基于语境的中职英语语法教学实验研究——以非谓语动词为例 102页

—’’．—‘Ｉ’＇、＇’’．八丫．－节‘立皆心？．Ｖ‘、＇：．－：洗：．吗錦ｆｅ％叛争；妾群的私棘、；代码？—＾＿心、，部纖Ｖ衙谬酬’＇、、．．．．■’＇１０＇＇２ｍ誦、密级：＾：：；Ｖｖ游．－：＿一知；；Ｈ縱、等＞帝ｆ，必１雜＇■＇－■＞＾＇－．＼＼：．．Ｖ，＼ＫＸｆ＾．：；＾：＾？＇—■＇＇＇■＇＇：■■＇＇．＇＾＇Ｖ＇矿－乂．Ｖ？，ｉ？把’＇．－＂＇＇－■＇■－＇＇＇＇－＇￣■＂■＇＊＇＾＇＇■－产’＊＇■■－＇－＂＇￣－、．Ｖ－＾＾■＇＜！Ｔ＊＼．ｒｖ＾．．．ｒ；ｒＳ：，．Ｖ：；；ＶＪｒ；？皆縣威，；；＇‘＇’产ｒ＇．＂．．＇’．＇＊片．、‘．＇一．节、：鸿Ｖ，托：ｒｒ护試＼＇’巧；哈ｔ和辦－：、＇：＇，—巧、＇．巧：：＾：ｒ的雜＾４＊－－：．，－ｆ．：ｒＡ＼＾ｔ－一－＾－、７＾５．＇＾，？，－／＾Ｖ．＂Ｖ．？＾Ｊ－１．：－．ｗ．—４、：．＼．’＇＇‘｜’．＾诚＇：，－．：＾八：｜；．：．．：：两：占若护、：．；；燃北瓣＇．．礁；靠学位．论：，慕吗茲ｔ言、’．ｒ：、．－；、＇＼＇，＇巧＇’＇．＇．．；＇＇栄韻速苗：禱、Ｍ’奏ｉ’Ｊｉ找气、－＾＇＇过無‘＇．＾．＇．皆群轉獄’．１、，式心’Ｖ：．裕简满衫■．．．辟．鸣．；．＾题目。篡于语境－…的中’．．职英语语法－—教学—实验研嫁據＇４錄心；－識錄：紐．；心．部知巧蹲尊巧衣掉Ｊ＇？－＇一Ｗ冷＇：＇．；＇－■■■■■■黃：．二非谓语六劝．’．调为側＇斯班：、，；．、飞‘－Ｉ．Ｉ．ｔ那…把ｆ祈；；ｈ＇／、；－／巧＇：＾；編著扛’‘学咸’掌类型：；回双证学术学位拼究坐＇．、．，．＇．，‘ｆ：心：？鷹，．’：：．Ｖ巧於公货＾证专业学位辆究生．＇－／二、新兰今＇爷匈鴻華ｇ申－、常尤：＇？＇陈思雅＇＾．．＇我狀養麗诗；：受：；沪慕；蔓＇．暮霄姓＇名及巧急：徐俊腳教授．．．’．鴻．．ｉ：ｇ．＇歲：’Ｖ可、：．学院（巧究脉品？：．外國语樂膝一巡雜；？乂Ｖ，；＾，？、‘‘Ｖ、、、汽、．．．．１．．．．．．、语》－ｉＴ＇＇、－，＇‘．度兴科专业－（领域）：教巧硕丈（学科教学？英．＇、’．＇．．、＇、＼、、，．＇－’．，，‘．乃，－＾！｜’．‘ＶＷｖ一＂．？一文、；＇Ｉ？？餐苗备论文＇擦．交日親林縣婷１二０一穴聲五巧立味．坡，直；‘兰掉富＇、；、、、．．，：．＾：■：＼：＇ AnExperimentalStudyofContext-basedGrammarTeachinginSecondaryVocationalSchools--ACaseStudyofNon-finiteVerbsAThesisSubmittedinPartialFulfillmentoftheRequirementsfortheMaster’sDegreeByChenSiyaSupervisor:XuJunyiGuangzhouUniversityMay2016 AcknowledgementsIwouldliketoextendmysinceregratitudetomydearsupervisor,ProfessorXuJunyi,forherprofessionalguidanceandconstantpatienceinhelpingmewiththecompletionofthisdissertation.SheofferedhervaluablesuggestionsthroughoutallthestagesandwasalwayswillingtoanswereveryquestionIhad.Ihavelearnedsomuchfromherexpertise.Withoutherinstruction,theprojectcouldnothaveworkedtothispresentform.IwouldalsoliketoexpressmyheartfeltthankstotheteachersinSchoolofForeignStudieswhohavebeenilluminatinglyguidingmeinthestudy.MygratitudeespeciallygoestomystudentsandcolleaguesinGuangzhouSecondaryVocationalSchoolofFinanceandEconomics.Withtheirparticipationandcooperation,theexperimentwasconductedsmoothly.Tomyfellowclassmates,meanwhile,Iowethemmythanks.IreallyenjoyedthetimewhenmyclassmatesandIwerestudyingtogetherandhelpingeachother.Igainedsomuchfromtheirencouragementandfriendship.Last,butdefinitelynottheleast,mygratitudegoestomyparents,whohavebeenunconditionallylovingmeandsupportingmeforallmyefforts.I AbstractGrammarhasbeengenerallybelievedtobeindispensableinsecondlanguagelearningandteaching.Withabriefreviewonthehistoryofforeignlanguageteaching,therearemanydifferentvoicesonhowtoteachgrammar.Theapplicationofthecontext-basedapproachtogrammarteachinghasdevelopedrapidly.BasedontheanalysisofChina’ssecondaryvocationalschoolstudents’background,togetherwiththestudiesontheapplicationofteachinggrammarincontext,thispaperistoinvestigatethefeasibilityofemployingthecontext-basedteachingapproachingrammarlessonsinvocationalschools.Theresearchfocusesontwoquestions:1)Comparedwiththe3Pteachingapproach,canthecontext-basedgrammarteachingapproachhelpsecondaryvocationalschoolstudentstoacquiregrammarmoreeffectively?2)Inwhataspectsdoesthecontext-basedteachingapproachaffectthegrammarlearningofstudentsatdifferentEnglishlevelsinsecondaryvocationalschool?Theauthorconductedanexperimentof8weekstofindouttheanswerstotheabovequestions.98studentsofaccountingmajorsfromGuangzhouSecondaryVocationalSchoolofFinanceandEconomicsparticipatedintheexperiment.Class1,GradeTwo(n=48)wasnamedasthecontrolledclassandClass2,GradeTwo(n=50)wasnamedastheexperimentalclass.Andinsidetheexperimentalclass,accordingtothepre-testscoresandtheperformanceofEnglishintheEntranceExaminationtoSeniorHighSchools,thetop10studentsbelongedtoGroup1andthebottom10studentsbelongedtoGroup2.Thetraditional3Pteachingapproachandthecontext-basedteachingapproachwereemployedinthecontrolledclassandtheexperimentalclassrespectivelyonteachingthegrammaticalitemsconcerningnon-finiteverbs.Pre-testandpost-test,servingastheresearchinstruments,wereconductedatthesametimewithinthetwoclassesbeforeandaftertheexperimenttogetthedataofstudents’grammaticalachievements.TheauthorcollectedthedataandmadeanalysesbyusingthesoftwareIBMSPSS22.0.Inaddition,aninterviewwith5III studentsfromGroup1athigherleveland5studentsfromGroup2atlowerlevelwascarriedouttogetfurtherunderstandingofhowthecontext-basedapproachaffectsstudentsatdifferentlevelsinthecourseoftheirgrammarlearning.Aftertheexperimentandanalysisoftheresults,theresearchhastwomajorfindings.1)Thecontext-basedteachingapproachcontributesbettertoimprovingstudents’grammaticalachievementthanthetraditional3Papproach.2)StudentsathigherEnglishlevelareapttoadapttothecontext-basedteachingapproachingrammarlessonsthanstudentsatlowerEnglishlevel.Inaccordancewiththeabovefindings,wecometoconclusionsthatcontext-basedapproachinteachinggrammarinsecondaryvocationalschoolsisfeasible.Itisadvisableforteacherstodesignthecontextmaterialselaboratelyenoughtomakestudentsatdifferentlevelswithdifferentbackgroundsunderstand,whichwouldleadtoachievingthefinalgoalofgrammarteaching–theaccomplishmentofusinggrammarincontextappropriately.Keywords:EnglishTeaching;Grammar;Context-basedApproach,SecondaryVocationalSchools;Non-finiteVerbsIV 摘要语法是外语教学中必不可少的一部分。纵观外语教学研究的历史，学者们对于如何进行课堂语法教学有着不同的意见和学派。时代的变迁使得教学方法的潮流也随之发生了改变，而近年来，语境在语法教学的运用在不断发展，令不少专家和教学者们相继对此进行了一些实践和研究。另一方面，随着社会对职业教育观念的转变，我国中等职业学校有了较大的发展，同时中职学生的人数也有所增加。在中职学校中，英语是必修科目，但中职学生的学习基础相对较弱，水平也参差不齐。因此，如何有效开展中职英语的语法教学成为了一个重要的课题。本研究基于对我国中等职业学校学生英语学习状况和问题的分析，以及对前人关于语法教学和语境运用的文献回顾与经验借鉴，以非谓语动词的语法教学为例，探索基于语境的中职英语语法教学的效果。本文主要围绕以下两个问题开展研究：（1）与传统的3P教学法相比，基于语境的语法教学能否更有效提升中职生的语法学习效果？（2）在语境下进行语法教学对于不同水平的学生有何影响？本研究以非谓语动词作为受试内容，以广州市财经职业学校职中二年级会计专业98名学生为研究对象，以前测、后测和访谈作为研究工具，进行了为期8周的实验研究。其中会计1班（48人）为控制班，会计2班（50人）为实验班。在实验班中，通过前测的结果和学生中考入学的英语成绩，划分了两个小组，成绩排前10名的代表英语语法水平较高的同学，而后10名的代表水平较低的同学。在实验中，控制班采用传统的3P教学法，而实验班则采用语境教学法。前测和后测所获得的数据均通过社会科学统计软件SPSS22.0进行处理和分析。教学试验后，在实验班中随机抽取5名水平较高的学生和5名水平较低的学生进行访谈，以进一步了解语境教学法对不同水平学生的英语语法学习的影响和作用，访谈数据通过语音记录并转化为文字形式进行收集。本研究的数据分析表明：（1）与传统的3P教学法相比，基于语境的语法教学能够更有效提升中职生的语法学习效果。（2）英语水平较高的学生比英语水平较低的学生更容易适应基于语境的语法教学。V 以上的研究结果对于中职英语教学具有一定的启示，表明中职英语语法教学使用语境教学法是可行的，同时，中职英语教师应当根据不同专业、不同层次的学生设计出符合其实际情况和需求的语境材料，利用材料组织多种形式的基于语境的课堂活动，从而达到让学生正确掌握语法规则和在特定情境下恰当使用语法的目标。关键词：英语教学；语法；语境教学；中职英语；非谓语动词VI ListofTablesTable4-1TheScheduleofGrammarTeaching...........................................................42Table5-1GroupStatisticsofPre-testinC-CandE-C................................................51Table5-2IndependentSamplesTestofPre-testinC-CandE-C...............................52Table5-3GroupStatisticsofPost-testinC-CandE-C..............................................53Table5-4IndependentSamplesTestofPost-testinC-CandE-C..............................53Table5-5PairedSamplesStatisticsofPre-testandPost-testinC-CandE-C............54Table5-6PairedSamplesTestofPre-testandPost-testinC-CandE-C...................54Table5-7PairedSamplesStatisticsofPre-testandPost-testinG1andG2...............55Table5-8PairedSamplesTestofPre-testandPost-testinG1andG2.......................56Table5-9InterviewResultsofQ1...............................................................................57Table5-10InterviewResultsofQ2.............................................................................57Table5-11InterviewResultsofQ3.............................................................................58Table5-12InterviewResultsofQ4.............................................................................58Table5-13InterviewResultsofQ5&Q6...................................................................59VII ListofAbbreviations3P:Presentation,Practice,ProductionC-C:ControlledClassE-C:ExperimentalClassHR:HumanResourcesSPSS:StatisticalPackageofSocialScienceCLT:CommunicativeLanguageTeachingZPD:ZoneofProximalDevelopmentPETS:PublicEnglishTestSystemVIII CONTENTSAcknowledgementsAbstractinEnglishAbstractinChineseListofTablesListofAbbreviationsChapterOneIntroduction...................................................................................11.1ResearchBackground.......................................................................................11.2ResearchObjectives...........................................................................................31.3SignificanceoftheResearch.............................................................................41.4StructureoftheThesis......................................................................................4ChapterTwoLiteratureReview..........................................................................72.1GrammarandGrammarTeaching.....................................................................72.1.1DefinitionofGrammar...........................................................................72.1.1.1TheStaticViewofGrammar........................................................72.1.1.2TheDynamicViewofGrammar...................................................92.1.2ImportanceofGrammarTeaching........................................................102.1.3PreviousStudiesonGrammarTeachingAbroad..................................112.1.4PreviousStudiesonGrammarTeachingatHome................................132.1.5LimitationsofthePreviousGrammarTeachingApproaches...............152.2Context............................................................................................................162.2.1DefinitionofContext............................................................................162.2.2ClassificationofContext.......................................................................192.2.2.1LinguisticContext.......................................................................192.2.2.2Non-linguisticContext................................................................192.2.3FunctionsofContext............................................................................202.2.3.1InterpretiveFunction...................................................................21IX 2.2.3.2RestrictiveFunction....................................................................212.3Context-basedGrammarTeachingApproach.................................................232.3.1PrinciplesofContext-basedGrammarTeachingApproach..................242.3.2PreviousStudiesonForeignLanguageTeachingBasedonContext....252.3.3TechniquesofApplyingContext-basedTeachingApproachtoEnglishNon-finiteVerbsTeaching.............................................................................272.3.3.1DefinitionandClassificationofNon-finiteVerbs......................272.3.3.2FeaturesofNon-finiteVerbs.......................................................282.3.3.3PreviousStudiesonNon-finiteVerbsTeaching..........................282.3.3.4TechniquesofTeachingNon-finiteVerbsinContext-basedApproach.................................................................................................29ChapterThreeTheoreticalFramework..............................................................333.1ConstructivismTheory....................................................................................333.1.1TheoreticalBasisofConstructivism.....................................................333.1.2RelationsBetweenConstructivismandContext-basedGrammarTeachingApproach........................................................................................343.2Krashen’sInputHypothesis............................................................................353.2.1TheoreticalBasisoftheInputHypothesis............................................353.2.2RelationsBetweentheInputHypothesisandContext-basedGrammarTeachingApproach........................................................................................36ChapterFourMethodology................................................................................374.1ResearchQuestions.........................................................................................374.2ResearchParticipants......................................................................................374.3ResearchInstruments......................................................................................384.3.1Tests......................................................................................................384.3.1.1Pre-test........................................................................................394.3.1.2Post-test.......................................................................................394.3.2Interview...............................................................................................404.4ResearchProcedures.......................................................................................414.4.1Pre-test..................................................................................................41X 4.4.2TeachingExperiment............................................................................414.4.2.1TeachingintheControlledClass................................................424.2.2.2TeachingintheExperimentalClass............................................454.4.3Post-test.................................................................................................494.4.4Interview...............................................................................................494.5DataCollection...............................................................................................494.6DataAnalysis..................................................................................................50ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussion..................................................................515.1ResultsoftheTests.........................................................................................515.1.1ResultsofthePre-testScoresinC-CandE-C......................................515.1.2ResultsofthePost-testScoresinC-CandE-C....................................525.1.3ResultsofPre-testandPost-testinC-CandE-CRespectively............545.1.4ResultsofPre-testandPost-testinG1andG2Respectively...............555.2ResultsoftheInterview..................................................................................565.3DiscussionontheResultsoftheTests............................................................595.4DiscussionontheResultsoftheInterview.....................................................62ChapterSixConclusions.....................................................................................656.1MajorFindings................................................................................................656.2PedagogicalImplications................................................................................666.3Limitations......................................................................................................686.4SuggestionsforFurtherResearch...................................................................68References...........................................................................................................71AppendixⅠPre-test.........................................................................................77AppendixⅡPost-test.......................................................................................81AppendixⅢInterview......................................................................................85AppendixⅣPre-testandPost-testScoresinC-C.............................................86AppendixⅤPre-testandPost-testScoresinE-C...............................................87AppendixⅥPre-testandPost-testScoresinG1&G2.......................................88XI ChapterOneIntroductionChapterOneIntroductionInChapterOne,theauthoristomakeanintroductiontotheresearchbackground,researchpurposesandthesignificanceofthestudy.Thestructureofthethesisisalsoprovided.1.1ResearchBackgroundGrammaristhecorepartofthelanguagesystem,actingasabridgelinkingvocabularies,phrasesandsentences,whichthushelpstocreatenumerousnewsentences.Insecondlanguagelearningandteaching,grammarhasbeengenerallybelievedtobeindispensableinthatitaccountsfortheaccuracyofalanguage,intermsoftheunderstandingandexpressionofone’sspeech.HereinChina,withtheconstantEnglishteachingreforms,grammarhasundergoneseveralupsanddownsinrecentdecadesofyears.Therehappenstohavetwoextremes.Ontheonehand,someteachersaretooobsessedwithgivingeverydetailofgrammaticalknowledge.Theyintroducegrammaticalrulesalongwithsomeexamplesandhavestudentsdosomeexercisestoconsolidatewhattheyhavelearnt.Patternpracticeandstructuredrillsarethepredominantformsofexercises,whichbringoutisolationbetweengrammaticalrulesandrealcontexts.Asaresult,studentscancompletetheexercisescorrectlybutarenotabletousetherulestowriteorspeakappropriately.Inotherwords,theyunderstandthelanguageinsteadofusingthelanguage.Ontheotherhand,agreatnumberofeducatorsholdtheviewthatgrammarisnottaughtbutacquired.Grammarinstructionisalmostneglected.Theydesignanumberofactivitiestoengagestudentsintheclass,hopingthattheycanfindouttherulesbythemselvesandthereforecommunicatemeaningfullyandappropriately.Theresultturnsouttobeunfavorable.Althoughithelpstoactivatestudents’interestsinlearningEnglishtosomeextent,students’linguisticcompetenceisnotuptoexpectations.Theyhavelittlesenseofgrammar,thusproducingseeminglyplentifulutterances,allofwhichyetaretooarbitrarytobeunderstood.Inspiteofsuchadilemma,itisundeniablethatgrammarstillplaysacrucialpart1 