecalled“comparativeword”or“reference”.Sowecansaythefirstpartisvehiclewhilethesecondpartistenor.Ifthesecondpartisthedirectexplanationoftherealintention,thiskindofXHYisnamedexplicitmetaphoricalXHY,whilethesecondpartisnotthedirectexplanationoftherealintention,thiskindofXHYiscalledimplicitmetaphoricalXHY.ExplicitmetaphoricalXHYandimplicitmetaphoricalXHYactuallycorrespondtotheallegedliteralXHYandtheallegedmetaphoricalXHYdiscussedabove.InXHY,thelatterpartiswhatwereallywanttoexpressandthefirstpartisafigureofspeechorananalogy.ThatistosayinallofXHY,thelatterpartistenor,andthefirstpartisvehicle.ThesubtledifferenceisthatrealintentionofexplicitmetaphoricalXHYcanbeperceiveddirectlywhilethatofimplicitmetaphoricalXHYcannotbeperceivedwithoutassociationandimagination.Therefore,wecansaythatXHYcanberegardedasametaphoricallanguage.Inordertoverifyouraffirmation,wewillfurtherlistsomeexistingmetaphoricalfeaturesofXHY.Metaphorisanexpressionwhichmeansordescribesonethingorideausingwordsusuallyusedforsomethingelsewithverysimilarqualitieswhilewithoutusingthewordsasorlike(Fang107).Itisnownotonlyregardedjustasarhetoricphenomenonbutalsoacognitiveone.“Metaphorisomnipresentindailylife,notjustinlanguagebutinthoughtandaction.Ourordinaryconceptualsystem,intermsofwhichweboththinkandact,isfundamentallymetaphoricalinnature”(Lakoff3).MetaphorisalsodeeplyrootedinXHY.Metaphorisacrossmappingfromonedomaintoanother,anditisthesamecasewithXHY.XHYareinfactmetaphorical.ThethesiswilldiscusssomemetaphoricalfeaturesofXHY.1.1.1SemanticFeatureofXiehouyuMetaphorisanexpressionwhichmeansordescribesonethingorideausingwordsusuallyusedforsomethingelsewithverysimilarqualitieswhilewithoutusingthewordsasorlike(Fang107).Itisnownotonlyregardedjustasarhetoricphenomenonbutalsoacognitiveone.“Metaphorisomnipresentindailylife,notjustinlanguagebutinthoughtandaction.Ourordinaryconceptualsystem,intermsofwhichweboththinkandact,isfundamentallymetaphoricalinnature”(Lakoff3).MetaphorisalsodeeplyrootedinXHY.Metaphorisacrossmappingfromonedomaintoanother,anditisthesamecasewithXHY.XHYsareinfactmetaphorical.ThethesiswilldiscusssomemetaphoricalfeaturesofXHY.8 ChapterOneCognitiveNatureandMechanismsofXiehouyuXHYhasatleasttwolayersofmeanings:oneisovertandtheotheriscovert.Sometimes,theovertandcovertmeaningsarecoincident.Thatistosay,fromtheperspectiveofsignifierandsignified,thesignifiedmeaningofXHYcanbeanalyzedforatleasttwice.Forexample:Duckweedsinapool—floatingwithwind(池塘里的浮萍——随风飘).Greengrassesstrickenbyfrost—loweringtheirheads(霜打的青草——垂了头).Intheexample“Duckweedsinapool—floatingwithwind”,theovertsignifiedmeaningistodescribeanaturalphenomenonofplantswhilethecovertsignifiedmeaningistotellusthestateofsomepeoplehavingnofirmdetermination.Inthesecondexample“Greengrassesstrickenbyfrost—loweringtheirheads”,theovertsignifiedistodescribetheinfluenceofclimateonplantwhilethecovertsignifiedistorepresentupsetorunhappypeople.“XHYistheproductofconceptualsystemandmetaphoricalmeaninggeneratinginourunderstandingoftheobjectiveworldismotivated”(Shu35).Therefore,intheanalysisofXHY,wealwayscombinetheobjectiveexperiencewithconceptualsystemtorendertherealintendedmeaning.1.1.2GrammaticalFeatureofXiehouyuGrammaticalfeatureofXHYmeansthemetaphoricalmeaningcanbeacquiredbydifferentconstitutivestructuresofimagesorconceptsinthefirstpart.Grammargenerallyindicatestheconstitutionalrulesoflanguageitself.Itisalsoconsideredanobjectiveexistence,becauseitisfreefrompeople‟ssubjectivewills.Grammarcanalsoinvolvewaytouselanguagewhichisaccumulatedthroughoutthewholeprocessoflanguageevolution.Forthisreason,itisappropriateforustosaythatgrammaristheoutcomebroughtaboutbylanguagechangesanddevelopment.Meanwhileconversely,itisalsothecornerstoneoflanguagetransformationandevolution.Nevertheless,grammarshowsvarianceinconnotationunderdifferentcases.Incognitivelinguistics,grammarinabroadsenserefersto“astructuredinventoryofconventionallinguisticunits”(Langacker57).MostofXHYsaresubject-predicatestructure.Accordingtothestructureofthefirstpart,XHYcanbeclassifiedintonominalXHY,phrasalXHYandsententialXHY.InnominalXHY,theimageorconceptappearsinanoun-levelformandmetaphoricalmeaningcomesoutofconventionallymetaphoricalfeatureoftheimageorconcept.Forexample:9 ChapterOneCognitiveNatureandMechanismsofXiehouyuPangolins—lovingtogotoadarkplace(穿山甲——专往黑处装).Elbow—bendinginward(胳膊肘子——往里弯).Accordingtothefunctionsofwords,therearenounmetaphor,verbmetaphor,adjectivemetaphor,adverbialmetaphorandprepositionalmetaphor(Shu59-66).IntheabovetwopiecesofXHY,theimagesorconceptsinthefirstpartarenounswithoutanymodifyingelementsandthesenounscanbeusedtodescribeotherthings.WecallthiskindofXHYnounsignifiertype.Lionsstandinginfrontoffeudalgovernment—pretendingtobeawe-inspiring(衙门口的狮子——假威风).Abrokenfoodsteamer—notholdingvapor(破蒸笼——不盛气).IntheabovetwopiecesofXHY,theimagesorconceptsinthefirstpartsarecomposedofafewwords,someofwhichareusedformodifyingothers.Metaphor‟sdynamicsoperatesasfollows:x+y=asetofnewmeaningsthatarenotspecificallyspelledout,arelationshiptobediscoveredbythereaders(BriggsandMonaco4).Soin“衙门口的狮子——假威风”,“x”refersto“衙门口”and“y”to“狮子”.“x”and“y”inthemselveshavenoconnotativemeaning.Butincombinationof“x”and“y”,wecannotsimplyunderstandthemeaningof“x+y”byaddingtheliteralmeaningofeachcomponent,butdiscoverthenewemergentmeaningextendedoutof“x+y”.SointhispieceofXHY,“衙门口的狮子”cannotunderstoodas“thelioninfrontofYamen”.Weshouldtrytodiscoverthemetaphoricalmeaningofitbythecombining“衙门口”and“狮子”together.Therefore,themetaphoricalmeaningsofsomepiecesofXHYcomeoutofthenewemergentmeaningextendedfromthecombinationoftwoconceptsorimagesinthefirstpartofXHY.ThiskindofXHYisregardedasphrasesignifiertype.Atigertendspigs—pretending—pretendingtobekind-hearted(老虎赶猪——假装善心).IntheabovepieceofXHY,thefirstpartisasentencewhichdescribesaneventandthesecondpartisusuallyusedtogivethemetaphoricalmeaning.ThiskindofXHYiscalledsententialXHY.InthiskindofXHY,themetaphoricalmeaningdoesnotcomeoutofsimpleliteralmeaningoftheimagesorconceptsinthefirstpart,butfromtheactionorpredicatethatlinksthetwoimagesorconcepts.Forexample,in“老虎赶猪——假装善心”,thekeyfactor10 ChapterOneCognitiveNatureandMechanismsofXiehouyuinunderstandingthispieceofXHYistoperceivetheword“赶”.Ifweregardthewordasaderogativeone,theintendedmeaningwillnotthesameastheXHYintendstoexplain.SointhispieceofXHY,“赶”shouldberegardedasaaffirmativeonetorefertothehypocrisyofthetiger.Therefore,thiskindofXHYiscalledpredicatesignifiertype.1.1.3PhonologicalFeatureofXiehouyuPhonologicalfeaturemeansthatintendedmeaningofXHYcanbeperceivedbyahomophonicwordorphrase.ItisacknowledgedthatinChinese,identicalpronunciationcanbesharedbydifferentwords.Thepronunciation“tan”canindicateboth“弹”and“谈”,orsomeotherwords.HerearesomeXHYemployinghomophonicwordsorphrases:Theriverwaterflowseastwards—uncontrolledflowing(leaving)(东去的江水——流不住[留不住]).Havingnomoneytotakeabus—walkingonfoot(nowayorimpossible)(没钱坐车——步行[不行]).InthefirstpieceofXHY,“流”and“留”sharethestartingconsonant,compoundvowelsandtone.However,theyareclearlyvisibleinsemanticmeanings.Especiallywhentheyareattachedbythewords,“不”and“住”,twodistinctsetsofexpressionswithdisparateconnotationsaregenerated.“流不住”meansflowingcontinuously,whichisthenaturallyderivingfromthefirstpart,and“留不住”meansleaving,whichistheintendedmeaning.ThispieceofXHYutilizesthehomophonetoexpresstheintendedmeaningofleaving.ThereissomesimilaritybetweenphonologicalfeatureandsemanticfeatureofXHY.TheintendedmeaningofXHYwillnotcomeoutwithouttworoundsofanalysis.Thegrammaticalfeatureemphasizesthatmetaphoricalmeaningscanbededucedfrominnerstructuresbetweenimagesorconceptsinthefirstpart.1.2CognitiveMechanismsofXiehouyuTheobjectiveworldisthebasisofpeople‟sexperienceandcognition.Cognitionispeople‟sunderstandingandexperiencingprocesstowardtheworld.Languageistheproductofcognitionandexperienceoftheobjectiveworld.Therefore,languagecompetenceisnotseparatedfromanyothercognitiveability,butanindispensablepartoftheoverallcognitive11 ChapterOneCognitiveNatureandMechanismsofXiehouyuability.“Proverbsarealsotheproductofconceptualsystem,ofwhichsimilarity,categorization,imageschemaplayacrucialpartinthedevelopmentofproverbs”(Kou36).XHYisanimportantpartofproverbs.Therefore,incognitionofXHY,similarity,categorizationandimage-schemaalsoplayanessentialpart.Furthermore,inmetaphorconstructionandinterpretation,weuseconcrete,tangibleandfamiliarthingtounderstandabstract,intangibleandunfamiliarthingwhicharecalledsourcedomainandtargetdomainrespectively.Thisshowsthattheremustbesimilaritybetweentwothings.Forthisreason,similarityistheprerequisiteinmetaphorconstructionandinterpretation.Inaddition,theremustberelevantconceptsthathavesimilarmeaningwithwhatwecallconcrete,tangibleandfamiliarthings.Itisthesamewiththeabstract,intangibleandunfamiliarthings.Wecalltheserelevantconceptscategory.Inordertohaveabetterunderstandingofthesourcedomainandtargetdomainthuscomposingthemostcorrectmetaphoricalmeaning,wemustconstantlycategorizethesourcedomain.Consequently,categorizationisthedynamicformingprocessofmetaphor.Besides,“metaphorcanstimulateaseriesofknowledgeandstructureimaginationtowardssomethingespeciallyabstractthings,andthescaffoldofsuchkindofknowledgeandstructureiscalledimageschema”(J.Wang42).Sotheconstructionpatternofmetaphorisimageschema.Sincethecognitivemechanismsofbothproverbsandmetaphorreflectinsimilarity,categorizationandimageschema.XHY,asametaphoricallanguageandapartofproverbs,musthavethesamecognitivemechanisms.1.2.1ConstructiveBasisofXiehouyu:SimilarityMetaphoricalmeaningofXHYderivesfromsimilarity.Thatistosay,similarityisthebasisofXHY.Wecanmakesomeconceptsmoreconcretethroughanalogybasedonsimilarity.Generallyspeaking,withthefeaturesofsourcedomainsbeingmappedtotargetdomains,wecanhaveagoodunderstandingofthelatterthroughperceptionofthefirst.Inmetaphor,thetwoconceptualdomainsmusthavesomethingincommon.Scholarsaroundtheworldhavereachedconsensusthatsimilarityisindispensableinmetaphor.AnditisalsotheessenceandcoreofXHY.Ifsimilaritydoesnotexistbetweensourcedomainandtargetdomain,wecannotcreatesimilaritythroughimagination.Manymetaphorsarebasedonproducingsimilarity.ShuDingfangpointsout,“metaphorbasedonsimilaritytakesuseofpeople‟sexistingperceptiononsimilaritywhilemetaphorbasedoncreatingsimilarityjuxtaposestwo12 ChapterOneCognitiveNatureandMechanismsofXiehouyudissimilarthingstoformmetaphorsothatpeoplecangetabrandnewrecognitionandobservationonacertainnewthing,whichisthusclearthatsimilarityisthefundamentalfactorofmetaphor”(172).Therefore,similarityisalsothefundamentalfactorofXHY,ametaphoricallanguage.Forexample:Tabletennisball—beingpushedaround(乒乓球——推来推去).InthispieceofXHY,similaritydoesnotmanifestitselfdirectly.Obviously,thispieceofXHYcannotjustonlydescribetabletennisball.Itmustreflectsomebodywhohassamestatewithtabletennisballbeingpushedaround.Sowecansafelycreatesuchacomparisonthatsomebodywhoisnotpopularorwhomnoonewouldliketoacceptcanbecomparedtotabletennisball.WecanputthispieceofXHYinaspecificcontext.Womenmainlyrelyontheirageadvantages.Women,intwenties,areregardedasrugbyballs,aseveryonescramblesthemintoarms.Women,intheirthirties,aredeemedastabletennisballsbeingpushedbackandforth,asnoonewantsthemtofallonthetableofhisorherside.Fortyyearsoldwomenareviewedasfootballsforeveryoneistryingtokickthemawaywiththeirfeet.Insuchacontext,thesimilaritybetweenwomenintheirthirtiesandtabletennisballisself-evident.Thuswehaveametaphorhere,“Womeninthirtiesaretabletennisballs”.Therearetwodomains:thesourcedomaintabletennisballs,andthetargetdomain,women.Basedonthemetaphor,wecanunderstandthatitisdifficultforwomenintheirthirtiestopleaseothers,sopeoplepushthemaroundthesamewayastwoplayerspushtabletennisballsaroundthem.WhenthispieceofXHYisputintoaconcretecontext,itisusedasthesourcedomaintounderstandamoreabstracttargetdomain.Outofcontext,wecanfullyplayourimaginationtocomparetabletenniswithsomeoneunpopularorundesirable.1.2.2ConstructiveProcessofXiehouyu:CategorizationCategorizationistheapplicationofpeople‟scognitivesystemontheperceivedentity‟sstructureintheobjectiveworld,onthebasicconceptsofessentialattributeanduniversalrelationofthingsandonthelogicalformofhumanrationalthinking(Kou37).Whenthesensoryperceptualsystemobtainsinformationofsomeentityfromobjectiveworld,cognitive13 ChapterOneCognitiveNatureandMechanismsofXiehouyusystemwillaccordinglyclassifysuchkindofentityandrelevantinformationintoacertaincategory(Kou37).Languagecategorizationisthefocusofcognitivelinguisticresearch.ZhaoYanfangpointsout“[c]ategorizationisextendedfromthe„prototype‟whichisregardedasthecoreandmostrepresentativethinginacertaincategoryandotherthingsareconsideredtobelongtothesamecategoryofprototypefortheyhavesomefamilyresemblancewithprototype”(102).Honecketal.drawaconclusionfromtheresearchonproverbscategorization:“[w]hatmakesallofthemembersinproverbsconstituteacategoryisnotthecommondeepstructure,propositionalstructureormentalimageryamongthemembersbutanabstractandnonverbalpsychologicalentity”(127).Honeckcallssuchaschema-likeentity“conceptualbase”thusbringsforth“theConceptualBaseTheory”tocomprehendtheproverbs(127).Virtually,“conceptualbase”isthecategorization.“Conceptualbase”connectsthesuperficiallydissimilarcasesandstructuresacategorization.Onthebasisofexperiment,Honeckputsforwardthatmanyfrequently-usedmetaphoricalutterancescanbequicklydigested,whichindicatessuchkindoflanguageisunderstoodandrememberedbymetaphoricalmeaningandformationofconceptratherthanliteraldefinitionorexplanation(121-140).“Conceptualbase”orcategorizationhastheforceofformation.Itincludesinfinitenumberofcaseswithfamilyresemblanceintothesamecategory.