基于语篇的高中英语语法教学的实证研究 74页

中图分类号：G4密级：公开UDC：800学校代码：10094硕士学位论文（学历教硕）基于语篇的高中英语语法教学的实证研究AnExperimentalStudyonDiscourse-basedEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchool作者姓名：杨远指导教师：梁文霞教授学科专业名称：学科教学（英语）研究方向：英语教学论文开题日期：2016年5月二〇一六年五月 中图分类号：G4密级：公开UDC：800学校代码：10094硕士学位论文（学历教硕）基于语篇的高中英语语法教学的实证研究AnExperimentalStudyonDiscourse-basedEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchool作者姓名：杨远指导教师：梁文霞教授学科专业名称：学科教学（英语）研究方向：英语教学论文开题日期：2015年6月4日 AnExperimentalStudyonDiscourse-basedEnglishGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolByYangYuanSupervisor:ProfessorLiangWenxiaSpecialty:EnglishEducationResearchDirection:EnglishTeachingAThesisSubmittedtoForeignLanguageInstituteinPartialFulfillmentoftheRequirementsFortheDegreeofMasterofEducationAtHebeiNormalUniversityMay,2016 学位论文原创性声明本人所捉交的学位论文《世門巧爲的岳中巧巧巧法教学的实证研究》，边化。巧帅的指守Ｋ，独立进巧研究Ｔ；作所化得的原创性成巧除义中Ｌｉ经化明引川的＇｜内容外，本论文不包含巧何其他个人或集体１＾经巧表或撰＾过的研亢成巧。对本文的研究做出進耍巧献的个人和集化，均。化义中标明。本片明的法律巧巧由本人承巧。论文作者（错巧甘教师确认（签名）：月＞。Ｔｗ／年＾！１如／／年／巧（＾／学位论文版权使巧巧权书本学位论文作者完全了解河北师范大学有权保留并向凹家化义部ｎ或化构送交学位论义的Ｍ印件和磁盘，允许论文被巧阅和借關。本人授权河北帅化火举可Ｗ将学份．论文的全部戍部分内容编入巧关数据库进行检索，Ｈ＂乂采用影印、缩印或其它复制手段保谷、汇编学位论文。（保密的学位论文在）年解密后适用本授权书论文作者（签名）：：巧导教师Ｃ證名）＾＇＾年月／ｈ若年／月Ｕ＾（＾ 摘要语法是英语学习中极为重要的一部分，它不仅仅是一系列的规则与结构，并且与真实的情境密不可分。但是当前的语法教学往往忽视这一点，将规则与情景剥离开来。由此，也引起了许多问题，最为显著的是学生失去了对语法学习的兴趣，并且也丧失了讲语法运用到实际沟通中的能力。另一方面，全国高考新课标全国卷中语篇填空这一语法新题型的出现以及传统单项选择题型的消失反映了对语法教学目标应为对语法知识熟练的运用的诉求。相较于单一的关注语法知识的机械练习，语法知识与语法意义以及语法的交流功能的合理融合更贴近于语法教学的新趋势。传统的语法教学模式很难满足这一需求，甚至导致了学生语法能力难以提高以及学习兴趣低下的结果。因此，寻求能够有效改变这种现状的方法成为了当前教师们的首要任务。本论文旨在在语法教学实践中采用语篇这一新的工具并努力探究该方法是否能够有效的提高语法教学效果。该实验选择来自两个班的106名学生作为受试，两个班的学生人数分别为54和52。实验班将语篇作为语法教学的主要工具而控制班则采用传统的语法教学方式。实验工具为问卷与测试。本研究主要探讨三个问题：1）当前高中英语语法教学的现状如何？2）基于语篇的语法教学是否能够提高学生的语法能力？3）基于语篇的语法教学是否能够改善学生对语法教学与语法学习的态度？研究结果表明：1）当前高中学生能够较好地掌握语法知识，但是他们学习语法的兴趣很低，对语法学习以及课上语法练习活动态度消极，并且不愿花费时间在语法学习上。2）基于语篇学习语法的学生在语法能力的提高上效果更为显著。3）基于语篇的语法教学能够改善学生学习语法的兴趣，激活学习语法的动机。基于以上研究结果，我们对今后的语法教学提出了一些建议：首先，通过在语法教学中对语篇的运用，教师应对语法以及语法教学的目标有新的认识。其次，教师应对语篇有更加深入的了解，从而将自己的专业知识与语篇教学更好地融合。最后，教师应在语法教学中采用恰当的语篇形式为学生创设充满活力的语法学习氛围。关键词：英语语法,语篇,语法能力,语法教学,高中I AbstractGrammarisanimportantaspectofEnglish,anditisnotonlyaseriesofrulesorstructures,italsohascloseconnectionwithcontext.Butcurrentgrammarteachingignoresthatpointandtreatsgrammarassimpleruleswithoutrealsituation.Thisphenomenacausessometroubles,themostsignificantoneisthatstudentslosetheirinterestsingrammarlearningandtheabilitytousegrammarknowledgeinrealcommunication.Ontheotherhand,thenewexampatternsoftestinggrammar—FillingBlanksinDiscoursereplacesthetraditionalone—Multiple-choicequestionsinTheNationalCollegeEntranceExaminationPaperreflectsthenewdemandforgrammarteachingthattheproficientuseofgrammarshouldbethegoalofgrammarteaching.Insteadofonlyfocusingondrillinggrammarknowledge,theproperblendoflanguageform,languagemeaning,anditscommunicativefunctionmaycorrespondwiththenewtrendofgrammarteaching.Butthetraditionalgrammarteachingmethodseemshavetroubleinachievingthesedemands.Itevenhasdifficultiesinimprovingstudents’grammarcompetenceandlearninginterest.Therefore,findinganeffectivewaytochangethissituationisveryimportantfortheteachersofEnglish.Thisstudyintendstoconductanexperimentondiscourse-basedgrammarteachingandtrytofindoutwhetheritisaneffectivewaytoleadabetterresultofgrammarteaching.106studentsparticipatedinthestudyandtheycomefromtwoclasses.Thereare54studentsintheexperimentalclassand52studentsinthecontrolclass.TheexperimentalclassistaughtEnglishgrammarwiththehelpofdiscoursewhilethecontrolclassistaughtunderthetraditionalway.Theinstrumentsaremainlyquestionnairesandtests.Inthisstudy,threequestionsaretobeanswered1).Whatisthecurrentsituationofgrammarteachingandlearninginseniorhighschools?2).Candiscourse-basedgrammarteachingimprovestudents’grammarcompetence?3).Candiscourse-basedteachingimprovestudents"attitudetowardgrammarteachingandlearning?II Themajorfindingsareasfollows:1)Incurrentseniorhighschool,studentscandoagoodjobinmasteringEnglishgrammarknowledge.Buttheyarelackofinterestingrammarlearningandtheyholdanegativeattitudetoclassactivitiesandspendalittletimeongrammarlearning.2)Studentswholearngrammarwiththehelpofdiscourseperformbetterinthegrammarcompetenceresults.3)Discourse-basedgrammarteachinghasgreatlykindledstudents’interestandmotivationingrammarlearning.SomesuggestionshavebeenmadeforthefutureEnglishgrammarteaching:Teachersshouldhaveanewunderstandingofgrammarandthegoalofgrammarteachingbyapplyingdiscourseintheteachingprocess.Then,teachershavetogetdeepknowledgeofdiscourseandcombineitwithotherprofessionalknowledge.Atlast,teachersshouldcreateanactivelearningatmosphereforstudentsbyapplyingdiscourseinEnglishgrammarteaching.Keywords:Englishgrammar,discourse,grammarcompetence,grammarteaching，seniorhighschoolIII 目录摘要............................................................................................................................ⅠAbstract........................................................................................................................ⅡChapterOneIntroduction..............................................................................................11.1ResearchBackground...........................................................................................11.2SignificanceoftheStudy.....................................................................................21.3Outlineofthethesis..............................................................................................4ChapterTwoLiteratureReview.....................................................................................52.1OverviewofDiscourse.........................................................................................52.1.1ThedefinitionofDiscourse...........................................................................52.1.2TheCharacteristicsofDiscourse...................................................................72.2Theoreticalbasesofdiscourse-basedgrammarteaching.....................................92.2.1SchemaTheory..............................................................................................92.2.2Gestalt"scognitivepsychology....................................................................112.2.3SystemTheory—WholenessPrinciple......................................................122.3PreviousStudiesonGrammarTeaching............................................................132.3.1PreviousStudiesonGrammarCompetence................................................132.3.2PreviousStudiesonGrammarTeaching.....................................................18ChapterThreeMethodology........................................................................................233.1ResearchQuestions............................................................................................233.2Subjects..............................................................................................................233.3Instrument...........................................................................................................243.3.1Questionnaires.............................................................................................243.3.2Tests.............................................................................................................253.4Experiment.........................................................................................................263.4.1MethodusedinControlClass.....................................................................263.4.2MethodusedinExperimentalClass............................................................273.5Datacollection....................................................................................................293.6Dataanalysis......................................................................................................30ChapterFourResultandDiscussion............................................................................31IV 4.1Currentsituationofgrammarteachingandlearning..........................................314.2Theeffectofdiscourse-basedgrammarteachingonstudents"grammarcompetence...............................................................................................................374.3Theeffectofdiscourse-basedgrammarteachingonstudents"attitudetowardgrammarteachingandlearning................................................................................42ChapterFiveConclusion...........................................................................................465.1Majorfindings....................................................................................................465.2ImplicationsforfutureEnglishgrammarteaching............................................475.3Limitationsoftheresearchandsuggestionforfuturestudies............................48Bibliography................................................................................................................50AppendixⅠ:Pre-questionnaire...................................................................................56AppendixⅡ:Post-questionnaire..................................................................................59AppendixⅢ:Pre-test...................................................................................................61AppendixⅣ:Post-test..................................................................................................63Acknowledgement……………………………………………………........…………65V ChapterOneIntroductionThischaptergivesabriefintroductionofcurrentEnglishgrammarteachingsituation,especiallyinseniorhighschool.Inaddition,itpresentsthesignificanceandoverallstructureofthecurrentstudy.1.1ResearchBackgroundAccordingtoEnglishSeniorSyllabus,theaimofEnglishteachinginfull-timeseniorhighschoolsistofosterstudents’abilitytouseEnglishindailyverbalorwritingcommunication,improvestudents’abilitytothink,observememorize,focusandimage,aswellasenhancingstudents’understandingofthetargetlanguagecommunity.Andalltherequirementsemphasizestudents’abilityinusingskillsindiscourse.Grammarasthebasicsofthesefourlanguageskillsplaysanveryimportantroleinaccomplishingthesedemands.Grammaralsoreflectsthethinkingpatternofalanguage,evenacultureorasociety.Hence,grammarteachingisthemostimportantthinginlanguageteachingprocess.However,grammarteachinginrealEnglishclassroomoftenneglectscombiningbasicknowledgewithlanguageskills,letalongdevelopsthatintoanabilityofusingEnglishindailyinteraction.Grammarteachingonlyfocusesonexplainingabstractrulesandmissescombineitwithstudents’dailylifeorcreaterealcommunicativesituation—discourse.Forthisreason,grammarlearningbecomesdifficultandboring.Studentscannotgaininsightintogrammarrulesandknowhowtouseitinrealcontext.Therefore,alargenumberofthestudentsinseniorschoolhavetroublesingrammarlearning.Someofthemdonothavepassioningrammarbecausegrammarlearningisboringanddifficult.Someofthemareconfusedwiththemeaningoflearninggrammar.Therearealsosomeotherstudents,whotreatgrammarknowledgeasatooltodealwithreadingorwritingexams,insteadoftreatingitasabasicskillofsuccessfulcommunication.GrammarteachingisinseparablewithEnglishteachingandalwaysinsertsinEnglishteaching,sothegrammarteachingpracticeshouldchangeitscurrentteachingmethodandseeknewwaystomakegrammarlearning1 