广州大学硕士学位论文inEnglishlearningandteaching.Lackinggrammaticalknowledge,studentsmayhavedifficultyinunderstandingthesentencesandtexts,whichinturnaffectstheirmasteryofthelanguage.Withabriefreviewofthetestsandexaminationsatdifferentstages(elementaryschool,middleschoolandcollege),grammarexistsexplicitlyorimplicitly,say,intheformofmultiplechoicesandthereadingcomprehension.Astudentwithagoodcommandofgrammaticalknowledgemaygetinformationfromthelongandcomplicatedsentenceseasilyandcorrectly,andmayhavethechanceofperformingbetterintestsandexams.Thereforeinthepastfewyears,manyteachersandscholarsgraduallyhavecometoconsensusthatthemainissuenolongerliesinwhethertoteachgrammar,butinhowtoteachgrammareffectively.Astosecondaryvocationalschoolstudents,grammarinstructionisnotaneasytask.ThestatusquoofEnglishcompetenceofsecondaryvocationalschoolstudentsisquiteworrying.Statisticsshowedthat72.24%vocationalschoolstudents’EnglishcompetencewasnotevenuptothelevelofGradeTwoinJuniorHighSchool(JiangNaiping,2008).ThepoorfoundationofEnglishisattributedtoseveralaspects.Aboveall,secondaryvocationalschoolstudentshavesufferedmanysetbacksattheirelementaryandjuniorhighschool,whichmakesthembelievetheyarelesscapablethantheirpeerswhostudyinseniorhighschools.Theydonotseethebrightfutureintheirlifeandtheyjustgoonthewaytheyusedtodo.Mostofthemarereluctanttochangetheiroldlearninghabits,sotheyusuallywanderintheviciouscircle.Inaddition,secondaryvocationalschoolstudentsarelackofefficientlearningstrategies,havingthemselveseasilygettingstuckinadeadend,andnoprogresshasbeenmadealthoughmuchtimehasbeenspentonEnglishlearning.What’smore,someteachersareinagoodintentionthatstudents’basicknowledgeofEnglishcanbeimprovedbyexplainingthegrammaticalrulesindetails,butinfact,secondaryvocationalschoolstudentscannotdigestthemjustliketheycouldn’tdoitintheirpreviousschoolyears.Theyfeelfrustratedonceagainandtotallyloseheartinlearningthelanguage.Thesituationgetsworseinsecondaryvocationalschoolsanditcallsforgreatattentiontohelpsuchalargegroupofstudentswhomaygoforworkdirectlyorgoonfurtherstudyaftergraduation.2 ChapterOneIntroductionTheNewEnglishCurriculumforStudentsinSecondaryVocationalSchools(hereaftercalledtheNewCurriculum)wasrevisedbasedontheoldversion,andwasputintoeffectin2009.TheNewCurriculumfocusesoncultivatingstudents’abilities,includingabilityofusinglanguage,solvingproblemsandself-learning.Withregardtotheteachingcontent,itlaysemphasisonteachinggrammarandvocabulariesrelatedtoauthenticworkingcontexts,butnotsimplyimpartingtheknowledge.UndertheguidelineofJob-Orientation,theNewCurriculumweakenstherequirementforthepureknowledgeoflanguagewhileitshedsmorelightontheabilityofusingthelanguage.Grammarteachinginsecondaryvocationalschoolsisdifferentfromseniorhighschools.ThetimeforsecondaryvocationalschoolstudentstolearnEnglishisless,astheyhavetodedicatemostofthetimeintotheirmajors.Itwouldbequitedemandingforthemtomastersomanylanguagepointsinsuchashorttime.However,itdoesnotmeanthatthesestudentsdonotneedsystematicknowledge.Whatittriestoimplyisthatteachersshallemploysometeachingapproachesthatsuitsecondaryvocationalschoolstudents’learninghabitsandcharacteristicstomaketheEnglishclassmoreeffective,helpingstudentsuseEnglishincommunicationaccuratelyandappropriately.Theprospectiveemployerswouldcaremoreabouthowthesecondaryvocationalschoolstudentscanapplytheknowledgetotheirworkingpractice.Therefore,moreandmoreteachersbegantoadopttheteachingapproachbasedoncontext.1.2ResearchObjectivesThestudyaimsatverifyingwhetherthecontext-basedgrammarteachingapproachcanimprovesecondaryvocationalschoolstudents’grammaticalachievementmoreeffectively,comparedwiththe3Pteachingapproach.Andatthesametime,itistofindoutinwhataspectsthecontext-basedgrammarteachingapproachaffectsthegrammarlearningofsecondaryvocationalschoolstudents’atdifferentlevels.3 广州大学硕士学位论文1.3SignificanceoftheResearchTherearetwomainchoicesforsecondaryvocationalschoolstudentsaftertheirgraduation—goingtoworkdirectlyorpursuinghighereducation.Yetnomatterwhichonethestudentsmightchoose,Englishcompetenceisundoubtedlyamustforthem.WithagoodmasteryofEnglish,studentsarelikelytohavemoreopportunitiestogetpromotedintheircareer,ortogetbetterperformanceinexams.Inregardtotheweakfoundationofsecondaryvocationalschoolstudents’EnglishcompetencetogetherwiththerequirementsoftheNewCurriculum,teachersareawareofthefactthatgrammar,afterall,shallbepaidattentiontointheirteaching,butnotinatraditionalwayanymore.Thestudymightbeofhelptoprovidethefront-linesecondaryvocationalschoolteacherswithinspirationandhopefullysomesolutionstothecurrentdilemmasotomakegrammarteachingmoreeffectiveinclass.Thestudyisofresearchvalueintermsoftwoaspects.Foronething,uptillnow,thecontext-basedapproachhasbeensuccessfullyappliedtootherareasinEnglishteaching,amongwhichtheapplicationtovocabularyteachingtakesupthelargestproportionandthattoreadingfollowsnext.However,therehavebeenlesstrialsorresearchesastoemployingtheapproachinteachinggrammar.Foranotherthing,researchesconcerningtheapplicationofcontext-basedapproacharemostlycenteredonelementaryschools,middleschoolsorcolleges,whereasthereareveryfewstudiesontheEnglishgrammarteachinginsecondaryvocationalschools.1.4StructureoftheThesisThisthesisiscomposedofsixchapters.ChapterOneistheintroductiontotheresearchbackground,researchobjectivesandthesignificanceoftheresearch.ChapterTwoistheliteraturereviewwhichincludesthreeparts.Partonereviewsthedifferentviewpointstowardsthedefinitionofgrammarandtheimportanceofgrammarteaching.Parttwofocusesoncontextandcontext-basedgrammarteachingapproach,includingdefinition,classificationandfunctionsofcontext.PartthreepresentsthepreviousstudiesontheEnglishteachingbasedoncontextandthe4 ChapterOneIntroductionlimitationsofthepreviousstudies.ChapterThreelaysthetheoreticalframeworkoftheresearch:ConstructivismTheoryandKrashen’sInputHypothesis.ChapterFouristhemethodology,includingtheresearchquestions,researchparticipants,researchinstruments,researchprocedures,datacollectionanddataanalysis.ChapterFivepresentstheresultsoftheresearchandputsitsemphasisonthediscussionbasedontheresults.ChapterSixsummarizestheresearchwithitsmajorfindings,andprovidesthepedagogicalimplications.Limitationsoftheresearchandsuggestionsforfurtherstudyaregivenattheendofthepaper.5 广州大学硕士学位论文6 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewChapterTwoLiteratureReviewThepreviouschaptergivesthegeneralintroductiontothestudy,sointhischapter,theauthorisgoingtoreviewliteraturesofthestudy,beginningwiththedefinitionsofgrammar,importanceofgrammarteaching,previousstudiesongrammarteachingathomeandabroad,limitationsofthepreviousgrammarteachingapproaches.Thencontextisdiscussed,includingitsdefinition,classification,functionsandapplicationtogrammarteaching.2.1GrammarandGrammarTeaching2.1.1DefinitionofGrammarOvertheyears,thedefinitionofgrammarhasalwaysbeenacontroversialtopicamongscholarsastheyholddifferentinterpretationsfromtheirpointsofview.Inageneralsense,however,thedefinitionofgrammarfallsintotwocategories:thestaticproductofknowledgeandthedynamicprocess.2.1.1.1TheStaticViewofGrammarTheWebster’sNewWorldDictionary(1968)givesgrammarthefollowingdefinition“thestudyoflanguagewhichdealswiththeformsandstructuresofwords(morphology),withtheircustomaryarrangementinphrasesandsentences(syntax),andnowoftenwithlanguagesound(phonology),usuallydistinguishedfromthestudyofwordmeanings(semantics)”.Lyonsseesgrammaras“abranchofthedescriptionoflanguageswhichaccountsforthewayinwhichwordscombinetoformsentences”(quotedfromStern,1983).Brown(1987)considersgrammarasasystemofrulesregulatingthetraditionalplacementandcorrelationofwordsinasentence.Fromkin(1988)holdsthatgrammariscomprisedofthesounds,soundpatterns,therulestoformwords,andtherulestocombinethemtoformnewsentences.Thisnotionisconcernedwiththeknowledgeofthebasicunitsandtherulesofthespeakers.7 广州大学硕士学位论文XuGuozhang(1995)statesthatgrammarisasetofruleswhichconfinethepositionandrelationsamongwordsandphraseswithinasentence.Thesentenceformationiscombinedbythewordsandphrasesundertherestrictionoftherulesacceptedbylanguagecommunity.Ur(1996)deemsgrammaras“asetofrulesthatdefinehowwords(orpartsofwords)arecombinedorchangedtoformacceptableunitsofmeaningwithinalanguage”.Theabove-mentioneddefinitionsalltakeaone-dimensionviewofgrammar.Theyseegrammarasaclosedsystemandastaticproductofknowledgeconsistingofformsthatarerule-governedandsentence-leveled.Thecomponentpartsofthelanguagesystemhasalwaysbeenthefocusforthesegrammarians,whowoulddivideasentenceintoseparateforms,eachofwhichthenistheproductoftheiranalysis.Grammarisconventionallyregardedtobeconnectedwiththeanalysisatthesentencelevel.Atitscore,therefore,grammarisasetofrulesandregulationsthatspecifieshowwordschangetheirforms,andhowwordsareputtogethertoformnewphrasesandsentences.Toputitsimple,theone-dimensionviewstressestheformofthelanguage.Thiskindofnotion,tosomedegree,isofhelptolanguageteachersandlearners.Fortheteachers’part,payinggreatattentiontogrammaticalformscanhelptoimprovestudents’understandingoflanguagerules,andmakethembesensitivetothenewinputofthelanguageandhowthelanguagechangesandworksinacorrectway.Astothestudents,theyareapttobeawareofthecorrectformofthelanguageandbeabletoproducewell-organizedsentences.Thisviewseemstotreatgrammarasknowledge,andobviouslytherearesomeshortcomingsandlimitations.Firstly,whengrammarismerelytaughtasabulkofrules,regulationsandnorms,itwouldbetoorigidtoarousestudents’interestsinlearningthelanguage.Secondly,arbitrarydailyutterancesusuallyviolatethegrammaticalrules,sointhissense,grammarcannotonlybeinterpretedastheknowledgeofrules,assometimesrulescannotexplainthegrammarexistinginthearbitraryutterances.Thirdly,overemphasizingonsentenceformandstructure,regardlessoftheconnectionwiththetextsitisbasedon,studentsareundertheriskof8 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewtheinabilitytousethelanguageinreal,flexibleandconstantlychangingcontexts.2.1.1.2TheDynamicViewofGrammarHopper(1998)thinksthatgrammarisaphenomenon“whosestatusisconstantlybeingrenegotiatedinspeechandwhichcannotbedistinguishedinprinciplefromstrategiesforbuildingdiscourse”.Itsformscanbevariable,astheyresultfromface-to-facecommunicationinwaysthatmanifestthespeakers’previousexperienceoftheseformsandtheevaluationofthepresentcontext.AccordingtoNunan(1999),grammaris“thestudyofhowsyntax(form),semantics(meaning),andpragmatics(use)worktogethertoenableindividualstocommunicatethroughlanguage”.Numanisoneofthepioneerstoputthethree-dimensionviewofgrammarintobeing.Yule(2002)describesgrammarasaconstructivesystemwheretheformscanbealteredinaccordancewithitsmeaninginthesentenceoritscontexts.Theform,meaningandusearecloselyrelatedtooneanotheringrammar.LongmanDictionaryofContemporaryEnglish(Summers,2002)bringsoutthenewconceptaswell.Itdefinesgrammaras“thestudyoruseoftherulesbywhichwordschangetheirformsandarecombinedintosentences”.Itisapparentthatthedefinitionofgrammarhasdevelopedbeyondtheone-dimensionview.Theuseofrulesisintroducedtobeanimportantaspectofgrammar.Larsen-Freeman(2002)laterdevelopsthethree-dimensionviewofgrammar,namelyform,meaninganduse.Thespeakerchoosestheformandmeaningbasedonhis/hercommunicativeenvironmentandintention.Thethreedimensionsarecloselyinterrelatedwithoneanotherinthatthechangeofonewouldaffectthechoiceoftheothertwo.Shebelievesthatitisofmorehelptoconsidergrammarasaskillratherthanasanareaofknowledge.Grammarshouldnotberegardedasstaticruleswithteachersaskingstudentstosimplyrememberrules,whichmightthenbringouttheinertknowledgeproblem.Theskillofusinggrammarintheappropriateformandmeaningisasimportantastheskillsoflistening,speaking,readingandwriting.Larsen-Freeman(1992)createdthetermgrammaringtoemphasizethe“skill”dimensionofgrammar.Sheusesthistermtotrytoexplainthatgrammarisnotso9 广州大学硕士学位论文fixedandrigidandthattheskillofgrammaringcanbeacquiredafterpractice.Languagelearnersshallcontinuallyhaveanimmediateglanceattheenvironmentwhichinvolvestheconsiderationoftheirinterlocutors/readers,andcomprehendtheircounterparts’speechinordertomakechoicesonhowtoreactinanaccurate,meaningfulandappropriatewayinrealtime.Thisindeedneedsadynamicprocess.Theabovelinguistsinterpretgrammarinsuchabroadsensethattheyviewgrammarasadynamicprocessfromtheperspectiveofform,meaninganduse.Grammarisnotmerelyabunchofprescriptivestructureandpatternsseparatedfromlanguageapplication.Grammarcarriestheform,manifeststhemeaningandisaffectedbycontext.Therefore,theabilityofusinggrammarrulesinvolvesusingtheformaccurately,usingthemmeaningfully(syntax)andusingthemappropriately(pragmatics).Inthecurrenttimes,thedefinitionofgrammarhasbeenprevailinglyshiftedfromtheone-dimensionviewintothethree-dimensionview,fromstatictodynamic,withgreatemphasisontheapplicationandfunctionofgrammar,whichistosay,thesetting,inwhichthespeakersare,shallbetakenintoaccountandthecommunicativeobjectivesareexpectedtobeaccomplished.Hence,mostofthediscussionofthisthesisistoadopttheinterpretationofdeeminggrammarasadynamicprocess.2.1.2ImportanceofGrammarTeachingGrammarteachingusedtoberegardedastheintroductionandpracticeofgrammarpointsunderthetraditionalviewthatgrammarisacollectionofrulesthatgovernsthewordstoformnewphrasesandsentences.Thecurrenttrend,however,providesgrammarteachingwithabroadersenseandtherearemorealternativesforteacherstoemploytohelpstudentslearngrammar.Ellis(2006)putsgrammarteachinginthiswaythatitincludesdirectorytechniqueswhichcanappealtostudentstocertainspecificgrammaticalform.Undersuchaninstruction,studentsarelikelytounderstanditmetalinguisticallyandprocessitincomprehensionorproductionsothatthegrammarcanbeinternalized.Larsen-Freeman’s(2005)viewofthree-dimensiongrammarteachingisinlinewithEllis.Whenitcomestogrammarteaching,three10 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewaspectsshallbetakenintoconsideration:a.Form:Howisitformed?b.Meaning:Whatdoesitmean?c.Use:When/whyisitused?Overthecenturies,constantprosandconshavebeeninvokedontheissueofwhethergrammarshouldbetaughtornot.Scholarsandlinguists(e.g.Corder,1967;Krashen,1981;Long,1983;Norris&Ortega,2000;Ellis,2006)havearguedaboutsuchmattersaswhetherweshouldpaypredominantattentiontogrammar,orwejusttotallyignoreitinforeignlanguageteaching.Voicesfromonesideclaimthatitdoesnotnecessarilyneedtogivegrammarteachingexplicitly,asgrammarofaforeignlanguagecanbeacquiredinthesamewayasthatofthenativelanguage.YetsomescholarsbelievethatgrammarteachingisattheindispensablepositioninSLA.Schmidt’sNoticingHypothesis(1990)isasupportforthisview.Hestatesthatlearnerscannotlearnthegrammaticalfeaturesofalanguageunlesstheynoticethem(quotedfromVenkatagiri&Levis,2009).Noticingisthethresholdforlanguageacquisition.Andasitis,grammarteachinghasbeenprovedtobeofpositiveresultsinlanguageclassroom.Therefore,agoodmanyofapproachesaimingatgrammarteachinghavecomeupintobeinganddevelopedathomeandabroad.2.1.3PreviousStudiesonGrammarTeachingAbroadTheClassicalMethodwasusedtoteachLatinwhichwasthemain“foreign”thththlanguageinthewestfromthe16to18centuries.Inthe19century,itwasreplacedbyGrammar-TranslationMethod(Brown,2001).TheGrammar-TranslationMethodhasalonghistorybeginningattheendoftheth18century.Itwasoncethemostpopularandpredominantmethodofgrammarteaching.Uptillnow,Grammar-translationMethodstillhasimpactsonlanguagegrammarteachingaroundtheworld.Thismethodshedslightonmemorizationofvocabularies,phrases,grammaticalrulesandtheexercisesoftranslation.Thesyllabusofgrammarstructurecomesfirst.Celce-Murcia(1988)summarizessomemajorfeaturesofGrammar-Translation11 广州大学硕士学位论文Method.Shestatesthatteacherswhoemploythismethodusetheirmothertonguetoexplainthegrammaticalrulesbuttheyseldomusethetargetlanguage.Theclassesarerule-centered,stressingeverydetailofthestructureandpatternsinadeductiveapproach.Meanwhile,longexplanationsareoftengiven,inthehopethatstudentsareabletotranslatesentencesanddiscourseintothetargetlanguage.Themethod,obviously,hasitsfataldrawbacksinthatitisjustsuitableforstudentstopassexamsbutnothelpfulforthemtocommunicateinthetargetlanguage.Accordingtothismethod,theinstructionofgrammaticalknowledgeisthecore,whilecultivatingotherlanguageskillssuchaslisteningandspeakingisneglected.TheDirectMethodstartingaroundthe1900s,gaveprioritytotheoralskill.Itconsidersthatthesecondlanguagelearningshouldbepickedupbydoingagreatdealoforalinteraction,resemblingthewaythatchildrenacquiretheirfirstlanguage.Themethodrejectstheuseofthelearner’smothertongueandinvolveslittlepresentationofgrammaticalrules.InRichardandRodgers’(1986)opinions,teachersshouldusethetargetlanguagetoteachinclassandtheyshouldpresentthegrammaticalrulesbasedonthesentenceleveldirectly,thenfollowedbystudents’imitationandpractice.Whenitcomestotheabstractconcepts,teacherswouldusetheassociationofideas.ComparedwiththeGrammar-TranslationMethod,thismethodisaprogressinwhichstudents’fluencyofthelanguagemaybeimproved,asitpaysattentiontotheskillofspeaking.However,theexclusionofmothertongueandthelackofexplicitexplanationofgrammaticalrulesresultintheproblemthattheaccuracyofthelanguagemaybeweakened.TheAudio-LingualMethodissimilartotheDirectMethodinthewaythatitadvocatesteachingalanguagedirectly,viewingthespokenlanguageasthecenter.Themethodfocusesontheoraldrillingofsentencestructuresandpatterns,inordertocultivatestudents’listeningandspeakingabilitieswithsomemodernaudio-visualmeanstoteach.Theuseofnativelanguageisdiscouragedinclass,butitisnotexcluded.TheAudio-LingualMethodneglectsthecultivationofreadingandwritingabilities,thusthepracticeismechanicalanddrillsareconductedoutofcontext.LiketheDirectMethod,abstractconceptsandgrammaticalrulesarenotexplained12 