(Z.G.Jiaetal.2).XHYbelongstoproverbs,so“conceptualbase”canalsobeappliedtoXHY.Afrogswallowsanelephant—havingagreatappetite(青蛙吞大象——胃口不小).Amosquitovisitsthespider—hurlingitselfintoanet(蚊子找蜘蛛——自投罗网).Intermsofexample“Afrogswallowsanelephant—havingagreatappetite”,wecanfind“Asnakeswallowsanelephant—greedyanddissatisfied(蛇吞大象——贪心不足)”havethefamilyresemblancewith“Afrogswallowsanelephant—havingagreatappetite”.Thenwecanrecall“Amanwhoseheartisnotcontentislikeasnakewhichtriestoswallowanelephant(人心不足蛇吞象)”,whichisalsosimilarwiththeabovetwopiecesofXHY.Theyhavethesame“conceptualbase”thatis“doingsomethingbeyondone‟spower”whichcanalsobecalledprototype.Thereforetheycanbeincludedintothesamecategory.Sothemetaphoricalmeaningof“afrogswallowsanelephant—havingagreatappetite”is“someoneisgreedyanddissatisfied”.1.2.3ConstructivePatternofXiehouyu:ImageSchema14 ChapterOneCognitiveNatureandMechanismsofXiehouyuImage-schemaisanassumptionusedtodescribesemanticstructureinCognitiveLinguistics.Imageschemaisakindofcognitivestructureandorganizationstructureconnectingabstractrelationandconcreteimageinthepeople‟sexperienceandunderstanding.Itisanapproachtounderstandandcognizemorecomplicatedstructures.Conceptsofcategoryandabstractconceptscomeintobeingonthebasisofconcreteimagesofsomethingwehaveknown.“Therelationbetweenthetwocategoriesisestablishedbyanalogyandassociationwhichareestablishedbysomekindofsimilaritybetweenthetwocategories”(Kou39).TheapplicationandexpressionofXHYisalsobasedonanalogyandimplication.Therealintentionisthemetaphoricalmeaning.Thepremiseofunderstandingthemetaphoricalmeaningisanalogyandimagination.Andthebasicguideofimaginationistoseekthesimilaritybetweenthetargetdomainandthesourcedomain.“Intheprocessofmetaphoricalperception,image-schemacannotonlyhelpdiscoverthesimilaritybetweenthetargetdomainandthesourcedomain,butalsobuiltabridgeformetaphoricalunderstanding”(Kou39).Forthisreason,image-schemaisoneofmodeltoconstructmetaphor.Itisthebasiccognitivestructureonthefoundationofbodyexperienceandthemainwayforustogetthesemanticstructure.“Withoutimage-schema,wecanneitherperceivenorexpressexperiencenorlinkdifferentdomainsofexperience”(Kou39).Therefore,inXHY,image-schemashowsustherealityandpsychologicalrepresentation,thenlinksthesourcedomaintothetargetdomainandfinallyseeksthesimilaritybetweenthetwodomainsandtheircommoncategory.Inthisway,metaphoricalmeaningwillnaturallybebroughtforward.Forexample:AferociousdogwearBuddhabeads—pretendingtobeaphilanthropist(恶狗戴佛珠——假装善人).InthispieceofXHY,theobjectiverealityisthatferociousdogisveryfierceandviolentwhileBuddhabeadsrepresentmercywhichistheobjectiveexistenceinpeople‟slifeandcognition.WhenwelinksferociousdogtoBuddhabeards,wewillhavesuchapsychologicalrepresentationas“wickedthingswithgoodlabel”,whichistheimage-schemaofthispieceofXHY.Therefore,themetaphoricalmeaningisself-evident:pretendingtobekind-hearted.Inmanyoccasionsorcontexts,thispieceofXHYcanmanifestitsmetaphoricalmeaningmuchbetter.Image-schemaiscloselyrelatedtothereaders‟orreceptors‟thinkingmodeandexistingbackgroundknowledgestoredinmemory.15 ChapterOneCognitiveNatureandMechanismsofXiehouyuJohnsonclaimsthat“image-schemaisadynamicmodel,whichisneitherchangelessnorpossessingspecificcontent.Theflexibilitywithhighdegreemakesusapplythesameimage-schematoconductthinkingandreasoninginmanydifferentcontexts”(30).Johnsonalsosumsupsomecommonimageschemas:“Up-Down,Center-Periphery,Path,Containment,Full-Empty,Balance,CounterforceandCompulsion,Restraintetc.”(126).Insummary,image-schemacanenablecognitivesubjectstododivergentthinkingandendowcognitiveobjectsvariouscreativeandimaginarymeanings.Moreover,image-schemacanalsoconnectconcreteobjectivestoimaginaryconceptthusbringingtheobjectivesconnotativeormetaphoricalmeanings.Soimage-schemaiswaytovisualizeandmetaphorizesomeconcreteobjects,whichisalsoappliedinXHYinterpretation.16 ChapterTwoMetaphoricalCognitiveMotivationofXiehouyu:HomogeneityandHeterogeneityChapterTwoMetaphoricalCognitiveMotivationofXiehouyu:HomogeneityandHeterogeneityManyscholarshaveappliedtheConceptualBlendingTheorytostudyXHYcognitionanditstranslation.Indeed,ConceptualBlendingTheoryisoneofthemostmatureandcomprehensivetheorythatcanaccountfortheXHYcognitionanditstranslation.ItevolvesfromtheConceptualMetaphor.BesidesthesimpleordirectmappingfromsourcedomaintothetargetdomainillustratedbyConceptualMetaphor,ConceptualBlendingTheoryalsoputsforwardsomeotherconcepts,suchasthebasicunitofconceptualblending—mentalspace,thebridgeandlink-mapping,themainelements-analogyandsimilarity,importantway-compressandtheapplicationofallmediaduringmeaningformation.MentalspacecontainsfourmainspacesthatareinputspaceI,inputspaceII,genericspaceandblendingspace.Mappingmainlyreferstotheidenticalrelationandcorrespondingrelation,whicharealsocalledmatchingrelationfromthesourcefieldtothetargetfield.Analogyandsimilarityarethebasesformapping.However,accordingtotheConceptualBlendingTheory,Itseemsthataslongasaccordingtofour-spacecognitivemodelproposedbytheConceptualBlendingTheory,thecognitivesubjectswillautomaticallyorspontaneouslyblendthetwoinputspaces.Moreover,itseemsthatdifferentmetaphoruserswillcreatethesamemetaphorintermsofthesamecognitiveobjectanddifferentmetaphorreceptorswillgetthesamemetaphoricalmeaningintermsofsamemetaphor.Thiskindofcognitivephenomenoncalledmetaphoricalhomogeneitynamelyhomo-metaphoricity.“Metaphoricalhomogeneitymeansthatdifferentmetaphoruserswillconstructthesamesourcedomainintermsofthesametargetdomainanddifferentmetaphorreceptorswillinterpretthesamemetaphoricalmeaningintermswiththesamemetaphor”(W.B.Wangiv).However,intheprocessofmetaphorconstructionandinterpretation,differentmetaphoruserswillprobablyconstructdifferentmetaphorsforthesamecognitiveobjectanddifferentmetaphorreceptorswillprobablyinterpretdifferentmetaphoricalmeaningsforthesamemetaphor.Thiskindofcognitivephenomenoniscalledmetaphoricalheterogeneityandhetero-metaphoricity.“Metaphoricalheterogeneitymeansthatdifferentmetaphoruserswillconstructdifferentsourcedomainsforthesametargetdomain17 ChapterTwoMetaphoricalCognitiveMotivationofXiehouyu:HomogeneityandHeterogeneityanddifferentmetaphorreceptorswillinterpretdifferentmetaphoricalmeaningsforthesamemetaphor”(W.B.Wang6).Intheprocessofmetaphorconstructionandinterpretation,theusersandreceptorshavedifferentcognitivemechanisms.Inthiscase,four-spacecognitivemodelwillnotalwaysbeadaptabletothemetaphorcognitionandtranslation.AsXHYisametaphoricallanguage,therealsoexistmetaphoricalhomogeneityandmetaphoricalheterogeneityinXHYconstructionandinterpretation,inwhichcognitivemechanismsplayacrucialrole.Inthepreviouschapter,wehavediscussedcognitivemechanismsofXHY:similarity,categorizationandimage-schema.AsXHYistheuniquelanguageformofChinese,ifwewantto“export”thiskindoflanguageformandmakeforeignersunderstanditsmetaphoricalmeaningbetter,wemustfirstcomparemetaphorconstructionandinterpretationinChineselanguageandEnglishLanguagetoacquirethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthetwolanguages.Incomparison,wecanapplytheabovethreecriteria:similarity,categorizationandimage-schematojudgewhetherdifferentusersandreceptorsfromdifferentculturalbackgroundshavethesamecognitivemechanismsintermofthesamecognitiveobject.Wecancheckthatindifferentlanguagecontexts,whetherthereexiststhesamemetaphoricalconceptwiththesamemetaphoricalmeaningtocognizethesameobject.Ifnot,whetherthereexistsimilarmetaphoricalconceptswhichcanbedividedintothesamecategorytocognizethesameobject.Orcanpeopleindifferentlanguagecontextsconstructthesimilarimage-schemathroughimaginationoranalogytointerpretthemetaphoricalmeaning.Ifmetaphoricalconceptinsourcelanguageandthatintargetlanguageareidenticalorbelongtothesimilarcategory,creatingidenticalorsimilarmetaphoricalmeaningbythewayofidenticalorsimilarimage-schema,thusmetaphoricalhomogeneitywillbeachieved.Ifthecognitiverealityistheopposite,itwillinevitablyleadstometaphoricalheterogeneity.Therefore,inthischapter,wewillfirstshedsomelightonthecharacteristicsandmanifestationsofmetaphoricalhomogeneityandmetaphoricalheterogeneity.Thenbasedonthecharacteristicsandmanifestations,wewilldivideXHYintotwoclassifications:homogeneousXHYandheterogeneousXHY.18 ChapterTwoMetaphoricalCognitiveMotivationofXiehouyu:HomogeneityandHeterogeneity2.1CharacteristicsandManifestationsofMetaphoricalHomogeneityYangYonglinpointsout“[t]heoutsideworldhasitsobjectiveaspectandthefunctionwithinhumanbrainshasitsrationalaspects.Thetwoaspectscombinedmakeushavetheidenticalcognitionofallthingsintheworld”(19).Therefore,peopleofdifferentculturalbackgroundsstillhavethesamecognitivemechanismandproduceculturalconsensus,whichwillinevitablygeneratesimilarmetaphors.Thatistosay,manysimilarmetaphorsexistindifferentlanguages,whichiscorrespondentwiththeconceptofmetaphoricalhomogeneity.Theessenceofmetaphorisamappingfromsourcefieldtothetargetfieldinordertoachievetheaimofreacquaintingthecharacteristicoftargetdomain.Itusesoneconcepttosupplementanotherconcept.Thetwoconceptsseemtobeirrelevanttoeachotherbuttheycanbementionedinthesamebreath.Becausethemetaphorusersdiscoverthereexistssimilaritybetweenthetwoconceptsaftertheyobservedandexperiencedtheobjectivethings.Soindifferentlanguagesandcultures,intermsofthesamething,metaphorwillpresenthomogeneity.Thereasonsareasfollows.Firstly,humanbeingshavethesamebodystructureandsensoryorgans,sotheyhavethesamesensoryability,cognitiveabilityandobtainsimilarconceptualstructure.However,languageuniversalsexistnotinformbutincognitivepsychology.Therefore,withdifferentculturalbackground,differentpeoplecanstillsharethesamecognitivemechanismandgenerateculturalconsensussoastoproducesimilarmetaphors.Indailylife,peoplealwaysrefertothefamiliar,concrete,andvisibleconceptwhentheytendtodealwiththeunfamiliar,abstractandinvisibleconcepts.Inthisway,acorrelativecognitivestylebetweendifferentconceptscomesintobeing.Therearemanysimilarmetaphorsindifferentlanguagesandcultures.Forexample,“Happyisup,sadisdown”.ThisorientalmetaphorexistsbothinChineseandwesternlanguagesandcultures.SotherealsoexistidenticalcognitivemechanismsinmetaphorconstructionandinterpretationinChineseandEnglishlanguages.Therefore,thecharacteristicsandmanifestationsofmetaphoricalhomogeneitycanbeillustratedasfollows.2.1.1SimilarMetaphoricalConceptandConceptualCategorySemanticallyandfunctionally,someChineseandEnglishmetaphorsarethesameor19 ChapterTwoMetaphoricalCognitiveMotivationofXiehouyu:HomogeneityandHeterogeneitynearlythesame.Theycorrespondwitheachotherinsemanticmeaningandfunction.Becausehumanbeingsthemselvesandtheoverallexternalconditionstheycounton,includinggeographicalsurroundings,climatechanges,eventhewholesocialandculturalbackgroundsofhumanbeings,havealotincommon.Thoseuniversalitiesgiverisetohumanbeings‟commonsensestowardthemselvesandtheexternalworld.Peopleacquaintthemselveswiththeworldfromthesimpletothecomplex,fromtheneartothefarandfromtheabstracttotheconcrete.Forexample,animals,asfriendsofthehumanbeingsandlivingtogetherwithhumanbeingsontheearth,arefamiliartopeople,sopeopletakeuseofcharacteristicsofanimals,suchasshape,function,andstate,toconductmetaphoricalthinkingandthusgenerateabundantmetaphors.Forexample,inEnglish,theword“fox”isusedtobecomparedto“cunning”or“deceit”;theword“sheep”iscomparedto“docile”or“tame”andword“wolf”isusedtodescribesomethingorsomebody“atrocious”or“greedy”.InChinese,thosemetaphoricalconceptsmentionedabovebyandlargehaveidenticalmetaphoricalmeaningwiththoseinEnglish.Apartfromthat,therearealargenumberofconceptsinEnglishthathavethesamemetaphoricalusageswiththoseinChinese.Forinstances,both“dove”inEnglishand“Gezi(鸽子)”inChinesestandforpeaceorpeace-loving.SnakeinbothChinesecultureandwesternculturerepresents“cattiness,sinister,deceit”.InChineseculture,manyidiomscomeintobeingduetopeople‟sunfavorableimpressionsonsnake,suchas“蛇蝎心肠(aheartasmaliciousassnakesandscorpions)”and“牛鬼蛇神(cow-devilsandsnake-spirit)”.Inwesternculture,inBible,Satan,anevilman,isdescribedassnakethatseducedEveandAdamtoeattheforbiddenfruits.InEnglish,peoplecompareparrottomechanicalimitation,suchas,“Hetalkslikeaparrotandjostle-makers.InChinese,wealsohavesuchanimpression“鹦鹉学舌”.ThoseconceptshavethesameorsimilarmetaphoricalmeaningsinbothChineseandEnglish.Kennedythinks“Metaphormustberegardedasaprocessofreclassificationtothings”(115-123).Forexample,in“Thecamelhasbeencalledtheshipofthedesert(骆驼是沙漠之舟)”,“camel”and“ship”belongtodifferentconceptsaccordingtothecommonlyusedclassificationmethod.However,bothChineseandEnglishspeakerconsciouslyreclassifythemaccordingtotheirfunctionsofcarrygoodsandunifytheminanewcreatedcategorywhichis“attributecategory”.Thecommonattributeoftheconceptsisthebasisofcreating20 ChapterTwoMetaphoricalCognitiveMotivationofXiehouyu:HomogeneityandHeterogeneity“attributecategory”.Intheprocessofcreating“attributecategory”,thecommonfeatureoftheconceptswillbefore-groundedandotherfeatureswillplaythesecondfiddle.Andthefore-groundedsemanticmeaningandculturalcharacteristicsarerelevantwith“conceptualbase”ofsuchan“attributecategory”(Leech37-38).Inthemetaphor“Theshipisthehorseofsea(轮船是海洋之马)”,“ship”and“horse”havethesameconnotations:bothofthemcanbeusedforcarryingpeople,travel,war,andtheypitchedwhentheymove.Byjuxtaposingthetwodifferentconcepts,theoriginaldistinguishingcriteriawillbediscarded.Andanew“attributecategory”willbecreatedonthefoundationofcommonfeaturesorconnotationsofthetwodifferentconcepts.InbothChineseandEnglishmetaphors,wepreferusingourfivesensestoperceiveeternalthings,suchastastehappiness,tastepainfulness,tastesuccessandfailure,etc..Usually,wewillnotmatch“taste”with“happiness,painfulness,successandfailure”.However,“taste”hastheconnotationof“experiencing”soitcanbemappedontothecognitivedomainthusgettingtheconnotativemeaningappliedintheabovephrases.Sowecanredefinetheconnotationorcategoryof“taste(尝)”and“tastepower,freedom,failureetc.”,whichcanbeperceivedas“experiencepower,freedom,failureetc.”