bootsontheground.In2014,TheNationalCollegeEntranceExaminationPaperexperiencedasignificantreformation----thenewtestingform“grammarfillinginthediscourse”replacesthetraditionalones“multiple-choicequestion”.Thisadjustmentreflectsthenewdemandforgrammarteachingthattheproficientuseofgrammarshouldbethegoalofgrammarteaching.Thatistosay,insteadofonlyfocusingondrillinggrammarknowledge,theproperblendoflanguageform,languagemeaning,anditscommunicativefunctionismorecorrespondwiththenewtrendofgrammarteaching.Asgrammaristhefoundationofallthebasicskills,Englishteachinginseniorhighschoolisinundatedwithgrammarteaching.AndgrammarknowledgeplaysairreplaceableroleinEnglishteaching.Sohowtomeetalltherequirementsoftheseniorsyllabusingrammarteachingandaccommodatethenewquestiontypeofthecollegeentranceexampaperpuzzlemostoftheteachers.1.2SignificanceoftheStudyEnglishgrammarteachinginseniorhighschoolpaysmoreattentiontosimplesentenceandstructurewithoutcontextthanhowtousegrammarinaparticularcontext.Thusthelearningoutcomesarefarfromtheauthority’sexpected.WiththedevelopmentofChina,itiswidelyadmittedthatthelanguageisakindofinstrumentandpeoplelearnitforcommunication.Peoplebegintorealizethatthegrammarshouldnotbelimitedintestpaperandisolatedfromreading,writing,aswellasspeakinginourdailylife.Althoughatpresent,thestudentsstillfacevariousexams,whichserveasamainmeasurementoftheirlearningability,thegoalofgrammarteachingbecomesusinggrammarincommunicationaccuratelyandappropriatelyratherthanjustknowingthegrammarrules.ThenewreformoftheNationalCollegeEntranceExaminationPaperclearlyreflectsit.Sotheoldstyleofgrammarteachingbyintroducinggrammarrulesanddoingmechanicalshouldbeabandoned.ThestudywillhelpbothEnglishteachersandresearchersinrelatedfield.First,thecurrentstudymayprovidesomepracticalimplicationsfortheEnglishteachers.Nowmanyteachershaverealizedtheimportanceoftheabilitiesofusinggrammarinrealcommunication.2 Iftheteachershaveacorrectunderstandingofthecurrentsituationofgrammarteachingandgetaneffectivewayofgrammarteaching,theymightbeinspiredfromitandadjusttheirpedagogicalpracticecorrespondingly.Asanimportantconceptinlinguistics,discoursestudygetslotsofattentionsinceitwasproposed.Therearealotoffamousrelevanttheoriessuchasdiscourseanalysis,discoursecohesion,discoursecoherentandsoon.Withthedevelopmentofthesetheories,moreandmorescholarsapplythemintosecondlanguageteaching.Andfortunately,mostoftheseapplicationsworksuccessfullyinthereallanguageclassroom.Therefore,anewkindofapproachappearsingrammarteaching.Ifweapplythisconceptinourteachingofgrammar,itissuretobenefitbothEnglishteachersandlearners.ItmaychangethesituationwherethestudentsarenolongerinterestedinlearningEnglish.Asaresultoflong-term’sexamination-orientedEnglishteaching,grammarlearningiswidelyconsideredtobeaboredsubject.Studentsreceiveknowledgepassivelyintheteacher-centeredclass.Theyjustwaitfortheteachers’instructionandcarryoutgrammaractivitiesreluctantly.Itisnoaccidentthatthestudentslostinterestsingrammarlearning.Discourse-basedgrammarteachingmaychangetheoldteachingapproachwhichisdivorcedfrompractical.Thisstudyisexpectedtoprovideteacherswithnewideasingrammarteaching,thusteachersmayhaveaclearpictureofhowtomotivatestudents’enthusiasmaboutgrammarlearning.Second,thestudymayprovidesomeusefuldatafortheempiricalgrammarteachingstudiesinChina.Thoughinrecentyears,researchershavedonemanyresearchongrammarteachingandtheapplicationofcontext.Thestudyontherelationshipbetweenthemandhowtoputthetheoryintopracticeisstillfewinnumber.Incaseofthat,thisstudyemploysquantitativemethodtofindouthowtoimproveeffectivenessofgrammarteachingbyusingdiscourseteachingmethod.1.3OutlineofthethesisThethesisaimstodemonstratetheimportantroleofdiscourse-basedgrammarteachinginimprovinglearners’grammarproficiencythroughateachingexperiment.3 Itisdividedintofivechaptersandorganizedinthefollowingway:Chapter1isabriefintroductiontothewholethesis;includingthebackgroundandthesignificanceofthestudy.Italsoliststhestructureofthisthesis.Chapter2reviewssomerelevantliteratureworksconcerninggrammarteachingandlanguageteachingstrategiesusesdiscourse.Itfirstgivesdefinitionsofdiscourseandthengivesadetaileddescriptionofsomerelevanttheoriesofdiscourse.Thenitintroducesthevariousaccepteddefinitionsgrammarcompetenceandatlastitreviewsthepreviousstudiesongrammarcompetenceangrammarteaching.Chapter3presentsaresearchdesign.Thestudyisdesignedtoexploretheeffectsofdiscourse-basedgrammarteachingtothestudentsinseniorhighschool.Itbeginswithspecificquestionsoftheresearchquestions,andthendescribestheresearchdesign,includingsubjects,instruments,thediscourse-basedgrammarteachingprocessindetailanddatacollectionandanalysisinvolvedinthestudy.Chapter4presentstheresultsofthisresearchandthediscussionsoftheresultsbasedonthedata.AllthedatawerecodedintocomputerandanalyzedthroughtheStatisticalPackageforSocialSciences13.0(SPSS13.0).Chapter5istheconclusionpart.Majorfindingsoftheresearcharepresented.Pedagogicalimplications,limitationsofthestudyandsuggestionsarealsoproposedforfutureresearch.4 ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewThischapterintroducesdiscourseandgrammarteachingindetail.Atthebeginning,thedefinitionofdiscourseisdiscussed.Then,itbringsoutsomerelevanttheoriesincludingSchemaTheory,Gestalt"scognitivepsychologyandSystemTheory—WholenessPrinciple.Afterwards,itelaboratesthepreviousstudiesongrammarcompetenceandindicatesthecomponentsofgrammarcompetencewhichisusedinthisresearch.Atlast,itreviewsthepreviousstudiesongrammarteaching,andtherelevantstudiesbothathomeandabroad.2.1OverviewofDiscourseThestudyfocusesontheinvestigationoftheeffectivenessofthediscourse-basedapproachinEnglishgrammarteaching.Discourse-basedgrammarteachingfocusesonbuildingandanalyzingdiscourseinEnglishteaching.Therefore,itisnecessarytohaveagoodunderstandingofdiscourse.2.1.1ThedefinitionofDiscourseTheconceptofdiscoursederivesfromdiscourseanalysisorwecansaydiscourselinguistics.Scholarsathomeandabroadholddifferentattitudestowardthedefinitionofdiscourse.Thedefinitioncomesfromformalistassumptions,whichviewsdiscourseas‘languageabovethesentenceorclause’.Inthisperspective,constituentswhichareanalyzedhaveparticularrelationshipswithoneanotherinatextorcanappearinarestrictedsetoftextlevelarrangements.Therefore,someofthemthinkdiscourseandtextarethesamethingsandtheyseediscourselikeanythingbeyondthesentence.InIntroducingLinguistics,Crystal(1992)definesdiscourseas“acontinuousstretchoflanguagethanasentence,especiallyinorallanguage,oftenconstituteacoherentunitlikeasermon,adebateoranarration.”ProfessorHuangGuowen（2003）putsforwardthatdiscoursereferstoalanguageentiretymakesupbyaseriesofcontinuousutterancesorsentences.Itcanbeamonologue,adialogoraconversationamongmanypeople.Stubbssaysdiscourseislanguageabovethesentenceorabovetheclause.Harries(1963)pointsoutthatlanguageisnotmadeup5 bythemessywordsbutbyaseriesofcoherencediscourse.Andthefunctionalistseesdiscourseas“languageinuse”.Theyanalyzehowpeopleuselanguagetodifferentpurposes,usuallyconcernlesswiththepurposetoservereferentialmeaningsbywhatpeopleintendtosay,andmorewiththeunintendedsocial,cultural,andexpressivemeaningderivingfromcontextsinwhichwhatpeoplesayissituated.JustasFasold(2006)says,thestudyofdiscourseisthestudyofanyaspectsoflanguageuse.AndaccordingtoBrown&Yule(1983),theanalysisofdiscourseistheanalysisoflanguageinuse.Althoughthefunctionalists’definitionofdiscourseincludeswithinallitsuse,itprovidesnowaytodefinediscourseasdifferentfromotherlevelsoflanguageuse,forexample,theuseofsentence.Accordingtootherscholarswhocontributeafullviewofdiscourse,discourseisnotonlyacollectionofdecontextualizedunitsoflanguagestructure,butalsoacollectionofinherentlycontextualizedunitsoflanguageuse.Thatmeansthediscoursehastoreachtherequirementsoftwoaspects,oneissyntaxandtheotherissemantics.In1976,HallidayandHasancollaboratedabooknamedCohesioninEnglishandinthisbooktheydefineddiscourse.Intheiropinion,discourseisasemanticunitofanylengthanditstandsforakindofmeaningratherthanasimpleform.Cook(1989)believesthatdiscourseisakindoflanguagewhichhasameaningfulcompleteformandservesforacertainpurpose.Hethinksdiscourseisakindofcommunicativeeventthatcanbeinterpretedincontext.AccordingtoAnEnglish-ChineseDictionaryofAppliedLinguistics,abookeditedbyWangZongyan(1988),adiscoursecanbeawordlikethe“Exit”inentryorlongpassageslikeasermon,anoveloradebate.Acomprehensiveunderstandingofdiscoursemustwiththehelpofcontext.InthebookCohesionandCoherenceinDiscourse,HuZhuanglin(1994)pointsoutthatdiscourseisnaturallanguagethatexpressescompletemeaningincontextwithoutstrictconstraintsofgrammar.ProfessorWangFuxiang(1994)giveshisunderstandingofdiscourseinTheConceptofDiscourseLinguistics,hethinksdiscourseisthecombinationofthelanguagestructureandmeaning.Broadlyspeaking,discourseincludesnotonlycontinuousoralutterances6 butalsocontinuouswrittentexts.Initsnarrowsense,discourseistext.Inconclusion,thedefinitionofdiscourseimpliesboth“sequentialgoals”ofdiscourseanalysisand“semanticandpragmaticgoals”.Discourseisnotonlymadeupbyformsbutalsobymeaning.Itistheunityofformsandmeaning.Inaddition,bothoftheformsandmeaningshouldbeinarelativeintactstate,becausetheyareindependentandtheysupporteachother.Adiscoursecanbeanarticle,anote,evenasentenceofgreetingandsoon.Nomatterhowmanywordsitcontains,nomatteroralformsorwrittenformsitis,aslongasitfollowsgrammarrulesandhasthefeaturesofcontextualization,itcanbecalleddiscourse.Whetheraseriesofutteranceisorisnotadiscourseisdecidedbyweatherithasthefeaturesofdiscourse.Thatistosay,everycomponentofthediscourseisinterrelatedwitheachotherandeachofthemhastheirownmeaninginthecontext.2.1.2TheCharacteristicsofDiscourseAsaproductofcommunication,discoursecanbeseenasasemanticunit.Therefore,discoursemustbeaccompaniedwithcontext,clearcommunicativefunctionandpurpose(exchangingmessages,sendingorders,describingevents,etc).Discoursecannotdepartfromcontext,oritwillloseitscommunicativefunctionandmeaning.Contextcanbedividedintosituationalcontextandculturalcontext.Co-textortheenvironmentwherelanguageisusedcanberegardedasthesituationalcontext.Peoplecanhardlytelltherealmeaningofapassage,asentence,evenawordwithoutthereminderoftheco-text.Chomsky(1965)usesaveryfamousexampletoshowhowasentenceleadstoambiguitywithoutsituationalcontext.Theexampleis:‘Theyareflyingplanes.’Itisasimplesentenceandeveryoneknowsthestructureofit.Butwhatdoesthissentencemean?Does“they”inthissentencemeansthe“flyingplanes”themselvesorthepeoplewhocontrols“flyingplanes”?Wecannevertelltheexactmeaningunlessweknowthesituationwherethissentenceisused.Culturecontextisamuchbiggerconceptthansituationalcontextwhichonlyexistsinthetext.Languageisinsertedinculture,anddiscourseisthemirrorofculture.Inaword,discourseisalinguisticprocessofcommunicationandinteraction.Hence,thecommunicationcan7 neverlivewithoutcontext.So,onlywhenlanguagestructureisrootedinthesoilofdiscourse,canitbearfruitofmeaning.Althoughdiscourseisasemanticunit,sentencesinithavetoobeythegrammarrules.Ithasmaterialdifferenceswiththetraditionalunderstandingofgrammarwhichtreatswordsandsentencesastheobjectsofstudy.Traditionalgrammar,structuralgrammarandtransformationalgenerativegrammarregardsentenceasthehighestlevelofgrammarstudy.Theirobjectsofstudyaresentencesandtheinnercomponentsofsentence.Theseschoolsleaveouttheroleandeffectthatthesentenceplaysinlargerlinguisticunitsandalsoneverconsiderwhen,whereandhowthelanguageisused,letalongthepsychologicalprocessofspeakers.However,languageisnotmathformulasorsimplerestrictionsandfettersdivorcedfromreallife.Tosumup,likethemeaningofthewordvariesfromsentencetosentence,communicativefunctionandmeaningofthesentencealsovariousfromdiscoursetodiscourse.Despitecorrectgrammarstructure,discourseneedsalogicalinnerstructurewhichmeansthatwhatthediscourseshowsisnotcompletelyunrelatedinformation,butconveyssomecorrelatedmessagesandthesemessagesconstituteameaningfulcoherentwhole.Itiscalledsemanticcoherence.Ifthediscoursewantstohavefeaturesofsemanticcoherence,itneedstogethelpfromdiscoursecohesionandfollowssemanticprinciples,pragmaticprinciplesandcognitiveprinciples.Thereareinternalconnectionsbetweensentenceandsentence,thesequencearrangementofsentences,informationandsymbolsmustbelogical.Inthiscase,discoursecanbothdisplaycorrectgrammarstructureandconsolidatetheabilityinappropriatelyusinggrammarstructureincommunication.Theabovediscussionwhichexploresthedefinitionandthefeaturesofdiscourseleadstoadiscourse-basedperspectiveongrammarEnglishteaching.Aboveall,whendiscourseisusedasthemainlymeasureofgrammarteaching,theteachingprocessshouldfocusoncompletespokenandwrittentextsandonculturalandsocialcontextsthatlanguageoperates.Henceteachinggrammarwithadiscourse-basedviewoflanguagemeansteachingitwiththefocusonusingitinrealworldwherelexical-grammaticalandcontextualitemsareintegrated.Itmeansgrammarteaching8 