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewconcretelyorexplicitly.TheNaturalApproachwasdevelopedbyStephenKrashenandTracyTerrelinthelate1970s.Theapproachemphasizesunderstandingthemeaningintheforeignlanguage,butattacheslittleimportancetotheexplicitteachingofgrammaticalrules,sentencedrilling,anderrorcorrection.Krashen(1981)assertsthatthegrammarofaforeignlanguageshouldnotbetaughtinclassroombutcanbeacquiredwithexposuretoalargeamountofmeaningfullanguageinput,likeanaturalprocessbywhichthefirstlanguageispickedup.Explicitgrammarteachingwouldincreaselearners’anxiety.Hebelievesthatacquisitionemergedwhenlearnersareinastress-freeenvironmentunderwhichtheinnatelearningcapacitiescanbeactivated.CommunicativeLanguageTeaching(CLT)cameintobeinginthe1970s,whichlaysemphasisonmeaninganduseratherthanlanguageform.Thegoalofthisapproachisthefulfillmentofcommunicationbymeansofgrammar.Itsbasicprincipleisthatstudentsarenotonlyrequiredtounderstandthegrammar,buttousethelanguageappropriately.InaCLTclassroom,pairwork,groupwork,role-playsandotherfluency-basedactivitiesarecarriedoutinordertohelplearnersaccomplishthecommunicativecompetence.CLTproposesthatgrammarshouldbetaughtinthemeaningfulcontextwhereform,meaninganduseareinterdependent(Nunan,1991).Asthisapproachisprimarilydependentoncommunicationandistolerantoferrors,studentsareusuallynotawareofthegrammarrulesandtheaccuracyoflanguagethusdecreases.2.1.4PreviousStudiesonGrammarTeachingatHomeOverthepastcentury,grammarteachinghasundergonesomechanges,butgenerallyspeaking,theyfollowthetrendofthedevelopmentofgrammarteachingabroad.Grammar-TranslationMethodhasdominatedEnglishgrammarteachinginChinaforalongtime,andeventoday,someteachersarestillfondofthismethod.Asitismentionedabove,thismethodisbasedonexplicitpresentationandexplanationofgrammaticalrulesandhavestudentstranslatethesentencesintothetargetlanguage13 广州大学硕士学位论文withtherules.ThedeficiencyliesintheisolationfromtheabilitytospeakEnglish.Thenaroundthe1970s,EnglishteachersinChinabegantohaveatrailontheAudio-LingualMethodwhichstresseslisteningandspeakingbutwithlittleornoexplanationofgrammaticalrulesandstructures.TheoutcomewasnotthatfavorableandlittleimpacthadbeeninvokedingrammarteachinginChina.Intheearly1980s,theCommunicativeLanguageTeachingapproachwasintroducedtoChina,andsincethen,ithasflourishedandlargelyinfluencedEnglishteachinginChina.TherefollowedsubstantialapplicationsofCLTtoEnglishteachingbuttherewerestillsomeproblems,especiallytheproblemofgrammarteaching.CLTfocusesonmeaninganduse,butnottheformofthelanguage.Thatistosay,formissubordinatetomeaning,whichleadstothefailureofaccuracyintheproductionofthetargetlanguage.Someteachersmightevenhavegonetoextremethattheyjustignoredgrammarteaching.TheymisunderstoodCLT,justasNunan(1989)mentioned,thestatusofgrammarteachingwasratheruncertainandsometeachersinsistedthatgrammarteachingwasnotnecessarybecauseitcouldbedevelopednaturallyintheprocessoffocusingonmeaningwhenusingthelanguage.Withyearspassing,ononehand,itisgoodtoseethatstudentsinChinahavemadeprogressinlisteningandspeaking;onetheotherhand,itisquitedisappointingthattheirinterlanguageisnotsatisfactoryenoughtohelpthemproducetheaccuratesentenceinEnglish.Therefore,teachersinChinabegantoreflecttheimportanceofEnglishgrammarteachinginclassroom,asmanylinguists(Celce-Murcia,1991;Nunan,2004;Swan,2005;Ellis,2006)recognizedtheroleofgrammarinthesecondlanguagelearningprocess.Sotheyonceagaindedicatedthemselvestoimpartinggrammarknowledgeonstudentswithintheframeworkofthetraditional3Pteachingapproachwhichmeanspresentation,practiceandproduction.The3Papproachiswidelyconsideredtobethemostdirectwayorprobablythelesstime-consumingwayinteachinggrammar,whichthusisoftenadoptedinmiddleschoolsasthetimeforthecurriculumistootighttobalancethecultivationofdifferentabilities,suchaslistening,speaking,readingandwriting,andtobalancebetweentheaccuracyandfluencyofthelanguage.Undertheapplicationofthe3Papproach,teachersgivedetailedexplanationofeach14 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewgrammaticalitemintermsofitsform,meaningandusage,byusingsomeexamplesselectedfromreferencebooksofgrammarinadeductiveway.Theseexamplesarenotrelatedtoeachotherintermsofcontext.Afterpresentation,practiceandapplicationisrequiredtoconducttodrillthegrammaritem,whichtoputitsimple,istocheckwhetherstudentscanusethegrammaritemaccurately.Thefinalstepofthe3Papproachistoaskstudentstoproducethecorrecttargetlanguagebyusingthecomprehensiveabilitiesbasedontheteacher’sassignment.The3Papproachindeedinawayhelpstoimprovestudents’languageaccuracy.Butit,afterall,turnsouttobeineffectivebecauseitdoesnottakehowlearnersacquiregrammaticalrulesintoconsideration(Krashen,1982).Thewholeprocessisteacher-centered.Foronething,classroomactivitieshavebeenstrictlyscheduledbyteachersandstudentsareforcedtodowhattheyaretoldto,sotheirmotivationandcreativityisgreatlyweakened.Foranotherthing,thisapproachislackofthefunctionofrealcommunication.Studentshavelearnedtheplannedknowledgeunderteachers’elaborateguidance,buttheauthenticcommunicationisyetfullofunpredictabilityandrisksindailylifewherestudentsmayfailtoreactproperlyeventhoughtheyhaveagroupofaccuratesentencestructuresinmind.2.1.5LimitationsofthePreviousGrammarTeachingApproachesWiththeabovebriefreviewofthepreviousgrammarteachingapproachesathomeandabroad,wecancategorizethemintodifferentgroups.Withregardtothematterwhethergrammarrulesshouldbetaughtexplicitlyinclassroom,therearetwobranches.Onesidetriestoadvocatetoresembletheprocessoffirstlanguageacquisition,underminingorrejectingtheruleexplanationintheteachingofforeignlanguage,suchastheDirectMethodandtheNaturalMethod.Theotherside,however,acceptsandsupportstheexplicitteachingofgrammarrulesandstructures,asitconsiderssecondlanguageacquisitionasamoreintellectualprocessthatentailsconcreteanddetailedruleinstruction.Asfactshaveshownthatgrammarstillmattersagreatdealinaspeaker’saccuracyoflanguage,themeredependenceontheacquisitionsimilartothatofnativelanguageisnotpracticalandpopularany15 广州大学硕士学位论文more.Sothenextquestioncomestowhichranksthefirstamongtheform,meaningoruseinthelanguagelearning,orwhethertheyshouldbeoftheequalimportance.Asisindicatedabove,theCommunicativeLanguageTeachingapproachandthetraditional3Papproacharebothfortheinstructionofgrammarrules.Theformeroneteachesgrammarinmeaningfulcontextwherethereareanumberofcommunication-orientedactivitiessuchasrole-playsandpairwork,puttingmeaningandusebeforetheformoflanguage,whichleadstofrequentinaccuracy;whereasthelatteroneconcernsmoreabouttheformpriortomeaninganduseoflanguage,withgrammarteachingdivorcedfromthecontext,whichthenresultsinthefrustrationofusingthelanguageinaproperwayintherealcommunicationsetting.Therefore,limitationsarequiteobviousthattheseapproachesdonotseethatinterdependenceandinterrelationshipbetweenthethreeaspectsoflanguage:accuracy,fluencyandappropriateness.Thelargegapleavingforward,thealternativeapproachthatwouldservethebestandmosteffectivelytothegrammarteachingiswhatweneedtodiscussinthisessay.Tosumup,itisthecontext-basedteachingapproachendeavorstolinktheform,meaningandusetogether,anditmightmakesupplementforthedeficienciesandshortcomingsofthepreviousapproaches.2.2ContextSincemorescholarsandteachersnoticethecorrectandappropriateuseofgrammarismuchreliedoncontext,researchesconcerningtheapplicationofcontexttogrammarteachinghavebeenincreasinginthecurrentyears.Thissectionistodefinewhatcontextis,andillustratesitsclassification,functionsaswellastheprinciplesitworksonthelanguagegrammarteaching.2.2.1DefinitionofContextContextisgenerallydeemedastheenvironmentorcircumstance.Intherealmoflanguagestudies,sinceitsintroductioninthe1920s,theterm“context”haswalkedthroughalongwayandmanyscholarsandlinguistsathomeandabroadhavetriedto16 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewinterpretitfromtheirownperspectives,andthustherecameupseveralschools.Malinowski(1923)isthepioneertoproposetheconceptofcontextandnoticethesignificantrolethatcontextplaysinunderstandingutterances.Heclaimsthatawordeitherinspokenorwrittenlanguages,isjustafigmentandrepresentsnothingbyitselfwithoutlinguisticcontextandthattheutterancemeansnothingexceptinthecontextofsituation.Accordingtohisopinion,utteranceandsituationaretiedupwitheachotherandthecontextofsituationisamustforlearnerstounderstandthewords.Languageshouldbeseenasakindofaction,whichisinfluencedbythenativeculture,sociallifeandcustoms.Malinoswki’sviewpointofcontextgivesusabroaderinsightthatlanguageconnectswiththecontextwhereitisused.Hisidealaysthefoundationforthefollowingdevelopmentoftheconcept.WiththeinspirationbyMalinowski,Firth(1957)focusedonthecontextofsituation,broughtforthacompleteandmoreconcretedefinitionofcontextanddevelopeditintoalinguistictheory.Inhisopinion,theinterpretationofcontextshouldincludeboththesituationalcontextandthelinguisticcontextofatext.Heproposedthatinadditiontothespokenwords,thecharactersoftheinterlocutors,therelatedtopicandtheinfluenceoftheeventshouldbetakenaccountofwhenweanalyzethetext.AfterFirth,Halliday(1976)presentedhisunderstandingofcontextbasedonFirth’sideaofcontextofsituation.Heintroducedthetechnicalterm“register”,whichisdescribedasthetypeoflanguageselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituation.Hallidaystatedthattherearethreefactorsaffectingtheregister,namely,fieldofdiscourse,tenorofdiscourseandmodeofdiscourse.Halliday’sstudyoncontextincludesnotonlylinguisticcontext,butalsonon-linguisticaswell.Heisconcernedaboutthesocialfunctionoflanguage.Hymes(1974),asanAmericaneducatorandsociolinguist,deepenedthestudyoncontextofsituationundertheinfluencebyMalinowskiandFirth,puttingforwardhistheoryofcontext—SPEAKINGModel.Heemphasizedtheimportanceofcontextanddescribedthekeyelementsconstitutingthecontextinaccordancewiththelettersintheword“SPEAKING”:Setting,Participants,Ends,ActSequence,Key,17 广州大学硕士学位论文Instrumentalities,NormsofInteractionandGenre.SperberandWilson(1986)viewedcontextinthelightofpsychology.TheybroughtforwardthebookRelevance:CommunicationandCognition,andbelievethatcontextisadynamicconceptratherthanastaticone.Accordingtothem,contextiswhatthehearerassumefromtheenvironmentneararoundanditisthehearer’sassumptionthatmakesrelevancetowhatthespeakertriestoconvey.Withregardtothestudyoncontextathome,itbeganrelativelylaterthanabroad.Butprogresshasbeenmade,asChineselinguistsmadeeffortstoexplorewhatcontextisandtherelationshipbetweencontextandlanguage.ChenWangdao(1978)proposedtheconceptofcontextinhisworkOnRhetoric.Hethinksthatrhetoricshallbeinlinewiththemeandsituation,whichincludesseveralfactors,suchas“when,where,who,tohow,forwhatpurposeandhow”.HeZhaoxiong(1989)interpretscontextastwokindsofknowledge:innerlinguisticknowledgeandextra-linguisticknowledge.Innerknowledgemeanstheknowledgeoftherulesandstructuresthathelppeopletobeabletospeakandunderstandhislanguage.Extra-linguisticknowledgereferstotheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer,andallnon-linguisticbackgroundtoanutterance.HeZiran(1997)deemscontextfromtheperspectiveofpragmatics.Hethinksthatcontextistheenvironmentwhichverbalcommunicationrelieson.Theenvironmentinvolveslinguisticcontext,socialcontextandcognitivecontext.HuZhuanglin(2002)definescontextasthegeneralknowledgesharedbythespeakersandhearers.Accordingtohim,contexthelpstocontributesignificantlytohowpeopleinterpretthediscoursemeaning.Hedividescontextintotwocategories,linguisticcontextandnon-linguisticcontext.Thelinguisticcontextistheinnerstructureofthetext,whichcanbeviewedastheco-text,whilethenon-linguisticcontextreferstothesituationalcontextandtheculturalcontext.Withtheabovedefinitionsofcontext,itcanbeseenthatscholarsperceivecontextinasimilarway.Yetnoconsensushasbeenmade,astheypresumecontextintermsoftheirrespectiverealms.Therefore,itisimpropertosaywhichoneissuperiortotheother.Inthispaper,theauthoradoptsHuZhuanglin’s(2002)interpretationof18 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewcontext,andtheclassificationofcontextistobediscussedinthenextsectionaccordingly.2.2.2ClassificationofContextAccordingtoHuZhuanglin(1994),contextisdividedintolinguisticcontextandnon-linguisticcontext.InhisbookDiscourseCohesionandCoherence,HuZhuanglinillustratessuchadivisionofcontext.2.2.2.1LinguisticContextThelinguisticcontextisalsoknownasco-text,whichisregardedasanylinguisticitembeforeorafterthegrammaticaliteminquestion(DaiWeidong,2002).Thus,itcoversthewords,phrases,clauses,sentencesaroundthegrammaticalitems,orsometimesitinvolvesaparagraph,awholechapterandeventhewholebook.Withthelinguisticcontext,thereisasubdivision,namely,theimmediatelinguisticcontextandtheremotelinguisticcontext(Nida,1993).1)ImmediateLinguisticContextImmediatelinguisticcontextisdefinedasthelinguisticitemsoccurringalongwithaphrase,asentenceoraparagraph.InEnglish,asentenceincludesoneindependentclausewithafiniteverb(Richards,1985).Asentenceiscomprisedofwords,anyofwhichpresentsacertainlinguisticcontextofthesentence.Withthefunctionofthesyntacticstructures,thesentencemeaningisadefinitecollaborationofthewordswithcertainorder.Thewordswithinthesentencemightinfluencesemanticallyononeanother,sothatthechangeofonewordortheirordermightleadtothechangeofthemeaning.2)RemoteLinguisticContextTheremotelinguisticcontextisperceivedasthelinguisticunitsinthesameorsimilardiscoursebythesameauthor,involvingaparagraph,awholechapteroreventheentirebook(JinDiandNida,1984).2.2.2.2Non-linguisticContextLanguage,thetoolforhumantocommunicateintheirlifeandactivity,hastheinterpersonalandsocialfunctions.Non-linguisticcontextreferstotheextra-linguistic19 广州大学硕士学位论文componentsfromsocialenvironmentandculturalsettingsinwhichtheutteranceoccurs(HeZiran,1997).Itisasimportantasthelinguisticcontext,andisoftwotypes:situationalcontextandculturalcontext(Celce-MurciaandOlshtain,2000).1)SituationalContextSituationalcontextreferstothephysicalenvironmentwherethespeechorutterancetakesplace(HuZhuanglin,1994).Itnormallycontainssomeaspects,suchastime,person,place,topicandtherelationshipbetweentheparticipants.Situationplaysakeyroleinconversation,aspeopletrytousesomelanguageformstoexpresstheirmeaning,andthechangeofsituationwheretheirspeechhappenswouldaffecttheirchoicesofwordsorthewayofspeaking.Forexample,whenwemeetaclosefriend,wemightsay“Hey”,whichseemsquiteappropriateandcolloquial,whileifwemeetsomeoneforthefirsttime,especiallyonbusinessoccasions,itwouldbenotthatdecentandpolite.2)CulturalContextThroughoutthehistory,cultureandlanguagehasbeeninfluencedeachotherinextricably.Ontheonehand,languageisactingasamirrorofculture,reflectingthebeliefs,customsandlifestylesofacertaincommunity,sothelanguagesvaryfromoneculturetoanother.Ontheotherhand,itisthelanguagethathelpsculturetopassdownfromgenerationtogenerationsomuchsothatweconsiderlanguageasthecarrierofculture.Asitis,everyutteranceoccursunderaspecificculturalbackground.Differentculturesleadtodifferentwaysofspeaking.Culturalcontextisthereforeabroadbackgroundinvolvingsocialnorms,valuesandbeliefs,andmodesofthing,etc.Tosumup,linguisticandnon-linguisticcontextsarebothofimportancetoalanguage,makingtheutterancemoreaccurate,meaningfulandappropriate.2.2.3FunctionsofContextInthissection,wewilldiscussthefunctionsofcontext.Astheliteratureshowsthatitisgenerallyagreedthatcontexthastwomainfunctions:interpretivefunctionandrestrictivefunction(HeZhaoxiong&JiangYanmei,1997).20 ChapterTwoLiteratureReview2.2.3.1InterpretiveFunctionIneachutterance,itsmeaningmaychangeorevenbeoppositetoitslexicalandgrammaticalmeaningifitisunderdifferentspecificconditions(XizhenGuangzheng,1992).Toputitexact,thesameutterancemayconveydifferentmeaningswhengivenbydifferentspeakersfromdifferentbackgrounds.Therefore,hereitindeedneedsthecontexttohelpthehearerorreadertoclarifywhatthespeakerorwritertrulywantstosayandexpress,andtogettheintendedmeaningratherthantheliteralexplanation.Suchistheinterpretivefunctionofcontext.Theauthorwouldtrytoillustratetheinterpretivefunctionwiththefollowingsentenceasanexample--“Sheismybestfriend”.Thisutteranceisnormallyconsideredtobeanintroductionofthespeaker’sfriendtothehearer.Literally,ittriestomakethehearerknowthattherelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthefriendinquestionispleasantandcordial,withakindofappreciationandcompliment.However,ifthesentenceisspokenunderaspecificcontextwherethespeakertellsthehearerthatwhenheorsheisingreatneedofhelpandsupport,hisorherfriendbetrayshimorher.Soonafterwards,thespeakerfollowswith“Sheismybestfriend”,stressingtheword“best”.Theimpliedmeaningofthesentenceturnsouttobequiteironic,conveyingthespeaker’sgreatdisappointmentwithhisorherfriend.Therefore,contexthasthefunctionofhelpingustounderstandthedeeplevelofmeaningfromtheutterance.Thatistosay,ifahearerwantstogettherealmeaningoftheactualutterance,heorsheshalltakethespecificcontextintoconsideration.2.2.3.2RestrictiveFunctionInadditiontotheinterpretivefunction,contextcanalsoworktorestrictthechoiceoflanguage.Inourdailycommunication,wehaveseveralwords,phrasesorsentencesthatareofthesamemeaning,sothequestionscometowhywechoosethislanguageforminsteadoftheothers,andhowwecansucceedinexpressingwhatwereallywanttosayandinunderstandingtheintentionoftheinterlocutor’sutterance(XizhenGuangzheng,1992).ThediverseusageofEnglishlargelydependsonthecontextinwhichthespeakerisinclinedtousethelanguage.Ascontextconsistsofthelinguisticcontextandnon-linguisticcontextwhichis21 