.Sotheword“taste”graduallyturnsouttoindicatepeople‟scapacityinmakingappropriateestimationandextendsintosubjectiveaestheticrecognition.Inthissense,itcanbeassumedthatmetaphorsoftasteinEnglishandChinesecanbeassignedtothesamecategory.ManywordsoffivesensesinbothChineseandEnglishhavethesameconnotationsorcategorieswhenmappedontocognitivedomains.2.1.2SimilarImage-SchemaandCulturalModelsLakoffpointsoutthatimage-schemamainlyincludesThePart-WholeSchema,TheLinkSchema,TheCenter-PeripherySchema,TheSource-Path-GoalSchema,TheUp-DownSchema,TheBalanceSchema,TheFront-BackSchemaandLinearOrderSchema(271-280).Helooksuponimageschemaasrelativelysimplifiedstructurethatmakesreappearanceinourbodilyexperiencesuchaspath,container,balanceandmotivepower.Wecanseefromthosetypes,mostofimageschemascanbeassignedtospaceschema.ZhaoYanfangregardsthat“image-schemaisacognitivestructurebasedonrelationbetweendifferentthings,anorganizationstructureofabstractrelationandconcreteimageinhumanexperienceand21 ChapterTwoMetaphoricalCognitiveMotivationofXiehouyu:HomogeneityandHeterogeneityunderstandingandabasicstructureusedtoperceiveandcognizemorecomplicatedconcepts”(134).Theconceptofimage-schemaisinitiallybroughtupfromConceptualMetaphor.ThemainviewpointsofConceptualMetaphorareappliedbothinChineseandEnglishculturesandlanguages.ItholdstheviewsthatmetaphoriskindofconceptualstructureandmetaphoricallanguageisjustsurfacephenomenonofConceptualMetaphor.Inthelinguisticlevel,metaphorisacommonandnormalexpressionbutdivertfromconventionalparadigm.Besides,metaphorisacross-domainmappingintheconceptualsystemoratransferofanimageschemaoramigrationofconcepts.BothinChineseandEnglish,metaphorsconsistoftwodomainswhicharesourcedomainsandtargetdomains.Theformerisusuallyfamiliar,concreteandpellucidamongpeoplewhilethelatterisalwaysunfamiliarorabstractconcepts.Throughmappingsomecharacteristicsofsourcedomainontothetargetdomain,thefeaturesandessenceofthetargetdomainwillbehighlightedandperceived.Forexample,wemapconceptofspaceontotheconceptoftimeandconverttheconceptoftimeontoakindofresource.Whenweapplythiskindofmetaphortolife,wewillregardtimeasresourcewhichcanbesavedorwasted.InChineseandEnglishmetaphors,mostmetaphoricalmeaningsderivefromtheconceptsoftimeandspace.“Time-spacemetaphorisoneofimage-schemametaphors,whichusesspacemetaphorassourcedomainandconstructtargetdomainorrathertosaytimeconceptualdomainbymetaphoricalmapping”(Gentneretal.537).Sinceitishardforhumanbeingstohaveanintuitiveunderstandingofabstractconceptoftimeandtheformationofspaceconceptisalsoearlierthanthatoftimeconcept,sopeopleusethespacedomaintounderstandtimedomainandmapspacedomainontotimedomainincognitivedomain.TimeisconceptualizedsystematicallyintermsofspaceinChineseaswellasinEnglish.BothinChineseandEnglishcultures,timeconceptandspaceconceptareinseparableandmosttimeconceptsstemfromspacewords.Sowhenweconstructspace-timemetaphorinChineseandEnglish,wewillusesimilarbodilyexperienceandimaginativethought.Therefore,similarspaceschemawillcomeabout.InChineseandEnglish,thenounsoflocality“前(before,proceeding)”and“后(after,following)”areusedtorepresentthepastandthefuture.Forexample:thedaybeforeyesterday(前天),thedayaftertomorrow(后天),theproceeding22 ChapterTwoMetaphoricalCognitiveMotivationofXiehouyu:HomogeneityandHeterogeneityweeks(前几周),thefollowingweeks(后几周).BothChinesescholarsandwesternscholarsdeemthatimageschemaderivesfromworldexperiencewhichisthenconceptualizedandcategorizedintoacertainkindoflanguage.Metaphorisakindofcognitivemodelwhilecognitivemodelisindependentofculturalmodel.Sowhenweinterpretmetaphorwewillinevitablyrelatetosomeculturalfactors.Culturalmodelisacollectionoftheundergoneandconservativecontextforsomedomainbyanindividualoraunitorevenacountry.Thereareprimarilythreefeaturesofculturalmodels:Firstlyandforemost,culturalmodelsaremainlyopentooutsidersduetotheglobalization.Anextraordinaryresultofthatfeatureisthatitisratherdifficulttomakeaspecificdescriptionofacertainculturaldomain.Moreover,thedescriptionofculturalmodelswillbeneverextinctwhilealwayshighlyoptional.Inthesecondplace,culturalmodelsarenotindependentbutassociative,sowehavethereasontobelievethatculturalmodelsfalltogethertosetupnetworks.Lastbutnotleast,culturalmodelsareubiquitous.Ineachcategorizationwesometimesconsciouslyrefertooneormoreculturalmodelsthatwehavekeptinreserve.Rarelywhenwearefacedwithacompletelyunacquaintedthingorconditionwillnofittableculturalmodelbeattainable.However,insuchacase,wewillpresumptivelystrivetofigureoutsomeparallelexperiencesanddirectlyformaculturalmodel.Culturalmodel,asthejargonimplies,revealacultural,mainlypsychologicalviewoftheconservativeknowledgeaboutsomefield.Althoughpsychologistalwaysstatethatthereexistprivateandindividualexperiences,culturalmodelsgeneratefromthoseindividualexperiences.Theassumptionthatmanypeoplehaveapproximatelythesamebasicknowledgeofacertainobjectisthebasisofculturalmodels.Inaddition,culturalmodelscanbeseenascognitivemodelswiththestrongevidencelistedasfollows.UngereramdSchmidputforwardthat:Cognitivemodelsaredependentoftheculturesinwhichpeoplegrowupandlive.Cognitivemodelsareformedonthebasisofourdailyexperienceforwhichthecultureprovidesallkindsofsituations.Therefore,cognitivemodelsintendedforspecialdomainseventuallyrelyontheallegedculturalmodels.Incontrary,culturalmodelscanberegardedascognitivemodelssharedbypeoplethatarepartofthesamesocialgroup(50).23 ChapterTwoMetaphoricalCognitiveMotivationofXiehouyu:HomogeneityandHeterogeneitySinceChinaandotherEnglish-speakingcountrieshavethesimilarbodilyexperience,cognitivemodel,andemotionalconvergence,sothereexistoverlapsbetweenChineseandEnglishculturalcognition.Asaresult,therearealsocoincidentpartsbetweenChineseculturalmodelsandwesternculturalmodels.2.2CharacteristicsandManifestationsofMetaphoricalHeterogeneityInanalyzingcognitiveconceptualcategory,Ungerer,FandSchmid,H.Jholdtheview“[c]ognitivecategorytypicallydependsoncognitivemodelstoredinourmindswhilecognitivemodeldependsonculturalmodel”(50).Metaphoristocreaterelevanceintheprocessofhumanbodyexperienceswhichareindependentofspecificcultures.Therefore,wehavereasontobelievethatindifferentlanguagesandcultures,metaphoricalconceptsmightbedifferent.Thatiscalledmetaphoricalheterogeneity.Inthepreviouschapter,wehavediscussedthatthereexistsimilarmetaphoranddifferentmetaphorstoonesubjectindifferentlanguagesandcultures.Duetoitsexperientialandembodiedbases,manymetaphorsareuniversaltodifferentlanguages.However,metaphor,asacognitivemodelcoulduseconceptstoconveythesamemetaphoricalmeaning.Theconceptsmightbelongtodifferentcategoriesandbringdifferentimaginationstoconstructdifferentimage-schema.Metaphorsindifferentlanguagesalsodependonsubjects‟culturalmodel.SoinChineseandEnglishlanguages,metaphoricalheterogeneityfindsitsexpressionindiscrepanciesamongmetaphoricalconcepts,conceptualcategory,image-schemaandculturalmodelsinbothlanguageenvironments.2.2.1DifferentMetaphoricalConceptsandConceptualCategoriesDuetodifferencesingeographicalenvironment,productionmode,culturalsymbol,religiousbeliefs,valuestandardandaestheticorientationbetweenChineseandEnglish,thecorrespondentmetaphoricalconceptsofsomeobjectsandthereflectedculturalconnotationsareconsequentlydifferent.Forexample,“dragon”canbecomparedtometaphoricalconceptsanditalsohasdifferentculturalconnotations.InChina,itisthesymbolofauspiciousnessanddignitywhileinwesterncountriesanditstandsforevilandferocity.Infact,“dragon”doesnotexistinrealworldbutaimaginedanimalinChineseandwesternlegendsandmyths.OwingtotheculturaldifferencesinChinaandwest,thefigurativemeaningsarealsodistinct.24 ChapterTwoMetaphoricalCognitiveMotivationofXiehouyu:HomogeneityandHeterogeneityInancientChina,federalemperorsregarded“dragon”astheirrealbodyandtheyproclaimedthemselves“therealdragonandthesonofheaven”toachievethepurposeofstructuringpeople‟sthoughts,makingpeopleobeytheirrulesandmaintainingthecountrystableandsound.Uptothetoday,“dragon”isalsooccupyingasupremepositioninpeople‟sheart.Manywould-bemothersalsofavors“dragon”baby,soin2012,thenumberofnewbornsisextremelylargethanotherChineseZodiacYears.Internationally,Chinesepeopletakeprideinbeing“thedescendantsofthedragon”.Consequently,“dragon”becomesoneofthefeaturesofChinaandformulatesvividnationalpersonalitiesandstandsformagnificentnationalspirit.InEnglish,theword“dragon”hasevolvedfromtheGreekwordanditmeans“tosee”,“tolookat”,“towatchandtoflash”.InBibledragonrepresentsevilandterror.Inmedievalage,dragonstoodforpagansandevils.InAnglo-Saxon‟sfamousnarrativepoems,Beowulffoughtwiththeviciousdragonthatwastheembodimentofwickednessandcruelty.InEnglish,fierceandbrutalwomaniscomparedto“dragon”.Forexample,sheisarealdragon,andyou‟dbetterkeepawayfromher.Thephrase,“adragonlady”,isusedtodescribeawomanwhoexercisesrightsasaruler.Besides,whenitcomestothefigurativemeaningsofdog,differencesbetweenChineseandEnglishalsoarise.BothinChineseandEnglish,thebasicmeaningof“dog”isidentical.Itisadomesticandfour-leggedanimalthatcanhelpguardhomes.However,themetaphoricalconceptsandculturalconnotationsaregreatlydifferent.InChinese,“dog”isakindofanimalinahumblestatus.Itsfigurativemeaningsarealwaysderogatory,suchas“狼心狗肺（ascruelasawolf）”,“狗咬耗子——多管闲事（pokeone‟snoseintosomebody‟saffairs）”.Inwesterncountries,dogisconsideredtobeoneofmostfavoritepetsofpeopleandthebestfriendofhuman.Therefore,westernersareextremelytiredofeatingdogs.Whentheyusethedogtorefertosomeone,thedogequalstofellowanditcanbeusedtodescribesomereliablepeople.Forinstances:Youluckydog.Everydoghasitsday.Loveme,lovemydog.Thoseexpressionsreflecttheculturalmentalityofwesterners.Theyviewthedogsastheirlovelycompanionsandtheirfriends.Forexample,“asfaithfulasadog”isusedtodescribepeople‟sloyalty.Theapplicationofmetaphorsisaprototypeoflanguagecreativity.Meanwhile,languageusersmaybreaktheexistingconceptsandreorganizecategoriesthroughmetaphors.Atthispoint,thenewcategorycausedbytheextensionsofmetaphorscouldbedifferentin25 ChapterTwoMetaphoricalCognitiveMotivationofXiehouyu:HomogeneityandHeterogeneityChineseandEnglishlanguage.Take“酸”and“sour”,“苦”and“bitter”forexample,inChinese,poornessandpedantryare“酸”suchas“穷酸,寒酸”.WhileinEnglish,“sour”referstopeoplewhoarebad-temperedandunnamablesuchas“Thedoorwasopenedbyanuglysour-facedman”.“酸”and“sour”asmetaphoricalconceptsarebelongingtodifferentcategories.Intermsof“苦”and“bitter”,ontheonehand,theyhavethesamemetaphoricalmeaningof“unpleasantorpainful”.Whentheyareusedtodescribe“words”,suchas”苦言相劝”and“bitterwords”,theirmetaphoricalmeaningsaretotallydifferent.“Bitterwords”meansspeakinginpainandinresentmentwhile“苦言相劝”indicateswordsofsuggestionswhicharedifficulttobeacceptablebecausetheyareunpleasanttoears.2.2.2DifferentImage-SchemasandCulturalModelsIntheprevioussection,wehavediscussedtime-spacemetaphorandthesimilarmetaphoricalmeaningoftime-spacemetaphorwhichachieveitsmetaphoricalmeaningthrough“Front-BackSchema”inbothChineseandEnglishLanguages.Inthissection,wewilldiscussthedifferentmetaphoricalmeaningsoftime-spacemetaphor.Forexample,inChinese,“改革开放后”usesspatialwordor“Front-BackSchema”“后”toindicatetheconceptoftime“在„„以后”whileinEnglish,“sincethereformationandopeningup”employs“PathSchema”toindicate“flowoftime”fromacertainpoint.Therefore,asforthisphrase,ChinesepeopleandEnglishpeoplewillusedifferentformsofimage-schematoconstructmeaning.Regardingtherelationoflanguagetoculture,mostaspectsoflanguagearecontainedinculture.Therefore,languageisonefacetofthesociety,andtherelationshipbetweenlanguageandcultureispart-wholerelationship.Soontheonehand,languageitselfaculturalphenomenon;ontheotherhand,themostmajorityofculturalphenomenacoincidewithlanguageandareembodiedinlanguage.Differentpeopleindifferentculturestendtoadoptdifferentwaysofthinking,sothedivergencebetweenpeoplewhocomefromdifferentculturesisratherapparent.InordertomakeabetterconversionbetweenChineseandEnglish,IfeelobligedtomakeacomparisonoflanguageexpressionsinChineseandEnglish.Inspiteofstrikingsimilarities,therearealsosomediscrepanciesbetweenEnglishandChinesemetaphors.Inthispart,somesimilarmetaphoricalconceptsconveyedbydifferentbodypartsinChineseandEnglishwillbe26 ChapterTwoMetaphoricalCognitiveMotivationofXiehouyu:HomogeneityandHeterogeneitydiscussed.Forexample:inChinese,idioms“心惊肉跳”,“狼心狗肺”,“交头接耳”,“撕心裂肺”,“舒眉展眼”,“面红耳赤”,“油嘴滑舌”,“摇唇鼓舌”,“张牙舞爪”arerespectivelytranslatedintothecorrespondentEnglishidioms“tomakefleshcreep”,“withaheartofwolf”,“towhisperintosomebody‟sear”,“totearone‟sheart”,“abeamingface”,“toberedintheface”,“tobeoil-tongued”,“towagone‟stongue”,“fiercelytobareone‟sfangs”.Itisquiteeasyforustoseethatintermsofthesamecognitiveobject,thereexistsimilarmetaphoricalconceptsinChineseandEnglishlanguagesfromtheaboveexamples.Butthemostimportantthingforustodoistocomparethedifferences.InChineseidioms,doublesourcedomainsareusuallyappliedtobemappedontothetargetdomaintoconveythesamemeaning,whileinEnglishidiomsmono-sourcedomainismappedontothetargetdomain,whichcanbeclearlyseenfromtheexampleslistedabove.Forexample,themetaphoricalidiominChinese“狼心狗肺”isusedtodescribethepersonwhoiscruelandevil-mindedlikeawolf.Thismetaphoricalidiomemploysdualsourcedomains“心”and“肺”,whichmeanstwoconceptsareusedtorefertothesamemetaphoricalmeaning.Itisakindofwhole-partrelationship.ButtherelevantmetaphoricalidiominEnglish“withaheartofawolf”usesonesourcedomain“heart”,whichisakindofbalancedrelationship.ThedifferentformsofEnglishandChinesemetaphoricalidiomscanseektheirrootsfromthedifferentimageschemasandculturalmodels.Chinesepeoplepayspecialattentiontoharmony,balanceandsymmetrybetweendifferentthings,whichmakesaprofoundeffectonthelinguisticexpressions.Suchakindofculturalconceptalsolaysfoundationfordifferentimageschemasappearinginthedifferentlanguageexpressions.Inordertogetthetargetdomain,dualsourcedomainswillbeappliedinChinesemetaphoricalidiomswhilesinglesourcedomainwillbeusedinEnglishmetaphoricalidioms.Inaword,wecansayChinesepeopleuseWhole-partSchematoconstructmetaphorswhileEnglishpeopleuseBalanceSchematoconstructmetaphors.Inordertometaphorizethetargetdomain,Chinesepeopleoftenusebi-sourcedomains.Asaresult,ininterpretingthemetaphoricalidioms,weshouldfirstcognizethetwosourcedomains,whichbelongtothesamemetaphoricalconcept.Themetaphoricalconceptwillintegrateintothetargetdomaintogenerateanewstructurewhichiscalledemergentstructure.TheprocessofcognizingChinesemetaphoricalidiomsconductedinwhole-partschemacan27 ChapterTwoMetaphoricalCognitiveMotivationofXiehouyu:HomogeneityandHeterogeneitybeseeninFigure1.Figure1(WangWenbinandYaoJun39)FromFigure1,wecanknowthecomprehensionprocessofsomeChinesemetaphoricalidioms.Wecancitetheexample“撕心裂肺”,peopleknowthat“撕”and“裂”areverystrongandcruelactionstoobjects.