shouldnotonlyputdiscourseindailygrammarteaching,butalsoconsiderlexical,grammaticalandcontextualchoicesofEnglishwithinadiscourseframework.Secondly,whenteachersteachgrammarbasedondiscourse.Grammarrulesandstructureswouldbediscoveredbyanalyzingthehierarchicalstructureofthetext.Grammarteachingnotonlyinvolvesgrammarknowledgeandmeaning,butalsorevealsthefunctionoflanguage.Itshoulddevotestocultivatingstudents’discourseconsciousness,sothatstudentscanchoosecorrectandappropriategrammarformsaccordingtowhattheymean,wheretheyareandwhomtheyaretalkingwith.Ithastoprovidelanguageknowledge,pragmaticknowledge,cognitiveknowledge,andtheknowledgeoftargetlanguagecultural.Asallabovementioned,theapplicationofdiscourseingrammarteachingisimperative.2.2Theoreticalbasesofdiscourse-basedgrammarteachingDiscourse-basedgrammarteachingisbredfromthreetheories.TheyareSchemaTheory,SchemaTheory,Gestalt’scognitivepsychologyandSystemTheory-WholenessPrinciple.2.2.1SchemaTheorySchematheorywasderivedfromstudiesofcognitionanddevelopedwhencomputerscientiststriedtoproduceprogramsthatimitatehumanprocessing.Innormalcondition,FredericBartlettisacknowledgedasthefirstpsychologistwhousetheterm‘schema’inthesensethatitisusedtoday.InBartlett’sbookRemembering(1932),thetermschemarefersto“anactiveorganizationofpastreactionsorpastexperiencewhichmustalwaysbesupposedtobeoperatinginanywell-adoptedorganicresponse”.Bartlettproposedthathumanbeingshaveimplicitknowledgeinunconsciousmentalactivitiesandheinsistedschemaisthehighlevelrepresentation.Schemataarebasedontheassumptionthatinsteadofrandomlystructured,knowledgestoredinourmindiswell-organized.Theyformindependentlybyvirtueofthecontentseachschemacontains.Ontheotherhandtheyarerelatedbynodes,whichenablethemtocommunicatewhennecessary.Schemataaretheunderlyingconnectionsthatallownewexperiencesandinformationtobealignedwithprevious9 knowledge(McCarthy,1991).RumelhartandOrtony(1977)proposethat“schematarepresentstereotypesofconcepts”.Anderson(1983)believesthataschemaisanabstractknowledgestructurethatthereaderbringstothetextwhilereadingandcomprehending.Schemahasseveralcharacteristics.Thefirstthingisthatschemahasvariableswhichtakevalues.Thesevariablesarerelatedinacomplexwaythatisspecifiedbytheschema.Thesevaluescanbefixedortheycanbegivenanarbitraryvaluewhichsatisfiescertainconstraintsorconditions.Ifthereisnospecificcontextualinformationsupplied,avariablemaybefilledwithadefault.Thesecondcharacteristicofschemaisthateachschemacanbeembeddedinotherschemathatitmaycontainsub-schemaitself.Inthissense,ourschemataareourknowledge;allofourgenericknowledgeisembeddedinschemata.Althoughallschematadonotfitwithintheconstraintofstrictlyhierarchicalstructure,itispossibletoidentifyhierarchicalorderingsthatmakesomesetsofschematainterrelated.Thethirdcharacteristicisthatschemavariesinabstractness.Thatistosay,someschemataareveryvagueandabstract,whereassomeschemataareveryconcreteandspecific.Thelastcharacteristicofschemaisthatschemarepresentsknowledgeratherthandefinition.Tosumup,schemaisastructureanditisabstract,becauseit’sorganizationandtherelationshipbetweenitscomponentparts.Schematheoryexpectsarrangementofinformation.Itsuggeststhatknowledgewecarryaroundinourheadisorganizedintointer-relatedpatterns.Theseareconstructedfromourpreviousexperiencesoftheexperimentalworldandguideusaswemakesenseofnewexperiences.Theyalsoenableustomakepredictionsaboutwhatwemightexperienceinagivencontext.Accordingtoschematheoriesallknowledgeispackedintounits.Embeddedinthesepacketsofknowledgeis,includingtheknowledgeitself,informationabouthowthisknowledgeistobeused.Accordingtoschematheory,grammarknowledgelikegrammarstructureandgrammarrulesisunrelatedcomponentsinstudents’mind,buildaschemameansintegrateallthegrammarknowledgetheyhaveandaccumulatenewknowledgebasedontheoldones,atlast,knowinghowtousetheseknowledgeincontext.10 2.2.2Gestalt"scognitivepsychologyGestalt"scognitivepsychologyisalsoknownasformpsychology.GestaltcomesfromaGermanwordwhichmeansorganizationalstructureorentirety.ViewingonGestalt"scognitivepsychology,thebasicfeatureofpsychologicalphenomenonisintegrative,structuralcharacteristicsalsoshowsinmentalexperience.Whatwesensedbyoursensoryperceptionisthewholeofformsandmodels,inotherword,“Gestalt”.Perceptionisnotthesumoffeelings.Inthesameway,ideologyisalsonotasimpleconnectionconcept.Furthermore,understandingisrestructuringstructureoftheoldknowneventsornewform.Forexample,werememberaperson’sfaceaccordingtothegeneralimpressionbutnotthesingleorgans.Bruner(1978),anAmericanpsychologist,whoanalyzedlanguageintermsofcognitivepsychologyproposedthatlanguagehastohavecompleteforms,completestructures,individualwordsorsentencesisnotlanguage.Grammarcompetenceisconsistedofperception,comprehension,memory,associationandthinking.Insteadofunderstandingthetextbysentences,visualreceptionoflanguagesymbolhasintegratedfeaturesanditfocusesonthesemantics.Thus,thepsychologyandEnglishteachingmethodhasaverycloserelationship.Thereisacommonphenomenoningrammarteachingthatalotoflearnershavestoredplentyofgrammarknowledgeintheirmindbuttheydonotknowhowtouseitinrealcommunication.Thesolutionofthisproblemistochangeteachers’methodofgrammarteaching.Theyneedtoputgrammarstructuresintocontext,cultivatestudents’abilityinusinggrammarratherthanwritingsimplesentences.Atpsychologicallevel,theformingofanorganized,meaningfulwholeisaprocessthatthecomponentscangetnewfeaturesduringreorganizationandtherearethreekindsofrelationsbetweenthepartandthewhole.Therewillneverhaveawholewithoutindividualparts,everypartdirectlyorindirectlyinfluencesorrestrictsthequalityandbehaviorsofthewhole.Partbelongstothewhole.Becauseeverypartofthewholeisnotisolated,theydependoneachotherandmutualeffecteachother.Whenthecomponentsleavethewhole,theywilllosttheirlivingconditionsandtheir11 originalmeaning.Forinstance,whenweteachtheword“get”,itisbettertoputitintosentencesratherthanjusttellingthemeaning.1)Hegotcreditforhiswork.(vt.have)2)Canyougetmesomepaster?(vt.acquire)3)Theshotgottheenemyplane.(vt.hit)4)Shegothisbikerepaired.(vt.enable)5)Whendidyougetthere?(vt.arrive)6)Theoldmangotangry.(linkv.become)Thisthinghappenstosentencetoo.Forexample,ifyousaytoyourgoodfriendorcolleagues:“Haveyougotacigaretteforme,please?”,itmeansyouareaskingforarealcigarette.Butifyousayittoastrangerinastreet,youarenotaskingacigarettebutbeggingformoney.Sowithoutacontextorwecansayadiscourse,sentencescannotplayitsfunctions,tosomeextent,itismeaningless.2.2.3SystemTheory—WholenessPrincipleThebasicideaofsystemtheoryis“Everythingissystem”,whichmeansallthingsintheworld,nomatterphenomenaorprocessesareorganicwhole.Ifwewanttoknowathing,wehavetoregarditasawhole,researchandlearneveryaspectofitandeverythingthatrelatetoit.Amachineisawhole,hencethecomponentbecomesuselessatthemomentwhenitleavesthemachine,eventheessentialone.Thisistheinseparabilityofthewhole,inotherwords,thewholeisconsistedbyelementsandelements,anythingcannotbeisolatedfromthewhole.ItissametotheelementsinEnglishtextsuchassentences,paragraphs,andlanguagepoints.Iftheydepartfromlanguageenvironment(discourse),theyareonlylanguagematerialswhichcannotexpressideas.Peoplecannotgettheirmeaningandusage.Andcontextcannotbeformedunlessputthemindiscourse.Sowecanseediscourseasawhole,grammarstructuresandrulesareelements,inthiscase,teachinggrammarshouldplacestructuresandrulesindiscourse,thenteachingitsusageinsteadofteachingforms.Systemtheoryalsobelievesthatoneplusoneisbiggerthantwo.Whenthewordorthesentenceisinadiscourse,theyarenolongersimplewordformsorsentence12 structuresandtheyhavecommunicativefunctions.Theyexpressthewholemeaningwithotherwordsandsentences.Thus,studentscannotlearnreallanguagesanddeveloplanguagesenseunlessusingdiscourseingrammarteaching.Grammarteachingshouldfollowstherulesofsystemtheory,andteachtheusageofgrammarbydiscourse,showthecommunicativefunctionsincontext,thengivefurtherexplanationofthegrammarrules.Discourse-basedgrammarteachingnotonlyfocusesonexplaininggrammarrulesbutalsoattachinggreatimportancetoitsusageindifferentcontext.Thatisperfectlyinharmonywiththeprinciplesofcognitivepsychology.2.3PreviousStudiesonGrammarTeachingThispartwillinvolvetwodimensions.Thefirstoneisgrammarcompetenceandthesecondoneisgrammarteaching.Cultivatingstudent’sgrammarcompetenceisthegoalofgrammarteaching,thus,itisnecessarytofigureoutwhatisgrammarcompetence.Atthesecondpart,itanalyzesthepreviousstudiesongrammarteachingmethod.2.3.1PreviousStudiesonGrammarCompetenceBeforethereviewsofpreviousstudiesongrammarcompetence,itisnecessarytogiveabriefintroductionaboutthedefinitionofgrammar.Inthenarrowsense,grammarreferstosyntax.Inthebroadway,grammarincludesphonology,morphology,syntax,semantics,etc.Somerecentresearchesalsoextendutteranceintogrammar.Larsen-Freeman(2005)putsforwardadefinitionofgrammar,whichisrelativelycomprehensive.Accordingtoherdefinition,grammarisconsistedofmorphosyntax,semanticsandpragmatics,andthesethreeelementsareinterdependent.Basedonherdefinition,thisstudyregardsgrammarasthemixtureofform,meaningandusage.Recentdecades,thedefinitionofgrammarcompetencehasbeenthecenterofcontroversyintheresearchesofthisfield,researchersathomeandabroadprovidevariousviews.Therefore,itisnecessarytohaveareviewofvariousdefinitionsofitindifferentperspective.TheconceptofcompetencewasfirstputforwardbyAmericanlinguist13 Chomsky(1965),whofirstproposestheterm“linguisticcompetence”.Inhisopinion,linguisticcompetencereferstothegrammarknowledgethatapersonhasmasteredinidealsituations,theapplicationoflanguageistheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations.AccordingtoChomsky’sunderstandingofgrammarcompetence,knowingalanguageistoknowthegrammar.Inotherwords,theabilitytocreateandunderstandgrammaticallycorrectsentences.Histheoryaboutlanguagecompetencehasbeencriticizedforitonlyincludestheknowledgeofgrammaticalrulesbutneglectingtheappropriatenessofcontext.BasedonChomsky’sview,Hymes(1971)proposestheterm“communicativecompetence”.Hebelievesthataperson’scapacityincludeslanguageknowledgeandtheabilityforuseoflanguage.TherearefourparametersinHymes’modelofcommunicativecompetence.Thefirstis“possibility”thatmeanswhether(ortowhatdegree)somethingisformallypossible.Inotherwords,theabilitytoproducegrammaticalsentences.Thesecondis“appropriateness”whichmeanswhether(ortowhatdegree)somethingisappropriate,forexample,theabilitytousecorrectformsoflanguageinacertainsocio-culturalcontext.Thethirdis“feasibility”,itmeanswhether(ortowhatdegree)somethingisfeasibleliketheabilitytoproducesentencewhichcanbedecodedbythehumanbrain.Andthelastoneis“performance”whichfocusesonwhether(ortowhatdegree)somethingisinfactdone.Inthenextfewyears,CanaleandSwain(1980)developHymes’conceptofcommunicativecompetence.Theybuildamorecomplicatedmodelofthisconceptanddividetheirframeworkintofourdimensionswhichtheycallgrammarcompetence,sociolinguisticcompetence,discoursecompetenceandstrategiccompetence.Sowecanseethatgrammarcompetenceistreatedasoneofthecomponentsof“communicativecompetence”.Andgrammarcompetencereferstothecomprehensionoflanguageincludinglanguagerulesandcharacteristicssuchasvocabulary,phonologyandwhatarerequiredinaccurateexpressingandunderstandingofmessagesincommunication.In1990,Bachmanputsforwardamorecommunicativecompetence.Therearethreeelementsinhismodel:physiologicalmechanisms,languagecompetenceandstrategycompetence.Thelanguagecompetenceiscomposedofpragmaticcompetenceandorganizationalcompetence.14 