广州大学硕士学位论文furthersubdividedintothesituationalcontextandtheculturalcontext,theauthoristodiscusstherestrictivefunctionsofthemrespectively.1)RestrictiveFunctionofLinguisticContextTheexample“Iboughtanewbookyesterday.ButnowIcan’tfindit.”canexplaintherestrictivefunctionoflinguisticcontext.Thesecondsentenceendswithadeicticword“it”,whichrefersto“anewbook”inthefirstsentence.Thelinguisticcontextrestrictsthemeaningofthewordinquestionaccordingtotheotherwords,phrasesandsentencesprecedingorfollowingit(HeZhaoxiong,2000).Insuchacase,itfacilitatestheprocessofthehearer’sinterpretingtheutteranceeffectivelyandaccuratelyanditalsohelpstoeliminateambiguities.2)RestrictiveFunctionofSituationalContextInourdailycommunication,manyexpressionsareofthesameorsimilarmeaning.However,wewouldunconsciouslychooseonetouse.Forinstance,whenwewanttoknowsomeone’sname,thereareseveraloptionsavailable:a.Whatisyourname?b.MayIhaveyourname,please?c.HowcanIaddressyou?Infact,theabovethreeexpressionspossessthesamemeaningaswellaspurpose,buttheydifferslightlyintermsoftheiruseunderdifferentsituations.IfthespeakerisaninterviewerattheHRdepartmentofacompany,whoasksthecandidateforhisorhernameontheoccasionofthejobinterview,thenitispracticalandtolerabletosay“Whatisyourname(,please)”.Yetwhenthespeakerworkingasanassistanttothemanageranswersthephonetoinquirethecaller’sname,thenitwouldbemoreappropriatetousetheexpressions“MayIhaveyourname”or“HowcanIaddressyou”,whichshowsagreatersenseofcourtesyandetiquettetowardstheprospectivebusinesspartnersorclients.Therefore,thesituationalcontextletsusbeawareofwherewearetalkingandwhomwearetalkingwith,confiningtherangeofpossibleutterancesthataccountforappropriatenesstoimplytherealintention.3)RestrictiveFunctionofCulturalContext22 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewCulturalcontext,ashasbeendiscussedabove,isthesettingorbackgroundinvolvingideas,beliefs,norms,customsandwaysofthinkingsharedbyonecommunity(CaiLongquan&DaiWeidong,2002).Thus,languageandcultureareboundupwitheachother,andculture,toagreatextent,affectsthewaypeoplethinkandtalk,imposingcontrolsonthechoicesoflanguage.Chinesepeoplehaveanumberofdifferencesinthemodesofthinking,comparedwithEnglish-speakingpeople.Itisrecommendedtoconsidertheculturegapwhenwemakeutterancesifwewanttoaccomplishthegoalofeffectivecommunication.Theunderstandingofthecounterpart’sculturehelpsthespeakertoconverthisintrinsicwayofreaction.Tobetterinterpretthisfunction,let’stakealookatthefollowingexample.IftwoChineserunintoeachother,theywouldbegintheirconversationnormallybytalkingabouttheeventsthatmighthappenaround,especiallywiththeexpression“Haveyoueatenyet?”,whichisquiteawayofmanners.ButitseemsquiteawkwardandabruptifthisoccurswhenaChinesespeakstoanEnglishman.TheEnglishhearerisinclinedtothinkthatthespeakeristryingtoofferhimorherameal,orthatthespeakerisworriedthatthehearerhasnomoneytobuyhimselforherselffood,whichveryoftenmakesthehearerfeelweirdorunpleasant.Thus,theacquaintancewithculturesetsthedo’sanddon’tsinlanguage,helpingthespeakertochoosethemostappropriateexpressiontocommunicatewithothers.Tosumup,inthecourseofcommunication,contextexertsimportantinfluenceonlanguagewithitsinterpretiveandrestrictivefunctions.Thisremindsusofthefactthatforeignlanguageteachingandlearningshallnotfocusontheform,butalsoitneedstheassistanceofcontexttoachievethegoalofthesuccessfulinteractionamongtheform,meaninganduseoflanguage.2.3Context-basedGrammarTeachingApproachSincecontextplaysakeyroleinlanguage,moreandmorescholarsandteachersarepronetoteachEnglishincontext.Grammar,asanindispensableelementoflanguage,aimsathelpinglearnerstocultivatetheircommunicativecompetence.Althoughteacherscanexplainandanalyzegrammaticalrulesandstructuresinclass,23 广州大学硕士学位论文whatweneedtobearinmindisthatthefocusofgrammarteachingshouldnotbeonlyontheform,butalsoonthemeaningandhowtoapplythelanguageitemsindifferentcontexts.Theapproachofteachingincontextistermedasthecontext-basedteachingapproach.Inthissection,theauthorpresentstheprinciplesofcontext-basedteachingapproachandreviewsthepreviousstudiesonlanguageteachingbasedoncontext,pointingoutthelimitationsofthepreviousresearches.Thentheauthorfollowstodemonstratethetechniquesofapplyingcontext-teachingapproachtoEnglishgrammarteaching,tobemoreexact,thenon-finiteverbsteaching,whichworksasacaseinthispapertoillustratetheapproachatissue.2.3.1PrinciplesofContext-basedGrammarTeachingApproachCelce-MurciaandHilles(1988)statedthattherearethreemainprinciplesastothecontext-basedapproachapplyingtothelanguageteaching:theinductiveapproach,learner-centeredapproachandlanguage-awarenessapproach.Alltheseapproachesworktoformthebasicprinciplesofteachinggrammarincontext.1)TheprincipleofInductionAccordingtoLongmanDictionaryofLanguageTeaching&AppliedLinguistics(2010),inductionisateachingmethod“wherelearnersarenottaughtgrammaticalrulesdirectlybutarelefttodiscoverrulesfromtheirexperienceofusingthelanguage”.Comparedwiththedeductivemethod,theinductivemethodcallsformoreobservationandconsiderationoflinguisticcontextinwhichthesentenceislocated.InNunan’s(1998)opinion,theimplementationofinductiveapproachgoesfromlanguageexamples,thentopracticeandfinallytogrammaticalrules,whilethedeductiveapproachisfromgrammaticalrulestoexamples,endingwithpractice.Ascontexthasthefunctionofinterpretingandrestrictingthelanguage,thecontext-basedteachingshallemploytheinductiveway,askinglearnerstoconcentrateonthelinguisticformsafterthediscoveryandanalysesofthegroupofexamples.Learnersareexpectedtoexaminetheirpredictionintothepractice,andtocheckoutwhethertheyhaveacquiredthegrammaticalrules.24 ChapterTwoLiteratureReview2)ThePrincipleofLearner-centerThetraditionalteachingstressestheroleofteacherwhoactsasadominatorandcontrollerinclass,wherelearnersarerequiredtofollowtheteacher’sinstructionanddecision,andtodowhattheyaretoldto.Undersuchanenvironment,studentsdonotneedtothinkalternativelyandcreatively,buttheyjustneedtomemorizethegrammaticalrulesandlanguageitemspresentedbytheirteachers.Teachinggrammarincontextshallbelearner-centered,ratherthanteacher-centered.Studentsshallbethefocusofthegrammarclassandtheinstructionalactivitiesshallservetheneedsoflearners,whileteachersaresupposedtobethehelpers,guidersandcompanions,whogiveadviseandguidanceforlearnerstofindoutthegrammaticalrulesundercertaincircumstances.Differenttechniquesarecalledtocaterforlearnerstogetthemselvesdevotedtotherealcontextsforreallanguageuse.3)ThePrincipleofLanguageAwarenessLanguageawarenessreferstoalearner’ssensitivitythroughdiscoveryanddiscussiononlanguage(Borg,1994).Context-basedteachingshallbeonthepurposeofnotonlyhavingstudentsacquirethegrammaticalrulesandstructures,butalsoincreasingtheirawarenessofgrammarknowledgeandgrammaruseindailycommunication.Toputitshort,theaboveprinciplesofcontext-basedteachingapproachistoadvocatelearnerstoexploregrammarformsandfeaturesinspecificcontextstogetherwithaseriesofactivities,andtoencouragethemtointegrateform,meaninganduseoflanguageforrealpurpose.Atthesametime,theactivitiescateredtolearnersshallofferpleasantopportunitiestodeveloplearners’abilitiesofthinkingclearlywhileconcentratingonformunconsciously.2.3.2PreviousStudiesonForeignLanguageTeachingBasedonContextInthepastfewdecades,someresearcheshavebeendoneonforeignlanguageteachingbasedoncontext,asmoreandmorescholarsandteachershaverealizedtheadvantagesofapplyingcontexttolanguagelearning.25 广州大学硕士学位论文TheJapanesescholarXizhenGuangzheng(1992)discussestherelationshipbetweencontextandforeignlanguageteachinginhiseditedbookPapersonContextResearch.Hestatesthecontextworksasthecoreinforeignlanguageteaching,andtheskillsoflistening,speaking,reading,writingandtranslationcallfortheapplicationofcontext.XizhenGuangzhengprovidesageneralscaleoftheusagesofcontextinforeignlanguageteaching,butitisapitythathedoesn’tshapeaspecificmodelonhowtoemploycontextintoclassroominstructionsorgivepossiblesolutionstotheteachingproblemsarisinghereof.InKramsch’s(1993)bookContextandCultureinLanguageTeaching,shemakesstudiesontheteachingofspeakingandreadingbyapplyingcontextandculture,andholdsthatcontextandcultureisofimportancetoforeignlanguageteaching.Shelaysgreatemphasisonculturalcontextandbelievesthatcultureshouldbecontextualizedindialogues,inwhichlearnersarenotonlyabletoshapetheirskillsoflanguage,butalsointegratethecross-culturalknowledge.Sheofferssomesuggestionsonhowtousecontextinforeignlanguageteaching,however,theyarejustlimitedtotheteachinginsmall-sizedclasses.Meanwhile,Kramschonlycentersonculturalcontextinforeignlanguageteaching,withlittleattentiontoothercontexts,whichthusisnotcomprehensiveenough.Hadley(2004)inherbookTeachingLanguageinContext,illustratestheimportanceofcontextandbackgroundknowledgeinthecomprehensionandlearningprocess,advocatingfortheimmersionandcontent-basedinstruction.Sheprovidestheapproachestoteachinglistening,readingandwritingincontexts.Atthesometime,someChineseteachersalsodidsomeresearchesontheapplicationofcontexttoEnglishteaching.Butgenerallyspeaking,researchesonteachingforeignlanguageincontextaremostlyconcernedwiththeteachingofreading,vocabulariesandlisteningeitherathomeorabroad,whilestudiesonteachinggrammarincontexttakesuparelativelylowerproportion.Withacloserlookatthoseresearchesthathavebeenmadeconcerninggrammarteachingbasedoncontext,Nunan(2004)inhisbookPracticalEnglishLanguageTeaching:Grammarstatesthatgrammarworkingasatoolforcommunication,shall26 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewbetaughtwithinapieceofconnecteddiscourse,ratherthanonlyatthesentencelevel,andthatgrammarteachingshouldbedoneinthecommunicativecontextswhereitoccurs,inordertoletlearnersunderstandwhatgrammarisandwhyitisthewayitis,andletthemachievethegoalofusinggrammarproperly.Heprovidestheprinciplesofteachinggrammartolearnersatdifferentlevelsbyusingdifferenttasksandmaterials.Hisfocusisonhowtoemploycontextstocatertomulti-levelclassesanddifferentlearningstyles.Astowhathasbeenstudiedathomeonthematterofgrammarteachingbyusingcontexts,itismorelikelytoseesomeempiricalresearcheswhichweredonebyteachersfromjuniorhighorseniorhighschools,suchasSuJianying(2013),DongJiaojiao(2013)andGuanZiqi(2014),whosharethesimilarviewthatitisimportantandmeaningfultoemploycontextsinteachinggrammar.However,theseresearchesaremostlygeneralandnotsufficientenoughtoaspecificmodelfortheteachingofacertaingrammaticalitem.Inaddition,uptillnow,noresearcheshavebeenmadewithsecondaryvocationalschoolstudentsastheresearchsubjectsonthiskindoftopic.Thus,thispaperistoworkonsolvingtheselimitations.2.3.3TechniquesofApplyingContext-basedTeachingApproachtoEnglishNon-finiteVerbsTeachingInthisthesis,theauthorwillstudytheeffectivenessofthecontext-basedapproachingrammarteaching,whichisdetailedtothespecificlanguageitemasacaseinpoint—non-finiteverbs.Inordertobetterdiscussthecontext-basedapproachemployedinnon-finiteverbsteaching,itisofprimaryimportancetoclarifythedefinition,classificationandcharacteristicsofnon-finiteverbsbeforetalkingaboutthetechniquesofapplication.2.3.3.1DefinitionandClassificationofNon-finiteVerbsNon-finiteverbreferstoaformoftheverbthatdoesnotshowadistinctionintenseandnormallycannotstandaloneasthemainverbinasentence(Gelderen,2010).Themaintypesofnon-finiteverbsareinfinitives(withorwithoutto),-ingforms(alsoknownaspresentparticiplesandgerunds),andpastparticiples(also27 广州大学硕士学位论文calleden-forms).2.3.3.2FeaturesofNon-finiteVerbsAstothefeaturesofnon-finiteverbs,itisconsideredthatanon-finiteverbisdifferentfromafiniteverbasitcannot(usually)beusedasthemainverbofaclause.“Typically,thenon-finiteverblacksagreementforperson,number,andgenderwithitsfirstargumentorSubject,isunmarkedorreducedwithrespecttodistinctionsofTense,Aspect,andMood,andhascertainpropertiesincommonwithadjectivalornominalpredicates"(DikandHengeveld,1997).Thefollowingtwosentencesincludeanon-finiteverbgroupinbold.a.Seeingisbelieving.b.Hetriestolearnaforeignlanguage.Insentencea,“seeing”,“is”and“believing”arelexicalverbs,butonly“is”isfinite.Insentenceb,“tries”and“learn”arethelexicalverbs,butonly“tries”isfinite.2.3.3.3PreviousStudiesonNon-finiteVerbsTeachingInthepastfewyears,someresearcheshavebeendoneinChinaonthegrammarteachingofnon-finiteverbs.HouYaqiong(2011)inherpaperASimpleApproachtoEnglishGrammarTeaching–OntheTeachingofNon-FiniteVerbs,aimstotackletheproblemofhowtouseasimpleapproachtoillustrateandexplainthedifficultgrammaticalitems,suchasnon-finiteverbs.ShelayshertheoreticalbackgroundonChomsky’sMinimalistProgrammeandpresentstheprinciplesofthesimpleapproachtonon-finiteverbs.Bydoingtheexperimentintwoschools(ajuniorhighschoolandseniorhighschool),shefindsthattheapplicationofsimpleapproachtoteachnon-finiteverbsispracticalandeffective.TangShujing(2012)putsforthherfindingsinherthesisTheApplicationof“FocusonForm”toAttributiveClauseandtheNon-FiniteVerbsofEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHigh.Sheconductedanexperimentalstudyofteachingattributiveclauseandnon-finiteverbsintwoclassesofTianjinNo.32SeniorHighSchool,withthecontrolclassemployingtheGrammarTranslationMethodwhiletheexperimentalclassusingthemethodofFocusonForm,whichincludessupplyingopenactivities,understandingthegrammaticalformandmeaning,andapplyingtheruleseffectively.Aftertheexperiment,shefindsoutthat28 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewFocusonFormisfeasibletohelpstudentslearngrammarbetteranditiseasyforthemtoacceptthisapproach.Butuptonow,noresearcheshavebeenconductedonthesubjectofteachingnon-finiteverbsunderthecontext-basedteachingapproach.Therefore,thisthesisisgoingtodiscussit.2.3.3.4TechniquesofTeachingNon-finiteVerbsinContext-basedApproachNon-finiteverbs,asagrammaritemthatisusuallytaughtatthestageofmiddleschool,hasbeengenerallybelievedtobeoneofthemostdifficultandimportantgrammarpoints,withitswiderangeofusageandmulti-functions.Learners,thesecondaryvocationalschoolstudentsinparticular,bearagreatburdenmentallyonEnglishgrammarlearning,especiallywhentheylearnthedifficultgrammaticalitemssuchasnon-finiteverbs.InaccordancewiththeNewEnglishCurriculumforStudentsinSecondaryVocationalSchools(2009),Englishgrammarteachingshouldlayitsemphasisonreallifeandworkingsituations,conductingtask-basedactivitiesandprovidingstudentswiththeopportunitiesof“learningbydoing”,whichfacilitatesthepositivetransferoflanguageskillsandcultivatestudents’comprehensivecompetenceinlanguage.Context,insuchacase,isapossibleandpracticalmediumforsecondaryvocationalschoolstudentstoacquireEnglishgrammar,andthereareseveraltechniquesthatareapplicabletoteachinggrammarincontext,includingtextgeneration,manipulationandexplanation(Celce-MurciaandHilles,1988).Thefollowingaresomerepresentativesofthesetechniques:1)Problem-solvingActivitiesWiddowson(1978)upheldtheemploymentofproblem-solvingactivitiesinclassroom.Theprocessofproblem-solvingactivitiesusuallyproceedswithseveralstepsaccordingtoCelce-MurciaandHilles(1988).Firstly,theteacherputsforwardtheproblemandillustrateswhatthestudentsshoulddoexplicitly,answeringsomequestionsraisedbystudentsinordertomakethetaskclear.Secondly,theteacherprovidesanargumenttostudents,whichaimstoletthemconcentrateonpracticeaspecificitem.Thirdly,studentsaredividedintogroupstodiscussthepossiblesolutionswithinacertaintime,thenfollowedbyaconsensusafterthedebateornegotiation.Fourthly,eachgroupisaskedtomakealistandsharetheirfindingswith29 广州大学硕士学位论文othergroups.Thentheteachermakesthecomparisonbetweensolutionsofdifferentgroupsandthereforesummarizesit.Asgrammaticalrulesarecomplicatedandtedious,itisadvisabletoorganizeproblem-solvingactivitiesingrammarlessonstoattractlearners’attentiontobetterdigestthestaticstructuresandpatterns.Iftheactivitiesarewelldesignedandconducted,learnersareapttoengagethemselvesintotheplayandcompetitioninwhichtheymightfeeleasedandrelaxedtointernalizethegrammar.Undersuchastress-freeenvironment,languagepointsareacquiredunconsciouslybylearnerswhoseattentionmainlyfallsontheactivity.Theproblem-solvingactivitieshavethesimilarfunctionstogames.Theyaremorelikelytoarouselearners’attentiontothedetailedinformationandtothemeaning.Thus,thistypeofactivitycanbeadoptedtounderstandthespecificgrammaticalrulesandstructures.2)Text-basedExerciseInsecondaryvocationalschools,studentsareconfrontedwithEnglishtextsintheirbooksandmostofthegrammaristaughtatthesentencelevel.Butasamatteroffact,theaccomplishmentofreadingandwritingentailstheunderstandingatthetextlevel.Thefinalgoaloflearninggrammarisnotjustunderstandingthestructureofthesentence,butalsoinvolvestheproperapplicationtomeetdifferentpracticalneeds.Therefore,text-basedexerciseandactivitiescanworkasafeasibletechniqueforstudentstolearngrammar.AccordingtoCelce-MurciaandHilles(Ibid),thereareseveralkindsofsuchactivities:textimitation,textreplication,textcompletionandtextediting.Takethetextcompletionforinstance.Theclozeisatypicalformoftextcomplement,wherethereareblankspaceslefttoletstudentsfillinaccordingtothecontentandthesentenceinwhichitlies.Hereisashortpassageexample:Ididn’tgotoschoolbybikethismorning,becausemybikewas_1_(break).SoIthoughtitneeded_2_(repair)andIplanned_3_(repair)itthisSaturday.Buttomysurprise,whenIgothomeafterschool,Ifoundsomeonehadmybike_4_(repair)!Theaboveparagraphprovideshintstostudentstofindoutthecorrectformofthe30 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewverbs.Basedonthecontext,itissuchastory-likesequencethattheproperformsofnon-finiteverbsareexpectedtopresent,withBlank1“broken”,Blank2“repairing”,Blank3“torepair”andBlank4“repaired”.3)Role-playRole-playisapracticaltechniquewithinnovationandinteraction,thescenesofwhichenablelearnerstoexperiencedifferentsimulatedsituationsofreallife.Theadvantageofrole-playactivitiesisthatlearnerscanacquiregrammaticalitemsinauthenticcontexts,sothattheynotonlygaintheknowledgeoflanguageform,butalsofocusonthemeaningandputthelanguageintoactualuse.Normally,grammarinstructionthroughapplicationofrole-playhasthefollowingsteps(Celce-MurciaandHilles,Ibid).Firstly,theteacherintroducesthebackgroundandpresentsthescene.Secondly,certainguidanceisgiventovocabulariesordifficultiesthatmightarisefromthebackground.Thirdly,theteacherhavestudentsgroupthemselvesanddiscusshowtoroleplaybasedonthequestions.Fourthly,studentsaregiventimetopracticeorrehearsalandthenareaskedtomakepresentation,withattentiontothetargetgrammarknowledgeandthebackground.Lastly,theteacherassignsstudentstofinishsomewritingexercise,suchasextensionwritingorstorywriting,inaccordancewiththerole-playstory,andafterwardsgivesomecommentsonthegrammaticalerrorsexistinginstudents’worksasgrammarinstruction.Thetechniquesapplicabletothecontext-basedapproachesinnon-finiteverbsarefarbeyondthoseabove-discussed.TheauthorwillfurtheropenuptheexplorationformoremethodsandtheirapplicationtogrammarteachingwillbepresentedlaterasasampleteachingdesigninChapterFour.31 