“心”and“肺”areimportantorgansinpeople‟sbody.Theaction“撕心”and“裂肺”meantobreakone‟sorgan,whichwillinevitablybringpainandsufferings.Sotheemergentstructureisthatoneissobroken-heartedasifsomeoneelsehastornhisorherheart.Mono-sourcedomainisusuallypreferredinEnglishmetaphoricalidioms,whichiscompletelydifferentfromtheabovecase.Withthemono-sourcedomain,theconceptualmappingandblendingoccurdirectly,whichwillstraightbringforththeemergentstructure.ThewholecognitiveprocessconductedinbalanceschemacanbeseeninFigure2.Figure2(WangWenbinandYaoJun39)FromFigure2,wecanknowthecognitiveprocessofEnglishmetaphoricalidiomsis28 ChapterTwoMetaphoricalCognitiveMotivationofXiehouyu:HomogeneityandHeterogeneitymucheasierthancognitiveprocessofChinesemetaphoricalidioms.Forexample,inidiom“toberedintheface”,“redintheface”isthesourcedomaintoindicateanintendedmeaning.Intheprocessofcomprehendingthismetaphoricalidiom,thesourcedomainandthetargetdomainwillbeblendedtoformametaphoricalconcept.Fromourbodilyexperience,people‟sfacesalwaysturnredwhentheyareshyornervous.Accordingly,theemergentstructureorthemetaphoricalmeaningisthatsomeonefeelsshyornervousassheorheisredintheface.Inferenceandsharedknowledgeplayagreatimportantroleinwholeprocessofmetaphorinterpreting(Fernando236-240).Theyareessentialmeansintheprocessofblending.However,thedivergenceisrelative.Thefactisthatthecomprehensionofmetaphoricalidiomssometimesismuchmoredifficultthantheabovecases.Unconventionally,therearesomemetaphoricalidiomswithdualsourcedomainsinEnglish,andaccordinglyChinesemetaphoricalidiomsarenotalwaysfeaturedbydualsourcedomains.Occasionally,Chinesemetaphoricalidiomswillbeendowedwithsinglesourcedomainlike“易如反掌”.Butingeneral,metaphoricalidiomswithdualsourcedomainsaccountforalargerproportioninChinesethanthoseinEnglish,which,tosomeextent,isresultedfromdifferentimageschemasgeneratedindifferentculturalmodels.2.3TheClassificationofXiehouyuBasedonthemetaphoricalhomogeneityandmetaphoricalheterogeneity,XHYcanbedividedintohomogeneousXHYandheterogeneousXHY.Accordingtothemanifestationsandcharacteristicsofmetaphoricalhomogeneityandmetaphoricalheterogeneity,homogeneousXHYandheterogeneousXHYaccordinglypossessthesameorsimilarmanifestationsandcharacteristicsofthem.ThefollowingpartsgiveadetailedillustrationonhomogeneousXHYandheterogeneousXHY.2.3.1HomogeneousXiehouyuMetaphorisavitaldevicetointensifytheartisticexpressionoflanguageeffectivelyanditisalsoanindispensablewaytocomprehendtheobjectiveworld.Duetodifferentlanguages,therearevariousandcolorfulmetaphors.Metaphorisnotonlyaformofhumanlanguage,butalsothefundamentalmodelofhumanthinkingandbehavior.Metaphorcoversmanyfields,29 ChapterTwoMetaphoricalCognitiveMotivationofXiehouyu:HomogeneityandHeterogeneitysuchassociallife,language,culture,politics,religion,scienceandeconomics.ThesimilaritybetweenChineseandEnglishmetaphoricalsayingsstemfromthesimilarityofhumanbodilyexperiencesandmetaphoricalminds.Humanmindisaproductoflong-termdevelopmentofmaterialworldandamechanismofhumanbrains.Duringsociallifeandpractice,humanbeingareinaconstantcontactwiththeobjectiveworld,passinginformationtothebrainthroughthenervecenterandthusemotionalperceptionofobjectivethingscomingintobeing.Intheconstantpractice,themindproducesconcept,judgmentandreasoning.Themindcanreflecttheobjectiveworldmorecomprehensivelyandrevealtheessentialproperty.Itcanbesaidthathumanmindisalsoacognitivetool,whichcanhelppeopletoperceiveandunderstandtheworld.Ashumanbeingsaregettingabetteranddeeperunderstandingofthenaturalworld,languagehasgraduallybecomenature-interpretingtool.Intheprocessofcontactwithnature,humanbeingscontinuouslyusethewell-knownexperiencetocognizetheunknownnaturalworld.Therefore,metaphoricalmindhasgraduallyformedincludinganalogyandreasoning.Then,metaphorhelpspeopletoexploreandexpresstheworldandguidespeopletogofromthelimitedknowntotheunlimitedunknown.Forthisreason,theessenceofmetaphoristograsptheessentialrelationshipbetweenhumanbeingandnatureandrevealthesimilaritybetweenthem.AlthoughChinaandEnglish-speakingcountriesarefarapartandbelongtodifferentnations,thesamecognitivemechanismsofmetaphorsfindtheirexpressionsinhumanlanguageandproducethesamebasicpatternsofEnglishandChinesemetaphor,whichisthehomogeneousmetaphor.ForXHYinterpretationmainlyfocusesontheunderstandingofmetaphors.Soiftherearesimilarmetaphoricalconcepts,conceptualcategory,imageschemaandculturalmodelsintermsofacertainmetaphorinChineseXHYaswellasinEnglishmetaphor,wecancallthiskindofXHYhomogeneousXHY.Intheviewpointofcognitivelinguists,metaphorhasagenericspacethatisthecommongroundofsourcedomainandtargetdomain.Forexample,“Whenthecatisaway—themicewillplay”山中无老虎——猴子称大王.Inthisgenericspace,EnglishandChinesesayingsrespectivelyuse“cat”and“mice”,“老虎”and“猴子”asthematerialofsourcedomain,andthisdomainthenmapsitontootherthingsandformsametaphoricalrelationship.“cat”and“老虎”cancomparativelybemorepowerfulthan“mice”and“猴子”,30 ChapterTwoMetaphoricalCognitiveMotivationofXiehouyu:HomogeneityandHeterogeneitywecanattribute“cat”and“老虎”tothecategoryof“thestrong”,“mice”and“猴子”tothecategoryof“theweak”.So“cat”and“老虎”havethesameconceptualcategory.Itisthesamecasewith“mice”and“猴子”.Whenweseetheidiom“Whenthecatisaway—themicewillplay”inEnglish,wewillconstructanimage-schemainourmindthat“acatchasesthemouse”.AndinChineseXHY“山中无老虎——猴子称大王”,wecanimaginethat“inaforestwithouttiger,themonkeysjumparoundeverywhere”.Soinbothsayings,wecanemploytheLinkSchematoconstructtheimageinourmind.Forthisreason,thiskindofChineseXHYcanfindthecounterpartinEnglishlanguage.ThereareapproximatelysimilarmentalfoundationandbasicpatternbetweenChineseandEnglishmetaphors.Theformationoftheconceptualmetaphoricalsystemhasacloserelationshipwithhumanexperienceandthematerialenvironment.Thoughdifferentnationshavedifferentcultures,peoplefromdifferentbackgroundsstillhavethesimilarculturalaccumulationandproducetheirculturalconsensusduetolivingonthesameplanetwiththesamebodyconstitution,cognitiveorganandexperience.ThefollowingXHYsrepresentthesimilaritiesbetweentheChineseandEnglishmetaphoricallanguage,withthesimilarmetaphoricalconcept,conceptualcategory,image-schemaformandculturalcognition:Aratiscrossingthestreet—beingchasedbyeverybody(老鼠过街——人人喊打);Aflyintheglass—seeingthelightbutnotthefuture(玻璃杯里的苍蝇——有光明没前途);Loosebowelswithrestoratives—invain(泻肚子吃补药——白费);thebuttonoftiger—notouch(老虎屁股——摸不得).2.3.2HeterogeneousXiehouyuContrarytohomogeneousXHY,heterogeneousXHYisendowedwithsuchcharacteristicsasdifferentmetaphoricalconcepts,conceptualcategories,image-schemasandculturalcognitionbetweenChineseandEnglishmetaphors.Withintheinteractionbetweenhumanbeingandnature,differentsocialcultures,regions,politics,religionsandthespeedofsocialandeconomicdevelopmentwillleadtodifferentexperiencesfordifferentpeople.Consequently,peoplewillmakedifferentassociationsandcreatedifferentimaginations.TheconceptschosenfortheChineseandEnglishmetaphoricalsayingsrepresentsimilarityaswellasstrongnationalcharacteristics.SomemetaphoricalconceptsofXHYcan‟tfindtheircorrespondentpartsinthetargetlanguagesintheprocessoftranslation.Forexample,inXHY31 ChapterTwoMetaphoricalCognitiveMotivationofXiehouyu:HomogeneityandHeterogeneity“阎王爷做生意——鬼也没得上门”,“菩萨心肠豪猪嘴——心软嘴巴硬”,targetlanguagelearnermaynotknowthemeaningsof“阎王爷”and”菩萨”.Sointranslation,wemustfindtheequivalentmetaphoricalconceptstosubstitutetheconceptswithstrongChinesecharacteristics.Asdifferentnationallanguagesbearalargeamountofuniquecontentsabouttheirnationalthinkingmodels,customs,traditionalcultures,literaryclassics,accordinglyeachnationapplyitsownuniquecognitivemannertomaptheirowncognitionandthoughtabouttherealityandtheworldontolanguage,thusbringingaboutdifferentcharacteristicsoflanguagesintheconceptualmetaphoricalsystem.Forinstances,theChinesesayingorconceptof“狗咬狗”andtheEnglish“dog-eat-dog”seemtorepresentthesamemeaning,buttheconnotationsarecompletelyopposite.Inthiscontext,Chinesecompare“狗”to“enemy”or“unfriendlypeople”,andthissayingusuallydescribesafightingscenewithbadpeopleorevilforces.SomeXHYrelatingto“狗”suchas“狗咬吕洞宾——不识好人心”,“狗坐轿子——不识抬举”carryderogatorymeanings.ButintheWesternculture,theytraditionallytreat“dog”asafriendoracompanion.Evensomesayingswiththesameconceptcanfullyreflectthediversifiedcognitionabout“dog”.Anotherkindofinter-lingualpopularsayingsbetweenEnglishandChinesebearsthesameimplicationsormetaphoricalmeaningsbuttakinguseofdifferentmetaphoricalconcepts,whichareexhibitedinthefollowing.“Everypotterpraiseshispot(老王卖瓜——自卖自夸)”and“Twoheadsarebetterthanone(三个臭皮匠——顶个诸葛亮)”.Fromtheaboveexamples,wecanseethat“老王”correspondsto“potter”,and“瓜”correspondsto“pot”.“三个臭皮匠”and“诸葛亮”havetakentheplaceof“twoheads”and“one”.InthiskindofXHY,toexpressthesamemetaphoricalmeaning,differentconceptsareused.Besides,theyarealsototallydifferentintermsofcategory.However,wecouldconstructthesameimageschemaindifferentculturalcognition.Forexample,in“Everypotterpraiseshispot(老王卖瓜——自卖自夸)”bothofspeakersuseLinkSchematoproducerelationsbetweentheownerandtheirstuff,thusbringthemetaphoricalmeaningof“conceitedandself-satisfied”.ButonlythiscorrespondentfactorcannotmeetthedemandthathomogeneousXHYrequires.IntheabovemetaphoricalXHY,thereexistdifferencesinmetaphoricalconcepts,whichdonotinfluencethecontextualconsistencyoftheexpressed32 ChapterTwoMetaphoricalCognitiveMotivationofXiehouyu:HomogeneityandHeterogeneityideas.ThecoherenceofcontentandideasmanifestthatChineseandEnglishmetaphorsaresimilarinimage-schemaformandmetaphoricalmeaning.ButtheyaredifferentinmetaphoricalconceptsorconceptualcategoriessothattheyarestillheterogeneousXHY.33 ChapterThreeCognitiveProcessesofTranslatingHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyuChapterThreeCognitiveProcessesofTranslatingHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyuXHYisclassifiedintotwocategories:homogeneousXHYandheterogeneousXHY.Thispartwillfocusonthecognitiveprocessesoftranslatingeachcategoryandtherelationshipbetweendifferentcognitiveprocesses.“Thetranslatingprocessbetweendifferentlanguageshasrespecttothetranslator‟schangingthesourcetextinthesourcelanguageintoatargettextinthetargetlanguage”(Munday5).AccordingtoEugeneA.Nida,“Translatingfallsintofourphases:analyzingthesourcetext,transferringsourcelanguageintotargetlanguage,reconstructinginthetargetlanguage,andcheckingthetranslation”(“LanguageandCulture”108).However,intranslatinghomogeneousXHYandheterogeneousXHY,therewillbeanotherprocess:thecognitionandrenderingofmetaphoricalconceptswhichhavebeendiscussedinthepreviouspart.3.1CognitiveProcessesofTranslatingHomogeneousXiehouyuIntheprocessoftranslation,thetranslatornotonlyservesasareceptorbutalsoasasender.“Theprocessesoftranslationaretheprocessesofbilingualtransitionandcommunication”(Danks120).IntheprocessoftranslatinghomogeneousXHY,themostimportanttaskweshouldfinishistofindthecommongroundorthesimilaritiesbetweenthesourcelanguageandtargetlanguageaccordingtometaphorcognitivemechanisms.Therefore,inthefirstphaseoftranslation,weneedtoidentifythesimilarmetaphoricalconcepts.Andwecanthenmatchthemetaphoricalconceptindifferentlanguages,whichisthesecondphaseoftranslatinghomogeneousXHY.Theabovetwophasescanbeconsideredastheprocessesofdecodingandencoding.3.1.1IdentificationofSimilarMetaphoricalConceptsAmetaphoricalconceptintheunderlyingmetaphorisanabstractsenseanditexistsinourmind,servingasaconnectionbetweentwodomains.Ametaphoricalexpressionisbutasurfacemanifestationorrealizationofametaphoricalconcept.Thetranslatorfirstshouldhaveacorrectunderstandingoftheoriginaltext,getthemetaphoricalconceptsandperceivethe34 ChapterThreeCognitiveProcessesofTranslatingHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyumetaphoricalmeaning.HomogeneousXHYtranslationissuchakindofcommunicativeactivity,aimingatconveyingmetaphoricalmeaningofthesourcelanguagetexttothetargetlanguagetext.Apparently,itinvolvesthetranslator‟sinterpretationofmetaphoricalexpressionsinthesourcelanguagetextandthenrendersthemetaphoricalexpressionsintometaphoricalconceptsinthetargetlanguage.SothefirststepintranslatinghomogeneousXHYistosearchthesimilarmetaphoricalconceptsinthetargetlanguage.Forexample,“屁股底下上弹簧——蹦起来（Aspringunderthebutton—makingoneleapup)”.IntranslatingthispieceofXHY,thetranslatorshouldfirstdigupthemetaphoricalexpressioninChineseandrenderitintometaphoricalconcept.Afterwards,thetranslatorshouldcheckoutwhetherthereexistssimilarmetaphoricalconceptinthetargetlanguageandthenconveythemetaphoricalconceptintometaphoricalexpressioninthetargetlanguage.InthispieceofXHY,wecanseemetaphoricalexpressionis“蹦起来(makeoneleaping)”,andwecanplayourimaginationandgetthemetaphoricalconceptofthismetaphoricalexpressionis“蹦蹦跳跳”.Consequently,webegintosearchsimilarmetaphoricalconceptinEnglish“bouncingandvivacious”andfinallyputitintometaphoricalexpression.SowecanclearlyseethatwhetherinChineseorEnglish,thephrase“蹦起来”hastheconnotationofdelightandcheerfulness,suchas“雀跃”inChineseand“leapup”inEnglish.Therefore,iftheidentificationiswelldone,thefollowingtranslationwillberathersmoothintranslatinghomogeneousXHY.Anotherexampleis“茶壶装饺子——易进难出(Dumplingsinateakettle—easytogetinandhardtogetout)”.InthispieceofXHY,themetaphoricalconceptis“易进难出”,whichhasthemetaphoricalmeaningas“Beginiseasierthancompletion”.InEnglish,ithasthesamemetaphoricalmeaning.SothispieceofXHYcanbetranslatedliterallywhethertheChinesereaderorEnglishreadercanimaginethesamepictureandassociatethepicturewiththesamemetaphoricalmeaning.3.1.2IdentificationofSimilarMentalSpaces“Mentalspacesaresmallconceptualpacketsconstructedaswethinkandtalk,forthepurposeoflocalunderstandingandaction”(FauconnierandTurner113).FromtheperspectiveofFauconnier,amentalspacecomprisesasegmentalrepresentationoftheentitiesandrelationsofentitiesperceived,supposed,orrecalledbylanguageusers.Sowecansaymentalspacesarecloselyrelatedtothespeaker‟sorreceptors‟perceptionandimagination35 ChapterThreeCognitiveProcessesofTranslatingHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyubasedontheirmemorystoredinthemind.Intranslatingprocess,mentalspacesarecomposedofsourcespace,targetspace,genericspaceandblendedspace.XHYderivesfromourdailyexperienceofallsides.SoinapplicationofXHY,wecannaturallyrefertotherelatedwell-knownknowledgeandconstructcorrespondentmentalspaces,whichisinperfectintegrationwithdiscoursespacesandfinallyfinishtheconstructionprocessofXHY.Forexample,“泥牛入海——一去不回”,thesourcespaceis“泥牛入海”,whileinEnglishthetargetspaceis“thecattlesculpturedbyclayfallsintothesea”.WhetherinChineseorEnglish,thetwospacescanstimulatesimilarimaginationwhichis“泥牛将会溶于水(thecattlewillthawoutinthewater)”.Sotheblendspaceorthenewemergentstructureis“有去无回(onceleft,nevercomeback)”.Throughoursimilardailyexperiencecombinedwithmentalspaces,similarmetaphoricalmeaningcanbeblended.Oncethroughimagination,wecanblendsimilarmetaphoricalmeaning,sothispieceofXHYcanbetranslatedliterally.Anotherexampleis“老母猪钻篱笆——进退两难”,bothChinesereadersandEnglishreceptorshavetheknowledgeof“老母猪(theoldsow)”whichisratherfatand“篱笆(fence)whichiswovebybamboocaneortwig”.Sointhesourcelanguage,thesourcespaceis“老母猪钻篱笆”.Intargetlanguage,thetargetspaceis“theoldsowpassesthroughthefence”.Whileimagingtheoldsowpassthroughthefence,bothChineseandEnglishreceptorscangetsuchahumorouseffectthatitisimpossiblefortheoldsowtogetthroughorretreat,whichwillbringanewemergentstructure“inadilemma”.Therefore,thispieceofXHYcanalsobeliterallytranslatedas“Theoldsowpassesthroughthefence-inadilemma”.Throughthistranslation,thetargetlanguagereceptorscangetasimilarmetaphoricalmeaningorhumouseffectwiththesourcelanguagereceptor.3.2CognitiveProcessesofTranslatingHeterogeneousXiehouyuIntranslatingheterogeneousXHY,theprocesswillbemorecomplicated.Inchaptertwo,wediscussedthefeaturesofheterogeneousXHY.Itdoesnothavecorrespondentmetaphoricalconceptsinthetargetlanguage,eventhesimilarconceptualcategory.Inaddition,theimageschemastimulatedbyXHYcannotfindcounterpartinEnglish.SowhentranslatingheterogeneousXHY,weshouldfirstidentifythecognitivesubjectivityandthenfindthe36 ChapterThreeCognitiveProcessesofTranslatingHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyuinter-subjectivityandfinallyachieveinter-metaphoricity.3.2.1IdentificationofCognitiveSubjectivityandInter-subjectivitySomeheterogeneousXHYsarecharacterizedbycreativity.ComparedtohomogeneousXHY,theycannotbeeasilyidentified,becausetheybearobvioussubjectivityandtheybelongtotheircreators.SoinordertocomprehendsuchkindofXHY,weshouldfirstidentifythecognitivesubjectivityofit.Forexample,in“东施登台——献丑了”,“东施”isauniqueroleinChineseculturewithoutcorrespondentnotioninEnglishlanguage.Ifwetranslateitliterally,thetargetreceptorswillbeintotalconfusion.Sobeforetranslating,wemustfigureouttheoriginofthispieceofXHYandtheintendedmetaphoricalmeaningofit.InSpringandAutumnPeriod,therewasabeautyintheStateofYue,whosenameisXishi.Herbehaviors,voicesandfacialexpressionsattractothers‟appreciation.Inthevillagewhereshelives,thereisnoonewhodoesnotmarvelatherbeauty.DongshiisthefellowvillagerofXishi.Dongshiisundisciplinedwithuglyappearance.Oneday,Xishi‟sheartpainflaredupagain,soshewasgraspingherchestwithherhandandwrinklingherbrowsinpain,revealingdelicatefemalebeauty.SoDongshiimitatedthesickstateofXishiandintendedtoattractattention,whichincontrarymadeherevenmoreugly-looking.Therefore,wegettheimpressionDongshishowedherincompetencewhensheappeared.Afterwehavegottherealmeaningofit,wecancheckoutwhetherthereisequivalentinEnglishthathasthesameorsimilarmetaphoricalmeaningas“东施上场——献丑了”.Afterwards,wecanusethismetaphoricalmeaningtolocatethesimilarexpressionsinEnglishlanguage.Thedifferentmetaphoricalexpressionsormetaphoricalconceptscanbeseenassubjectivity.Andthemetaphoricalmeaningisregardedasinter-subjectivitythatlinksdifferentmetaphoricalexpressionsorconceptsinChineseandEnglish.3.2.2TransferringInter-subjectivitytoInter-metaphoricityThemetaphoricalmeaningsareeventuallyrealizedbyinterpretationofmetaphoraddressees.Metaphoraddressersintendtoexpresstheirobservationoftheoutsideworldthroughtheapplicationofmetaphorsandtheirgoalistoseekthethoughtresonanceorcommonsensewiththemetaphoraddressees.However,theinterpretationofmetaphoristhepreconditionofthoughtresonance.Withoutmetaphoraddressees,metaphorscannotachieve37 ChapterThreeCognitiveProcessesofTranslatingHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyutherealmetaphoricaleffect.Intheprocessofmetaphoricalinterpretation,inter-subjectivitymeansthatmetaphoraddresseescanreallygraspwhatthemetaphoraddressermeans.Basically,wecanusefourconceptsadvocatedbyGadamertoexplaincognitivemodelofinter-subjectivitybetweenaddresseesandaddressers,whichpavethewaytoachieveinter-metaphoricity.Thefourconceptsare“formation”,“commonsense”,“judgment”and“taste”(Gadamer14-44).Formationequalsaccomplishmentandcultivationoftalentandgeneralability.Soformationisthenecessaryconditionofinter-subjectivityrealizationandguaranteeofmetaphorinterpretation.Becausetheprocessofformationisanaccumulativeprocessofone‟sknowledge,experienceandmemoriesoftherealworldwhiletheresultofformationaretheaccumulatedfruitsofone‟sknowledge,experienceandmemories.Ifmetaphorsaresaidtopresentcertainexperienceofmetaphoraddressers,howcouldmetaphoraddresseesgettheintentionofaddressers?Howcouldtheysharetheexperienceofaddressers?Formationistheonlywayforaddresseestoperceivetheintentionofaddressersandsharetheirexperience.Commonsensenotonlyindicatesthegeneralabilityexistinginallhumanbeingsbutalsodirectatthesensecausingtheintercommunity.Inasense,theprocessofformationisthecultivationofcommonsense.Onlyformingthecommonsensethroughformationcanwemakeitpossibletorealizethegenerationandcommunicationofinter-subjectivityandtheninter-metaphoricity.Judgmentfindsitsexpressioninaffirmingandnegatingtheexistenceofacertainthingoritisathinkingprocessofpointingoutwhetheracertainthinghassomekindofproperty.Theconceptcommonsenseisinfactcloselyrelatedtotheconceptjudgment.Intheprocessofmetaphorinterpretation,metaphoraddressersmustmakeajudgmentwhethersourcedomainandtargetdomainhavethecorrespondenttraitandfeature.Namely,addressersmustestimatewhethersourcedomaincanreallybemappedontothetargetdomainandthiskindofjudgmentplaysaveryimportantroleintheinterpretationofmetaphor.Onlyonthebasisofcorrectjudgmentcantheaddresseesmakefurtherreasoning.AccordingtoFaucornnierandTurner,“[c]onceptualblendingmeanstheconceptualmappingcrossmentalspaces”(33).Obviously,weneedcognitivejudgmenttomakecross-mental-spacesmappingandprocessthecognitionofselectivespaceblending.Whichparttochooseandhowtochooseboth38 ChapterThreeCognitiveProcessesofTranslatingHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyudependontheaddressees‟accuratejudgmentonacertainsimilaritybetweensourcedomainandtargetdomain.Inotherwords,intheformationofmetaphor,partsofcharacteristicofthesourcedomainareshifted.Thefourthpredominantideaisthetaste.Gadamerinsiststhat“tasteundoubtedlycontainscognitivemodels”(46).Bothtasteandjudgmentmakejudgmentonthespecificthingonthebasisoftheentiretytoachievetheinter-subjectivity.Inter-subjectivityisakindofmutualunderstanding,akindofobjectivismfullofsocialism,akindofconvergentmeaningjudgmentandakindofcommunicationandconversationbetweendifferenttastes.Intheprocessofmetaphorinterpretation,metaphoraddresseescan‟tdowithouttastes,becauseaddresseesneedtheparticipationoftasteandmaketheinter-subjectivitycommunicationbecomepossible.Withouttaste,anysuperbmetaphorcanbecomparedtosomeonetalkstothebrickwall.Insomeextent,metaphorinterpretationisthefusionandmatchingofdifferenttastes.Ifinter-subjectivetastesdiffergreatly,evenasuprememetaphorisdifficulttobeappreciated.Insummary,inordertohaveaauthenticunderstandingofametaphor,theaddresseesshouldtrytheirbesttoeliminatethepossibletastedifferencesofinter-subjectivity,enlightenthemselves,promotetheirjudgmentandperceivethemanifestedtastebyaddresserstoachievetheinter-subjectivecommonsenseorsynaesthesia.Forexample,“放虎归山——自留后患(Lettheenemyescape—breedingthecalamityforthefuture)”.Weusuallycomparethedeed“放虎归山”to“lettheenemyescape”,whichlaterleadtotheresult“自留后患”.Initsessence,“放虎归山”and“lettheenemyescape”provetobequitedifferent.Wecanfindthecommongroundbetweenthesetwoconducts,bothofwhicharefoolishdeedsorfoolishideas.Metaphoraddressersselecttherelevantpartsbetweenthetwoconductsandmakeagenuinecombinationofthem.Ifaddresseeswanttohaveanauthenticinterpretationonthismetaphor,first,theymustbewell-informedandtheirideasmustbecompatiblewithothers‟.Afterwards,theyshouldhaveagoodunderstandingof“虎”and“enemy”andfindthecommonfeaturethatisferocity”.Thenaddresseesshouldmakeareasonablejudgmentontherationalityofcomparing“虎”to“enemy”.However,withtheabovethreeabilities,butforthegoodtaste,theaddresseesortranslatorswon‟tusethe“enemy”torepresent“虎”.Someotherexamplesare:“放羊拾柴禾——捎带(Gatherfirewoodwhileshepherding—doingsomethingbytheway)”and“老虎身上的虱子——谁敢惹(Thelouseonthetiger—whodareto39 ChapterThreeCognitiveProcessesofTranslatingHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyuoffend)”.Inthiscase,“老虎”iscomparedtopowerfulforceorpeopleand“虱子”isequaledtothewickedandtheevil.3.3TheRelationshipBetweentheTwoCognitiveProcessesofTranslatingIntheprevioussection,wemadearespectiveanalysisofthecognitiveprocessesoftranslatinghomogeneousXHYandheterogeneousXHY.ThecognitiveprocessesoftranslatinghomogeneousXHYmainlyconsistinidentificationofsimilaritiesthatalreadyexistandconstructionofsimilarimage-schemaormentalspacesthatarealsobasedonsimilarities.Meanwhile,theprocessesoftranslatingheterogeneousXHYmainlydependonidentificationofdiscrepanciesorcommoncategorythatcanbridgesubjectivitytoachieveinter-subjectivityandtheninter-metaphoricity.Inasummary,weregardtheprocessoftranslatinghomogeneousXHYasaprocessofstaticmatchingandcognizethisprocessasarhetorictranslatingprocess,whichisnamedtranslatingmetaphorinthefollowingpart.Likewise,theprocessoftranslatingheterogeneousXHYisdeemedtobeaprocessofdynamicprojectionanditiscognizedasametaphoricaltranslatingprocesswhichisconsideredastranslatinginmetaphorinthefollowingpart.3.3.1StaticMatchingandDynamicProjectionStaticmatchinganddynamicprojectionarethesubdivisionsofmetaphormappingincognitivelinguistics.First,wecanlookatthedifferencesof“matching”and“projection”.InMetaphorsWeLiveby,Lakoffdoesnotuse“mapping”but“projection”torefertomappingconceptionforthefirsttime(171).Lateron,inWomen,Fire,andDangerousThings,theword“mapping”isputintouse.“„Projection‟isaprocessofdynamiccreativeactivitywhile“mapping”isastaticmatchingordescriptionformetaphorconcepts”(Shu13).WhetheraccordingtodefinitionofmathematicalconceptorLakoffandJohnson,itismoresuitablefor“mapping”tobetranslatedinto“correspondenceormatching”when“mapping”representsstaticconnotations,sointhisthesisinordertomakeabetterdistinction,weusetheword“matching”.Becausein“matching”process,thereexistsnodirectionofinformationflowbetweensourcedomainandtargetdomain.Themaindifferencebetweentheconceptsrelies40 ChapterThreeCognitiveProcessesofTranslatingHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyuonthetranslator‟ssubjectivity.However,when“mapping”placesemphasisondynamicmeaningorexplicitsthetransferenceofstructureandattributebetweensourcedomainandtargetdomain,itissupposedtobetranslatedas“projection”.Correspondenceormatching”betweensourcedomainandtargetdomainisthebasisof“projection”.“Matching”and“projection”arethetwoinseparablephasesinacompletecognitiveprocess.Therearemanystructuralconstitutionsthatcanachieve“matching”,whilewhatcanget“projection”isthecontentofhighcognitiveemergentinreallanguageenvironment.Thestructuralconstitutionof“matching”isinherentoftherealworld;however,“wecancreativelymakesomestructuralconstitutionbecomeprominentbylinguisticmeansinaspecificcontext”(Wang52).Therefore,intranslation,thecognitiveprocessof“projection”isinfluencedbythetranslator‟ssubjectivity.“Projection”isalsosimilartothe“blendedspace”whichwillproduceanewemergentstructurebycomparingtwoinputspacesandgeneratingthecommongroundsharedbythesourcedomainandtargetdomain.Forexample,intranslatinghomogeneousXHY“嫁出去的女儿——泼出去的水”,“女儿”and“水”inChineselanguagehavethesameexpressionsinEnglishlanguage.InChinese,wecompare“嫁出去的女儿”to“泼出去的水”.AndinEnglish,wecanconstructthesamementalsimilarityorimageschemaonthebasisofourbodilyanddailyexperience.Sincewegetthematchingpartsthatarenotonlyinherentinsourcelanguagebutalsointargetlanguage,wecantranslatethispieceofXHYliterallyonthebasisofmatchingparts.WhileintranslatingheterogeneousXHY,theprocessismorecomplicated.Forinstance,intranslatingheterogeneousXHY“瘸子驼背——背弓屈膝(卑躬屈膝)”,“瘸子驼背”and“背弓屈膝”havethecorrespondentpartsinEnglishlanguage,butifthispieceofXHYistranslateddirectlyandliterally,themetaphoricalmeaningwilldisappear.Sosimpleordirectmatchingwillnotfunctionanymore.Wemustemploydynamicprojectionwhichcantakeuseofcreativityofthird-party.Therefore,whiletranslatingthispieceofXHY,weshouldillustratethat“背弓屈膝”isthehomophonicfour-characteridiomof“卑躬屈膝”whichhasthesameconnotationwiththefour-characteridiom“阿谀奉承”.