Andthelatteroneisdividedintotwoaspects—grammarcompetenceandtextualcompetence.Inresult,Bachman’sexplanationongrammarcompetenceismorecomprehensiveandinvolveslearners’competencyinmorphology,vocabulary,graphologyandsyntax.Inotherwords,theaspectsoflanguagebothinstructuralandformaldimensionsareincludedingrammarcompetence.Later,LarsenFreeman(2003)proposesadifferentviewongrammarcompetence,whichearnedwidespreadacceptance.Therearethreedimensionsinhismodelofgrammarcompetencethatareform,meaninganduse.Inhisview,thethreedimensionsareinterrelatedtoeachotherandmutuallyinfluencedeachotheranditisnotbeneficialtoregardgrammarasisolatedstructuresorindependentmeaninglesssectionswithoutpayingattentiontothecontext.Grammarstructuresarenotjustsyntacticandmorphologicalforms,theyareusedtoconveymessagesincertaincontext.Theconceptofgrammarincludesgrammarknowledge(grammarrules)andgrammarcompetence(theuseofgrammarrules)andthelatteroneistheultimategoalofgrammarteaching.Althoughdefinitionsaboutgrammarcompetencevariesfromonetoanother,theunderstandingofgrammarcompetencegoestothesamedirection.Thatis,grammarcompetenceiscomposedofmasteryofknowledgeaboutlanguageandfreeuseoflanguageincommunication.Inotherwords,learnersshouldhaveagoodgraspoflanguagerulesandcancorrectlyandfreelycomprehendandproducelanguageindifferentcontext.SothisstudyadoptsLarsenFreeman’stheoryaboutgrammarcompetenceanddividesgrammarcompetenceintotwoaspects:grammarknowledgeandtheabilitytousegrammarknowledgeindifferentcontext.Overthepasttwodecades,researchersathomeandaboardhaveanewcomprehensionontherelationshipbetweengrammarknowledgeandgrammarcompetence.Asaresult,thereisagreatflowintheresearchesongrammarcompetenceandtherelatedstudyingachievementsareveryfruitful.InthebookACommunicativeGrammarofEnglishthatispublishedin1994,LeechandSvartvikfirstlybrokethroughtherestrictionoftraditionalviewongrammarwhichfocusesongrammarstructure,emphasizedtheimportanceofusinggrammarincommunication.15 AccordingtoTeachingLanguage:fromGrammartoGrammaring,LasenFreeman(2003)pointsoutthatthegrammarlearningisadynamicprocess.Healsopresentstheconceptaboutdimensionsofthedevelopmentofgrammarcompetence.Thedevelopmentofgrammarcompetencebeginswiththeacquisitionofgrammarknowledge,thenitcomestointernalization,afterthesetwosteps,grammarknowledgecanbeproducedinconscious.Thenitbecomesanautomaticbehavioralresponse.Atlast,grammarknowledgecanbeusedfreelyincommunication.Whatneedstobestressedisthatthesestagesmoveonlikeadynamicdevelopingprocess,butnotalinearone.Eachstagestandsforonelevelofgrammarcompetencedevelopmentandtherearenoclearlinesbetweeneachstages.Hence,learnersoftenskiponestagesormergesomestagesandcometothenextstagedirectly.Forexample,whenaforeignlanguagelearneriswatchingEnglishmoviesorreadingEnglishbooks,learninggrammarrulesandunderstandinghowtousetheserulescanbedoneatthesametime.He/shemaycombinethestagesofknowledge,can,doandcometothestagesofunconsciousoutputstraightly.Sometimes,becausethemovieplotissointerestingorthelanguageissovivid,studentscanrememberthestructureandusageofsomeclassicandcomplicateddialogues.Inthiscase,theyskipfourstagesofknowledge,can,doandunconsciousoutputtotheabilityforcross-culturalcommunicate.Inthisprocess,studentshavenoconsciousawarenessthattheyareabsorbingdifficultgrammarstructures.Itshowstheimportantroleofcontext.HallandFoley(2003)makeempiricalstudyonhowtoimprovelearners’grammarcompetence.Inaddition,Carter&McCarthy(2006)andConrad&Biber(2009)enrichtheachievementsontheresearchesofgrammarcompetencebyanalyzingthedifferencesbetweenlearner’sspokengrammarandwritinggrammarintheprocessofdevelopinggrammarcompetence.However,justlikeThornbury(1999)saysinthepreambleofHowtoTeachGrammar:Grammarteachinghasalwaysbeenthemostcontroversialaspectoflanguageteaching.Whether(andtowhatdegree)grammarknowledgeacquisitioncanhelpalotintermsofimprovinglearners’grammarcompetenceandhowtocultivatelearners’grammarcompetencearestillunsolvedproblems.Seekingnewwaysofcultivatinggrammarcompetenceisthe16 hottestresearchfocusinsecondlanguageteachingarea.Comparedwithpayingmuchattentionongrammarcompetenceinaboard,scholarsinChinadidmuchfewerresearchinthisfield.Inrecentyears,somescholarslikeZhangRen(2004),YaoJincheng(2014)andLingSurong(2013)discusseswhetherlearninggrammarknowledgecanimprovelearners’grammarcompetencebasedonthetheoryof“InterfaceHypothesis”.Otherscholarsfocusontherelationshipandtransitionsbetweengrammarknowledgeandgrammarcompetence(LiuDongmei(2003);DuXiaohong(2010,2011)).However,“theDevelopmentandChangesofEnglishMajorStudents’EnglishGrammarCompetence”writtenbyZhangYuanrongandLeiXiao(2010）isoneofthefewarticlestalksaboutthedevelopmentofstudents’grammarcompetenceinChina.Nottomentionotherrelevantresearchesonthistheory.Currentachievementsemphasistheimportanceofgrammarcompetenceandstudyonimprovinglearners’grammarcompetencefromdifferentlevelsandaspects.Butsofar,howtocultivateandimprovestudents’competenceinactualgrammarteachingactivitiesisstillaweaklink.FewpreviousstudiesconductedexperimentsinEnglishgrammarteaching.Thisstudyintendstodoafurtherexplorationonimprovinglearners’grammarcompetenceinpractice,especiallyforthelearnerswholearnEnglishasforeignlanguage.Andthenitwouldhelptheresearcherstogainabetterunderstandingofgrammarcompetenceandenrichtheachievementsongrammardiscourseresearchesinschools.2.3.2PreviousStudiesonGrammarTeachingLanguageteachersandresearchershavelongbeeninterestedintheissuesrelatedtotheroleofgrammarteachinginforeignlanguagelearning.Thispartofthechapterattemptsageneralsurveyofthelateststudiesathomeandabroadingrammarteachinginthepastthreedecades.Withtherisingofcommunicativeteachingmethodin1970s,traditionalgrammarteachingmethodinforeignlanguagelearningwassnubbedanddiscriminated.Somepeopleevenpointoutthatinsteadofplayingapositiveroleinforeignlanguage17 learning,grammarteachingbringsmanynegativeeffects(Hossein&Fotos2004).SamephenomenaalsohappenedinChineseEnglishteachingfield.Whethergrammarshouldbetaughtinaexplicitwayandhowtoteachgrammarinlanguageteachingdrawalotofdebateanddiscussionamonglinguists,scholarsandteacherswhoworkinthefirstlineofteaching.Inrecentdecades,researchesofgrammarteachingwasalwaysfocusedondiscussingthenecessityofteachinggrammar.Thediscussionderivedfromsomeissuesincognitivepsychology:Isgrammarlearningaexplicitprocessoraimplicitprocess?Islanguagelearningaconsciousmanipulationofinformationoraunconsciousprocessoflanguageinput(Bialystok1990;Ellis1994)?AccordingtoKrashen(1981),ratherthancarryingoninconscious,languageacquisitionactivitiesshouldoccurinanaturalcontext.Traditionalmethodofgrammarteachingcanonlyteachdeclarativeknowledge(knowledgeofgrammarstructure)butcannothelptoacquireproceduralknowledge(knowledgeofusinggrammarstructure).Andtheexplicitknowledgeaboutlanguagestructureandlanguagerulescannotbetransformedintoimplicitknowledgewhichincludestheunderstandingandoutputoflanguage.Afteranalyzingsecondlanguagelearners’acquisitionorderofmorphemes.KrashencomestoaconclusionthattheacquisitionorderofmorphemesforlanguagelearnerwhosemothertongueisnotEnglishissimilarwithnativelanguagelearner.Asaresult,peoplemayhavequestionsaboutforeignlanguagelearningthatasmotherlanguagelearningandforeignlanguagelearningfollowthesameorder,foreignlanguageacquisitionshouldnotbedoneonlybylearninggrammarstructuresandrules(Krashen1981;Schwartz1993;Zobl1995).Truscott(1998)makessimilarjudgementonexplicitgrammarteaching.Hethinkstheeffectivenessofgrammarteachingistemporaryandsuperficial,grammarteachingcannotreallyimprovelanguagelearners’abilitytouselanguage.Inhisopinion,thereasonwhyresearchesongrammarcangetpositiveresultsisthattheexaminationonlytestslanguagelearners’meta-linguisticknowledgeanddoesnotpayattentiontolanguagelearners’abilityforusinglanguageinnaturalcommunication.Schwartz(1993)clearlypointsoutthatpeoplecannotassumetheexistenceofinterlanguagegrammarunlessthey18 canprovidesolidevidence.Inaddition,somerelevantstudiesonuniversalgrammarhavesimilarconclusionwithSchwartz.Researchersthinkiflanguagelearnerfollowstheruleofuniversalgrammaraswell,languagelearningcanbeseenasataskthatfinishedbythecorporationbetweenuniversalgrammarandlanguageinput.(Cook1991;Schwartzl1993).Thus,itisunnecessarytoteachgrammarinanyforms.Undertheimpactofthisview,communicativelanguageteachingmethodgetsmoreandmorepopular.AlthoughscholarslikeKrashenhaveprovedgrammarlearningisanimplicitprocess,moreandmoreresearchesfindoutthatexplicitgrammarteachingplaysanirreplaceableroleinlanguagelearning.Tosomeextent,explicitgrammarteachingcanmakesurethatthelanguagewhichlearnersusesiscorrect(Hossein&Fotos2004).In1990s,“NoticingHypothesis”whichisproposedbySchmidtprovidesatheoreticalfoundationfortheexplicitgrammarteaching.Schmidt(1990,1993)suggeststhatitisanessentialsteptopayattentiontotheformsoflanguageconsciouslyintheprocessoflanguagelearning.Infact,hethinks“noticing”affectseveryaspectsoflanguagelearningsuchasthelong-termdevelopmentofintelanguage,thechangesoftheinterlanguageinacertainstage,fluencyoftheforeignlanguage,individualdifferencesthatinfluencelanguagelearning(motivation,interests,learningstrategy).Whetherinteractivecommunicative,differentteachingapproacheswillproducepositiveeffectonlanguagelearningalsohassomerelationswith“noticing”.InspiteofsomescholarsholddifferentattitudestowardSchmidt’s“NoticingHypothesis”,mostoftheresearchersfocusonsecondlanguageacquisitionadmittheimportantrolethat“noticing”or“awareness”playsintheprocessofsecondlanguageacquisition(Bialystok1990;Doughty1991;Skehan1998;Ellis2001).Inaddition,scholars(Skehan1998)alsofindsoutthatlanguagelearnerscannotworkonthemeaningsandtheformsofthetargetlanguageatthesametime(Hossein&Fotos2004).Therefore,languagelearnershavetopayattentionto(“noticing”)theformsofthetargetlanguagewhiletheyareinthestageofinput.Otherwise,theycanonlygetthemeaningbutcannottakenotetocertainformsoftheinputs,muchlessfortheacquisitionandfurtherunderstandingofrelevantlanguageforms.Thesecondreason19 whygrammarteachingreceiveswidespreadattentionfromlanguageresearchersisthatalotofstudieshaveprovedthatthesecondlanguageacquisitionprocessismadeupbymanystages(Hossein&Fotos2004).BasedonthestudyonGermanlanguagelearners,Pienemann(1984)putsforward“TeachabilityHypothesis”.Fromhispointofview,thedevelopmentalsequenceoflanguagelearningisfixedanditwillnotchangejustbecauseofgrammarteaching,butthesequencecanbeimprovedbyexplicitgrammarteaching.Accordingtothishypothesis,ifgrammarteachingmeetslanguagelearners’expectationforahigherlevelofgrammarcompetence,therewillbeagreatchanceforexplicitgrammarteachingtoplayapositiveroleinlanguagedevelopment(Lightbown2000).Onthataccount,manyscholarsadvisetoaddgrammarclassinforeignlanguageteachingarrangement.Especiallyfortheclasswhichaimsatdevelopingstudents’communicativecompetence.Furthermore,manystudiesindicatethatitispartialtostressoncommunicationandignoreexplaininggrammarknowledgeinforeignlanguageclass(Hossein&Fotos2004).SwainandhercolleaguesmakeplentyofresearchesonFrench(asforeignlanguage)immersionprogram.Theresultshowsthatthoughlearnershavegotagreatdealoflanguageinput,somegrammarstructures,stillcannotbeusedinanaccurateway(Lapkin,Hart&Swain1991;Swain&Lapkin1989).Inotherwords,itisnecessaryforlearnerstofocusonlearngrammarknowledgeiftheywanttograspandusethetargetlanguageaccurately.Therefore,wecaneasilycometotheconclusionthatlearningaforeignlanguageonlybycommunicativelanguageteachingisfarawayfromthegoalofcompletelymasterit(Ellis1997;Mitchell2000).Comparedwithforeigncountries,researchesinChinathatfocusongrammarteachingareverylimited.BaiLimeiandHuangYouzhi(2011)carryonasurveyforthestudiesonEnglishteachinginChinaduring1996to2007andfindoutthatonly6%researcheschoosemiddleschoolstudentsassubject,researchesfocusonseniorhighschoolstudentsismuchless.InChineseEnglishteachinghistory,Englishteachingmethodhasbeenreformedformanytimes,suchasgrammartranslationmethod,directmethod,audio-visualmethodandcommunicativemethod,task-basedmethod,etc.DifferentEnglishteachingmethodgaverisetodifferentgrammar20 