广州大学硕士学位论文32 ChapterThreeTheoreticalFrameworkChapterThreeTheoreticalFrameworkTheprecededchapterreviewstherelevantliteraturesofgrammar,grammarteaching,contextandteachingincontext,thischapteristolaythetheoreticalfoundationontheresearchinquestion.Twotheoriesarecloselyrelatedtothestudyandthereforearetobediscussed:theConstructivismTheoryandKrashen’sInputHypothesis.3.1ConstructivismTheory3.1.1TheoreticalBasisofConstructivismConstructivismthrivedinthe1990s,whichdevelopedoriginallyonthebasisofPiaget’s(1969)geneticepistemologytheoryandVygotsky’s(1978)psychologicaldevelopmenttheory.Thetwoscholarsaretherepresentativesofconstructivists.AccordingtoPiaget’sgeneticepistemologytheory,theprocessofbiologicaladaptiontotheenvironmentandsurvivingistheprocessofinteractionbetweenanorganismandtheenvironment.Organismreactstothevaryingsurroundingconditionsandthereforesetsupacertainbiologicalstructurefortheirsurvival.Similarly,thecognitivestructureofhumanbeingsdoesnotexistintrinsicallyinthebrain,butliesintheinteractionbetweenhumanandtheenvironment.Meanwhile,Vygotskythinksthatthesocialenvironmentplaysanimportantroleinthelearningprocess.Heproposesthezoneofproximaldevelopment(ZPD),whichreferstothedistancebetweenaperson’spresentlevelofdevelopmentandhisorherpotentiallevel.Thezoneofproximaldevelopmentaccountsforthecognitivedevelopmentthatisattributedtothemutualshareofculturalinstrumentsbyteachersandlearners.Insuchinteractions,learnersbuilduptheirownviewsbyconnectingtheirownunderstandingwiththeindividualexperienceunderaspecificcondition.ThecoreofConstructivismisitsnotionoflearning,withtheemphasisontheviewthatlearningisnotastimulus-responsephenomenon(VonGlasersfeld,1995),butisaprocessofconstructingmeaningfulrepresentationsandmakingsenseofone’s33 广州大学硕士学位论文experientialworld(Murphy,1997).FromtheConstructivists’perspectives,knowledgeistemporary,developmental,sociallyandculturallymediated(Brooks&Brooks,2001)andinsiststhatknowledge,whichlargelydependsonexperiencesinthelearningenvironmentandonsocialinteractions,shallbeconstructedwithinthecognitivestructureofeveryindividualsoastomakeitessentiallypersonal(Lebow,1993).Constructivismadvocatesthatlearningisnottheprocessofpassivelyreceivingknowledgethroughtheteachingofteachers,butshouldbetheprocesswherestudentsactivelyconstructthemeaningofknowledgethroughnecessarylearningmaterialsandhisorherownexperienceundercertaincircumstancesorsocialcontexts,alongwiththeassistanceorcollaborationwithteachersandtheirpeers.Therefore,learnersshallbedeemedasthecenteroftheclass,whileteachersshallbeconsideredasthehelper,guideorcompanionwhoseroleistofacilitatestudents’learningprocess.3.1.2RelationsBetweenConstructivismandContext-basedGrammarTeachingApproachTeachinggrammarincontextcanfinditsgroundonConstructivisminthatthetheorylaysitsemphasisontheimportanceoflearningincontext.Inthecontext-basedgrammarteachingapproach,contextsprovidelearnerswithbothpriorknowledgeandnewknowledge.Atthispoint,teachersdonotdirectlygiveexplanationsofgrammaticalrulesorstructurestostudents,butrather,theyencouragestudentstoobserve,hypothesizeandgeneralizetherulesbyunderstandingthegivenmaterialscontainedinthecontext.Meanwhile,thegrammarlearningprocessisproceedingwithdiscussionandnegotiationwiththeircompanions,includingtheirclassmatesandtheteacher.Thus,thecontext-basedgrammarteachingapproachcanhelpstudentsactivelyconstructthemeaningofgrammarknowledgeorrules.Insuchasense,grammarisacquiredratherthantaught,anditsfunctionfordailyusepurposeislikelytobeachieved.34 ChapterThreeTheoreticalFramework3.2Krashen’sInputHypothesis3.2.1TheoreticalBasisoftheInputHypothesisTheInputHypothesis,broughtforwardbyStephen.D.Krashen(1985),isoneofthemostimportanttheoriesofsecondlanguageacquisition.Itmakesanattempttoexplainhowlearnersacquireasecondlanguageandhowlearnersprogresswiththecomprehensibleinputofthesecondlanguageintoahigherlevelofstatealongthenaturalorder.AccordingtoKrashen(1985),languageisacquired,notlearned.Thelanguageacquisitionoccursonlywhenthereissufficientcomprehensibleinput,whichmeansthatunderstandingothers’speechesistheprerequisiteforsuccessfullanguageacquisition.Krashen(1985)advocatedthatlearnersimproveandprogressalongthenaturalorderwhentheyreceivesecondlanguageinputthatisslightlybeyondtheircurrentlevel.Thiscanbeachievedwiththehelpofthecontext,learners’knowledgeorthenon-linguisticinformationwhichhelpstounderstandthetargetlanguagethatincludesstructuresabitbeyondtheirexistinglevelofcompetence.Thus,hefurtherbroughtforwardtheconceptof“i+1”.“i”standsforthepresentlevelofsecondlanguagelearners,and“1”representsthenewmaterialsthatarenottooeasynortoodifficultandcanbeunderstoodbythelearnersthroughtheircurrentstateofknowledge.Inthiscase,understandingthematerialsmeansthattheacquirerfocusesonthemeaninginsteadofontheformofthelanguage.So“i+1”referstothenextlevelwhichlearnerswillmoveinfollowingthesequenceofthenaturalacquisitionorder,anditisslightlyinadvanceoftheircurrentlevelofability.InKrashen’sopinion,inputisoffundamentalimportancetothefulfillmentof“i+1”,andthusheproposedthattheidealinputshallhavefourbasicfeatures(Krashen,1982):(1)comprehensible;(2)interestingandrelevant;(3)notgrammaticallysequenced;(4)sufficientinquantity.Onlywhenlearnersareexposedtoagoodnumberofrelevantandcomprehensibleinputandareunderapleasantandstress-freeenvironmentcantheyproceedtothenexthigherleveloflinguisticcompetence.35 广州大学硕士学位论文3.2.2RelationsBetweentheInputHypothesisandContext-basedGrammarTeachingApproachKrashen’sInputHypothesisgivesenlightenmenttoteachinggrammarincontext.Intheprocessofgrammarteaching,ateacherissupposedtoprovidelearnerswithsufficientcomprehensiblematerialswhichconstituteacontext.Thenthematerialsaretobecomprehendedbylearnersinaspecificcontextwiththeirexistingorpriorknowledge,whichthusreflectlearners’currentlevel.Atthesametime,thenewgrammaticalknowledgeiscontainedinthecontextmaterialswhichgoabitbeyondlearners’presentlevelofability.Withadequatecomprehensibleinputwhichisnottooeasyorhard,thelearnermakesanattempttopredictandinternalizethetargetgrammaticalitembasedonhisorherunderstandingandexperience,thusthemasteryofthenextlevelisachievedautomatically.Toputitshort,ifthematerialsareenoughandmeaningful,thetargetgrammaticalitemscanbeacquiredunconsciouslyand“i+1”occursautomaticallyinthenaturalorder.Basedonthistheory,theauthorbelievesthatcontextplaysapositiveroleintheacquisitionofgrammarinthatithelpslearnerstocomprehendtheinputprovidedbyteachers.36 ChapterFourMethodologyChapterFourMethodologyThepreviouschaptershavereviewedtherelatedliteratureconcerninggrammarandcontext,aswellasthetheoreticalframeworkoftheresearch.Thischapteristoproposetheresearchquestionsatthebeginning,thentogivedetailsaboutitsparticipants,instrumentsandprocedures,andtoillustratethedatacollectionandanalysisintheend.4.1ResearchQuestionsTheresearchaimstoexploretheanswerstothefollowingquestions:(1)Comparedwiththe3Pteachingapproach,canthecontext-basedgrammarteachingapproachhelpsecondaryvocationalschoolstudentstoacquiregrammarmoreeffectively?(2)Inwhataspectsdoesthecontext-basedgrammarapproachaffectthegrammarlearningofstudentsatdifferentEnglishlevelsinsecondaryvocationalschools?4.2ResearchParticipantsTheresearchwascarriedoutinGuangzhouSecondaryVocationalSchoolofFinanceandEconomics,apublicsecondaryschoolspecializinginbusinesseducation,includingmajorsofAccounting,Finance,Marketing,BusinessEnglish,E-CommerceManagementandHumanResourceManagement.ThesubjectsofthisstudywereallAccountingmajorsofClass1andClassTwo,GradeTwo,withatotalnumberof98students.48students(12malesand36females)camefromClass1and50studentscamefromClass2(15malesand35females).Thetwoclasseswerechosenfrom22naturalclassesamongallmajorsinGradeTwo.ThesestudentssharedthesimilarbackgroundoflearningEnglish.Firstly,theyreceivedthesimilareducationindowntownGuangzhou,includingthetimespentinlearningEnglishatprimaryschoolandjuniorhighschool,theEnglishtextbooksormaterials,andthetestsorentranceexaminationstheyhaveevertaken.Besides,theyhavebeenundertheinstructionof37 广州大学硕士学位论文thesameEnglishteachersinceGradeOneatvocationalschool.What’smore,theymajorinAccountingwhichspecifiesthesameperiods(4periodsperweek,40minutesperperiod)forEnglishlessons.Lastbutnottheleast,beforetheteachingexperiment,twoclasseswereparallelintheacademicperformanceofEnglishgrammarbasedonthepre-testscores.Therefore,theresearchsubjectsaresuitableinthiscase.Accordingtothequestionstobeansweredinthisresearch,Class1wasmadetobethecontrolledclass(C-C)wheretheteacherwouldusethetraditional3Papproachinteachinggrammar,whileClass2waschosentobetheexperimentalclass(E-C)wherethecontext-basedgrammarteachingapproachwouldbeemployed.Inordertoknowwhatinfluencesthecontext-basedgrammarteachingapproachmighthaveonsecondaryvocationalschoolstudentsatdifferentEnglishlevels,theexperimentalclasswasthenfurtherdividedintotwogroupsbasedonthepre-testscores,togetherwiththeEnglishscoresofEntranceExaminationtoSeniorHighSchool.Amongthem,thosewhorankedinthetop10representedthehigherlevel,andwerecalledGroup1(G1),whilethosewhorankedinthebottom10representedthelowerlevel,andwerenamedasGroup2(G2).InbothGroup1andGroup2,therewouldbe10studentsselectedrandomlytoparticipateintheinterviews,with5studentsfromeachgroup.Atthesametime,theauthorwasinchargeofthewholeteachingprocessinthecontrolledclassandtheexperimentalclass,with2colleaguesassistanceinmarkingthepre-testandpost-test.4.3ResearchInstrumentsTheresearchinstrumentsfordatacollectioninvolveapre-test(seeAppendixⅠ),apost-test(seeAppendixⅡ)andaninterview(seeAppendixⅢ).4.3.1TestsTestisaneffectiveanddirectwaytoverifytheteachingresults.Therefore,apre-testandpost-testwereconductedtoseewhetherthecontext-basedteachingapproachcanhelpsecondaryvocationalschoolstudentsacquiregrammarmore38 ChapterFourMethodologyeffectivelythanthetraditional3Papproach.4.3.1.1Pre-testBeforetheexperiment,thepre-testwasimplementedinthecontrolledclassandtheexperimentclasstomeasurewhetherthetwoclasseswereofsimilaracademicperformanceinEnglish,soastomakethesubjectsappropriateenoughfortheexperimentandtomakethedatamorereliableandconvincing.Thepre-testwasdesignedbasedontheitemsofPETS1andPETS2(PublicEnglishTestSystem),thenationalpublicteststhatthestudentsaresupposedtotakewhentheystudyatvocationalschool.Thefullmarkofthepre-testis100,with4sectionsof50items.Itincludesboththeobjectiveandsubjectivequestiontypessuchasmultiplechoices(30items),cloze(10items),sentencerewriting(5items),andsentencetranslation(5items),withatimelimitof40minutes.Thecontentsofthepre-testweremainlyconcernedwiththegrammaticalstructures,collocationsandsentencepatternsthatstudentshadlearned.Thepre-testwasmarkedbytheauthorandtwoteacherswhowereinchargeoftheotherclassesofAccountingmajorsfromthesameGrade.4.3.1.2Post-testAftertheexperiment,thepost-testwasgiventostudentsinthetwoclassestofindoutwhethertheexperimentalclasscangetbetteracademicperformanceintestscoresthanthecontrolledclass,whichistosay,tomakeacomparisonofthegrammarteachingeffectsbetweenthecontext-basedteachingapproachandthetraditional3Papproach.Theitemsofthepost-testwere50intotal,selectedelaboratelyfromthepapersofNationalEntranceExaminationtoVocationalCollege,PETS1andPETS2(PublicEnglishTestSystem).Itsfullmarkis100scores,including4questiontypes:multiplechoices(30items),cloze(10items),sentencerewriting(5items),andsentencetranslation(5items),withatimelimitof40minutes.Thecontentsofthepost-test,inadditiontosomepriorknowledge,shedmorelightonthegrammaticalitemsofnon-finiteverbs,theonesthatwereinquestionduringtheexperiment.Thedifficultylevelwasdesignedtobesimilartothatofthepre-testsoastomaintainthe39 广州大学硕士学位论文possibilityandvalidityoftheexperiment.Inordertokeeptheconsistencyandavoidsubjectivity,theauthorandthetwoteacherswhomarkedthepre-testtookpartinthemarkingofthepost-testpapers.4.3.2InterviewAftertheexperimentoftheteachingstage,theauthoradministeredaninterviewinordertogetmoredetailstofindoutinwhataspectsthecontext-basedgrammarteachingapproachaffectsthegrammarlearningofstudentsatdifferentEnglishlevelsinsecondaryvocationalschool.Theinterviewconsistedof6questionsasfollows.Question1“Wereyouinterestedinlearninggrammarbeforethesetwomonths?Why?”Itwasdesignedtoknowstudents’opinionsonthepreviousgrammarlessons.Question2“Doyoulikethegrammarlessonsofthepastfewweeks?Pleasemakesomecomments.”Itaimedtolearnthestudents’interestsandconfidencetowardsgrammarlearningundertheinstructionofthecontext-basedgrammarteachingapproach.Question3“Comparedwiththepreviousgrammarlessons,doyouthinktheactivitiesandarrangementsinthepastfewweeksmakeyouengageyourselfmoreinlearningEnglishgrammar?”Itwasdesignedtolearnthestudents’participationingrammarlearningincontext-basedapproach.Questions4to6:“Doyouthinkthatthegrammarteachingapproachcanhelpyoutomemorizetheformofgrammar?Doyouthinkthatthegrammarteachingapproachcanhelpyoutounderstandtheaccuratemeaningofgrammar?Doyouthinkthatthegrammarteachingapproachcanhelpyoutousegrammarappropriately?Why?”These3questionsaimedtogetfeedbacksaboutstudents’academicperformanceinmasteringtheform,meaningandusageofgrammarwiththenewteachingapproach.Theauthorinvited10students,5fromGroup1ofhigherlevelandtheothersfromGroup2oflowerlevel,interviewingeachparticipantseparatelyforabout3minutes,forthepurposeofkeepingtheinterviewauthenticandvalid.Theinterviewwascarriedoutinstudents’firstlanguagetomakethembetterunderstandthe40 ChapterFourMethodologyquestionsandvoiceouttheiropinionsfreely.Thewholeprocessoftheinterviewwasrecordedandwasthenturnedintotexts.4.4ResearchProceduresTheexperimentoftheresearchwascarriedoutinGradeTwoinGuangzhouSecondaryVocationalSchoolofFinanceandEconomicsfromOctober12toDecember5,2015.Thewholeprocessoftheexperimentwascomposedoffourstages:thepre-testatthebeginningoftheteachingexperiment,theteachingexperiment,thepost-testandinterviewattheendoftheteachingexperiment.4.4.1Pre-testAttheverybeginningoftheexperiment,withoutanynoticeinadvance,thestudentsofthecontrolledclassandtheexperimentalclasswereaskedtofinishthepre-testpapersatthesameperiodof40minutes(aself-studyperiod).Thepre-testwasmainlyagrammartestpaperinvolvingthepreviouslanguagetheyhaveacquired.Theauthorthencollectedthemandhadthemmarkedtogetherwithtwocolleagues,makinganalysisafterwards.4.4.2TeachingExperimentTheteachingexperimentwhichlastedfor8weekswasconductedinthecontrolclassinwhichthetraditional3Papproachwasemployedandintheexperimentalclassinwhichthecontext-basedteachingmethodwasadopted.Bothclassesreceivedthesameperiodsofinstructionfromthesameteacherandusedthesametextbooks(BasicEnglishforSecondaryVocationalStudents:Book2,publishedbyHigherEducationPress).Eachunitissuggestedtobefinishedwithin8periods(2weeks)anditincludesagrammaticalpointthatrequires2periodsofteaching.Insuchacase,theauthorarranged4unitsfortheexperiment.Thatistosay,therewouldbe4grammaticalrulesintheteachingplans:thePresentParticiplesasPre-modifiers,thePresentParticiplesasPost-modifiers,thePastParticiplesasPre-modifiersandthePastParticiplesasPost-modifiers.Hereshowsthespecificscheduleforgrammarteachinginthetwo41 广州大学硕士学位论文classes.Table4-1TheScheduleofGrammarTeachingTimeGrammaticalPointTimeGrammaticalPointWeek1ThePresentParticiplesasWeek2ThePresentParticiplesasPre-modifiers(Ⅰ)Pre-modifiers(Ⅱ)Week3ThePresentParticiplesasWeek4ThePresentParticiplesasPost-modifiers(Ⅰ)Post-modifiers(Ⅱ)Week5ThePastParticiplesasWeek6ThePastParticiplesasPre-modifiers(Ⅰ)Pre-modifiers(Ⅱ)Week7ThePastParticiplesasWeek8ThePastParticiplesasPost-modifiers(Ⅰ)Post-modifiers(Ⅱ)4.4.2.1TeachingintheControlledClassTheauthorappliedthetraditional3Pteachingapproachinthecontrolledclass.The3Papproachhasthreesections:Presentation,PracticeandProduction.Undersuchaguidelineofthismethod,theteachingprocedurenormallyworksasfollows:Step1:Lead-inTheteachermightmakeabriefrevisionofthelastlessonorplaysomesongsorvideosaswarming-up.Step2:PresentationAfterthelead-inpart,theteachertellsstudentswhatgrammaticalpointstheyaregoingtolearninthislessonandthenpresentsthegrammarknowledgetostudentsbyshowingsomesamplesentences,whichareirrelevanttoeachotherincontext.Therulesandstructuresinsidetheseexampleswouldbeelaboratelyexplainedoneafterantherwithstudentspayingattentiontoeachdetailofwhattheteachersaysandtakingeverynote.Step3:PracticeTheteacherprovidesstudentswithsufficientexercisesaccordingtothegrammartheyhavelearntinthelesson.Theformofpracticeismainlypatterndrills.42 ChapterFourMethodologyStep4:ProductionTheteacherasksstudentstousethegrammartheyhavelearntinthislesson,suchasmakingupnewsentencesandblankfilling.Step5:Summary&HomeworkTheteachersummarizesthetargetgrammaticalpointsandassignsstudentstocompletesomeexerciseasconsolidation.Inordertobetterillustratetheaboveproceduresofthetraditional3Papproachemployedinthecontrolledclass,asampleteachingplanistobepresentedasfollows.SampleTeachingPlanofC-CTeachingMaterial:Unit2“Space”inBasicEnglish,Book2TeachingFocus:ThePresentParticiplesasPost-modifiersTeachingObjectives:a.TohavestudentsmemorizetheformofthePresentParticiplesasPost-modifiers.b.TohavestudentscomprehendthemeaningofthePresentParticiplesasPost-modifiers.c.TohavestudentsknowhowtousethePresentParticiplesasPost-modifiers.TeachingDifficulty:UsingthePresentParticiplesasPost-modifiersTeachingProcedures:Step1:Lead-inHaveabriefreviewofthegrammaticalpointofthepreviousunit:thePresentParticiplesasPre-modifiers.adevelopingcountry,aflyingkite,therunningwater…Step2:Presentationa.PresenttheruleofthePresentParticiplesasPost-modifiersandexplainitsstructure:n./pron(themodified)+doingn./pron./adv./prep.