“阿谀奉承”hasthecounterpartinEnglishlanguageas“togetsomebody‟sflavorbyflattery”.TotranslateheterogeneousXHY,weneedtobringoursubjectiveinitiativeintoplay,findtheinter-subjectivityandfinallyachieveinter-metaphoricity.41 ChapterThreeCognitiveProcessesofTranslatingHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyu3.3.2TranslatingMetaphorandTranslatinginMetaphorMetaphoricalhomogeneityischaracterizedbysimilarmetaphoricalconcepts,conceptualcategoryandimage-schema.Meanwhile,metaphoricalheterogeneityfeaturesdifferentmetaphoricalconcepts,conceptualcategoriesandimage-schemas.Therefore,inordertodistinguishtranslationofhomogeneousXHYandheterogeneousXHY,wecanusethetwoconceptstodescribethetwocognitiveprocessesthataretranslatingmetaphorandtranslatinginmetaphor.WangBinpointsoutthat“metaphortranslationindicateshowtotranslatemetaphorasameansofrhetoricdevice”(94).Itmeansmetaphortranslationisakindofliteraltranslationandreproducestheoriginalimagesinthetargetlanguagewiththecounterparts.Whiletranslatinginmetaphorpreferstotakeuseofwell-knownconceptualcategoriesandcommunicativemodelstoillustrateunfamiliarthingsandmakestranslationbeeasilyacceptedbyreceptorsintargetlanguage(B.Wang94).Translatinginmetaphorcanberegardedasakindofliberaltranslationmethod.WhywecanusethesetwoconceptstointerprettherelationshipbetweenhomogeneousXHYtranslationandheterogeneousXHYtranslation?Translatingmetaphorreferstohowtotranslatemetaphorthatisregardedasrhetoricaldevice.Metaphoricalexpressionsarethetargetoftranslationbutthemethodoftranslation.Inthepreviousparts,wehavegottheconclusionthatinhomogeneousXHYmetaphorshavesimilarmetaphoricalconcept,orconceptualcategoryorimageschemaintheEnglishlanguage.Soifthereexistscoincidentmetaphoricalconceptorconceptualcategorybetweenthesourcelanguageandtargetlanguage,wejustneedtoidentifythecounterpartsandthetranslationprocessisjustaprocessofstaticmatching.Inthiscase,translatingmetaphormethodisemployed.Translatingmetaphorcanberegardedassimpleandliteralmatchingofmetaphorfromthesourcetexttothetargettext.Themostimportanttaskorprocedureistomatchthesimilarmetaphoricalconceptorconceptualcategoryorcreatesimilarimaginationschematoproducesimilarmetaphoricalmeaninginthetargettexts.Translatinginmetaphorindicatesakindoftranslatingmethodthatconductsthewholetranslatingprocessbymeansofmetaphor.“Ifatranslatorregardstheoriginaltextasacontainer,originalcontentsasthestuffinthecontainerandmeanwhileregardstargettextalsoasacontainerwhichisusedtoholdthestufffromtheoriginalcontent,whichiscalled42 ChapterThreeCognitiveProcessesofTranslatingHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyutranslatinginmetaphor”(B.Wang91).“Translatinginmetaphorischaracterizedbymakingananalogicalexplanationforthesourcetextbytargetculturalcommunicativeandcognitivemodel”(B.Wang92).Thereasonwhytranslatinginmetaphorcomesintobeingisthattargetreceptors‟havedifferentlifeexperienceandtheiracquiredconceptualstructuresgeneratedifferentthinkingmodelsandjudgment.Sotheycannotfindcorrespondentmetaphoricalconceptorconceptualcategoryinthetargetlanguage.Neithercantheyconductthesameimaginationandconstructthesameimageschemainmetaphorassociationintargetlanguageenvironment.Therefore,thetranslationshouldbemadeslightchangestomeettheneedsoftargetreceptors.HeterogeneousXHYalsoindicatesthatreceptorsinthetargetlanguagecannotdirectlyunderstandthiskindofXHYduetotheirdifferentcognitionandculture,whichbearsthesamecharacteristicwithtranslatinginmetaphor.SowecanregardtheprocessoftranslatingheterogeneousXHYasaprocesstranslatinginmetaphor.43 ChapterFourTranslatingMethodsofHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyuChapterFourTranslatingMethodsofHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyuIntranslatingpractice,wesparenoeffortsandadoptallkindsoftranslatingmethodstoachieveequivalence.Nidaoncestated,“Anumberofrelevantprinciplesgovernthekindsanddegreesofadjustment,whichmaybenecessaryinordertoproduceasatisfactoryfunctionalequivalenceofasourcetext”(“Language,CultureandTranslating”92).Intermsofdifferentcases,themethodsputforwardinthefollowingpartmaybequitebeneficialtoproducetheclosestnaturalequivalenceintheprocessesoftranslatinghomogeneousXHYandheterogeneousXHY.Inthischapter,homogeneousandheterogeneousXHYwillbefurtheranalyzedandcorrespondenttranslatingmethodswillbeadopted.Canthemetaphoricalconceptsinsourcelanguagetextwillbringthesameorsimilarmetaphoricalmeaningintargetlanguagetext.HowtobringsimilarmetaphoricalmeaningtothesourcelanguagereadersandtargetlanguagereceptorsisthecoreinXHYtranslation.Translationisthetransmissionoflanguages,andmoreoveritisthetransmissionofcultures.Aslivinginthesameearth,peopleindifferentculturesmaysharealotofthingssuchbodilyexperience.Forexample,peopleindifferentculturesmayusethesamebodyparttosubstituteantherthing,thuscreatingsimilarmetaphoricalexpressions.Meanwhile,underdifferentculturalbackgrounds,formostoftime,peoplewillusedifferentconceptsorvehiclestorefertothesamematterorthesametenor.Moreover,peopleindifferentculturesmayattributethesamethingtodifferentcategoriesandthusbuilddifferentimage-schemaininterpretingthesamemetaphoricalconcept.AsregardtranslatingtheimplicationsormetaphoricalmeaningsofXHY,thetranslatorslaytheiremphasisonconnotativemeaning,affectivemeaningsandassociativemeaning.ForthereexistscommonsenseorcommongroundorsimilaritiesbetweenChineselanguageandEnglishlanguage,someXHYcanbetranslatedintoEnglishliterally.Anddueto“differences”indifferentcultures,suchasdifferentconcepts,categoriesandimage-schemaforms,liberaltranslationskillsshouldbeemployed.Asaresult,thetranslationofXHYcannotbefocusedonthelanguagetransmissionalone,buthastopenetratefromthesurfaceoflanguagetocomprehenditsimplicationsandculturalconnotations.Oncetheimplicationsandcultural44 ChapterFourTranslatingMethodsofHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyuconnotationsofXHYiscarefullyanalyzedbycomparingculturalandcognitivedifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglish,thetranslationcancloselyreachthestateof“expressiveness”andmakethetargetlanguagereceptorsgetthesamemetaphoricalmeaningassourcelanguagereadersdo.Thetranslatorsaresupposedtoanalyzetheexactmeaningofthewordsbyunderstandingtheoriginaltextseriouslyaccordingtothespecificconditionsandsearchwhetherthereexistcounterpartsintargettext.Ifthereexistidenticalmetaphoricalexpressions,thenthetranslatorjustneedstomatchword,phraseorsentencetokeeptheoriginalstyleandcharacteristics.Withoutidenticalmetaphoricalexpressions,wecancheckoutwhetherthereexitssimilarexpressionsorsimilarcategorythroughconstructingsimilarimage-schemaormentalspaces.Iftheabovetwosupposesareimpossible,thenweneedidentifythesubjectivityindifferentlanguagesandtousetargettextcontainertoholdtheoriginalmetaphoricalexpressions.Inthefollowingpart,somebasictranslationmethodsarerespectivelyproposedforhomogeneousXHYandheterogeneousXHY.4.1TranslatingMethodsofHomogeneousXiehouyuInchaptertwo,wehaveanalyzedthemanifestationsandcharacteristicsofmetaphoricalhomogeneitywhicharesimilarconcept,category,image-schemaandculturalmodels.WhenitcomestohomogeneousXHY,theybearthesamemanifestationsandcharacteristicswithmetaphoricalhomogeneity.Inotherwords,homogeneousXHYcanfindtheircorrespondentmetaphoricalconceptorconceptualcategoryintargetlanguagetext.Ifwithoutcorrespondentconceptorconceptualcategory,sometimes,sourcelanguagereadersandtargetlanguagereceptorscangetthesameorsimilarmetaphoricalmeaningbystructuringsimilarimage-schemaormentalspacesininterpretinghomogeneousXHY.SoinhomogeneousXHYtranslation,wecanbefaithfultotheoriginalimageororiginalconcept.Fortranslatingprocessisregardedasaprocessofmapping.SogenerallywecanadoptmappingmethodintranslatinghomogeneousXHY.IfthemetaphoricalconceptsarecommoninChineseandEnglish,identicalmappingmethodwithmetaphoricalconceptsretainedwillbeadopted.Asweallknow,somepiecesofXHYsarecomposedofChineseidioms,mostofwhichhavethecorrespondentpartsinEnglish.SowhenwegetthefirstpartofXHY,therealmeaningofitwillbeautomaticallyemerginginourminds.Therefore,ifthemetaphoricalconceptsare45 ChapterFourTranslatingMethodsofHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyucommoninChineseandEnglishandtheintendedmeaningisself-obvious,partialmappingmethodwithmetaphoricalconceptsretainedwillbeapplied.4.1.1IdenticalMappingwithMetaphoricalConceptsRetainedIdenticalmapping,insomeextent,issimilartoliteraltranslation.Literaltranslationisthemostcommonmethodthatfollowstheformofthesourcetextexactlyorclosely.WiththeidenticalmappingmethodintranslatingChinesehomogeneousXHYwiththesameorsimilarconcept,categoryorimage-schemainsourcelanguageandtargetlanguage,weshallalsoretainthemetaphoricalconceptsandformofthesourcelanguagetext.ThemetaphorsinthiskindofXHYsalwayshavecommonfigurativemeaning,andthelatterexplanatorypartisinanaturalaccordancewiththefirstdescriptivepart.Byusingthistranslatingmethod,thetargetlanguagereceptorsmaynothavedifficultyinunderstandingthetranslationversion.Herearesomeexamplesgivenbelow:狗咬耗子——多管闲事.Thedogbitesthemouse—puttingone‟sfingerinanother‟spie.TheworddogandmouseexistinbothChineseandEnglish,andthepicture“Thedogbitesthemouse”canrevokethesameimaginationofdifferentChineseandEnglishreceptors.Thetenorortheintendedmeaning“多管闲事”alsohasthecounterpartinEnglishlanguage“meddlesomeorputone‟sfingerinanother‟spie”.Moreover,throughthefirstpartofnarration,thesecondpartcanbenaturallyperceivedinbothChineseandEnglishbasedonsimilardailyandbodilyexperience.ItseemsthatwhetherinChinaorEnglish-speakingcountiesthatbitingmiceisthedutyofcats,sothissentenceisusedtoadvicethepeopletomindtheirownbusiness.Inaddition,withidenticalmappingmethodintranslating,boththesourcelanguagereadersandtargetlanguagereceptorscanconstructthesameimageschema“dog-eat-mouse”thatisunconventionalof“Cat-eat-mouse”,whichcanmakeusfeellikethatsomebodymeddlesinother‟sbusiness.Therefore,throughidenticalmappingmethodwiththemetaphoricalconceptsretainedintranslatinghomogeneousXHY,targetlanguagereceptorscangetthesamemetaphoricalmeaningwithsourcelanguagereaders.竹篮打水——一场空.Tofetchwaterwithabamboobasket—gettingnothing.BothinChinesecultureandthecultureofEnglish-speakingcounties,peoplecangeta46 ChapterFourTranslatingMethodsofHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyuvividimageofbamboobasketweavedbybamboocanewhichisleakyandcannotholdanykindliquidofsubstances.Sowhenweusethebambootodrawwater,allofuscanimaginethesameresultthatnowaterwillbefetched.Therealmeaning“一场空”alsohassimilarexpressioninEnglish“allinvain”.Bothofthephrasesmeanthatalloftheeffortsandhopescometonothing.Sothissentencecanalsobetranslatedwithidenticalmappingmethod.Throughidenticalmappingmethod,wecangettheexactmetaphoricalmeaningintheoriginaltextwhilereservetheoriginalform.Byapplyingthiskindofmethod,wecannotonlyretainthemetaphoricalconceptsbutalsodemonstratethepsychologicalsimilaritiesbetweenChinesereadersandEnglishreceptors.OnlyontheconditionthatXHYpossessesrelativelylittleChinesecultureandbearuniversalcharacteristiccanidenticalmappingmethodbeemployed.ThiskindofrenderingscarcelybringsdifficultytoEnglishreceptorsininterpretation.猫舔虎鼻翼——诚心不要命.Thecatlicksthenoseofatiger—seekingherdoom.ThetigeristhekingoftheforestinChineseculture.ThoughitisnotthecaseinEnglishculture,thetigerisalsoconsideredpowerfulwhilethecatisdelicateandvulnerableinbothChineseandEnglishcultures.Sowhenweareencounteredwiththeexperience“Thecatlicksthenoseofatiger”,bothChineseandEnglishcanhavethesamementalfeelingsthatthecatisseekingherdeath.SincebothChinesereaderandEnglishreceptorshavepsychologicalresonanceinunderstandingthispieceofXHY,wecanjusttranslate“猫舔虎鼻翼”literally,thetargetlanguagereceptorscangetthesamemetaphoricalmeaningsassourcelanguagereaders.Herearesomemoreexamples:泥菩萨过河——自身难保.Aclayidoliscrossingtheriver—-hardlybeingabletoprotectitself.瞎子点灯——白费蜡.Ablindmanlitacandle—beingasheerwaste.Fromtheexamplesabove,ifthemetaphoricalconceptsarevivid,obviousandsharedbysourcelanguagetextandtargetlanguagetext,theycanalsoprovokethesameorsimilarpsychologicalassociationandidenticalmappingmethodcanbeadoptedintranslating.Identicalmappingmethodcanmaketheoriginalimageintactandinvariable.The47 ChapterFourTranslatingMethodsofHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyumetaphoricalconceptsandmeaningsofthistypeofXHYcanbeeasilyperceivedbytargetlanguagereceptorswiththehelpofexistingdailyexperienceorimage-schemabasedonassociationandimagination.Therefore,sincehomogeneousXHYhasuniversalmetaphoricalconcepts,wecanadopttheidenticalmappingmethod,whichcanalsoretaintheethnicandculturalidentitytothemaximaldegree.4.1.2PartialMappingwithMetaphoricalConceptsRetainedInsomeChinesehomogeneousXHY,themetaphoricalmeaningbroughtaboutbymetaphoricalconceptissoobviousthatthetargetlanguagereceptorscaneasilyinferitdirectly.Sointheprocessoftranslating,thetranslatoronlyneedstorenderthefirstpartormetaphoricalconceptsliterally,andthesecondpartormetaphoricalmeaningwillbeautomaticallyperceived.Forexample,黄鼠狼给鸡拜年——不安好心.TheweaselgoestopayaNewYear‟svisittothehen.Intheexamplementionedabove,“黄鼠狼给鸡拜年——不安好心”isawell-knownpieceofXHYeasytobeunderstood.Theimages“weasel(黄鼠狼)”and“鸡(hen)”existinbothChineseandEnglish,andthehostilerelationshipbetweenthemaresimilarinthetwolanguagesandcultures.Therefore,themetaphoricalmeaningof“TheweaselgoestopayaNewYear‟svisittothehen”andthetranslatorcanjustomitthesecondpart.Thereceptorshavenoobstacletounderstandtheintegralmeaningwithoutthesecondpart.OnekindofXHYfindstheirorigininChinesefour-characteridiomscontainingtwopartswhichlaterevolvedtoXHY.Thefirstpartandthesecondpartmakeaparallelexplanationofthesameeventandrevealthesametruth.Withoutthesecondpart,wecanalsoperceivetheintegralmeaningofthefirstmetaphoricalconcept,forthefirstpartalsoembodiesandimpliesthesecondpartoritcanreplacethesecondpart.Forinstance:近朱者赤——近墨者黑(Hewhotouchesrougewillgetstainedwithred),兼听则明——偏信则暗(Listentobothsides,youwillbeenlightened),金玉其外——败絮其中(Goldonlyshinesonthesurface)andsoon.AnotherkindofXHYalsoderivesfromChineseidiomswhichareusedasafigureofspeechandafterwardsareattachedsomeexplanationsbehindtheseidiomsthuspossessthe48 ChapterFourTranslatingMethodsofHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyuformalcharacteristicofXHY.Forexample,飞蛾投火——自取灭亡(Amothtoaflame),隔靴搔痒——不着边际(Ticklecrosstheboots),and囫囵吞枣——不辨滋味(Swallowjujubeswithoutchewing)etc.SowhiletranslatingthiskindofXHY,especiallyintheconcretecontext,wecanjustonlytranslatethefirstpartandthesecondpartwillbeself-evident.4.2TranslatingMethodsofHeterogeneousXiehouyuInchaptertwo,thethesisanalyzedthemanifestationsandcharacteristicsofmetaphoricalheterogeneitywhichmeansapplyingdifferentconcepts,conceptualcategories,image-schemasinexpressingorcreatingthesamemetaphoricalmeaningindifferentlanguagecontext.WhenitcomestoheterogeneousXHY,theyalsobearthesamecharacteristicswithmetaphoricalheterogeneity.ItmeansthatinheterogeneousXHY,metaphoricalconceptsormetaphoricalexpressionscannotfindtheircounterpartsinEnglishlanguage.Ininterpretingmetaphoricalmeaning,thesourcelanguagereadersandtargetlanguagereceptorscannotconstructthesameorsimilarimage-schemaormentalspaces.SoinordertoachievetheequivalencebetweenreadersandreceptorsinheterogeneousXHYtranslation,sometimeswecannotbefaithfultotheoriginalvehiclesororiginalmetaphoricalconcepts.Asawhole,intermsoftranslatingheterogeneousXHY,non-identicaltranslatingmethodsareboundtobesuggestedinthisthesis.ThiskindoftranslatingmethodplaysadecisiveroleintranslatingthesecondpartofChineseXHY.Thatistosay,wecanremove,substitute,concentrate,summarizeandinterprettherelevantmetaphoricalconceptsforthesakeofthereceptors‟betterunderstanding.ItdoesnotfollowcloselytothewordorderorlayoutofthesourcetextwhendiscrepanciesexistbetweenChineseandEnglishinsequenceofvocabulary,grammaticalstructure,artdeviceorsomeotherdifferencescausedbypolitics,religionandcultureetc.HeterogeneousXHYusuallyhavenoexactmatchesinEnglishidioms,sonon-identicaltranslatingmethodswouldbetakenusedof.Althoughtherewillbesomedissimilaritiesbetweenthetranslatedversionandsourcetext,thetranslatedversionwillerectlittlebarriersfortheEnglishreceptorstounderstandduetothespiritualsimilarity.InheterogeneousXHY,thereexistnocorrespondentorsimilarimages,vehiclesormetaphoricalconcepts,sothetargetlanguagereceptorscannotperceivethesamemetaphoricalmeaning.Besides,sourcelanguagereadersandtargetlanguagereceptorsliveindifferentenvironment49 ChapterFourTranslatingMethodsofHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyuandtheywouldhavedifferentmentalfeelingsorconstructdifferentimage-schemastowardsthesamecognitiveobject.Soitisessentialforthetranslatorstoplaytheiragencyrole.Inthefollowingsections,fourtranslatingmethodswillbeanalyzedatdetail.4.2.1Non-identicalMappingwithMetaphoricalConceptsSubstitutedDuetosurprisingdiversitiesinculturalmodels,someofthemetaphoricalconceptsinXHYcannotbepreservedintranslation.Someimages,vehiclesormetaphoricalconceptsdonothavethesameorsimilarmetaphoricalconceptsintargetlanguagetext.Underthiscircumstance,thenon-identicaltranslatingmethodwiththeoriginalmetaphoricalconceptssubstitutedisadoptedbythetranslatortoadaptthemetaphoricalconceptsinXHYtosomenewmetaphoricalconceptswhicharefamiliartothetargetlanguagereceptors.Thoughthenewconceptsarereplacedbytheoldones,theystillmakethetranslationclearanddonotgiverisetoanymisapprehension.Someexamplesarepresentedasfollows:实棒槌灌米汤——寸水不进.Wateroffaduck‟sback—nevergettingin.老鼠尾巴上害疖子——出浓也不多.Wateroutofastone—notmuch.属面筋的——有靳道.Aswellashotpepper—ratherscharf.Intheaboveexamples,“实棒槌灌米汤——寸水不进”istranslatedliberallyinto“wateroffaduck‟sback—nevergettingin”byborrowingtheEnglishexpression“likewateroffaduck‟sback”toreplace“实棒槌灌米汤”.Notonlytheidiom“wateroffaduck‟sback”,butalsothemetaphoricalmeaningofitisratherfamiliartoEnglishreceptors.Sothetranslatoranalyzesthemetaphoricalmeaningofthesourcetextandprojectsitontothetargetlanguagetexttofindthesimilarmetaphoricalexpressionswithdifferentimagesorconceptsfromthatinsourcelanguage.“老鼠尾巴上害疖子——出浓也不多”isalsorenderedfreely,borrowingtheidiom“squeezewateroutofstone”fromEnglishtoreplacetheconcept“老鼠尾巴上害疖子”.Theoriginalimageorconceptisthatapimpleonamouse‟stail,suggesting“thepusislittleinpimple”.Themetaphoricalmeaningoforiginalconcept“getlittleoutofsomething”ismetaphoricallysimilartotheEnglishidiom“tosqueezewateroutofastone”,50 ChapterFourTranslatingMethodsofHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyusowecanuseimagesorconcepts“water”and“stone”tosubstitute“浓”and“疖”.“属面筋的——有靳道”istranslatedinaliberalwaybyintroducingtheidiom“ashotaspepper”inEnglishlanguageimplyingsharp-tonguedpeople.Inthetranslatedsentence,thenewconcept“hotpepper”takestheplaceof“面筋”whichisakindoffoodwithastrongChinesecoloring.Itisamixtureoftwoproteinsoraglutinoussubstanceleftwhenstarchisremovedfromflour,especiallywheatflour,asisnotedintheSeventheditionofOxfordAdvancedLearner‟sEnglish-ChineseDictionary”(745).ThiskindoffoodisrareinEnglish-speakingcountriessothemetaphoricalmeaningofglutenishardlytobeperceivedbyreceptorsifitistranslatedliterally.Thoughtheimagesorconceptsindifferentlanguagesarequitedifferent,themetaphoricalmeaningsaresimilarorequivalent.Therefore,ifthereisnoidenticalmetaphoricalimageorconceptinthetargetlanguage,identicalmappingwillnotbeadopted.However,ifthereissimilarmetaphoricalmeaninggeneratedbydifferentmetaphoricalimagesorconcepts,wecansubstitutetheoriginalimagesorconceptswiththeonesinthetargetlanguage.Thoughthisway,wecanalsoachievethecognitiveandsemanticequivalencebetweenthesourcelanguageandtargetlanguageintranslation.4.2.2Non-identicalMappingfromMetaphoricalConceptstoNon-metaphorTherearemanypiecesofChineseXHYsthataremarkedwithuniquefeaturesofChineseculture.ThesekindsofChineseXHYsarelikecomparisonsoranalogieswhichalwayscarryagreatdealofculturalinformationandimagesorconceptsrelatedtoeconomicactivitiesandChinesesocialcustomsandhabits,etc.BecausethetargetlanguagereceptorsdonothaveenoughbackgroundinformationandknowledgeofChineseculture,soitisextremelydifficultforthemtocomprehendtheseheavilyculture-loadedexpressions.Inconsequence,thetranslatorhasnochoicebuttoabandontheoriginalmetaphoricalimagesorconceptsandtheuniquestructureofChineseXHY.Incognitivelinguisticperspective,itmeansthatthesourcelanguageinput,namely,themetaphoricalconceptsinsourcelanguagetext,willnotbeprojectedontotheblendspace.However,thetargetlanguageconceptwillbeprojectedontotheblendspacethusgeneratingtheemergentstructurewhichisthetranslationversion.Sointhiscase,non-identicaltranslatingmethodisemployed.Thefollowingexamplesareillustratedtoverifythispoint.51 ChapterFourTranslatingMethodsofHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyu孔夫子搬家——净是书(输).Somebodyloseseverymatchorfight.灯草拐杖——做不了柱(主).Somethingdoesnotpermitsomeonetomakeadecisionindividually.正月十五贴门神——晚了半个月.Itistoolateforablessingorapray.八仙过海——各显神通.Everyoneshowshistrueworthorsuperbabilities.骑着毛驴看着本——走着瞧.Let‟swaitandsee.Intheexamplesmentionedabove,alloftheChineseXHYshavebeentranslatedliberally.Thisisbecauseitishardfortargetlanguagereaderstounderstandthemetaphoricalconceptsandtheirintendedmeaningsthoughtheyarefigurativeones,forexample,“门神”isacategoryofpicturespastedonthedoorsonthecalendarNewYears,whichisbelievedtobeabletowardofftheevil,dispelmisfortuneandprotectthewholefamily,sopasting“门神”fifteendaysafterthecalendarNewyeasmeansitistolateforprayorablessing.“八仙过海”isoneoftheallusionsofTaoism.Itissaidthat“八仙”didnotusevesselswhencrossingtheseaforeachofthemhadasetofmagicart.SothesekindsofexpressionsaretotallyexotictotheEnglishreceptors.Sometimesthetranslatorhastoabandontheuniqueconcepts,structuresandnationalcoloringofChineseXHYtogetanon-identicalmappingintranslationduetotheobstructionsoflinguisticformsandculturaldifferences.Inaddition,therestillexistsomehomophonesandhomophonicwordsinChinese.ButitisdifficultfortheEnglishreaderstofindtheircounterpartsintheirlanguage.WhiletranslatinghomophonicXHY,thetranslatorhastoabandonthisuniquestructureanditsoriginalimagesorconceptsandmerelytranslatethemetaphoricalmeaningorconnotativemeaningtoseektheequivalentsenseinthetargetlanguage.Therearemoreexamplesillustratedbelow:袖筒里入棒槌——直出直入.Someonespeaksfranklyandtothepoint.丈二和尚——摸不着头脑.52 ChapterFourTranslatingMethodsofHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyuSomeonefeelscompletelyataloss.4.2.3EquivalentMappingwithMetaphoricalConceptsTransferredEquivalentmapping,anotherformofindirecttranslatingstrategy,isatypeofstrategyborrowingtheexistingfixedexpressionsfromtargetlanguage.“Borrowingisdescribedas„thesimplesttypeoftranslation‟inwhichelementsofsourcelanguagearereplacedby„parallel‟targetlanguageelementswithoutbeingmodifiedanyway”(ShutttleworthandCowie17).“Byborrowing,thetranslatorcanovercomealacuna,createaparticularstylisticeffectandembedsomelocalcolorintotargetlanguage”(ibid).Eventhoughsomeofthemetaphoricalconceptsarevisualized,somedivergencescanstillbedetectedbetweenChineseandEnglish.Soastocreatetheoptimumcognitiveenvironmentfortargetlanguagereceptorsandgetoptimalrelevance,itisnecessaryforustochangetheoriginalconceptsandapplythemetaphoricalconceptswithwhichthetargetlanguagereceptorsarefamiliar.Intermsofconveyingthesamemetaphoricalmeaning,differentmetaphoricalconceptswillberespectivelyputintouseinthetargetlanguageandthesourcelanguage.Inotherwords,differentcomparisonsoranalogiesareemployedrespectivelyinthetargetlanguageandsourcelanguagetextstoconveythesamemetaphoricalmeaningorspirit,withanaimtoachievetheeffectofreachingthesamegoalthroughdifferentmeans.Forthisreason,wecanadoptequivalentmappingwithmetaphoricalconceptswhicharewell-knownbytargetlanguagereceptors.Inthisway,thefunctionalequivalenceisachievedwhiletheformalequivalenceislost.Therearesomeexamplesasfollows:猫哭老鼠——假慈悲.Toshedcrocodiletears.冰冻三尺——非一日之寒.Romewasnotbuiltinaday.脱裤子放屁——多此一举.TocarrycoalstoNewcastle.三个臭皮匠——顶个诸葛亮.Twoheadsarebetterthanone.梅香拜把子——都是奴才.Birdsofafeatherflocktogether.53 ChapterFourTranslatingMethodsofHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyuThiskindofXHYwillfailtoexpressitsconnotationifitistranslatedliterally,whileequivalentmappingmethodenablesthetargetlanguagereceptorstohavethesameorsimilarsenseasthesourcelanguagereadersdo.Whydowedealwiththetranslationof“猫哭老鼠——假慈悲”byborrowingtheEnglishidiom“toshedcrocodiletears”?“Shedcrocodiletears”isasetofexpressioninEnglishtoindicate“insinceresorrow”.Withrespecttothesecondexample,thetargetlanguagereceptorsarealsofamiliarwith“Romeisnotbuiltinaday”whichisusedtoindicate“wecannotfinishsomethinginaflash”.Andifwetranslate“冰冻三尺——非一日之寒”literally,thetranslationismorecomplexwithtoomuchinformation.Thusitismuchmoredifficultforthereceptorstocomprehendtheconnotationofit.Sincethereisaready-madeidiombearingthesamemetaphoricalmeaning,wecantakeuseofthemtomakeourtranslationofsomeheterogeneousXHYmucheasierandclearer.IfXHY“脱裤子放屁——多此一举”istranslatedinto“Itisactuallyunnecessarytotakeofftrouserstobreakwind”,itisalsotosomeextentvividandcanachievesomehumorousorironiceffects.Butthiskindoftranslatedversionisalittlevulgaranditstillneedsthetargetlanguagereceptorstomakesomeeffortstoinfertheintendedmeaning.“TocarrycoalstoNewcastle”inEnglishalsomeansitisunnecessarytodosomething.BecauseNewcastleisboundinthenaturalresourceofcoalanditisregardedasthecoalharborofEnglandsinceth16century.Therefore,applyingthissetexpressionisrathersuitableandcanachievetheequivalentmetaphoricalmeaningwiththeoriginaltext.Asforthenextexample,ZhuGeliangisastrategistintheperiodofThreeKingdoms.Heisreputedforhiswisdomandstratagem.Asamilitaryconsultant,heshouldersheavyresponsibilitiesoverShukingdomandhisarmy.Sotheterm“ZhuGeliang”isoftenusedtodescribeacleverperson.Ifwetranslate“三个臭皮匠——顶个诸葛亮”into“ThewisdomofthreeordinarypeopleequalsthatofZhuGeliang,amasterinancienttimes”,itisnothardforthereaderstointerpret.Sincethereisanavailableequivalentexpression,“Twoheadsarebetterthanone”inthetargetlanguage,weshouldmakefulluseofitandmeanwhilemakeitmucheasierforthetargetlanguagereceptors.“拜把子”canberenderedinto“becomeswornbrothersandsisters”inEnglish,whichmeansthatonthebasisofthesameinterestsandaspirations,peoplefromdifferentfamiliestakepromisetobetogetherasbrothersorsisters.However,inEnglishlanguage,thereisaready-makeexpression“birdsofafeather”thatconformstotheexpressinghabitoftargetreceptors,54 ChapterFourTranslatingMethodsofHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyubecauseinEnglishthereisaproverb:“Birdsofafeatherflocktogether”.Accordingtotheaboveexamples,itisobviousthatXHYwhichdocorrespondwithEnglishidiomsinconceptsandimagescanhavethesameorsimilarmetaphoricalmeaningofEnglishidioms.Althoughinprocessoftranslation,thetargettextwillfailtogetthepartoftheculturalflavorinsourcetext,itismoreacceptableforthetargetreceptorsbecauseitistheidiomaticexpressionofthetargetlanguagereceptors,whichcanhelpthereceptorstocomprehendtheintendedmeaningsofthesourcetext.Hence,undersuchcircumstance,itiswisetotranslateXHYintoequivalentEnglishidioms,whichistheequivalentmappingmethodwithmetaphoricalconceptstransferred.4.2.4IdenticalMappingwithNotesAppliedXHYcontainingthesamemetaphoricalconceptsorsimilarmetaphoricalconceptsasthoseinEnglishaccountasmallpart.ManypiecesofXHYadoptexoticmetaphoricalconceptswhichareratherdifficultforreceptorstocomprehend.Iftargetlanguagereceptorsdonothavethatspecificcultural,linguisticorcognitivebackgroundinformationinvolvinginthiskindofXHY,theyaredestinedtohavemuchdifficultyinunderstandingthem.ItisthisgroupofXHYthatsetsthelargestbarrierfortranslation.MostimagesorconceptsadoptedinsuchkindofXHYsaredeeplyrootedinancientChinesecultureanddeemedasanintegralpartoftheChinesereaders‟culturalbackgroundwhichincludeshistory,culture,fairytales,classicalworks,evenfeudalsuperstitionsetc.,soeventhenon-metaphoricalmappingmethodcannotachievetheintendedresult,becauseeitherinthetargetlanguagethereexistnoequivalentexpressionsorthereisnoproperwordsandphrasestoillustratetheimagesorconceptsinthesourcelanguagetext,letalonetheidenticalmappingmethodandequivalentmappingmethod.Therefore,werecommendemployingidenticalmappingmethodwiththeoriginalmetaphoricalimagesorconceptswhileaddingsomeexplanationsornotes.Inthiscase,thedistortionandlossesofmeanings,style,rhetoricfunctions,culturalconnotation,andliteraryflavorareunavoidable.Theselossesanddistortioncanbelessenedtosomeextentbyattachingsomenotesandexplanations.TheintroductionoftheChinesecultureisanimportantsteptogetasuccessfultranslationofXHY.Culturalelementsmainlycontainsomeclassicalallusions,historicalpersonagesandextraordinarymanners.Theidenticalmappingwithnotesappliedcanmakeupfortheculturalinadequacyinconveyingthemessageand55 ChapterFourTranslatingMethodsofHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyuplayaroleof“addingthefinishingtouch”soastoachieveanunexpectedeffect.Moreover,someXHYwithhomophonicpunscanbetranslateddirectlyfirstsoastokeeptheimageandconceptsofthesourcelanguageinwordlevel.Whenthevocabularyvacancyappearsintargetlanguageandcannotfindanysuitablewordtomatchtheconnotativeandassociativemeaningofthesourcelanguage,thentheirmetaphoricalmeaningscanbeachievedwithadditionalnotesorexplanations.Inthisway,wecannotonlyfinishthetranslatingtaskbutalsotransmitculturaltraitsandbackgroundinformationofthesourcelanguagethroughexplanation.Forinstance:周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打,一个愿挨.ChouyubeatHuangkai—oneiswillingtoplay,andtheotheriswillingtoget.Inthetranslationof“周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打,一个愿挨”,itishardforthetargetlanguagereaderstounderstandtheEnglishversionifthetranslatordoesnotadditwithanoteexplainingtheoriginoftheclassicalallusion.SothetranslatorneedstoaddanotetotheEnglishversion,givingaclearexplanationoftheoriginoftheclassicalallusion“周瑜打黄盖——一个愿打一个愿挨”inabracketsuchas:(Note:InthethirdcenturyA.D.,thegeneralofthekingdomWuChouYudeliberatelyhitHuangKai,anothergeneralinWukingdomandthendispatchhimtotheenemycamptowinthetrustofCaoCaoinkingdomofWei,whodeeplytrustedHuangKaiandacceptedhim.Finally,CaoCaowasdefeated).Throughnotes,wecanknow,ChouYubeatsHuangKaiwhohasnotdoneanythingwrong.ButHuangKaiiswillingtobebeatenjustforthepurposeofdefendinghisowncountry.Therefore,themetaphoricalmeaningisobvious:Onemakestheothersufferlosses,butthetwosidesactfromtheirownwilling.