teachingapproach.Duetothemisunderstandingofsomeconcepts,grammarteachingisequivalenttooutdatedteachingmodewhentheadministrationpushescommunicativemethod.Soatthattime,thereislittleresearchesfocusongrammarteaching.Onceagainpeoplerealizetheimportanceofgrammarteaching,moreandmoreresearchesonthisfieldappears.ButmostofthesearticlestheoreticallydiscusstheproblemsincurrentEnglishgrammarteachingandtrytofindsolutions.Butresearchersdolittleempiricalstudiesongrammarteaching.BasedonPiaget’stheoryof“CognitiveConstructivism”,ShenDongmei(2012)demonstrateshowtousecontextteachgrammar,theprocedureislikethis:leadinggrammarstructures,findingoutrules,consolidatingtheknowledgeandusinggrammarknowledgecomprehensively.Intwoempiricalstudies,WenWeijuan(2001)makesacomparisonbetweentraditionalgrammartranslationmethodwithtask-basedmethodandcomestoaconclusionthatthelatteroneshowsgreatereffectontheexperimentalquestion.ZhangRen&DaiWeidong(2004),RenQingmei&DaiWeidong(2006)putforward“ExplicitInteractiveTaskMethod”.Theirexplorationongrammarteachingisbasedoncognitivepsychologyandinteractivegrammarteachingmethod.WangJialiandLiuKuanping(2006)thinksgrammarcanbetaughtindifferentkindsofclasssuchaslisteningclassandreadingclass.Teachersshouldreformgrammarteachingundertheguidanceofconstructivismlearningtheory.GaoXiaofang(1998)usessyntaxdirectioningrammarteachingandprovesthatgrammarteachingincontextreallyhelpstoimprovestudents’grammarskills.Tosummaryup,althoughanincreasingnumberofresearchestalkaboutdiscourse,grammarcompetenceandgrammarteaching,thereisstillalackofempiricalstudiestopresenttherelationsamongthem,discourse-basedmethodisnotappliedongrammarteachingtoalargeextent.Actually,discourse-basedmethodoftenpaysmoreattentioninreadingandlisteningthaningrammarteaching.Thereareonlyafewexperimentalstudiestodemonstratehowthediscourse-basedmethodisusedinclassroomtoimproveseniorstudents’grammarcompetence.Inaddition,theempiricalstudiesaboutdiscourse-basedmethodusedinEnglishgrammarteachingandlearningarefarfromsatisfactory.Therefore,thisstudyistoconductan21 experimenttoexaminetheeffectivenessofdiscourse-basedteachingmethodusedinEnglishclassfromthegrammarteachingaspect.22 ChapterThreeMethodologyThischapterisaboutthedesignandimplementationofthestudy.Itinvolvestheresearchquestions,subjects,instruments,procedure,experiment,aswellasthedatacollectionandanalysis.Withtheuseofexperiments,questionnairesandtests,thestudyintendstoexplorewhetherandhowdiscourse-basedgrammarteachingimprovesstudents’grammarcompetence.3.1ResearchQuestionsThisthesisisaimedtoapplythediscourse-basedgrammarteachinginEnglishclassofseniorhighschool,soastoexploreeffectivewaystomeetthedemandofreformingthegrammarteaching,motivatingstudentsaswellasimprovingtheefficiencyofgrammarteaching.Thisstudyfocusesonfindingouttherelationshipbetweendiscoursebasedgrammarteachingandthestudents’grammarcompetence.Generallyspeaking,thestudymainlypaysattentiontofollowingquestions:1).Whatisthecurrentsituationofgrammarteachingandlearninginseniorhighschools?2).Candiscoursebasedgrammarteachingimprovestudents’grammarcompetence?3).Candiscoursebasedteachingimprovestudents"attitudetowardgrammarteachingandlearning?3.2SubjectsThisresearchisconductedattheNo.1MiddleSchoolofYuanshi.Allthesubjectsarestudentsofseniortwo.Thereare54(26malestudentsand28femalestudents)and52(24malestudentsand28femalestudents)studentsintwoclassesrespectively.Theagesofthesubjectsrangesfrom17to19.Thesetwoclassesaretaughtbythesameteacherandinthelatestend-of-termtesttheiraveragescoresarealmostthesame.Therefore,theyhavesimilarenvironmentofEnglishteachingandlearningandtheirgrammarcompetencearealmostatthesamelevel.Thatmeanttheycanbeclassifiedinto2groups,amongwhichoneclassistheexperimental23 group(N=54)andtheotheristhecontrolgroup(N=52).ThecontrolclassadoptstraditionalEnglishgrammarteaching,incontrast,thediscourse-basedgrammarteachingisemployedintheexperimentalclass.EveryweekeachclasshaseightEnglishclasses(45minutesforoneclass).ThecoursebookbothclassesuseisSeniorEnglishforChinapublishedbyPeople’sEducationalPress.3.3InstrumentThisstudyemploystwokindsofinstruments:twoquestionnaires,pre-testandpost-test.3.3.1QuestionnairesThedesignofpre-questionnaireisbasedon“theQuestionnaireofGrammarCourseRequirementsAnalysis”whichiscompiledbyZhangXiaojin(2011).Itisusedtofigureoutthecurrentsituationofgrammarteachingandlearningsuchasstudents’attitudetowardgrammarteachingandlearning,existingcircumstancesoftheirgrammarclassandoptimalschemaaboutgrammarteaching.Pre-questionnaireismadeupofthreedimensionsandcontainsfifteenitems.Eachdimensionincludesfiveitems.TheItem1-5constitutesonedimensionthatintendstogettheinformationaboutstudents’interestsingrammarlearning,theItem6-10areanotherdimensionwhichattemptstorevealcurrentsituationofgrammarteachinginclassroomandItem11-15arethethirddimensionthattriestogetageneralknowledgeaboutstudents’ownunderstandingofgrammarteachingandlearning.Alltheitemsaremultiplechoicequestions,andstudentscanchoosetheoptionsbasedontheirowncondition.Afterthepost-test,theexperimentalgroupisrequiredtocompleteaquestionnaireabouttheirevaluationofthenewteachingmethod.Itcontainstenitemsandmainlyinvolvestwoaspects.Thefirstsixitemstrytofigureoutwhetherthenewteachingmethodhaschangedstudents’attitudetowardlanguageteachingandlearning.Thesecondpartofthequestionnairefocusesonsomedetailsofdiscourse-basedgrammarteaching.Thisquestionnaireisalsocomposedofmultiple-choicequestionsandstudentschoosetheoptionsaccordingtotheirownconditions.TheitemsinthequestionnairesaredesignedinChinesesoastoallthesubjects24 couldunderstandthestatementsandrespondtothemwitheaseandavoidmisunderstandingwhichmightbecausedbyansweringinEnglishversion.3.3.2TestsTheexperimentalclassandthecontrolclasstakethepre-testandpost-testinthebeginningandendoftheexperiment.Itisaimedtoinvestigatewhetherdiscourse-basedgrammarteachingcanimprovestudents’grammarcompetence.Thepre-testscoresallowtheresearchertolearnabouttwoclasses’actualgrammarcompetencebeforetheexperiment.Thepost-testallowstheresearchertofindoutwhethertheexperimentalclasshavemadeprogressandgothigherscoresingrammartestaftertheimplementationofthenewteachingapproach.WithintheframeworkofLarsen-Freeman’sgrammarcompetencetheory,theexampapercoverstwodimensions.Thesetwodimensionsaregrammarknowledge（grammarformandgrammarmeaning）andtheabilityofusinggrammarknowledge.Differenttogrammarknowledgewhichcanbemeasuredbyindependentsentence,theabilityofusinggrammarknowledgewhichincludessocialfunctionanddiscoursepatternappearsonlywhenpeoplesendmeaningfulmessagebyusingproperlanguageforms.Therefore,thetestismadeupbytwoparts:Thefirstpartismadeupbyfifteenmultiplechoicequestions.TheresearcherchoosestheitemsaccordingtofifteengrammarstructureswhichRodEills(2004,2005,2006)andRosemaryErlam(2006)usedintheirresearchonimplicitandexplicitknowledge.Asthedoyenoflinguistics,theirclassificationofgrammarstructureisreliable.Thefifteengrammarstructuresareverbasacomplement,well-regulatedpasttense,tag-question,modalverb,subjunctivemood,sinceandfor,definitearticle,ergativeverb,possessivecase,pluralnoun,relativeclause,embedding,dativealternation,comparativedegreeandadverbialpositions.Withthehelpofseasonedteachers,thesefifteenitemswhicharecoincidentwiththefifteengrammarstructuresareselectedfromtheNationalEntranceExaminationPaper.Therefore,thequalityofthispartisunquestionable.Thefullscoreofthispartisfifteen,onepointforeach25 question.Thesecondpartofthetestisgapfillingindiscourse,thiskindofitemtypereplacedthetraditionalmultiplechoicequestionswhichtestsgrammarknowledgeinsinglesentence.AndgapfillingindiscoursehadbeenusedintheNationalEntranceExaminationsince2014.LiuQingsi(2013)discussedwhythiskindofquestiontypeisscientificandpracticalingrammarcompetencetesting.Theformofthisitemisadiscourse(atextoradialogue)withabout200words,andtherearetenblanksinthediscourseandeachblankisgivenawordinbasicform.Studentsarerequiredtoprovidetheproperformofthegivenwordaccordingtothediscoursewithinthreewords.Thefullscoreofthispartisfifteenandeachoftheblankisworthofonepointandfive.TheresearcheremploysthesampleswhicharepresentedbytheOutlineofCollegeEntranceExaminationof2014asthematerial,sotheexaminationquestionscanbeseenashigh-quality.3.4Experiment3.4.1MethodusedinControlClassInthecontrolclass,grammarteachingisusedtypicalPPP(presentation,practice,production)model.Suchateachingmethodalwaysstartsbyteacher’sintroductionofanewlanguageitemandfollowswithplentyofexerciselikedrilling,repetition,etc.Bytheendoftheclass,studentsareaskedtogiveanoutput,forexample,translation.Aswecanseefromtheaboveexplanation,thisteachingmethodseeksforasimplifiedwaytogrammarlearning.Itisbasedupontheideathattheteachercanpresentgrammarinaneatandclearway.Grammarisconsolidatedbyamessofmechanicalexercises.Asaresult,grammarisproducedinisolationandstudentsarenotclearaboutitsusageindailylife.Generallyspeaking,themethodusedincontrolclassisasthefollowing:Stepone:Theteacherpresentsthenewgrammaticalphenomenonandthenexplainstherules;Steptwo:Theteachersetsoutaseriesofexamplesofthisstructure;Stepthree:Theteacherasksthestudentstodosomeoralexerciseliketranslation,26 fillblankswithproperform,etc;Stepfour:Theteacherhandsoutexercisepapertostudentstopractice.Stepfive:Theteacherexplainsexercisepapertomakesurethatthestudentshavegraspedthisgrammarstructure.3.4.2MethodusedinExperimentalClassIntheexperimentalclass,discourse-basedteachingmethodisappliedthroughoutthewholeteachingprocess.Forthismethod,studentsarepresentedwithcontextualizedscenariosillustratingaspecificstructure.Studentsareguidedtodiscovertheunderlyingruleofthestructure,itsmeaningincontextaswellastherulesforusingtheminawholerangeofcommunicativecontexts.Teachingprocedurescanbedesignedlikethefollowing:Theteacherpresentsgrammaticalphenomenonbyaseriesofmoviecutsoradialoguesorothercontextualmaterials.Inthisway,therewillhaveabackgroundforgrammarteachingandlearning.Thentheteachermayencouragestudentstofindoutboththenewknowledgeandtheusageofit.Afterthat,theteachergivessomesimpleexplanationsandsupplementsofthegrammar.Whenallofthesestepshavebeendone,alotofactivitieswillbeheldtoletstudentsapplygrammarknowledgetheyjustlearnedindiscourse.Itcanberole-plays,dramaplays,dialoguesandsoon.Studentscanalsomakeupastoryorwriteatextbyusingthenewgrammarstructure.Thereisasamplelessonofteachingattributiveclauseledby“who”:Stepone:TheteacherintroducesapersontostudentswiththehelpofPPT.EachpageofPPTcontainsapieceofinformationaboutthisperson.Therearealsosomerelevantpicturesinthepages.Atlast,studentsareaskedtoguesswhothispersonis.Thecontentofintroductionislikethefollowing:“ThecreatoroftheWorldWideWebHeisnotnearlyasrichorfamousMarcAndreessen,whowascofounderofNetscape,orBillGates,whosenamehasbecomeahouseholdword.Thisperson,whoworksinsmallofficeattheMassachusettsInstituteof27 Technology,isthecreatoroftheWorldWideWeb.(thefirstPPT)ThecreationoftheWebissoimportantthatsomepeoplecomparethispersontoJohannGutenberg,whoinventedprintingbymoveabletypeinthefifteencentury.(thesecondPPT)HewasborninEnglandin1955.Hisparents,whohelpeddesigntheworld’sfirstcommerciallyavailablecomputer,gavehimagreatloveofmathematicsandlearning.(thethirdPPT)In1980,hewenttoworkatCERN,aphysicslaboratoryinGeneva,Switzerland,wherehehadalotofmaterialtolearnquickly.Hecontinuedtodevelophisideathroughthe1980s.Hewantedtofindawaytoconnecttheknowledgeandcreativityofpeopleallovertheworld.(thefourthPPT)In1991,hisprojectbecameknownastheWorldWideWeb.ThenumberofInternetusersstartedtogrowquickly.In1999,hepublishedabookwhichiscalledWeavingtheWeb.