+n.(themodifier)b.Explainthemeaningandusagewiththeexamplesentences.43 广州大学硕士学位论文Therearetworoadsleadingtothelake.Hesawnothingmovinginthesky.Therewere40studentsstudyingGerman.Tellthechildrenplayingoutsidenottomakesomuchnoise.Step3:PracticeExercise1.Insertthepresentparticiplephrasegiveninthebracketsintotheproperplaceineachofthefollowingsentences.1)Thehousewasbuiltbyhisunclein1950.(standingatthecornerofthestreet)2)Michaelhardlyknowstheman.(buyinghimadrink)3)Larrywenttothestationtomeethisparents.(returningfromBeijing)4)Thegirlwantstoseeourteacher.(standingattheschoolgate)Exercise2.Replacetheattributiveclauseineachofthefollowingsentenceswithapresentparticiplephrase.1)IhaveafriendwholivesinParis.Ihaveafriend____________________________________________________2)Helivedinahousethatfacedthesouth.Helivedinahouse________________________________________________3)Whoistheboythatissingingintheclassroom?Whoistheman___________________________________________________4)ThefactorythatproducescolorTVsetsisfarfromhere.Thefactory_________________________________________isfarfromhere.Step4:ProductionExercise3:Fillintheblankswiththeproperformsofthepresentparticiplephrases.1)Didyouseethehomelessman___________________(在桥底下)？2)Thewoman____________________(站在门边)isEnglishteacher.3)Theymissedthetrain____________________(在8点离开).4)Thereusedtobealotofpeople_____________________(在90年代收集邮票)Step5:Summary&HomeworkSummarizethePresentParticiplesasPost-modifiersandassignstudentstofinishtheexerciseonP11-12,Ex.Book2.44 ChapterFourMethodology4.2.2.2TeachingintheExperimentalClassThecontext-basedgrammarteachingapproachwasemployedintheexperimentalclass.ShrumandGlisandemonstratethemodelforthegrammarteachingincontextinTeacher’sHandbook:ContextualizedLanguageInstruction(Shrum&Glisan,2009).Accordingtotheiropinions,thebasicproceduresforcontext-basedteachingapproachshouldincludePresentation,Attention,Co-constructionandextension.Step1:Warming-upTheteacherprovidessomewarming-upactivitiesintheformofauditoryorvisualmaterialsthatareinawayrelatedtothetargetgrammaticalrule.Step2:PresentationThisstepisaprocessofhelpingstudentstogetcomprehensiblelanguageinputthatcontainstherepresentativesofthetargetgrammaticalruleandstructureinthelesson.Thesentencesinthematerialareexpectedtobewell-organizedwiththetargetgrammaticalrulereappearingforseveraltimes,whichshallalsobecontextualizedandsufficientlyrelevanttooneanother,soastoleadthereaderstounderstandthemeaningofmaterialsinaneasyandrelaxedway.Insuchacase,basedontheirpriorknowledge,thestudentsareunconsciouslypronetobeinterestedinthenewgrammaticalformwithoutanysenseofabruptness.Thepresentationofthelanguageinputcanbeadialogue,astory,anewsreport,songlyrics,abstractsfrommovies,novelsordocuments,oranymaterialscomingfromreal-lifeactivitiesthatarefamiliartothestudentsandnotdifficultforthemtounderstand.Atthesametime,theteachermightalsosupplementaspecificcontextthatcatersforstudents’needsandcharacteristics,forexample,designingajob-orientedmaterialforvocationalstudents.Step3:AttentionInthisstep,theteacherletsstudentspayattentiontothefeaturesofthetargetgrammaticalrule,especiallythegrammaticalform.Studentsareexpectedtograduallynoticethenewgrammaticalitemswhenaskedtofindoutthesamepatternsexistinginthematerial.45 广州大学硕士学位论文Step4:Co-constructionAfterdrawingstudents’attentiontothenewgrammaticalitem,theteacherusesasetofquestionstoelicitstudentstoconceptualizethetargetgrammarstepbystep.Theexplanationisnotdirectlygivenbytheteacher,butco-constructedbyboththeteacherandthestudents.Withthehighlightedsentences,theteacherleadsstudentstofindoutthemostfrequentlyrepeatedstructureandletsthemtodiscussthepossiblepatternsofthenewgrammaticalitem,whichaimstohavestudentspredictandexploretheformbythemselves.Withtheguidanceoftheteacherandthenegotiationwiththeirpeers,studentsareexpectedtofurtherexplorethemeaningandtheusageofthetargetgrammaticalrule.Step5:ExtensionTheteacherdesignsextensionactivitiesforstudentstointernalizethenewgrammaticaliteminthewaythatstudentshavechancestoapplythenewlyacquiredknowledgetotheinteresting,meaningfulandreal-life-orientedtasks.Theextensionactivitiesmaycoverdifferenttypes,includinggames,roleplays,storyrewriting,surveys,andinterviews.Step6:Summary&HomeworkTheteacherasksstudentstosummarizethetargetgrammaticalrulebasedontheircomprehension,andassignsstudentstofinishtheblankfillingorclozeexercisesinacontextualizedpassagesoastoconsolidatetheirunderstandingofthetargetgrammar.Inthehopeoffurtherdemonstratingtheaboveteachingstepsofthecontext-basedgrammarteachingapproachadoptedintheexperimentalclass,asampleteachingplanisprovidedasfollows.SampleTeachingPlanofE-CTeachingMaterial:Unit2“Space”inBasicEnglish,book2TeachingFocus:ThePresentParticiplesasPost-modifiersTeachingObjectives:a.TohavestudentsmemorizetheformofthePresentParticiplesasPost-modifiers.46 ChapterFourMethodologyb.TohavestudentscomprehendthemeaningofthePresentParticiplesasPost-modifiers.c.TohavestudentsknowhowtoapplythePresentParticiplesasPost-modifierstospecificcontexts.TeachingDifficulty:UsingthePresentParticiplesasPost-modifiersproperlyTeachingProcedures:Step1:Lead-inPresentthefollowingdialogueandletstudentsreviewthepriorgrammaticalknowledge:thePresentParticiplesasPre-modifiersandtheAttributiveClause.Listentothedialogueandfillinthetable.A:Ithinkscienceisaninterestingsubjectwhichmakesmefeelcurious.Therearemanylivingthingsontheearththatneedustodiscover.Whataboutyou?B:Iliketheartlessonsbecausetheteacheroftenshowsussomeamazingpicturesthatgivesustheenjoymentofbeauty.Thereistouchingmusicandfilms,too.C:IprefertheP.E.class,aswecantakepartintheexcitinggameswhichhelpuskeephealthy.D:Well,IamcrazyaboutEnglishthatprovidesmechanceforcontinuingeducation.Iwanttogoabroadforstudyinthecomingyear!SubjectOpinionReasonScienceinterestingmakesmefeelcuriousArt……P.E.EnglishStep2:PresentationPresentthefollowingcontextualizedpassagethatcoversthegrammaticalstructureofthePresentParticiplesasPost-modifiers.Thegirllookingatthestarsismybestfriend,Jane.Shelivesinanicehousefacingthesea.SheisfondofthebooksshowingherthestoriesaboutthespaceandTVprogramstalkingaboutthenature.Herdreamistobeascientiststudyingthe47 广州大学硕士学位论文secretoftheearthorotherplanets.SheworkshardinEnglishbecauseshebelievesthatthoseknowingEnglishwellmayhavemorechancestogetinformationfromaroundtheworld.Step3:AttentionHavestudentspayattentiontotheformofthePresentParticiplesandaskthemtwoquestions:a.Canyougetthemeaningofthispassage?b.Haveyoufoundthereisanewgrammaticaliteminthispassage?Step4:Co-constructionAskstudentsasetofquestionstoguidestudentstopredicttheformofthePresentParticiplesasPost-modifiersandletthemexplorebythemselves.Inthisprocess,studentsareencouragedtodiscoverthepossibleversionsofstructures,andexpectedtodiscussandnegotiatewiththeirpeers,sharingtheiropinionsontheblackboardorinsheets.ProvideguidanceorsupplementifnecessarytohelpstudentsgraduallycometorealizetheaccurateformofthePresentParticiplesasPost-modifiers.a.Whatformshavebeenrepeatedseveraltimesinthepassage?b.Canyoufindoutthestructureofthisgrammaticalitem?c.Whatdotheseformsmean?d.InwhichsituationcanweusethePresentParticiplesasPost-modifiers?Step5:ExtensionHavestudentsfinishtheextensionexercises:a.RewritethedialogueintheLead-inpartbyusingthePresentParticiplesasPost-modifiers.e.g.Ithinkscienceisaninterestingsubjectwhichmakesmefeelcurious.=Ithinkscienceisaninterestingsubjectmakingmefeelcurious.…b.Role-playthedialoguewithwhatyouhaverevised.Step6:Summary&HomeworkInviteoneortwostudentstosummarizetheform,meaningandtheusageofthe48 ChapterFourMethodologyPresentParticiplesasPost-modifiers.AssignstudentstofillintheblanksinashortpassagewiththeuseofthePresentParticiplesasPost-modifiersashomework.4.4.3Post-testAttheendoftheteachingexperiment,theauthorarrangeda40-minutepost-testwhichcoversallthegrammaticalitemsthatthecontrolledclassandtheexperimentalclasshavelearnt:thePresentParticiplesasPre-modifiers,thePresentParticiplesasPost-modifiers,thePastParticiplesasPre-modifiersandthePastParticiplesasPost-modifiers.Thequestiontypesofthepost-testwereconsistentwiththoseofthepre-test.Studentswereaskedtocompletethepapersatthesameperiod(aself-studyperiod).Thentheauthorcollectedthemandhadthemmarkedtogetherwithtwocolleagueswhoalsoparticipatedinthepre-testmarking.4.4.4InterviewAfterthepost-test,theauthorinvited10studentsrandomlytoattendaninterview,5fromGroup1ofhigherEnglishlevelandtheother5fromGroup2oflowerEnglishlevelintheexperimentalclass.Eachstudentwasinterviewedseparatelyforabout3minutes,andwastoldtokeepconfidentialtotheirpeers.ThewholeprocessproceededinChinesetoletstudentsexpresstheirviewpointssufficientlyandfreely.Theauthorrecordedtheinterviewandthenputitintothetext.4.5DataCollectionAccordingtotheinstrumentsthatthestudyemployed,theauthorcollectedthedatafrom3aspects:thescoresofthepre-test,thescoresofthepost-test,andtheinterview.Therewere98pre-testpapersand98post-testpaperscollected,allofwhichweremarkedbythesameteachersbasedonthesamestandard,theoneinlinewiththosestandardsinPETS1,PETS2andNationalEntranceExaminationtoCollege.Theteachersstrictlyfollowedthestandardwhenmarkingthesubjectivetestitems,inthehopeofmakingthedatavalidandreliable.Thedataofinterviewwasrecordedandtranscribedintowrittentextswithoutstudentsnoticingtheexistenceofthe49 广州大学硕士学位论文recorder,aimingtomakesurethevalidityandauthenticity.4.6DataAnalysisThedataanalysisfallsintotwosections:analysisofthetests(pre-testandpost-test)andanalysisoftheinterview.TheauthoremployedIBMStatisticsSPSS22.0toanalyzethedatafromthepre-testandpost-test.Firstly,anIndependentSamplesTTestwasimplementedonthepre-testdatatoseeifthecontrolledclassandtheexperimentalclasswereatthesimilarlevelofEnglishgrammaticalcompetence.Secondly,anIndependentSamplesTTestwasagainconductedonthepost-testdatatofindoutwhetherthereisdifferencebetweenthetwoclassesingrammaticalachievementaftertheexperiment.Thirdly,aPairedSamplesTTestwasundertakentotestifywhichclassmadegreaterchanges.Finally,PairedSamplesTTestwasappliedtwiceagaintoseethechangesinGroup1andthechangesinGroup2withtheirrespectivedatafromthepre-testandpost-test.Astothedataofinterview,theauthormakesanalysisbasedonstudents’viewsandopinions.Thedetailedresultsofthetestsandinterviewaretobeanalyzedanddiscussedinthenextchapter.50 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionChapterFourhasdisplayedthemethodology,inwhichtheresearchquestions,participants,instruments,theprocessofexperimentandtheanalysesofthecollecteddataareillustratedindetails.InthisChapter,discussionwillbemadebasedontheresultsofthetestsandtheinterview.5.1ResultsoftheTests5.1.1ResultsofthePre-testScoresinC-CandE-CInordertotestifywhetherthecontrolledclassandtheexperimentalclassareparallelintheirEnglishcompetence,apre-testwascarriedoutinthetwoclassesbeforetheteachingexperimentproceeded.Table5-1GroupStatisticsofPre-testinC-CandE-CClassNMeanStd.DeviationStd.ErrorMeanC-C4862.0639.80541.4153E-C5062.62010.45081.4780AscanbeseenfromTable5-1,themeanscore,standarddeviationandstandarderrormeanofthecontrolledclassis62.063,9.8054and1.4153.Astotheexperimentalclass,themeanscore,standarddeviationandstandarderrormeanis62.620,10.4508and1.4780.AlthoughthedatafromTable5-1showsthetwoclassesareverycloseinmeanscore,itdoesnotindicatewhethertheyaretrulyatthesameEnglishlevel.ThusitneedsfurtheranalysiswiththehelpofIndependentSamplesTTest,theresultsofwhichisshowninTable5-2.51 广州大学硕士学位论文Table5-2IndependentSamplesTestofPre-testinC-CandE-CLevene"sTestforEqualityofVariancest-testforEqualityofMeans95%ConfidenceIntervaloftheSig.MeanStd.ErrorDifferenceFSig.tdf(2-tailed)DifferenceDifferenceLowerUpperEqual.152.698-.27296.786-.55752.0490-4.62473.5097variancesassumedEqual-.27295.951.786-.55752.0463-4.61943.5044variancesnotassumedAccordingtoTable5-2,inLevene’sTestforEqualityofVariances,theFis0.152andtheSig.is0.698>0.05,whichistosaytheequalvariancesbetweenthetwoclassesareassumed.Sotheresultsofthet-testforEqualityofMeansshouldbesubjecttothedatafromtheline“Equalvariancesassumed”.TheSig.(2-tailed)is0.786>0.05,andatthesametime,0isincludedin95%ConfidenceIntervaloftheDifferencerangingfrom-4.6194to3.5044,whichreflectsthatthereisnosignificantdifferencebetweenthetwoclassesintermsoftheirEnglishproficiency.Inotherwords,thismakestheexperimentplausibletocontinue.5.1.2ResultsofthePost-testScoresinC-CandE-CInordertoanswerthefirstresearchquestionwhetherthecontext-basedgrammarteachingapproachcanhelpsecondaryvocationalschoolstudentstoacquiregrammarmoreeffectivelycomparedwiththe3Pteachingapproach,apost-testwasconductedaftertheteachingexperimentinthecontrolledclassandtheexperimentalclasstoseeifsignificantdifferenceexistedinthem.Groupstatisticsofthepre-testandpostofthetwoclassesarepresentedasfollows.52 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionTable5-3GroupStatisticsofPost-testinC-CandE-CClassNMeanStd.DeviationStd.ErrorMeanC-C4863.43811.57571.6708E-C5069.24014.06921.9897AswecanseefromTable5-3,aftertheexperiment,themeanscore,standarddeviationandstandarderrormeanofthecontrolledclassis63.438,11.5757and1.6708,withthemeanscore,standarddeviationandstandarderrormeanbeing69.240,14.0692and1.9897intheexperimentalclass.Comparedwiththegroupstatisticsofthepre-testscores,themeanscoreincreasesbothinthetwoclasses.However,itcannotshowwhetherthecontrolledclassandtheexperimentalclassaresignificantlydifferentinthepost-test.Insuchacase,IndependentSamplesTTestwasimplementedtotestifyit,withtheresultsasfollows.Table5-4IndependentSamplesTestofPost-testinC-CandE-CLevene"sTestforEqualityofVariancest-testforEqualityofMeans95%ConfidenceIntervaloftheSig.MeanStd.ErrorDifferenceFSig.tdf(2-tailed)DifferenceDifferenceLowerUpperEqual1.765.187-2.22496.028-5.80252.6085-10.9803-.6247variancesassumedEqual-2.23393.829.028-5.80252.5982-10.9613-.6437variancesnotassumedAccordingtoTable5-4,inLevene’sTestforEqualityofVariances,theFis1.765andtheSig.is0.187>0.05,implyingthatvariancesofthetwoclassesaredeemedequal.Therefore,thedataoftheline“Equalvariancesassumed”isregardedastheresultofthetest.TheSig.(2-tailed)is0.028<0.05,andatthesametime,no0isincludedin95%ConfidenceIntervaloftheDifferencerangingfrom-10.9613to-0.6437,whichmeansthatthereissignificantdifferencebetweenthetwoclassesin53 广州大学硕士学位论文theirgrammaticalachievementaftertheteachingexperiment.5.1.3ResultsofPre-testandPost-testinC-CandE-CRespectivelyTheabovestatisticsshowboththetwoclassesmadeprogressandtheyweresignificantlydifferentwiththecompletionoftheexperiment,however,itstillcannotindicatewhichclasshasmadegreaterprogressoveritscounterpart.Hence,theauthorconductedaPairedSamplesTTestonthescoresofthepre-testandpost-testinthecontrolledclassandtheexperimentalclassrespectively.Thefollowingtablespresentstheresults.Table5-5PairedSamplesStatisticsofPre-testandPost-testinC-CandE-CMeanNStd.DeviationStd.ErrorMeanPair1C-C(Pre-test)62.06489.8051.415C-C(Post-test)63.444811.5761.671Pair2E-C(Pre-test)62.6205010.45081.4780E-C(Post-test)69.2405014.06921.9897AscanbeseenfromTable5-5thecontrolledclassincreaseditsmeanscorefrom62.06to63.44,andstandarddeviationfrom9.805to11.576,whiletheexperimentalclassincreaseditsmeanscorefrom62.620to69.240andstandarddeviationfrom10.4508to14.0692.Itreflectsthefactthatimprovementhasmadebutmorescatteredrangeshasemergedaftertheexperiment.Table5-6PairedSamplesTestofPre-testandPost-testinC-CandE-CPairedDifferences95%ConfidenceIntervaloftheStd.Std.ErrorDifferenceSig.MeanDeviationMeanLowerUppertdf(2-tailed)Pair1C-C-1.3752.532.365-2.110-.640-3.76347.000(Pre-&Post-test)Pair2E-C-6.62004.5441.6426-7.9114-5.3286-10.30149.000(Pre-&Post-test)AsstatisticsareshowninTable5-6,theSig(2-tailed)ofthecontrolledclassis0.000<0.05,reflectingthatthereissignificantdifferenceaftertheexperimentinthecontrolledclass.Meanwhile,theSig(2-tailed)oftheexperimentalclassis0.00054 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussion<0.05,whichisalsotosaysignificantdifferenceshowsintheexperimentalclassaftertheteachingexperiment.Andwithacloserlookatthemeanimprovement,thecontrolledclassandtheexperimentalclassis-1.375:-6.6200,leavingagapof5.245.Thus,conclusionscanbereachedthatboththecontrolledclasswhichusedthe3Pteachingapproachandtheexperimentalclasswhichadoptedthecontext-basedteachingapproachmadeprogressaftertheexperiment,andtheprogresswithinthetwoclassesweresignificant,buttheexperimentalclassperformedbetterthanthecontrolledclass.Inotherwords,thecontext-basedteachingapproachismoreeffectivethanthe3Papproachinhelpingstudentsimprovegrammaticalachievement,andthefirstresearchquestionisthereforeanswered.5.1.4ResultsofPre-testandPost-testinG1andG2RespectivelySincetheabovestatisticsprovesthehypothesisproposedbythefirstresearchquestion,itistimetoanswerthesecondresearchquestion“Towhatextentthecontext-basedgrammarteachingapproachwillaffectthegrammaticalachievementofstudentsatdifferentEnglishlevelsinsecondaryvocationalschool”.Accordingly,PairedSamplesTTestwascarriedouttofindouttheanswer,andthepre-testandpost-testscoresofGroup1standingforthehigherlevelandGroup2standingforthelowerlevelareanalyzedrespectivelyasfollows.Table5-7PairedSamplesStatisticsofPre-testandPost-testinG1andG2MeanNStd.DeviationStd.ErrorMeanPair1G1(Pre-test)77.400105.27471.6680G1(Post-test)87.600104.74221.4996Pair1G2(Pre-test)48.200104.46721.4126G2(Post-test)49.400106.63662.0987Table5-7showsthepairedstatisticsintwogroupsbetweentwotests.ThemeanscoreofGroup1increasedfrom77.4000to87.600,andthemeanscoreofGroup2increasedfrom48.200to49.400.Meanwhile,thestandarddeviationofGroup1droppedfrom5.2747to4.7422,whilethatofGroup2rosefrom4.4672to6.6366.Itcanbeseenthatboththetwogroupsmadeprogressaftertheexperimentbasedontheirmeanscore,andtherewaslessscatteredscoresarrangedinGroup1butGroup255 广州大学硕士学位论文wasjustonthecontrary.Table5-8PairedSamplesTestofPre-testandPost-testinG1andG2PairedDifferences95%ConfidenceIntervaloftheStd.Std.ErrorDifferenceSig.MeanDeviationMeanLowerUppertdf(2-tailed)Pair1G1-10.20002.5298.8000-12.0097-8.3903-12.7509.000(Pre-&Post-test)Pair2G2-1.20002.6998.8537-3.1313.7313-1.4069.193(Pre-&Post-test)Table5-8isthedataoffurtheranalysisforthecomparisonwithinthetwogroupsrespectively.Ononehand,themeanimprovementofGroup1aftertheexperimentis10.2000,andtheSig.