王羲之写字——横竖都好.AcharacteroutofWangXizhi‟shand—bothverticalstrokesandhorizontalonesareverygood.Theexpressionsof“verticalstrokes”and“horizontalstrokes”arealientothetargetlanguagereaders.Especiallyregardingthecombinationof“Henshu(横竖)”,itismoredifficultforthetargetreceptors.Becausetargetreceptorsmaynotbefamiliarwiththecelebrity“WangXizhi”inChina‟sancientcalligraphycircleandnewlyemergentmeaningofcombinationof“Hengshu(横竖)”.Soitisnecessarytoaddapieceofnoteinbracketafterthe56 ChapterFourTranslatingMethodsofHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyuEnglishversionsuchas(WangXizhiwasafamousChinesecalligrapherandaChinesecharacteriscomposedofstrokes,ofwhichtheverticalandhorizontalonesarethemostcommonlyused.“Hengshu(横竖)”hastwoconnotativeinterpretations:thefistoneisthehorizontalandverticalstrokes;thesecondishorizontallyorverticallywhichmeansinanyway).SointhispieceofXHY,themetaphoricalmeaningwillbeperceivedthroughthenoteapplied.ItmeanswhatevercharactersoutofWangXizhi‟shandprovetobegoodinanycase.鸭子开会——无稽(鸡)之谈.Ducksgatheringforameeting—ameetingwithoutchickensTherealmeaningofthispieceofXHYisthatitisanabsurdthingthatducksholdameeting.However,ifwejusttranslatethispieceofXHYinto“Itisanabsurdthingforduckstoholdameeting”,iffeelslike“creatingsomethingoutofnothing”anditisalsolackoftheuniquecharmofXHY.SobehindtheEnglishversion,wecanaddthenoteas(Note:theChinesecharacter“稽”meaningabsurd,isahomophoneof“鸡”meaningchicken.So“无鸡之谈(Novoicesofchicken)”inducks‟meetingmeans“无稽之谈(afantastictalk)”).Sothemetaphoricalmeaningisrevealedbythenote.猴子学走路——假猩猩(假惺惺).Amonkeylearningtowalk—pretendingtobeachimpanzee.(Note:TheChineseword“猩猩”,meaningchimpanzeewhichcanwalkupright,isahomophoneof“惺惺”,meaning“affectedmanners”).SointhispieceofXHY,themetaphoricalconceptis“amonkeylearnstowalkuprightjustasachimpanzeecandobutthemoneyisthenotbutthefalseorimitativechimpanzee”,andthemetaphoricalmeaningis“Itishypocriticalandillusoryjustlikeamonkeywantstoimitatechimpanzee”Asaresult,addingsomenotesintranslatingthiskindofculture-boundXHYorhomophonicXHYisquiteappropriate,becausetheirculturalflavorplaysanimportantroleintheoriginaltext.Thetranslatorissupposedtodoherorhisbesttokeeptheirculturalflavorwhichisalsoratherdifficulttoberendered.Insuchcircumstance,noteswouldbethebestmeanstohelpinterpretthemetaphoricalmeaningoftheculture-loadedXHYandsomehomophonicwordsorphrases.WithoutanybackgroundinformationoftheseallusionsandstoriesembeddedinChineseXHY,itishardforreceptorstounderstand.Soitisquitenecessaryforthetranslatortomakesomeexplanationstotheallusionssoastohelpthetarget57 ChapterFourTranslatingMethodsofHomogeneousXiehouyuandHeterogeneousXiehouyulanguagereceptorstoobtainabettersenseofmetaphoricalconceptsAboveall,byexemplifyingsomanyexamplesabove,wecanmakeaconclusionthatdifferentmethodscanbeadoptedintranslatinghomogeneousXHYandheterogeneousXHYaccordingtotheirowncharacteristics.ForthosehomogeneousXHYwithvividimagesormetaphoricalconceptsthathavecorrespondentpartsintargetlanguage,thetranslationshouldbeadirectmappingfromsourcelanguagetexttotargetlanguagetexttoretaintheoriginalimagesormetaphoricalconcepts.ForthosehomogeneousXHYderivedfromidiomswell-knowninChineseandEnglishcanbetranslatedbypartialmappingmethodwiththemetaphoricalconceptretained.IntermswiththoseheterogeneousXHYmarkedwithprominentculturaltraitsorexoticfeatureuniqueinChineseculture,someadjustmentsshouldbemadeinordertomeettheneedsoftargetlanguagereceptors.Accordingtodifferentsituations,differenttranslatingmethodscanbeadopted.ForthoseheterogeneousXHYwithoutsimilarimagesormetaphoricalconceptsinthetargetlanguage,wecantransfertheoriginalimagesorjustomittheoriginalimagesormetaphoricalconceptsandadoptthenon-metaphoricalmapping.Forthosewithcorrespondentsetexpressionsinthetargetlanguagewhichdonothavethesameimageormetaphoricalconcepts,wecanborrowsetexpressionsfortranslation,whichistheequivalentmappingwithmetaphoricalconceptstransferred.WhenitcomestothosewithstrongChinesecharacteristicsandtraitswithnotraceintargetlanguage,wecanontheonehandusetheidenticalmappingmethodtoobtaintheoriginalimagesormetaphoricalconceptswhileontheotherhandaddingsomenotestomaketargetlanguagereceptorstogettherealmeaningofthemetaphoricalconceptsinsourcelanguagetext.58 ConclusionConclusionXHY,auniqueChineselanguageform,ismarkedwithstrongChinesecharacteristics.AsanepitomeofChineseculture,itrevealsanancientcivilizationdatingbacktoover5000years.Asapeculiarformationofrhetoricaldevices,itisloadedwithrichrhetoricaldevices.Itcanofferusasocietywithitseveryaspectsothatwecangainsomeknowledgeofthesociety‟seconomy,people‟sdailylife,folkbeliefs,localconditionsandcustomsandsoon.AlthoughmanyChinesescholarshavedonealotofstudiesonXHY,therearesofarstillveryfewofthemtouchinguponXHYstudiesfromcognitiveperspectiveespeciallyfrommetaphoricalhomogeneityandmetaphoricalheterogeneityexceptWangWenbininhisdissertationmentionedtheconceptofmetaphoricalhomogeneityandheterogeneity.MetaphoricalthinkingisthesourceofthesimilaritiesandalsothefoundationofXHY.Intheprocessofunderstandingtheworld,metaphoraswayofthinkingestablishedalinkbetweentwothingsortwoconceptsonthebasisoftheknownexperience,sothatpeoplecanuseaconcreteconcepttoexplainanabstractconcept.AlthoughEnglishandChinesedifferfromeachothergreatly,thesameorsimilarmechanismofthehumanbrainisreflectedinlanguage,thusproducingthesameorsimilarpatternofEnglishandChinesemetaphor,whichisdefinedasthesameorsimilarmetaphorcognitivemechanism.Basedonthesameorsimilarmetaphorcognitivemechanismandbodilyexperience,homogeneousXHYcomesintobeing.Nevertheless,EnglishandChinesebelongtodistincteasternandwesternculture,andasacarrierofculture,languagemustbesubjecttotheirowndistinctculturalmodels.Aseachnationallanguagecarriesalotofcontentslikecognitivemodel,traditionalculture,customs,literaryclassics,therefore,eachnationusesitsownuniquecognitivestyleordifferentpatternsofmetaphoricalthinkingtodemonstratetheirdifferentcharacteristics,whichiscalledmetaphoricalheterogeneityinthethesis.Onthebasisofmetaphoricalhomogeneityandmetaphoricalheterogeneity,thethesismakesatentativetrytostudyChineseXHY,whichisstillanewfieldforthestudiesofChineseXHY.First,thethesismakesanewdefinitionofXHYandclaimsXHYasametaphoricallanguage.ThenitpresentsthenaturesofXHYfromtheperspectivesofsemantic,grammaticalandphonologicalfeatures.Inaddition,itshedslightsonthecognitive59 ConclusionmechanismsofXHY.Second,thethesisillustratesthecognitivemotivation:metaphoricalhomogeneityandmetaphoricalheterogeneity,andexpoundsoncharacteristicsandmanifestationsofthetwoconcepts.Metaphoricalhomogeneityisfeaturedbyapplyingsimilarmetaphoricalconcept,conceptualcategoryorimage-schematoconstructacertainmetaphoricalmeaningindifferentcontexts.Whilemetaphoricalheterogeneitybearsthecharacteristicofemployingdifferentmetaphoricalconcepts,conceptualcategoriesorimage-schemastoconstructsimilarmetaphoricalmeaningindifferentlanguages.Basedonthemotivation,thethesismakesadivisionofmetaphoricalXHY:homogeneousXHYandheterogeneousXHY.Likewise,homogeneousXHYandheterogeneousXHYhavethecorrespondentcharacteristicsandmanifestationswithmetaphoricalhomogeneityandmetaphoricalheterogeneity.Inthethirdchapter,thethesisrespectivelyillustratescognitiveprocessesoftranslatingtwotypesofmetaphoricalXHYandtherelationshipbetweenthetwocognitiveprocesses.Intheend,aimingatdifferentcategoriesandtheirbasiccognitiveprocessesoftranslating,thethesisraisesdifferenttranslatingmethodswithsomeexampleenclosed.Onaccountofthelimitedtimespentdoingtheresearchandwritingthisthesisoftherequiredlength,therearealsosomelimitationsinthethesis.First,althoughtheauthorhastakengreatpainstoconsultmanybooks,journalsandsurftheInternet,thereisnotenoughfirst-handmaterialontheconceptofmetaphoricalhomogeneityandmetaphoricalheterogeneity.Second,mostoftheexamplescitedwithoutconcretecontexts,sotheremayexistoverlapsinthedivisionandtranslatingmethodsindifferenttypesofXHY.Third,theexamplescitedarenotcomprehensivefortheyincludefewpunXHY.Thisthesiscanbeonlyatentativeapproachorpreliminaryattemptinthisfield,andmoredetailedandmoreprofoundresearchesaretobeexpected.60 NotesNotes译文是翻译网络上“女人如球，男人如书”时代调侃说法：“女人主要依赖年龄优势:二十来岁年纪的女人被看作是橄榄球，谁都想抱着怀里往前跑；三十多岁的女人被看作是乒乓球，总是被推来推去，谁都不想她们最后归属自己这方；四十多岁的女人被视为是足球，大家都竭尽全力用脚把她们踢开；五十多岁的女人是高尔夫球，能有多远就踢多远”。61 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AcknowledgementsAcknowledgementsI‟dliketoextendmyheartfeltthankstomanypeoplewhohaveofferedmeagreathelpdirectlyorindirectlyduringthepreparingandwritingprocessesofthisthesis.Theirhelpandsupportcontributemuchtomycompletionofthethesis.Firstandforemost,ImustexpressmyinnermostappreciationtoProfessorShuQizhi,mysupervisor.Throughoutthewholethesiswritingprocess,sheconstantlyencouragedmeandguidedmetothecorrectwritingdirection.WiththeencouragementandguidanceofProfessorShu,Icouldnothaveaccomplishedthecompletionofthesiswriting.Herprofoundknowledge,enlighteninginstructions,aswellasherconstructiveproposalsnotonlybenefitthesiswringandwillmakeafar-reachinginfluenceonmylearningthroughoutmylife.Hermeticulouswayofdoingresearcheshavesetupagoodbenchmarkforme.Butforherconsistentandilluminatinginstructionandencouragement,itisimpossibleformetocompletethethesiswritingandachievethepresentaccomplishments.IespeciallywanttothankProfessorWangJianpingandProfessorPengLiyuanfortheirconstructivesuggestionsandrevisionsonmythesisoutline.IfeelobligedtothankProfessorWenWeiping,ProfessorChenLin,ProfessorHuQiang,ProfessorWangJianxiangandsomeotheroutstandingteachers,whohaveexertedanotableinfluenceonmygraduatestudy.Furthermore,IwouldliketoexpressmythankstomydearfriendsandclassmatesespeciallytoPengJianggui,LiYixin,YangRongjingandLiLaixiangwhohavegivenmeagreathelpandencouragementwhilepreparingtheoutlineofthisthesis.Lastbutnotleast,mybelovedfamilymembersalsodeservemysinceregratitudefortheirconsiderationsandcaringforme,especiallytomyparentsfortheirselflessloveandpowerfulsupportalltheseyears.66 InformativeChineseAbstractInformativeChineseAbstract歇后语是我国人民在生活实践中创造的一种中华民族特有的语言形式，是汉语习语的一个重要部分，被视为一种非常幽默诙谐的语言。歇后语的真实意义经常是隐含的，具有隐喻性本质，因此歇后语的翻译一直是一个难题，歇后语的研究也受到越来越多的语言学家青睐，在歇后语的由来，发展，定义，分类和构成等方面取得丰硕成果。传统理论对歇后语的研究表现主要在以下几个方面：结构理论把歇后语分为表层结构和深层结构并且进一步研究两者之间的联系。表层与深层有同有异，共同形成了歇后语的矛盾共同体。意义关联理论认为歇后语由语底和语面两部分构成，语底和语面之间存在着语义联系，这种联系是歇后语产生和存在的基础和前提。如果单用语底则只有词句意义而没有可笑性等附加意义；如果单用语面则只有字面意义，但无法揭示歇后语真正要表达的实际意义。正因为语底和语面在语义上互相关联照应，歇后语才可以表达完整的意思。歇后语的意义非现实性理论指出歇后语中有相当数量的意象是虚构的，即歇后语中的人物、事物或者现象，或在客观世界中根本不存在，或者在历史上或现实中确有其人其物，但却与另外一些人或者事物、现象做了超越常规的搭配，表现出歇后语很强的非现实虚构性。对比理论把歇后语与其他语言形式对比，在从形成的方式、语法形式、语义构建等方面指出其异同，便于进一步理解区分不同语言形式。从符号学角度对歇后语进行重新分类并从符号学的能指与所指理论视角对歇后语进行分析。从跨文化交际角度去揭示歇后语的文化特色以及英汉语之间的文化差异进而探讨对歇后语的翻译策略。从认知语言学方面，莱考夫和福科尼等人提出的概念隐喻理论和概念整合理论来探究中国传统语言形式歇后语的认知过程。概念隐喻理论从源语域，目的域和映射等概念来阐释意义形成的运作机制和构建过程。概念整合理论从心智空间，概念整合网络，输入空间，共有空间，映射关系，压缩和新创空间来阐释歇后语的认知机制和构建过程。概念整合理论的使用者认为只要根据概念合成理论中的“四空间”认知模型，不同的认知主体便会对两个输入空间进行自然或者自动的合成，而且似乎是不同的隐喻使用者对于同一个认知对象会合成出同样的隐喻，不同隐喻受众者对于同一个隐喻概念也会解读出如出一辙的隐喻意义，这种对于隐喻概念和意义的同一性理解就是我们所说的隐喻的同质性。同样，在隐喻的认知构建或者解读过程中，不同语言文化中的隐喻使用者对于同一个认知对象可能会构建出不同的隐喻，不同的语言文化中的隐喻受众者对于同一个隐喻概念也会解读出不同的意义，而且即便是同一名隐喻使用者，在特定的情况下，对67 InformativeChineseAbstract于同一个认知对象也可能会构建出不同的隐喻，同一名隐喻接受者在不同的环境对同一隐喻概念也能解读出不同的隐喻意义，这种对隐喻概念和隐喻意义理解的差异性就是隐喻的异质性。因此本文从认知语言学的隐喻的同质性和异质性的角度出发，对歇后语进行新的分类，提出相应的翻译方法，这样使目的语文化中隐喻受众者更加容易理解歇后语中的隐喻概念和隐喻意义。文章的主体部分有四个章节。第一章对歇后语进行了新的界定，即：歇后语是一种隐喻性的语言。然后文章对歇后语的本质特征和认知机制进行了解释说明。因为歇后语是一个种隐喻性的语言，构成从一个认知域到另外一个认知域的映射关系，它的认知机制，本质特征都和隐喻相似，因此我们可以用认知语言学隐喻的认知理论来指导歇后语的认知，理解和翻译。第二章分析了歇后语的认知理据：隐喻的同质性和异隐喻异质性。隐喻是我们很熟知的一个概念，但是对于隐喻的同质性和异质性，我们则很少接触到，所以第二章着重讲解了隐喻同质性和隐喻的异质性的特点和表现形式，然后可以根据同质性和异质性的特点把歇后语分为同质性歇后语和异质性歇后语。在认知学领域，大家都习惯用莱考夫和福科尼的概念隐喻理论和概念整合理论以及概念整合理论中的“四空间”认知模型来解释分析隐喻认知和翻译，同样,“四空间”认知模型也同样能够用来说明歇后语中隐喻的构建和翻译，但是它忽略了不同文化认知主体的隐喻认知机制和文化模型的异质性。概念隐喻理论和概念整合理论更加适用于指导歇后语和隐喻在同一种文化范围内的认知过程，而对于歇后语和隐喻跨文化认知的翻译活动，本文则认为隐喻的同质性和隐喻的异质性更加适合，因为这两个概念更多地关注到了不同的文化中认知主体的差异以及文化模式的差异。第三章分析了同质性歇后语和异质性歇后语的翻译的认知过程。同质性歇后语的翻译认知过程主要在于确认相似性，即相似的隐喻概念，概念类别，意象图式以及心理图示，然后与译入语文化的隐喻概念或者概念类别进行静态地匹配，从而构建出相似的意象图式和心理感受，解读出同样的隐喻意义的过程。异质性歇后语的翻译认知过程则侧重于找到同一个隐喻在不同语言文化的认知主体性和主体间性，从而实现隐喻间性，让不同语言文化中的隐喻受众者在隐喻间性的基础上解读出相似的隐喻意义的过程。第四章在第二章的分类和第三章提出的翻译的认知过程的基础上，对歇后语的不同类别提出了不同的翻译方法。基于以上同歇后语的特点，对于同质性歇后语的翻译，文章提出可以采用保留原隐喻概念的恒等映射法和保留原隐喻概念的部分映射法，这样的68 InformativeChineseAbstract翻译策略可以被看成是完整的静态匹配和不完整的静态匹配过程。对于隐喻受众者文化中的隐喻概念和隐喻使用者文化中的隐喻概念不相同的情况下或者隐喻受众者与隐喻使用者两者的文化内涵不同的情况下，文章分别提出采用转换隐喻概念的非恒等映射法，舍弃隐喻概念的非恒等映射法，转移隐喻概念的等效映射法以及保留隐喻概念的恒等映射加注法。文章从隐喻的同质性和异质性角度对歇后语的认知和翻译进行研究，这是以往没有涉及到的角度。基于隐喻的同质性和异质性，具有隐喻性意义的歇后语可以形成新的分类。译者可以根据不同文化中认知主体对歇后语中隐喻概念理解的同一性和差异性，提出不同的便于目的语文化受众者理解的翻译方法，从而使目的语文化中受众者能够理解中国独特的语言形式歇后语。本研究为歇后语的认知和研究开辟了一个独特的视角，对于今后对歇后语的研究具有一定的借鉴意义。但是本篇论文对歇后语的研究也有一些不足之处，例如例证不够全面，论文中对双关歇后语的研究比较少，以后的研究者可以运用隐喻同质性和异质性方面的理论着重深入研究双关歇后语。69 RésuméandPublicationssinceEnteringtheProgramRésuméandPublicationssinceEnteringtheProgramRésuméDateofBirth:April1,1987.B.A.Degree:BachelorofArtsinLiterature,XiangtanUniversity,June2010.PublicationssinceEnteringtheProgram谢娟.弗兰克·雷蒙德·利维斯和他的文学批评[J].语文学刊,2012(12):86-88,91.(省级刊物)t70