(thefifthPPT)”Antecedentsarehighlightwithredcolor.（Thisstepintendstointroducetheattributiveclauseleadedby“who”inawrittenbyawritingdiscourse.）Step2:Studentsareaskedtoretellthisintroductionandfindthedifferencesbetweentheirexpressionandtheteacher’s.Thentheteacherencouragesstudentstofindthenewgrammarstructureandguesstheusageofthisstructure.(Thisstepintendstoletstudentsfindouttherulesandusagesallbythemselves.)Step3:Theteachershowssomemovieclipswhichhaveacompleteplotandsomethiskindofattributiveclausesthatcandemonstratetheusageofthiskindofattributiveclauseinreallifetocheckwhetherstudents’guessiscorrect.(Thisstepintendstohelpstudentsconsolidatetheirunderstandingofthisgrammarstructure,especiallytheusageinrealcontext.)Step4:Theteachergivessomeexplanationandsupplementofthisstructure.(Thisstepintendstocompletestudents’knowledgeofthisstructure.)Step5:28 Studentsareaskedtodesignadialogueoradramaorsomethingusesthisstructureaftertheclassandshowtheiroutcomeinthenextclass.(Thisstepintendstoencouragestudentspracticeandusethisstructureinaninterestingandpracticalway.)Step6:Aftertheperformanceofeachgroup,theteacherorthestudentpointsouttheincorrectuseofthestructureintheshow.(Thisstepintendstoconsolidatestudents’knowledgeofthisstructureagain.)Atlast,theteachergivesoverallinterpretationoftheattributiveclause.3.5DatacollectionTheexperimentlastedforeightweeks,whichbeganinSeptember,2015andendedinNovember.Priortotheoutsetoftheexperiment,thesubjectsofthetwoclassesweregivenapre-testofgrammarcompetence.Afterthepre-test,thepre-questionnairewashandedouttothesubjects.Inthenexteightweeks,theexperimentstarted.Boththeexperimentalclassandthecontrolclassweretaughtbytheresearcher.Intheexperimentalclass,discoursewasusedthroughouttheregulargrammarteachingprocess,withtheaimofimprovingtheirabilityofusinggrammar.Meanwhile,inthecontrolclass,theresearcherstilladoptedtraditionalteachingapproach.Firstly,studentsweregivengrammarrules,andthentheytookexercisetogetfamiliarwithit,atlast,atestwouldbegiven.Whentheteachingcyclefinished,allthesubjectsweregivenapost-test.Theonlythingtonotehereisthatonlythestudentsintheexperimentalgroupcouldfilloutthepost-questionnaire.Thequestionnaireswerehandedouttoeachpersonbytheresearcherwithanexplanation.Thesubjectswerecooperativeandcarefulsotheactivitieswereorganizedandconductedsuccessfullytogreatlyreducethemissingdata.106piecesoffeedbackwereregardedaseffectivequestionnaires.Allthesubjects’EnglishscoresoftheEnglishexaminationsweresoonobtained.3.6DataanalysisSPSS(13.0)isemployedintheresearchfordataanalysis.Students’scoreofpre-testandpost-testwerecollected.ThedatawereanalyzedbySPSSforthemean,29 theindependentsamplesTtestandthepaired-samplesTtest,tocheckwhethertherearesignificantdifferencesintermsofgrammarcompetenceofthesubjectsintheexperimentalclassandcontrolclassbeforeandaftertheexperiment.Moreover,theresultsofquestionnairewerealsocollected.ThedatawerealsoanalyzedbyusingSPSS13.0.30 ChapterFourResultandDiscussionThischapterdiscussestheresultsoftheexperimentwithsufficientanalysisbasedonthedataobtainedfromquestionnairesandtests.Thewholechaptercanbedividedintothreepartsandeachofthemofferstheanswertooneoftheresearchquestions.Atthesametime,thediscussionwillbemadeonthebasisoftheresults.4.1CurrentsituationofgrammarteachingandlearningThissectionmainlytalkstheresultsaboutthecurrentsituationofgrammarteachinginseniorhighschoolEnglish,whichanswersthefirstresearchquestionofthisstudy.Currentsituationofgrammarteachingandlearningisanalyzedandpresentedincludingtheresultofthepre-testandtheresultofthepre-questionnaire.ForthepurposeofexposingthecurrentsituationofEnglishgrammarteachingandlearninginseniorhighschool,descriptivestatisticsisruntoanalyzethescoresinpre-test.AndtheresultsareshowninTable4-1.Fromthetableitcanbeseenthatthestudents’grammarcompetenceisnotverysatisfactory.Thefullscoreofthepre-testis30.Butmeanscoreofthesetwoclassare17.115and17.111,whichmeanstheaccuracyislessthan60%.Fromthisperspective,itcanbeconsideredthatthestudents’grammarcompetenceisinadequate.Table4-1TheMeanScoreofControlandExperimentalclassinthePre-testClassNMinimumMaximumMeanStd.DeviationControlclass5211.024.017.1153.3616Experimentalclass5411.025.517.1113.4935Twoclass10611.025.517.113Consideringthatthegrammarcompetenceiscomposedoftwoparts,andthefirstismultiple-choicequestionswhichintendstoteststudents’grammarknowledgeandthesecondpartisfillingblanksintextwhichaimsatknowingstudents’abilitytouse31 grammarknowledgeindiscourse.Thefullscoreofeachpartis15.Furtheranalyseswasmadesoastofindoutwhichpartofgrammarcompetenceistheweakpointofstudents.Therefore,thescoresofthefirstpartandsecondpartinpre-testareanalyzedbyemployingdescriptivestatistics.Therelevantdatahasbeenpresentedinthetable4-2.Table4-2TheMeanScoreofAllSubjects1stpartand2ndPartinthePre-testNMinimumMaximumMeanStd.Deviationscore11067.015.010.6322.0346score21063.010.56.4621.9020ValidN(listwise)106Thedatalistedaboveshowsthatthemeanscore(10.632)ofthefirstpartismuchhigherthanthat(6.462)ofthesecondpart,whichmeansstudentsgetmorescoresinthefirstpartofthetest.Thisresultindicatesthatthedevelopmentofstudents’graspofgrammarknowledgeandabilitytousegrammardonotsynchronize.Studentsdowellinunderstandinggrammarrulesbuthavesometroubleinusinggrammarcorrectly.Thereareseveralreasonstoexplainwhystudentsgetlowscoresinthetestandwhystudents’scoresofthesecondpartismuchlowerthanthatthefirstpart.Thefirstpossibilityisthatgrammarteachingindailyclassisboringanddifficult,sostudentstakelittletimeingrammarlearning.Thesecondreasonmightbetheabsenceofthepracticeofusinggrammar.Teachersalwaysorganizealotofmechanical,singlesentencepractice,sothatstudentsdonothaveanyawarenessofcontext.Atthesametime,theresultsofthepre-questionnairecanalsoreflectthecurrentsituationofEnglishgrammarteachinginseniorhighschool.Pre-questionnaireismadeupofthreedimensionsandcontainsfifteenitems,items1-5aredesignedtogetsomebasicinformationaboutstudents’interestsingrammarlearning.Item1asksstudentswhethertheyaresatisfiedwiththeircurrentgrammarlevel,andfourchoicesaregiventothem,whichincludesA(“verysatisfied”),B(“satisfactory”),C(“dissatisfied”),andD(“verydissatisfied”).Accordingtotheresponsesprovidedby32 students(Table4-3),itcanbeseenthattheanswersof“dissatisfied”and“verydissatisfied”accountfor42.5%and40.6%respectively.Studentswhoaresatisfiedwiththeirgrammarcompetencetakeupasmallproportion(3.8%+13.2%=17%).Thisresultsuggeststhatmostofthestudentsareupsetwiththeirgrammarlearning.Then,asweseefromTable4-3,forItem2whichintendstoknowstudents’interestsingrammarlearning,overhalf(52.8%)studentsthinkgrammarlearningisextraordinaryboringand23.6%ofthestudentsthinktheirgrammarlearningprocessisnotinterestingatall.Whileonly4.7%ofstudentsarefondofgrammarandregarditasaveryinterestingaspectofEnglishlearning.ForItem3,studentswhospendlittletimeingrammarlearningandneverspenttimeingrammarlearningtakeup77.4%and19.8%respectively(Crepresents“occasionally”andDrepresents“never”).Noneofthestudentschoose“A”whichrepresentstheyspentalotoftimeingrammarlearning.Similarly,inItem4,whichaskswhetherstudentswillstudyandpracticegrammarknowledgeontheirowninitiative,noneofthestudentschoosetheoption(A)thattheydothisjobeveryday.But66.0%ofthestudentsadmitthattheylearngrammarjustoccasionally.And32.1%ofthestudentsneverlearngrammaraftertheclass.Thatistosay,studentshavetremendouslowmotivationandinterestingrammarlearning.Basedonstudents’answerstoItem5,66.0%ofthestudentsputtheapplicationofgrammarknowledgeindailylifeinaveryimportantpositioningrammarlearning.Grammarlearningcontainsgrammarstructure(A),grammarmeaning(B),grammardefinition(C)andpracticalapplication(D).Thisresultindicatesthatalargenumberofthestudentshaveacorrectawarenessonthesignificanceoftheapplicationofgrammarinreallife.Itemsof6-10inpre-questionnaireintendtogetsomeinformationofgrammarteachinginEnglishclass.Item6askswhatapproachesdoteachersuseingrammarteaching.AccordingtoTable4-4,40.6%ofthestudentschoose“groupworks”(B)and28.3%ofthestudentschoose“givegrammarrulesdirectly”(A).Onlyafew(7.5%)ofthestudentsthinktheylearngrammarinrealcontext(D).AstheresultsofItem7shows,morethanahalfofstudents(57.5%)choosetheoptionthattheteacher“seldomteachgrammarindiscourse”(C).23.6%ofthestudentsthinktheteacher33 “sometimesteachgrammarindiscourse”(B).Butonly1.9%ofthestudentschoosetheonethattheteacher“alwaysteachgrammarindiscourse”(A).Item8asksstudentshowtheyconsolidategrammarknowledgeinclass,50.9%ofthestudentschooseB(mechanicalgrammarpractice)and24.5%ofthestudentschooseC(expandingreading).20.8%ofthestudentschooseAwhichmeanstheypracticegrammarknowledgeindiscourse.Item9triestofigureoutwhetherthestudentsliketotakepartinactivitiesforgrammarpracticeinclass.TherearefouroptionswhichareA(everytime),B(often),C(sometimes),D(never).AccordingtoTable4-4,itcanbeseenthat62.3%ofthestudentsnevertakepartintheactivitiesthatprovideopportunitiestopracticegrammarknowledge.IntermsofItem10,whichasksstudentstowhatdegreetheyhavereachedinclassinmasteringgrammarknowledge,only2.8%ofthestudentsthinktheycangainproficiencyingrammarknowledgeand3.8%ofthestudentsthinktheycantotallyunderstandgrammarknowledge.67.9%ofthestudentsthinkstheyhaveonlyasmatteringofgrammarknowledgeinclass.Table4-3ResultsofQuestionsfortheBasicInformationofGrammarLearningItemABCDTotalfrequency4144543106Item1percent3.8%13.2%42.5%40.6%100%frequency5202556106Item2percent4.7%18.9%23.6%52.8%100%Frequency038221106Item3percent0%2.8%77.4%19.8%100%frequency027034106Item4percent0%1.9%66.0%32.1%100%frequency1414870106Item5percent13.2%13.2%7.5%66.0%100%Tosumup,accordingtotheresultsoftheaboveaspects,theredohasaseriesofproblemsthatareremainingincurrentEnglishgrammarteachingandlearning.Amongalloftheproblems,themostprominentandimportantoneisthatstudentsare34 lackofinterestsingrammarlearning,whichhasagreatinfluenceonthetimethatstudentstakeingrammarlearning.Toalargeextent,theinterestsofgrammarlearningisdeterminedbyteachingapproaches.ButteachingmethodsthatteachersusedincurrentEnglishclassseemhavedifficultyinarousingandmaintainingstudents"learninginterests.Furthermore,moststudentstendtohavedifficultiesinmasteringgrammarruleswiththeexercisesthathasbeenprovidedinclass.Additionally,accordingtostudents’answers,itcanbeseenthatteachinggrammarincontextisnotthemainstreamwayofgrammarteaching.Table4-4ResultsofquestionsfortheinformationofgrammarteachingItemABCDTotalfrequency3043258106Item6percent28.3%40.6%23.6%7.5%100%frequency2256118106Item7percent1.9%23.6%57.5%17.0%100%Frequency2254264106Item8percent20.8%50.9%24.5%3.8%100%frequency8661913106Item9percent7.5%12.3%17.9%62.3%100%frequency347227106Item10percent2.8%3.8%67.9%25.5%100%Thelastfiveitemsintendtogetageneralknowledgeaboutstudents’ownunderstandingofgrammarteachingandlearning.Item11asksstudentstheaimofgrammarlearning.BasedontheresultsinTable4-5,50.9%ofthestudentsthinkknowinghowtousegrammarinpracticeisthegoalofgrammarteaching.Theanswersof“canexplain”,“canunderstand”and“knowit”accountfor11.3%,24.5%and13.2%respectively.Item12,whichinquiresthemosteffectivewayingrammarlearning,gets67%ofthestudents’supportofapplyinggrammarknowledgeinmeaningfulcontext(Table4-5).Item13aimsatfingeringoutthemostinfluentialfactorincultivatingstudents’interestingrammarlearning.41.5%ofthestudents35 