(2-tailed)is0.000<0.05,whichmeansthereissignificantdifference.Ontheotherhand,themeanimprovementofGroup2aftertheexperimentis1.2000,andtheSig.(2-tailed)is0.193>0.05,illustratingthatnosignificantdifferenceexists.Thatistosay,theexperimentwaseffectiveinGroup1representingthegreaterEnglishcompetence,whereastheinfluenceofitremaineduncertaintoGroup2representingthelowerlevel.Thesecondquestionisthenanswered.5.2ResultsoftheInterviewWiththepurposeofinvestigatinghowthegrammarlearningofstudentsatdifferentlevelsisaffectedbythecontext-basedteachingapproach,aninterviewofsixquestionswasconductedinGroup1(5from10studentschosenrandomly)andGroup2(5from10studentschosenrandomly)oftheexperimentalclass.Theresultsoftheinterviewarepresentedwiththefollowingtables.56 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionTable5-9InterviewResultsofQ1Q1:Wereyouinterestedinlearninggrammarbeforethesetwomonths?Why?GroupAttitudeNumReasonPros0/Cons3Grammarwasdullandboring,andtheylearneditjustbecauseG1theexamrequired.Neutral2Grammarsometimescouldbefunnyifusedinrealsituations,butwhenitonlyservedtohomeworkorexams,passionwouldfadeawayeasily.Pros0/Cons5Grammarwastoodifficultandtheteacherspentmuchofthetimeinexplainingthegrammaticalitems,leavingthemtakingnotes,G2memorizingrulesandfinishinglotsofexercisesmechanically,whichwasquiteaburdenforthem.Neutral0/Table5-9showsthatbeforetheteachingexperiment,studentsatlowerleveldidnotshowanyinterestingrammarlearningatallandatthesametime,themajorityofstudentsathigherlevelwerenotkeenongrammarlessonsunlessgrammarcouldbeappliedinauthenticoccasions.Table5-10InterviewResultsofQ2Q2:Doyoulikethegrammarlessonsofthepastfewweeks?Pleasemakesomecomment.GroupAttitudeNumReason/CommentPros5ThearrangementsforgrammarteachingofthepastfewweeksweremuchrelatedtothedailylifeandmadethembelieveG1grammarlearningcouldbeuseful.Cons0/Neutral0/Pros5Theylikedthewaytheteacherorganizedthegrammarlessons,wheretheythoughtgrammarwasnotthatscaryandthewholeatmospherewasmorerelaxingwithdifferentjob-orientedG2activities.Cons0/Neutral0/ItwasobvioustonoticethechangeofattitudefromTable5-10thataftertheexperiment,bothstudentsathigherlevelandstudentsatlowerlevelbegantoholdpositiveviewpointstowardsgrammarlearningandwerepronetobelievethatgrammarclasscouldbeoflessburdenwiththeemploymentofcertaincontext-basedactivitiesrelatedtoreallife.57 广州大学硕士学位论文Table5-11InterviewResultsofQ3Q3:Comparedwiththepreviousgrammarlessons,doyouthinktheactivitiesandarrangementsinthepastfewweeksmakeyouengageyourselfmoreinlearningEnglishgrammar?GroupAttitudeNumReason/CommentPros5Theactivitiesweremoreflexible,meaningfulandpractical,providingthemopportunitiestoexpressthemselves,discussornegotiatewithpeersandteachers,ratherthanpassivelylisteningtowhattheteachersaidordoingwhattheyweretoldtodo.G1Cons0/Neutral0/Pros2Surprisingchangeshavetakenplaceintermsoftheirparticipationingrammarclass,whichtheyhadneverthoughtthattheycouldmakeitintheprevioustime.G2Cons0/Neutral3Theywerewillingtoparticipateintheactivitiesbutsometimesthedifficultyofunderstandingthematerialswasanobstacletogettheminvolvedintothetasks.Table5-11displaysthatstudentsathigherlevelwereaffirmativeintheirincreasingparticipationingrammarlessonswherecontext-basedactivitiesandarrangementswereprovided,andpartofthestudentsatlowerlevelalsosharedthesameview.Meanwhile,alargerpartoftheslowerlearnersintheexperimentalclassheldconservativeopinionsastowhethertheymadegreaterparticipationingrammarlessonsunderthenewteachingapproach.Table5-12InterviewResultsofQ4Q4:Doyouthinkthatthegrammarteachingapproachcanhelpyoutomemorizetheformofgrammar?GroupAttitudeNumReason/CommentPros5Thenewgrammarteachingapproachfacilitatedthelearningprocessandacademicperformance,andtheydidwellinG1memorizingthegrammaticalform.Cons0/Neutral0/Pros2Thenewapproachhelpedthemtomemorizethegrammaticalformastheycouldengagethemselvesinvariouscontextualizedactivities,whichmadethemabletoexplore,predictandinternalizetherulesandstructuresimpressively.G2Cons3Theydidnotbenefitalotfromrememberingtheformofgrammareffectively,becausetheywereusedtothetraditionalwayofgrammarlearning,followingtheteacher’sinstructionandfinishthepattern-drillexercises.Neutral0/58 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionAsisshowninTable5-12,alltheintervieweesfromGroup1heldthatthecontext-basedapproachhelpedthemtoperformbetterinrememberingthegrammaticalform.AstotheintervieweesfromGroup2,asmallpartofthemthoughtthattheybenefitedfromthenewapproachinformmemorizationwhilearelativelylargerpartexpressedanegativeviewtowardsitastheyweremoreusedtothetraditionalwayofgrammarlearning.Table5-13InterviewResultsofQ5&Q6Q5:Doyouthinkthatthegrammarteachingapproachcanhelpyoutounderstandtheaccuratemeaningofgrammar?Q6:Doyouthinkthatthegrammarteachingapproachcanhelpyoutousegrammarappropriately?Why?GroupAttitudeNumReason/CommentPros5ThenewgrammarteachingapproachprovidedthemwithsufficientmaterialsinwhichtheycouldusetheirpriorknowledgeG1tounderstandthemeaningandusethenewgrammaritembasedonthecontext.Cons0/Neutral0/Pros2Theywereabletoobtainthecomprehensionofmaterialswiththehelpandguidanceoftheteacherandotherstudents,butitwouldtooklongertimeforthemtounderstandanddigestthemeaning.Cons3TheirEnglishfoundationwastoopoortounderstandsomevocabularies,textsandotheraudioorvisualmaterials,whichG2hinderedtheirpacetofollowtheteacherandtheirpeersincertainactivities.Theyfeltthemselvesconfusedanduneasytounderstandthemeaningofthenewgrammaticalitemoruseitproperly.Neutral0/Table5-13illustratesthedifferentopinionsconcerningtheeffectsthatthecontext-basedapproachhasonunderstandingthemeaningofgrammaraccuratelyandusinggrammarproperly.Allintervieweesathigherlevelandafewintervieweesatlowerlevelwereaffirmativeintheeffectsofthenewapproach,butmoreintervieweesatlowerleveldidnotappreciatethenewgrammarteachingmethod.5.3DiscussionontheResultsoftheTestsAshasbeenputintheabovechapters,theresearchaimstofindouttheanswerstotwoquestions,andthepre-testandpost-testbothservetotestifythem.According59 广州大学硕士学位论文totheanalysesofthecollecteddata,twoparallelclassesbothmadeprogressingrammaticalachievementaftertheexperiment,butthedifferencebetweenthepre-testandpost-testscoresintheexperimentalclassismoresignificantthanthatinthecontrolledclass.Thatistosay,theexperimentalclassmadegreaterimprovementthanthecontrolledclassdid.Ontheotherhand,bothgroupsfromtheexperimentalclassmadeprogressaftertheexperiment.ItturnedoutthatGroup1ofhigherEnglishproficiencymadesignificantdifferencewhileGroup2oflowerEnglishproficiencydidn’t.Thus,wecancometoconclusionsthatthecontext-basedgrammarteachingapproachcanhelpsecondaryvocationalschoolstudentstoacquiregrammarmoreeffectivelythanthetraditional3Pteachingapproach,andthatstudentsathigherlevelbenefitedmorethanthoseatlowerlevel.TheconclusionscanfindtheirlinkswiththetheoreticalsupportthattheauthorhaspresentedinChapter2andChapter3.Theauthoristointerpretthephenomenonoftheresultsfromthefollowingperspectives.Firstly,thecontext-basedteachingapproachintheexperimentalclassplaysanactiveroleinhelpingtheinterrelationsofthethreedimensionsofgrammar:form,meaningandusage.Contextswerebroadlyappliedinclassroompresentation,extensionandhomework.Theteacherdesignedawell-organizedcontextorbackgroundwhichcontainedthetargetgrammaticalitem,andstudentswererequiredtodiscoverthelanguageformwiththeirexplorationandperceptionaccordingtothespecificdiscourse.Inthisway,itmakespossibleforstudentstograduallyrealizetheaccurateformandstructureofgrammarknowledge.Inthemeantime,differentcontextsconveydifferentmeanings,sostudentsneedtounderstandthesurfaceandthedeeplevelofthesentencessoastomakethebestchoiceovertheothersinusingtheaccurateformappropriatelybasedonthespecificcontext.Thecontext-basedapproachimplementedintheexperimentalclassactsasagoodrepresentativeoftheinterpretivefunctionandrestrictivefunctionofcontext(HeZhaoxiong&JiangYanmei,1997).Takenon-finiteverbs,thecaseinpoint,asanexample.Fourlanguagefocuseswerescheduledintheteachingexperiment:includingthePresentParticiplesasPre-modifiers,thePresentParticiplesasPost-modifiers,thePastParticiplesas60 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionPre-modifiersandthePastParticiplesasPost-modifiers.Sincenon-finiteverbshavebeenwidelyconsideredasthedifficultgrammaticalitemsinEnglishteaching,theinstructionofthelanguagepointslistedaboverequirestheassistanceofcontexts.Withpresentingdifferentwell-organizedcontexts,studentsintheexperimentalclasswereabletoknowhowtoputtheparticiplesinthecorrectpositions(beforeorafterthemodifiedsubject)andwhichparticiple(presentorpast)theyshouldapplywithinthesentenceaccordingtotheparticulardiscourse.However,astothecontrolledclass,studentsreceivedthesheerexplanationofruleswithisolatedsentencesasexamples,andtriedtoremembertheformsbyfinishingthepatterndrills,whichcameoutthefactthattheyjustmemorizetherules,buttheabilitiesofusingthegrammaticalitemproperlywerefarfromexpectation.Therefore,studentsintheexperimentalclasssurpassedthoseinthecontrolledintheexperiment.Secondly,theConstructivismTheorycanalsoaccountsfortheconclusion.Constructivismfocusesonlearning,advocatingthatlearningshouldbetheprocessofconstructingthemeaningofknowledgethroughnecessarymaterials,thelearner’sownexperiencesundercertaincircumstancesorcontexts,andthecooperationwithteachersandhisorherpeerlearners,butnotjusttheprocessofpassivelyreceivingknowledge.Intheexperimentalclasswherethecontext-basedteachingapproachwasadopted,studentswerefullyexposedtovariouscontextsdesignedbytheteacher,manyofwhichwerecloselyrelatedtotheirvocationalschoollifeormajors.Insuchacase,studentsfoundconnectionswithwhattheyhadpreviouslyknownorexperiences,andtheywereencouragedtodiscoverandexplorethenewknowledgebythemselveswiththeguidanceofteacheranddiscussionwithotherstudents.Thus,thenewgrammaticalitemwasnaturallyconstructedwithintheirownsystems,whichmadeiteasierforthemtousegrammarindifferentcontexts.Thirdly,theconclusioncorrespondswiththeInputHypothesisproposedbyKrashen(1985).TheHypothesisstatesthatlanguageisnotlearnedbutisacquiredwithsufficientcomprehensibleinput.ThecorenotionoftheInputHypothesisis“i+1”,whichmeansthelearnerisexposedtoabundantunderstandablematerialscontainingthenewtargetknowledgeslightlybeyondthelearner’scurrentlevel,andthelanguage61 广州大学硕士学位论文acquisitionoccursunconsciously.Accordingly,context-basedapproachenabledstudentsintheexperimentalclasstogetaccesstothecomprehensiblelanguageinputwithdifferentkindsofsituationsdesignedbytheteacher.Thecontextswerecreatedundertheguidelineofrelatingtostudents’lifeandstudybasedontheircurrentlevel,somanyjob-orienteddiscourseswereeasilyunderstoodbystudents.Atthesametime,thenewgrammaticalitem,actingasthenextlevel,waselaboratelycontainedinthecontexts,andthereforestudentsintheexperimentalcanacquirethetargetgrammarunconsciously.AstodiscusswhythestudentsatlowerEnglishleveldidnotmakesignificantimprovementofgrammarunderthecontext-basedteachingapproach.ItwasattributedtothefactthattheywerenotabletounderstandthecontextpresentedbytheteacherbecauseoftheirpoorEnglishfoundation.Withoutsufficientcomprehensibleinputofthecurrentlevel,themodel“i+1”failed,sothelanguageacquisitionofthenextlevelcouldnotbeaccomplished.5.4DiscussionontheResultsoftheInterviewThefunctionoftheinterviewistoinvestigatehowthegrammarlearningofstudentsatdifferentlevelsisinfluencedbythecontext-baseapproachinsecondaryvocationalschool.Thecomparisononthescoresofthepre-testandpost-testbetweenGroup1representingthehigherlevelandGroup2representingthelowerlevelhasdemonstratedthatGroup1madegreaterimprovementingrammaticalperformancethanGroup2aftertheexperiment.Thedatacollectedfromtheinterviewfurtherillustratesthedetailsofstudents’viewpointsonthecontext-basedteachingapproachandthereasonswhyGroup2oflowerEnglishcompetencemadelessprogress.InaccordancewiththeanalysesoftheanswerstoQuestions1and2intheinterview,8of10studentswerenotinterestedingrammarlearning,butaftertheexperiment,alltheinterviewedstudentschangedtheirconceptions,showingmoreorlessinterestingrammarlearning,duetovarioustypesofclassroomactivities.Theynolongerfeltmuchburdeninlisteningtoeverysingledetailtheteacherdisplayedandbeingfullyoccupiedwithtakingnotesaswellasfinishingthenumerousexercises.Instead,theygotmoretimethatentailedthemtodiscusswiththeirclassmatesand62 ChapterFiveResultsandDiscussionteacherwithagreaterdegreeoffreedominclassroom,whichreducedtheirlearninganxiety.Underalessstressfulenvironment,studentsweremorewillingtolearngrammarandconfidencewasraisedamongthem.TheanalysisofQuestions3to6reflectsthesuccessanddeficienciesofthecontext-basedapproachintheexperimentalclass.InQuestion3,itwasappreciativetoseethatallstudentsfromGroup1and2studentsfromGroup2felttheirparticipationinclassincreasedduetotheelaboratearrangementsbytheteacherandtheywerenolongerpassivelysittingandwaitingtoreceiveteacher’sexplanationofthenewgrammarknowledge,butrather,theycouldobservethematerialsindifferentcontextsandnegotiatewithclassmatesinsummarizingtherules.However,therest3studentsfromGroup2werenotsureaboutwhethertheydidbetterthantheyusedtodoinclassroomparticipation,astheyhaddifficultiestodifferentextentinunderstandingthematerialsprovidedinthecontextwithalackofpreviousgrammarknowledge.Sotheydidn’tknowwhatshouldbediscoveredfromthematerialswhicheventhoughwerewellpresented,andtheycouldn’tfollowtheteacherandotherstudents’pace,leavingthemanembarrassmentinactivities.Astoquestions4-6,alltheintervieweesfromGroup1hadpositiveattitudestowardsthecontext-basedteachingapproachunderwhichtheythoughttheycouldmastertheaccurateform,understandingthemeaningsandusegrammarproperlyindifferentcircumstances.ThiscanbeattributedtothefactthatstudentsathigherEnglishlevelwerebetteracquaintedwiththepriorgrammarknowledgeaswellasvocabularies,whichenabledthemtounderstandthematerialsincontexts.Thesufficientcomprehensibleinput,ashasbeendiscussedpreviously,createdpossibilitiesforthemtounconsciouslydigestandpredictthenewgrammaticalformcontainedinthematerials,sowhentheexerciseortaskspresentedinanothernewcontext,theywereabletochoosethecorrectform.Inaword,themasteryofthethreedimensionsofagrammaticalitembenefitedinteractivelyamongthem.Ontheotherhand,itissomewhatdisappointingtoseethat3studentsatlowerEnglishlevelheldthattheeffectsofcontext-basedteachingapproachwasnotthatobvioustotheminmemorizingtheform,becausetheyweresoweakinEnglishfoundationthatthey63 广州大学硕士学位论文neededtheteachertoexplaineverythingindetail,andwouldfeeleaseinthetraditional3Papproach,whichtheybelievedwaslesstime-consuming.Theywerereluctanttochangeduringsuchashortperiod.Besides,3outof5studentsfromGroup2didn’tsensetheimprovementinunderstandingthemeaningofthenewgrammaticalitemorinusingthegrammarappropriatelyindifferentcontexts.WecanfinditsrootinKrashen’sInputHypothesis(1985).Thosewhosepriorgrammarknowledgeandvocabularieswereinsufficientdidnotmanagetointerpretthematerialsthatinvolvedthetargetgrammaticalitem,becausetherewasnoorlittlecomprehensibleinputforthem.Tosumup,theresultsofthetestsandinterviewsreflectedthecontext-basedmethodhasdifferentinfluencesonstudentsatdifferentlevels.ThestudentswithbetterEnglishproficiencyaremoreadaptivetothecontext-basedteachingapproachthanthestudentsofweakEnglishproficiency.Thestudentsathigherlevelareapttoacquirethegrammarknowledgeinaself-directedandcooperativeway,andasitis,itprovidesmuchmoredevelopmentspaceforthemtooptimizetheexistingknowledgeinconnectionwiththenextlevel.Contextsservethemplentifulresourcessothattheyhavetheabilityofconstructingthenewknowledge.Ontheotherhand,itneedsmorepreparationandpatienceforstudentsatlowerlevelifthecontext-basedteachingapproachisusedingrammarlessons.Theinsufficiencyofoldknowledgeandthelimitationofvocabulariesresultintheincapabilityofcomprehension.Thefrustrationinacquiringthenewgrammaticalitemthroughthepreviousknowledgeisatriskofengenderingalowmorale.Theapplicationofcontext-basedapproachingrammarteachingthereforeshouldbefurtherstudied,especiallywhentheapproachisusedamongthesecondaryvocationalschoolstudentswhoveryoftenconsiderthemselvestobelessableinacademicachievementbecauseofthefailureintheSeniorHighSchoolEntranceExamination.Insuchacase,teachersshallmakebetterpreparationintheselectionofcontextmaterials,makingsurestudentsatdifferentlevelscanexperiencesuccessinlearning.64 