thinktheinterestingnessandthepertinenceoftheteachingcontentareveryuseful.Thenumberofthestudentswhothinktheteacher’steachingmethodsandexpertiselevelsareveryimportantis25(23.6%).TherearethesamenumberofthestudentsregardtheirinterestinEnglishlearningasthemostimportantthinginkeepinggrammarlearninginterest.Only11.3%thinkwhethertheyhaveinterestingrammarlearningdependsontheirfavorabilityabouttheirteacher.AccordingtotheresultsofItem14,amajorityofstudents(71.7%)thinktheidealgrammarteachingapproachissoakgrammarknowledgeinrealcontextnaturally.Buttherearestill18.9%ofthestudentsthinkexplaingrammarrulesonlyisalsoanacceptablewaytoteachgrammar.Item15asksstudentsthegoalofgrammarlearninginseniorhighschool.48.1%ofthestudentsthinkcommunicationistheiraim,buttherearestillalargenumberofthestudents(32.1%)thinkshavespecialistknowledgeandskillsisthegoal.Optionof“regularexpression”accountfor13.2%.And6.6%ofthestudentsconsideredthegoodscoresinNCEEasthegoaloftheirlearning.Basedontheanalysisofthesefouritems,itisclearthatthestudentsknowwhatstatetheyshouldarriveingrammarlearning.Inaddition,teachinggrammarinrealcontextwouldbegenerallyacceptedbymostofthestudent.However,someofthestudentsmisunderstandthegoalofgrammarlearning,whichmaycausenegativeeffectongrammarlearning.36 Table4-5Resultsofquestionsforstudents’understandingofgrammarteachingandlearningItemABCDTotalfrequency54122614106Item11percent50.9%11.3%24.5%13.2%100%frequency12101371106Item12percent11.3%9.4%12.3%67.0%100%Frequency25124425106Item13percent23.6%11.3%41.5%23.6%100%frequency205576106Item14percent18.9%4.7%4.7%71.7%100%frequency5114347106Item15percent48.1%13.2%32.1%6.6%100%Inconclusion,currentsituationofseniorstudents’grammarcompetenceisnotgoodenough.Thereisalargespacetoimprovestudents’abilityofusinggrammarknowledgeincontext.Thecurrentapproachesofgrammarteachingandpracticearenotveryeffective.Itmightbethereasonwhystudents’learningmotivationandinterestsarenotveryhigh.Moreover,itseemsthatstudentsprefertheapproachwhichputsgrammarrulesinrealcontext.Atlast,someofthestudentsdonothaveacorrectdirectionofgrammarlearningbecausetheymisunderstandthegoalofgrammarlearning.4.2Theeffectofdiscourse-basedgrammarteachingonstudents"grammarcompetence.Thissectionmainlyresponsestothesecondresearchquestionaboutwhetherdiscourse-basedgrammarteachingiseffectiveinimprovingstudents’Englishgrammarcompetence.Theresearcheranalyzedthescoresofpre-testinthecontrolclassandtheexperimentalclassthroughtheIndependent-samplesTtest.TheresultofT-testcanbe37 seeninTable4-6.ItshowsthatbeforetheEnglishgrammarteachingexperiment,thereisnosignificantdifferencebetweenthetwoclasses(Sig=.995>.05).Thus,aconclusioncanbedrawnthatEnglishgrammarcompetenceofthesetwoclassesareinthesamelevel.Table4-6TheComparisonofEnglishGrammarScoresofControlandExperimentalClassinthePre-testStd.classNMinMaxMeanTSigDeviationcontrolclass5211.024.017.1153.3616.006.995experimental5411.025.517.1113.4935classInordertofindouttheeffectsofthediscourse-basedgrammarteachinginseniorhighschoolEnglishclass,students’scoresofpost-testareanalyzedbyemployingtheIndependent-sampleTTest.TherelevantdatahasbeenlistedinTable4-7.Table4-7TheComparisonofEnglishGrammarScoresofControlandExperimentalClassinthePost-testStd.classNMinMaxMeanTSigDeviationcontrolclass5211.524.017.9042.9473-3.215.002experimental5414.027.019.9633.6014classTable4-7providestheresultofthepost-testofthetwoclasses.AccordingtothestatisticspresentedinTable4-7,itcanbeseenthatthemeanscoreoftheexperimentalclass(M=19.963)ishigherthanthatofthecontrolclass(M=17.904),whichmeansthatwiththehelpofdiscoursestudentsintheexperimentalclassperformbetterthanstudentsinthecontrolclass.Inaddition,theresultoftheIndependent-sampleT-testshowsthatthereissignificantdifferencebetweenthescoresoftwo38 classes(Sig=.002<.05).Therefore,intermsofimprovingstudents’grammarcompetence,theeffectthatdiscourse-basedgrammarteachingproducesseemstobemuchbetterthanthatofthetraditionalteachingconditioningeneral.AshasbeenshowninTable4-7,thereissignificantdifferenceinthescoresbetweenthetwoclassesaftertheexperiment.Theanalysisofcomparingthescoresbeforeandaftertheteachingexperimentprovesthatdiscourse-basedgrammarteachingiseffectiveinimprovingstudents’grammarcompetencewhencomparedwiththetraditionalone.Therearemainlytworeasonsthatmayexplainthisresult.Teachinggrammarindiscourseprovidesstudentswitharealcontextwheregrammarisnotsimplystructuresandrules.Studentsdiscoverandsummarizegrammarrulesandstructuresindiscourse,andpracticegrammarknowledgebyaseriesofactivitieswhicharecloselyrelatedintheirdailylife.Therefore,aftertheaboveteachingprocessesstudentsmayhaveabetterunderstandingofgrammarknowledge.Meanwhile,learninggrammarindiscoursewouldbeagoodwaytomaintainstudents’interestsingrammarlearningbecausegrammarstructureispresentedthroughsituationandpracticedenjoyably.Asithasbeenmentionedinchaptertwo,thegrammarcompetenceproposedbyLarsenFreeman(2004)whichdividesgrammarcompetenceintotwoaspects:grammarknowledgeandtheabilitytousegrammarknowledgeindifferentcontext.Inordertofindouttheeffectsofthediscourse-basedgrammarteachinginmorespecificaspects,thescoresofthesetwofactorsinpre-testandpost-testoftheexperimentalclassandcontrolclasswerealsotestedbythePaired-sampleTTest.Aswementionedinchapterthree,eachtestiscomposedoftwoparts,part1intendstoinvestigategrammarknowledgeandpart2triestoteststudents’abilitytousegrammarcorrectly.Table4-8showsthatstudents’grammarknowledgehasbeengreatlyimproved,althoughtheywerestilltaughtbytraditionalteachingmethods,fortheirmeaninthepost-testishigherthanthatinthepre-test(Part1:M11.096>10.538).Andthereisstatisticallysignificantdifference(Sig.000<.05)inthisaspectofthegrammarcompetence.Butstudents’abilitytousegrammardoesnothaveadistinctimprovement(Sig.059>.05).Thisfindingprovesthatthetraditionalgrammar39 teachingmethodshassomeeffectsonimprovingseniorhighschoolstudents’Englishgrammarknowledge,buthaslittleinfluenceonimprovingstudents’abilitytousegrammarincontext.Table4-8Controlclass’PerformanceinTwoComponentsofGrammarCompetenceinPre-andPost-testsComponentsTestNMeanSDTSigGrammarPre-test5210.5382.0813-3.951.000knowledgePost-test5211.0961.8814AbilitytousePre-test526.5771.8823-2.431.059grammarPost-test526.8371.8648Andtheresults(inTable4-9)indicatesthattheexperimentalclasshaveimprovedtheirperformanceinboththetwocomponentsofgrammarcompetenceaftertheexperiment,becausetheirmeanscoreinthepost-testishigherthanthatinthepre-test(Part1:M11.241>10.722,Part2:M8.333>6.352).Andthereisstatisticallysignificantdifference(Sig.008<.05,Sig.000<.05)inbothaspectsofthegrammarcompetence.Buttheimprovementoftheabilitytousegrammarisbetterthantheothercomponent(8.333-6.352=1.981>11.241-10.722=0,519).Thisfindingprovesthatthediscourse-basedgrammarteachinghassignificanteffectsonimprovingseniorhighschoolstudents’Englishgrammarcompetence,especiallyinimprovingstudents’abilitytousegrammarincontext.Table4-9Experimentalclass’PerformanceinTwoComponentsofGrammarCompetenceinPre-andPost-testsComponentsTestNMeanSDTSigGrammarPre-test5410.7222.0039-5.985.008knowledgePost-test5411.2411.8727AbilitytousePre-test546.3521.9319-10.497.000grammarPost-test548.3332.1346Inthemeantime,theresultsofthepost-questionnairecansupportthefindingsofTable4-10.Item7asksstudentswhichstagesofgrammarlearningprocessisgreatly40 influencedbythenewteachingapproach.57.4%(Table4-10)ofthestudentsthinkithasthegreatestimpactonoutputstagewhileonly13%ofthemthinkitishelpfulinthestageofacquiringgrammarrulesandstructures.Forinfluencesindifferentaspectsofgrammar(Item9),theresponsefromthestudentshows(Table4-10)thatthisteachingapproachgreatlyimprovesstudents’abilitytousegrammarknowledgeinpractice,as59.3%ofthestudentschoosethatoption(D).Therearestill22.2%ofstudentswhothinkitishelpfulinunderstandinggrammarmeaning(B).Only18.6%(5.6%+13.0%)ofthestudentsregarditasagoodapproachtoacquiregrammarstructures(A)andgrammardefinition(C).Fromtheresultsofthesetwoitems,itisreasonabletosaythatdiscourse-basedgrammarteachinghasabetterinfluenceonimprovingstudents’performanceofoutputthanunderstandinggrammarrulesandstructures.Table4-10ResultsofQuestionsforStudents’UnderstandingofGrammarTeachingandLearninginPost-questionnaireItemABCDTotalfrequency37133154Item7percent5.6%13%24.1%57.4%100%Frequency31273254Item9percent5.6%22.2%13.0%59.3%100%Thereasonthatleadstothisresultmaybeasthefollowing.Whengrammaristaughtindiscourse,studentscanlearnthegrammarknowledgeinavividwaysotheycannotonlyknowthestructuresandrulesbutalsogetfamiliarwithhowtousethesestructuresinrealcontext.Therefore,whenstudentsgetusedtothislearningpattern,grammarforthemisnotseparatesentencesandtheywouldperformitbasedonthewholetext.Sowhentheyworkonagrammartest,theywillfilltheblanksbasedonthewholetext.Thisphenomenaisespeciallyobviouswhentheydotheitemof“GrammarFillinginBlanks”inthetestpaper.Butmultiplechoicequestionsprobablycannotprovideenoughspacefortheperformanceofthiskindofthinkingpattern.Inconclusion,discourse-basedgrammarteachingreallyhasabettereffecton41 improvingstudents’grammarcompetencethantraditionalteachingmethod.Furthermore,thisteachingapproachshowsaparticularlyimpactonimprovingtheabilitytousegrammarknowledgeindifferentcontext.4.3Theeffectofdiscourse-basedgrammarteachingonstudents"attitudetowardgrammarteachingandlearning.Inthispart,students’attitudetowardEnglishgrammarteachingwillbeanalyzedandthethirdresearchquestionwillbeanswered.Therefore,adiscussionontheeffectsofdiscourse-basedgrammarteachingonimprovingstudents’attitudeswillbecarriedoninthissectionbasedontheresultsofthepre-andpost-questionnaireinthisgrammarteachingexperiment.Fromthediscussioninthefirstsectionofthischapter,itisclearthatmostoftheseniorschoolstudentswhoansweredthepre-questionnaireoftheexperimentwasnotsatisfiedwiththeirgrammarlearning.Onlyafewstudentsholdapositiveattitudetotheirgrammarcompetence.Additionally,moststudentsthinkgrammarlearningisveryboringandtheyarelackoflearninginterestintheEnglishgrammar.Soastoonlyasmallgroupofstudentsarewillingtostudygrammarafterclass.Thissituationisverysimilartoclassactivitiesthatalargenumberofstudentstrendtorefusetopracticegrammarintheclass.Incontrast,aftertheapplicationofdiscourse-basedgrammarteaching,studentsobviouslyholdapositiveattitudetogrammarlearningandarewillingtopaymoreattentiontogrammarlearninginthesparetime.Comparedwiththeresultsofthepre-questionnaire,whichcanbefoundintheanswerstothepost-questionnaire,greatchangesappearedinstudents’perceptiontowardEnglishgrammarlearningandteaching.Item1-5inthepost-questionnaireaskstudents’realfeelingaftertheexperiment,andtheresulthasshowninTable4-11Accordingtostudents’responsetoItem1,mostofthestudents(90.7%=64.8%+25.9%)feelthattheyarefondintoEnglishgrammarlearning.Althoughthreestudentsstilldonotlikegrammarandtwostudentshateit.Thisphenomenashowsthatstudents’negativeattitudetowardgrammarlearningisgraduallydisappearing.Inotherword,42 theyareinterestedingrammaragain.Therearealsosomechangesinstudents’timeassignment.TheresultofItem3showsthatnoneofthestudentschoose“D”(Table4-11),thisphenomenameansallofthestudentsmoreorlesspracticegrammarafterclass.Halfofthestudentsoftenstudygrammarafterclass,even27.8%ofthestudentsdogrammarexerciseseveryday.Thatistosay,studentspaymoreattentiontogrammarlearningandtheyarewillingtoputsparetimeinit.Withregardtoclassactivities,theresultofItem4suggeststhatstudentswhotakepartineveryactivitiesandwhotakepartinmostofthemare18.5%and51.9%separately.Itisagreatimprovementcomparedwiththeresultwhichhasshowninpre-questionnaire(7.5%,12.3%).Intermsofthedegreeofsatisfactionwiththelearningresultoftheexperiment,students’responsetoItem5showsthat75.9%(42students)ofthestudentsaresatisfiedwiththeirachievements,only13%(11.1%+1.9%)ofthestudentsfeelupsetabouttheresult.Itmeansthatagreatproportionofstudentsregarddiscourse-basedgrammarteachingasausefulwayinimprovingtheirgrammarcompetence.Item2askswhetherstudentslikethenewteachingapproach,abouthalfofthestudents(55.6%)admitthattheylikeitverymuchand33.3%ofthestudentsthinkitisnotbad.However,therearestill11.1%ofthestudentsdonotlikethiskindofapproach.Tosomeextent,itcanbeconsideredthatdiscourse-basedgrammarteachinghasgainstudents’recognition.Throughtheanalysisofstudents’answertothequestionnairesbeforeandaftertheteachingexperiment,theresultprovesthatstudents’attitudestowardEnglishgrammarlearningandteachinghavegraduallychangedundertheinfluenceofdiscourse-basedgrammarteachingapproach.Atthebeginning,moststudentsthatjoininthesurveyreflectsomecommonproblems,suchaslackinglearninginterestanddonotwanttofinishexercisesinclass.Besides,theresultalsoindicatesthatstudentspaylittleattentiontogrammarlearning.Forinstance,theyseldomspendtimeongrammarlearning.Thesituationhaschangedaftertheexperiment,whichsuggestsmostofthestudentsbegintolovegrammarbecausetheylikethewaythattheteacherusedingrammarteaching.Theyarealsowillingtolearngrammarafterclassandparticipantinclassactivities.Andthemostimportantthingisthattheyaresatisfiedwiththe43 