ChapterSixConclusionsChapterSixConclusionsWithdiscussionontheresultsoftheexperiment,thischapteristosummarizethemajorfindingsinthisresearchandtoproposesomepedagogicalimplicationsthereof.Meanwhile,limitationsofthestudyaswellassuggestionsforfurtherstudywillalsobepresentedinthischapter.6.1MajorFindingsThisstudyaimstoinvestigatetheeffectivenessofthecontext-basedteachingapproachinimprovingstudents’grammaticalachievementinsecondaryvocationalschoolandtofindouttheinfluenceofthisapproachonstudentsatdifferentlevels.Basedonthedataandtheanalysesofit,themajorfindingsoftheresearcharepresentedasfollows:Firstandforemost,intermsofthepre-testandpost-testresultswhichillustratethecomparisonbetweentheimprovementwithinthetwoclassesrespectively,itcanbeseenthatbeforetheexperiment,thetwoclasseswereparallelingrammaticalcompetence,butaftertheexperimenttheexperimentalclassmakemoreobviousprogressthanthecontrolledclass.Toputitinanotherway,thecontext-basedteachingapproachcontributesbettertoimprovingstudents’grammaticalachievement.What’smore,accordingtodataofthepre-testandposttestscoresofGroup1andGroup2,aftertheexperimenttherewassignificantdifferenceofimprovementingrammaticalachievementinGroup1whileGroup2didn’tmakeit.Inotherwords,studentsathigherEnglishlevelareapttoadapttothecontext-basedteachingapproachingrammarlessonsanditiseasierforthemtogetmoreprogressthanthestudentsatlowerlevel.Inaddition,theinterviewresultsalsogaveussomeinsightsontheinfluenceoftheapproachonstudentsatdifferentlevels.Fromtheanalyses,wecanseethattheinterestingrammarlearningofstudentsatdifferentlevelsisincreasedunderthecontext-basedteachingapproachandconfidenceisalsoraised.Besides,studentsat65 广州大学硕士学位论文higherlevelsenseagreaterparticipationthanthoseatlowerlevelduringthelessonswherethecontext-basedapproachisadopted.Finally,astothemasteryofgrammaticalform,meaningandusage,thehigherlevelstudentsagreethatthecontext-basedteachingapproachishelpfulwhilemostofthelowerlevelonesareinclinedtothinkthatthenewapproachisnotthateffectivetothem.6.2PedagogicalImplicationsBasedonthediscussioninChapterFive,togetherwiththestatusquoofsecondaryvocationalschoolstudents,somepedagogicalimplicationsforgrammarlessonstherebyaregenerated.Aboveall,teachersfromsecondaryvocationalschoolsshallkeeptheideainmindthattheapplicationofcontextinteachinggrammarisofnecessity.Asvocationalschoolstudentsaregenerallyslowerlearnerscomparedwithseniorhighschoolstudents,theyhaven’tdevelopedtheeffectivelearninghabitsintheirprimaryschoolandjuniorhighschoolstagesandthereforesuffersetbacksintheSeniorHighSchoolEntranceExamination.Theyneedarelativelyrelaxedatmospherewheretheyfinditdifferentfromthepreviousonesattheirearlystudyages.Context-basedteachingapproachisoflessburdentovocationalschoolstudentsingrammarlearning,inthatitprovidesdifferentsituationsforstudentstoengagein,makingthemdiscoverandexploretheinnerrulescontainedinthematerials.Withlessdirectexplanationbytheteacher,vocationalschoolstudentsare“forced”tochangetheiroldhabitsofrelyingonteachers,andtomakeattempttofindouttherulesandstructuresbythemselves.Thecontextsmakethesentencesunderstoodmoreeasily,astheyarenolongerisolatedfromeachother.Sovocationalschoolstudentscanacquirethegrammaticalformbyunderstandingthediscoursesandinturnwouldputitinuseappropriatelyindifferentcontexts.Theemploymentofcontextingrammarlessonsisconsistentwiththeguideline“Learningbydoing”,whichgivesstudentstheenjoymentofsuccessinlearning.Inaddition,teachersshoulddesignthecontextmaterialselaboratelyaccordingtodifferentgroupsanddifferentneeds.Ononehand,insecondaryvocationalschools,66 ChapterSixConclusionsstudentsarequitedifferentfromthoseinseniorhighschools,asvocationalschoolstudentshavetheirownmajorsandtheirknowledgebackgroundcharacteristics,likesanddislikesvarytoaverygreatextent.AlthoughEnglishisanrequiredcourseandgrammarlearningismusttothem,ifthereisonlyoneversionofteachingdesigntobeappliedinallclassesofdifferentmajors,thiswouldbringouttheproblemthatsomestudentswouldfindthematerialsunderstandablewhilesomedonotonthisoccasion,andonanotheroccasion,thesamemattermayhappenagain.Thus,teachersshouldgivemorepatienceandpreparationindesigningthecontextmaterialswithseveralpossibleversions,allowingstudentsfromdifferentbackgroundstoeasilygetthemeaning.Thematerialswouldlargelyaffecttheexplorationofgrammaticalformandthepropergrammaticalusageindifferentcontexts.Itisadvisabletodesigncontextsleadingtoatheme,whichisclosertovocationalstudents’dailylifeandfuturejobs.Forexample,ifitisforthemarketingmajors,contextcouldbesetinasupermarketwherestudentsareactingassalespersonsandareaskedtofulfillatask.Ontheotherhand,thegrammaticalproficiencyofsecondaryvocationalschoolstudentsvaryextremelydifferent.Somevocationalstudentsareexcellentingrammarwiththesamelevelasseniorhighschoolstudentswhilesomeareinaverypoorstateoflearninggrammar.ThefactisthatnormallystudentsatquitedifferentEnglishlevelslearnthesamegrammaticaliteminthesameclass,sodifficultyarisesashowtheteachershouldmakeitpossibleforallthestudentstomastertheform,meaningandusageoftheitem.Inthiscase,itispracticaltodesignthesamethematiccontextofdifferentdifficultydegrees,soastoletstudentsathigherlevelorlowerlevelbecapableofcomprehendingthematerials,whichmayleadtothesmoothfulfillmentofclassroomactivitiesandthesuccessofstudents’acquisitionofthetargetgrammaticalitem.Lastbutnotleast,context-basedapproachisbeneficialtovocationalschoolstudentsinlearninggrammarintermsofitsversatileactivitiesandarrangements.Asgrammarlearningisrelativelytediousandboringunderthetraditionalteachingapproachwithteacherstakingthepredominantplacewhilestudentsbeingsubordinate，thecontext-basedapproachentailsstudentsmorespaceandfreedomtodiscussandnegotiatewiththeirpeers,whichcontributestothecomprehensionofthe67 广州大学硕士学位论文materialsandtheinternalizationofgrammaticalrules.Therefore,teacherscanprovidevarioustypesofactivities,suchasgames,problem-solvingtasks,role-plays,storyrewriting,andtext-basedexercisesforstudentstotakepartin.Theseactivitiesarehelpfultoelicitstudentsdiscovertherulesandstructuresofgrammar,andatthesametime,totestifywhethertheycanapplythegrammaticalformintoaspecificcontextappropriately.6.3LimitationsSeveralfindingsastheresearchhasmade,therearestillsomeunsatisfactoryaspects.Therefore,thelimitationsofthestudyshouldbetakenintoconsideration.Firstly,theresearchsubjectswerelimitedtoaccountingmajorsofvocationalschoolstudents.Asamatteroffact,differentbackgroundstudentshavethepossibilityofmakingtheresultsinthesamewayoranother.Sotheinvolvementofsubjectsfromothermajorswouldgivemoreinsightsonthestudyandresultsmaybemoreconvincing.Besides,thetimeforexperimentwasonly8weeks,whichwasnotthatsufficienttoascertainthesameresultsiftheexperimenttimewaslonger.Questionsmayariseastowhetherstudentsatlowerlevelwouldchangebegintoprogressingrammarandadapttothecontext-basedteachingapproachwhengivenmoretime.Finally,theexperimentintheresearchonlyfocusedonteachingnon-finiteverbsasacaseinpoint.Whetherthesameconclusionscanbedrawnequallyisunknownwhenthecontext-basedapproachisemployedinothergrammaticalitems.6.4SuggestionsforFurtherResearchInthelightofthelimitationsofthepresentstudylistedabove,somesuggestionsthereofareraisedforfurtherresearch.Inthefirstplace,itisadvisabletotestifytheeffectivenessofcontext-basedteachingapproachinlargergroupsofvocationalschoolstudentsofdifferentmajors.Thiscanbealsoimplementedindifferentsecondaryvocationalschools,asthefielddiffersalotinschoolswhichspecializeinbusiness,engineering,technology,artsor68 ChapterSixConclusionskindergarten-teachertraining.Therefore,withsuchalargegroupofvariousbackgrounds,researchcanbefurtherundertakentoseeifthesameresultsoccur.Besides,theperiodfortheexperimentcouldbeprolongedtoinvestigateifstudentsatdifferentlevelsmakechangesintheadaptationtothecontext-basedresearch,inthehopeofyieldingfurtherinsightsonthepracticalityandeffectivenesstheapplicationofcontext-basedapproachingrammarteaching.Lastly,iftimeisprovided,thefocusgrammaticalitemoftheexperimentcouldbeextendedtootheritemsthatarerequiredintheCurriculum,suchastheNounClause,SubjunctiveMoodandInvertedSentence,toascertainwhetherthesameconclusionsareengendered.69 广州大学硕士学位论文70 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AppendixesAppendixⅠPre-test英语语法测试(1)（时间：40分钟）班别___________姓名___________学号___________成绩___________一、单项选择（每题2分，共60分）1.Wearelookingforward____youatourparty.A.tohaveB.haveC.tohavingD.having2.WhenIcameintotheroom,Iheard____thesong.A.hesangB.hissingC.himsingingD.hesing3.Ilikelisteningtomusicbutmysisterenjoys____.A.toplaypianoB.playingthepianoC.toplaythepianoD.playingpiano4.Itissocoldhere,wouldyoumind____thewindow?A.closeB.closedC.closingD.toclose5.Theyknewherverywell.Theyhadseenher____upfromchildhood.A.growB.grewC.wasgrowingD.togrow6.Ithinkhe’dliketostayathomethiseveningratherthan____out.A.goesB.goingC.goneD.go7.Mymotheralwayswantedme____ateacher.A.beB.beingC.tobeD.tobeing8.I____toohardtodayandI’vegotsuchaheadachenow.A.hadworkedB.havebeenworkingC.shallworkD.work9.Shepretended____mewhenIpassedby.A.nottoseeB.notseeingC.tonotseeD.havingnotseen10.Itisdifficultforaforeigner____inChinese.A.writeB.towriteC.tobewrittenD.written11.Thebookisworth____.77 广州大学硕士学位论文A.readB.toreadC.readingD.tobereading12.Wecoulddowithanewcar.Theonewe____isabittooold.A.weregettingB.havegotC.hadgotD.willget13.Ihope____roundthetouristsitesbyaspecialistguide.A.takenBtakingC.totakeD.tobetaken14.Isawhim____theroad.A.crossB.tocrossC.acrossD.tobecrossing15.–Iusuallygotherebytrain.–Whynot____byboatforachange?A.totrygoingB.tryingtogoC.totryandgoD.trygoing16.____isagoodformofexerciseforbothyoungandold.A.ThewalkB.WalkingC.TowalkD.Walk17.Haveyoudecidedwhen____?A.toleaveB.tobeleavingC.willyouleaveD.areyouleaving18.ThismorningI____youmanytimes.A.wascalledB.hadbeencalledC.keptcalledD.called19.Itisnouse_____withhimaboutit.A.talkingB.totalkC.tobetalkingD.talk20.Ispenttwohours____thehomework.A.doingB.todoC.todoingD.do21.Themovieisamazing!Ican’thelp____itagain!A.watchB.towatchC.watchingD.watched22.Thesentenceneeds____.A.toimproveB.improveC.improvingD.improved23.It’snogood____oversplitmilk.A.tocryB.cryingC.criedD.cry24.Itisreallykind____.A.ofyoutosaysoB.foryoutosaysoC.ofyousayingsoD.foryousayingso78 Appendixes25.Goon____theotherexerciseafteryouhavefinishedthisone.A.todoB.doingC.withD.tobedoing26.Don’tforget____tome.Let’skeepintouch.A.towriteB.writingC.havingwrittenD.towriting27.Teachingis____.A.tolearnB.learningC.learningsomethingD.beinglearned28.Thoughhehadoftenmadehissister____.Todayhewasmade____byhissister.A.cry;tocryB.crying;cryingC.cry;cryD.tocry;cry29.Howaboutthetwoofus____awalkdownthegarden?A.totakeB.takeC.takingD.tobetaking30.LittleTomcoulddonothingbut____.A.waitedB.waitingC.waitD.towait二、请用适当的形式填空（每题2分，共20分）WangFangusedto_______(dislike)Englishwhenshewasinjuniorhighschool,andshethoughtitwasunnecessary________(learn)Englishbecauseshedidn’tuseitveryofteninherdailylife.Oneday,shewent_______(shop)withherfriend.Onherwaytothesupermarket,aforeigneraskedherhow_______(go)tothenearestmetrostation.Butshehadgreatdifficultyin__________(understand)theforeigner’swords.Atthesametime,herfriendLiMeitried_________(answer)everyquestionthattheforeignerasked.Atlast,theforeignerthankedLiMeifor________(help)him.WangFangfeltembarrassedandrealizedherEnglishneeded_________(improve).Now,shestudiesatavocationalschoolanddevotesmuchmoretime_________(learn)English.Shebelieves_________(speak)afluentEnglishcangivehermorechancestoknowabouttheworld.79 广州大学硕士学位论文三、句子改写（每题2分，共10分）1.Judycouldn’tmakeothersunderstandher.Judycouldn’tmadeherself__________.2.Ihavetofixmybike.Ihavetoget___________.3.Whydon’tyoucomewithus?Whynot___________withus?4.Itisahappythingtopasstheexamination.To_______________isahappything.5.Remembertotakeyourumbrella._______________totakeyourumbrella..四、句子翻译（每题2分，共10分）1.Hewastold_______________________(不要在河边玩耍).2.Don’twasteyourtime___________________(打电脑游戏).3._______(说)isonethingand_______(做)isanother.4.Itisimpossible_____________________(我们达到目标)inashorttime.5.Theywillconsider______________________(订一个计划).80 AppendixesAppendixⅡPost-test英语语法测试(2)（时间：40分钟）班别___________姓名___________学号___________成绩___________一、单项选择（每题2分，共60分）1.Ellahasbeencomplainingaboutthetraffic_____herawakeatnight.A.keepB.tokeepC.keepingD.kept2.Onweekend,theparkisfullofpeople____themselvesinthesunshine.A.toenjoyB.enjoyingC.enjoyD.enjoyed3.Lastnight,thereweremillionsofpeople_____theopeningceremonyliveonTV.A.watchB.towatchC.watchedD.watching4.Therearetwogirls____inQueenstreet.A.standingB.whostandingC.stoodD.beingstanding5.What’sthelanguage____inGermany?A.speakingB.spokenC.bespokenD.tospeak6.Theman____abroadisvisitinghismotherland.A.toworkB.workedC.workingD.works7.The_____boywaslastseenplayingnearthelake.A.missingB.missedC.tomissD.bemissing8.Thebook____byhimwaspublishedlastweek.A.havingwrittenB.tobewrittenC.beingwrittenD.written9.Thelittlegirl_____onthegroundsangsongshappily.A.layB.lyingC.liesD.lied10.Thenewhouseprovideshotandcold____water.A.runB.ranC.runningD.torun11.Isthistheveryway____tothevalley?81 广州大学硕士学位论文A.leadsB.ledC.leadingD.whichlead12.Someofthemiddle-agedpeople____tothemeetingwerefamousprofessors.A.wereinvitedB.whoinvitedC.invitingD.invited13.Thetrees____lastyeararegrowingverywell.A.plantedB.wereplantedC.plantingD.wasplanted14.Thepolicemanaskedthe____workersfortheinformationaboutthe____thief.A.retiring,escapingB.retired,escapingC.retired,escapedD.retiring,escaped15.Almostallthedoctors____inthehospitalhavegivenbloodforthewounded.A.workB.workingC.whoworkD.whoworking16.Inuniversity,Andyreceivedallthetraining____forherjobinthefuture.A.whichneededB.wouldbeneededC.thatneededD.needed17.Todaytherearemoreairplanes____morepeoplethaneverbeforeintheskies.A.carryB.carryingC.carriedD.tobecarrying18.The____mountainclimbingreallymadeallofusvery____.A.tired,tiredB.tiring,tiringC.tiring,tiredD.tired,tiring19.Manythings____impossibleinthepasthavecomeintorealities.A.tobeconsideredB.consideredC.consideringD.beingconsidered20.Allthethings____toyouaregoingtoreachyouthere.A.belongC.belongedC.belongingD.thatbelongs21.Asmileisawayofgreeting____toaperson.A.givenB.togiveC.givingD.beinggiven22.Theoldman____thereinsilencedidn’tknowwhattosay.A.seatedB.seatingC.sittingD.sat23.Mrs.Whiteshowedherstudentssomeoldmaps____fromthelibrary.A.toborrowB.tobeborrowedC.borrowedD.borrowing24.Thefamilyreportedtheirson____thenextmorningaftersearchingeverywhereforawholenight.A.missesB.missedC.tomissD.missing25.Therearestillmanyproblems_____beforewearereadyforalongstayonthe82 AppendixesMoon.A.solvingB.solvedC.beingsolvedD.tobesolved26.The____guestswillbeledin.A.arriveB.arrivingC.arrivedD.toarrive27.Thefilmwasso____thateverybodywas____totears.A.moving;movedB.moved;movingA.moved;movedD.moving;moving28.Let’sgotothebookstore____lastmonth.A.openingB.toopenC.openedD.open29.Mostofthepeople____tothepartywerefromSouthAfrica.A.invitedB.toinviteC.beinginvitedD.havebeeninvited30.Herushedintothe____house.A.burnedB.burningB.tobeburningD.burn二、请用适当的形式填空（每题2分，共20分）I________(work)asaclerkinBankofChina.EverydayI________(travel)alongwayfromhometowork.Lifeatthebankisalittlebusyastherearealwaysmanypeople________(come)hereforbusiness.Usuallyinthemorning,Ihandlethebusinessforthe________(retire)peoplewho________(want)tosavemoneyorwithdrawmoney.Oneday,anoldwomancametomycounterandtoldmethatshehadavery________(worry)thing.Sheforget________(take)thepassbook(存折)somewhereinthemarket,soshewantedtoreporther________(lose)passbook.IaskedherforthedetailsandlethershowmetheIDcard.Finally,everything________(settle)andshethankedmefor________(help)her.83 广州大学硕士学位论文三、句子改写（每题2分，共10分）1.Theteacherwhoisstandingbythewindowwillgiveusareport.Theteacher___________________________willgiveusareport.2.IreceivedaletterwhichwaswritteninEnglish.Ireceivedaletter_________________________.3.Heisateacherwhoislovedbyallhisstudents.Heisateacher___________________________.4.Thosearethemainproblems.Themainproblemsarefacingus.(把两个句子合并成含有分词短语的一个句子)Thoseare_____________________________________________.5.ThetrainisforShanghai.ThetrainstopsatPlatform7.(把两个句子合并成含有分词短语的一个句子)Thetrain_____________________________________________.四、句子翻译（每题2分，共10分）1.Theforeignteacher______________________(跟我们讲话的)isfromAmerica.2.Thereisawindow___________________________(昨晚被打碎了).3.Canyoulendmethenovel_____________________(前几天你们谈论的小说)？4.People_______________________(在超市购物)carrymanyplasticbaskets.5.Tellthechildren______________(在外面玩耍)nottomakesomuchnoise.84 AppendixesAppendixⅢInterview请您根据自己的实际情况回答以下问题，此次访谈的回答并不会影响您的英语成绩。1.你以往喜欢上语法课吗？为什么？2.你喜欢现在这段时间的语法课吗？有何感想？3.你认为这段时间课堂上的活动和学习形式，与以往的语法学习相比，能让你的参与度提高吗？4.你认为这段时间的语法教学方式，能让帮助你记住语法的形式吗？为什么？5.你认为这段时间的语法教学方式，能帮助你准确地理解语法的意义吗？为什么？6.你认为这段时间的语法教学方式，能帮助你恰当地使用语法知识吗？为什么？85 广州大学硕士学位论文AppendixⅣPre-testandPost-testScoresinC-CClassNumberGenderPre-testPost-testClassNumberGenderPre-testPost-testC-C1M5755C-C25F5755C-C2M7680C-C26F6365C-C3M4845C-C27F4443C-C4M6264C-C28F6264C-C5M4140C-C29F6063C-C6M6468C-C30F6467C-C7M7983C-C31F5657C-C8M6064C-C32F6771C-C9M7072C-C33F7275C-C10M5047C-C34F7580C-C11M5356C-C35F5351C-C12M5250C-C36F7574C-C13F6871C-C37F6972C-C14F6667C-C38F6668C-C15F5658C-C39F5855C-C16F4851C-C40F6164C-C17F6972C-C41F8892C-C18F5856C-C42F5553C-C19F5048C-C43F7881C-C20F5861C-C44F5860C-C21F6469C-C45F7579C-C22F6568C-C46F6264C-C23F4946C-C47F6667C-C24F7175C-C48F615986 AppendixesAppendixⅤPre-testandPost-testScoresinE-CClassNumberGenderPre-testPost-testClassNumberGenderPre-testPost-testE-C1M6374E-C26F6170E-C2M5866E-C27F7990E-C3M6572E-C28F6675E-C4M4038E-C29F4648E-C5M6071E-C30F6069E-C6M5254E-C31F7185E-C7M7081E-C32F5357E-C8M4845E-C33F5661E-C9M6468E-C34F8996E-C10M5864E-C35F7281E-C11M7385E-C36F5152E-C12M4547E-C37F7180E-C13M5755E-C38F6678E-C14M7686E-C39F5756E-C15M7081E-C40F4442E-C16F4952E-C41F6271E-C17F6877E-C42F7490E-C18F8392E-C43F5356E-C19F5857E-C44F7889E-C20F7381E-C45F6778E-C21F6372E-C46F6267E-C22F5967E-C47F7786E-C23F6473E-C48F6068E-C24F5865E-C49F6367E-C25F5459E-C50F656887 广州大学硕士学位论文AppendixⅥPre-testandPost-testScoresinG1&G2GroupNumberGenderPre-testPost-test135F7281111M7385120F7381142F7490114M7686147F7786144F7889127F7990118F8392134F899624M4038240F4442212M4547229F464828M4845216F4952236F515226M5254232F5357225F545988