resultoftheexperiment.Thereasonsmightbethefollowing:Firstly,duringtheperiodofapplyingthisnewapproachinclass,studentsbecometheleadingrolesintheclassroom.Thustheirlearninginitiativehasbeenenhanced.Furthermore,insteadofdoingsingle,meaninglessandboringdrill,discourse-basedgrammarteachingoffersstudentsmorechancestopracticegrammarinrealcontext.Alloftheexercisesandactivitiesusedinthisapproachiscloselyrelatedtostudents’life,withacompletecontext.Underthiscircumstances,studentslearnandusegrammarknowledgeinaveryhappywaysothatthereisnodoubtthatstudentsgetmoreandmoreinterestingrammarlearning.Therefore,theyarewillingtopreparetheactivitiesanddothehomeworkaftertheclassandparticipategrammaractivitiesandsharetheirperformancewithotherclassmateintheclass.Table4-11ResultsofQuestionsforStudents’SituationofGrammarTeachingandLearninginPost-questionnaireItemABCDTotalfrequency14353254Item1percent25.9%64.8%5.6%3.7%100%frequency30186054Item2percent55.6%33.3%11.1%0%100%Frequency152712054Item3percent27.8%50.0%22.2%0%100%frequency102810754Item4percent18.5%51.9%16.7%13.0%100%frequency5426154Item5percent11.1%75.9%11.1%1.9%100%Note:Item1-WhatisyourcurrentattitudetowardEnglishgrammarleaning?Item2-Whatisyourattitudetowardthenewteachingapproach?Item3-HowoftendoyoustudyEnglishgrammarafterclass?Item4-Howoftendoyoutakepartintheactivitieswhenpracticinggrammarknowledge?Item5-Whatisyourattitudetowardtheteachingresultaftertheexperiment?Insum,theresultsofthisstudyindicatethatdiscourse-basedgrammarteaching44 iseffectiveinimprovingstudents’grammarcompetence,andhelpfulinchangingtheirattitudetowardgrammarlearningandteaching.45 ChapterFiveConclusionInthelastpartofthisthesis,discussionswillbefocusedonthemajorfindings,implications,limitationsaswellasthesuggestionsforfuturestudy.5.1MajorfindingsSofarfromnow,thestudyhasinvestigatedthecurrentsituationofgrammarteachingandlearninginseniorhighschools.Atthesametime,italsotestedwhetherdiscourse-basedgrammarteachingiseffectiveinimprovingstudents’grammarcompetenceandtheinfluenceofdiscourse-basedgrammarteachingonstudents’attitudetowardgrammarlearningandteaching.Themajorfindingsaresummarizedasfollows.Thefirstfindingofthestudyisaboutthecurrentsituationofgrammarteachingandlearninginseniorhighschool.Thepresentstudyprovesthattherearesometroublesforstudentstousegrammarknowledgeinrealcontext,althoughtheydoagoodjobinmasteringgrammarknowledge.Meanwhile,inthetraditionalEnglishclass,studentsarelackofinterestingrammarlearningandtheyholdanegativeattitudetoclassactivities.Asaresult,studentsspendlittletimeongrammarlearningaftertheclass.Thesecondfindingofthestudyisabouttheeffectsofthediscourse-basedgrammarteachinginimprovingstudents’grammarcompetence.Asanewapproachforgrammarteaching,thisstudyshowsthatstudentsunderthegrammarteachingenvironmentwithdiscourseandcontextperformbetterthantheonesundertraditionalclassroom.Thequantitativeanalysisinchapterfourclearlyindicatesthatthereisasignificantdifferencebetweentheexperimentalclassandthecontrolclassintheirgrammarcompetencescores.Fromtheresultofquantitativeanalysis,itcanbeshowedthatafteraperiodofexperiment,students’improvementonmasteringgrammarknowledgeandtheabilitytousegrammarknowledgearenotequal.Theyhaveagreaterimprovementonusinggrammarknowledgeincontextratherthansimplyunderstandinggrammarrules.Thelastfindingisabouttheinfluenceofdiscourse-basedgrammarteachingonstudents’attitudetowardgrammarteachingandlearning.Intheanalysisofdata,applyingdiscourseintheEnglishgrammarteachingcanhelpimprovingstudents’46 learningattitude.Students’learninginterestandinitiativehavebeenrisenandenhancedduringtheexperimentalperiod.5.2ImplicationsforfutureEnglishgrammarteachingThisstudyabouttheapplicationofdiscourse-grammarteachinginseniorhighschoolhasproveditseffectivenessandinfluence.Basedonthemajorfindingsofthepresentstudy,someusefulsuggestionshasbeenprovidedforbothEnglishteachingandlearningasfollows.Firstly,byapplyingdiscourseintheteachingprocess,teachersshouldhaveanewunderstandingofgrammarandthegoalofgrammarteaching.Therefore,teachersinseniorhighschoolsshouldrethinktheEnglishgrammarteachingclass.Studentsshouldbetaughtwithappropriateemphasisonusinggrammarindailycommunication.Grammarteachingneedstobeassociatedwithrealcontext.Intermsofstudentsinseniorhighschools,theyaregreatlyinfluencedbytheexaminationsothattheyisolategrammarrulesfromdiscourseandcontext,whichleadstotheresultthattheymayeasilyfeelboringaboutthegrammarlearningprocessorjustcompletelygiveitup.Therefore,teachersshouldlaymoreemphasisoncontextinEnglishgrammarteachingtohelpstudentscultivatetheirlearninginterestandpromotetheirmotivationbytakingtheadvantageofdiscourse.Thus,asausefultooltodevelopstudents’grammarusingability,discoursecanbeeffectivelyutilizedtochangetheEnglishgrammarlearningprocessintoavividexploringexperience,whichatthesametimeisbeneficialforbothEnglishteachersandstudents.Secondly,teachershavetogetdeepknowledgeofdiscourseandcombineprofessionknowledgewiththeirunderstandingofdiscourse.ForEnglishteachers,professionknowledgeincludesEnglishknowledgereserves,personalteachingskills,andpersonalstyles(classarrangement,activityorganization,teachingrhythm,etc).Inthisstudy,accordingtotheresearcher’sexperiment,itisclearlyindicatesthatwhenapplyinganewteachingmodelintothepractice,EnglishteachersshouldfirstlyhaveabetterunderstandingofthisnewteachingapproachbeforedoingtheformalEnglishgrammarteachingpractice.Sincetheformsofthediscoursearevariousandthefunctionsoftheformsarediscrepant,onlywhenteachershaveacompleteunderstandingofdiscourse,couldtheyknowwhichformofthediscourseisthebestchoicefordifferentgrammarstructures,differentteachingprocessesanddifferentpracticingactivities.Therefore,itisactuallyaseriouschallengeforteachersbecause47 theyneedtofirstlyperfecttheirownknowledgesystem.Allofthesedemandsarenotonlyforteachers’knowledgelevel,butalsoforthechallengesforteachers’accomplishment.Thirdly,teachersshouldcreateanactivelearningatmosphereforstudentsbyapplyingdiscourseinEnglishgrammarteaching.Inthegrammarteachingprocess,studentsshouldbeencouragedtomakeabreakthroughandtoovercometheirfearforEnglishgrammar.Throughdifferentkindsofactivitiessuchasroleplay,smalldrama,scenereconstructionandsoon,studentscanbeprovidedwithanactiveandcompetitivestagetopresentthemselves.Besides,teachersmayhelpstudentschoosesomeoftheperformingthemes,soastoengagetheminsettinguptheirowncontextforlanguageusingaswellasprovidingthemwithsomeactivitieswhichcanhelpthembuilduptheirperformingconfidence.Moreover,discourseawarenesshasdrawnmuchattentionforitsroleinpromotingstudents’grammarcompetence.Theprocedureofevaluatingthegrammarcompetenceresultsamonggroupsservesasanessentialparttoevokestudents’interestandinitiativeforgrammar.5.3LimitationsoftheresearchandsuggestionforfuturestudiesAlthoughsomemeaningfulresultshavepresentedbytheapplicationofdiscourse-basedgrammarteachingandtheadvantagesofthisteachingapproachhasbeentestified,therearestillsomelimitationsshouldtobepointed.Thispartofthechapterwilldiscussthelimitationsofthisstudyandgivesomesuggestionsforfurtherresearch.Firstly,oneofwhatthelimitationsofthispresentstudyisthatthesamplesizeoftheexperimentisverysmall.Thisgrammarteachingexperimentismainlycarriedoutinoneschool.Thoughthisstudyaimsatexploringtheeffectivenessofdiscourse-basedgrammarteachingonstudentsinseniorhighschools,onlythestudentsfromonegradearechosenasthesubjectsoftheexperiment.Inordertoobtainreliableandgeneralizedresult,Afurtherstudywithagreaternumberofparticipantsissuggested,whichmightbemorepersuasiveandvalid.Secondly,thisstudyislimitedinitstimeperiod.Astheresearcherhasmentioned,therecanbeonlytwoEnglishgrammarteachingclassesprovidedforteacher.Becauseofthearrangedschooltimeschedule,itisnotpracticalatpresenttoprovidemorechancesforstudentsinthegrammarteachingpractice.Andtheexperimentonly48 lastsfornearlythreemonths.Therefore,theresultswouldbemorevalidiftheexperimentalperiodwaslonger.Inaddition,thestudytreatsthestudentsinthesameclassasawhole.Itdonotpaymuchattentiontotheinfluenceofthisapproachonthestudentsatdifferentlevel.Theirlearningstylesandindividualdifferencesarenottakeintoconsideration.Moreover,whenteachersapplyingdiscourse-basedgrammarteaching,theyshouldtakeitsshortcomingsandadversefactorsintoconsideration.Inaword,thereisstillalongwayandalsomuchroomforthefurtherresearch.Itisstillattheprimarystageespeciallyinseniorhighschools.Therefore,thereismuchroomforfurtherdeepgoingstudiestoprobeintothisaspect.Afurtherstudycanbemadetomakesomeimprovementsintheaspectoftheeffectsofdiscourse-basedgrammarteachingondifferentlevelsofstudents.Itwillbeexpectedthatanotherinvestigationondiscourse-basedgrammarteachingwouldrevealmuchmorepersuasiveandvaluableresults.Wehopemajorfindingsofthisstudymaybeofsomeusetothefutureresearches.49 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AppendixⅠ:Pre-questionnaire高中生英语语法学习现状调查问卷本次高中生英语语法学习情况的调查，目的在于了解高中生英语语法学习的实际情况，从而探索提高高中生英语语法学习效果和教学质量的有效途径。你所提供的宝贵意见将成为本次研究调查的重要参考依据。请尽可能根据自己学习英语的真实想法和实际情况按要求回答。问卷不要求写出自己的名字，并且不会影响你的平时考试成绩，因此你不必有任何的顾虑。希望你能在回答问题之前认真阅读问题，再答题。下面围绕语法学习列出了一系列问题，每种观点后有若干选项，答案无对错之分，请根据实际情况选择出与自己想法最接近的一项。1.你对自己目前的语法水平（）A.非常满意B.比较满意C.有点不满意D.非常不满意2.你认为英语语法的学习（）A.非常有趣B.比较有趣C.枯燥D.非常枯燥3.你花在语法学习上的时间是（）A.非常多B.很多C.较少D.没有4.你会主动学习并练习语法知识吗？A.每天都会B.经常会C.偶尔会D.完全不会5.你非常注重语法学习的（）A.语法结构B.语法意义C.语法描述及定义D.实际运用6.在课上教师以什么样的方式教授语法？A.直接给出规律B.小组合作学习C.启发学生找规律D.创设情景教授E.其它56 7.语法知识的讲解是不是贯穿在课文或语篇的讲解中？A.总是B.经常是C.偶尔是D.从来不8.在课上教师以什么样的形式巩固语法？A.语篇练习B.语法专项练习C.拓展阅读D.写作E.其它9.在课堂上你是否参加巩固语法知识的活动？A.每次都参加B.经常C.偶尔D.从不10.你在课上对语法知识的当堂掌握程度是？A.熟练运用B.完全理解C.一知半解D.听不懂11.你认为语法学习应该终结在什么状态？A.会运用B.能讲解C.能理解D.能看懂12.你认为对你英语语法学习帮助最大的方法是？A.向老师咨询B.与同学探讨C.做大量习题练习D.在有意义情景中的运用E.其它13.你认为对语法学习兴趣影响最大的因素是（）A.老师的教学方法和英语水平B.你对老师的好感度C.教学内容的有趣性和相关性D.自己的英语学习兴趣E.其它14.你希望的语法教学是（）A.对语法规则的讲授B..大量的习题练习C.让学生自己探索D.实际情景中自然地渗透E.其它15.你认为高中语法学习的目的在于（）A.使用语言交流B.规范正确表达57 C.掌握一定专业知识D.在高考中取得好成58 AppendixⅡ:Post-questionnaire高中生英语语法学习现状调查问卷本次高中生英语语法学习情况的调查，目的在于了解高中生英语语法学习的实际情况，从而探索提高高中生英语语法学习效果和教学质量的有效途径。你所提供的宝贵意见将成为本次研究调查的重要参考依据。请尽可能根据自己学习英语的真实想法和实际情况按要求回答。问卷不要求写出自己的名字，并且不会影响你的平时考试成绩，因此你不必有任何的顾虑。希望你能在回答问题之前认真阅读问题，再答题。下面围绕语法学习列出了一系列问题，每种观点后有若干选项，答案无对错之分，请根据实际情况选择出与自己想法最接近的一项。1.你现在对语法学习态度如何？（）A.很喜欢B.喜欢C.不喜欢D.非常不喜欢2.你觉得老师采用的方法（）A.非常好B.比较好C.不太好D.非常不好3.你现在在课下主动进行语法练习活动的频率是（）A.每天B.经常C.偶尔D.从不4.你是否会主动参与语法练习时的课上活动（）A.总是参与B.经常参与C.偶尔参与D.从不参与5.通过十二周的英语语法教学，你对教学效果（）A.非常满意B.比较满意C.不太满意D.非常不满意6.你认为你的语法能力是否有提高（）A.提高非常大B.有小幅度提高C.没有提高D.后退了7.你觉得老师采用的教学方法对语法学习的那个阶段影响最大？（）59 A.语法学习的始终B.语法规律习得阶段C.语法知识练习阶段D.语法知识输出阶段8.通过教师采用的教学方法你对语法知识的运用能达到哪种程度？（）A.会运用B.能讲解C.能理解D.能看懂9.你认为老师采用的教学方法对语法学习的哪一方面帮助最大（）A.语法结构B.语法意义C.语法描述及定义D.实际运用10.你希望在今后涉及语法教学的课堂中（）A.以语篇练习为主B.以归纳总结为主C.以教师讲解为主D.以语法练习题为主60 AppendixⅢ:Pre-test第一部分单项填空（共15小题；每小题1分，满分15分）1.Themissingboywerelastseen________neartheriver.A.playingB.tobeplayingC.playD.toplay2.Thediscussion________alivewhenaninterestingtopicwasbroughtin.A.wascomingB.hadcomeC.hascomeD.came3.Weforgottobringourticketsbutpleaseletusenter,______?A.doyouB.canweC.willyouD.shallwe4.Donotletanyfailuresdiscourageyou,foryoucannevertell______closeyoumaybetosuccess.A.howB.thatC.whichD.where5.I’mgoingtoEuropeonvacationtogetherwithJohnifI____findthemoney.A.canB.mightC.wouldD.need6.ItwasJohnwhobrokethewindow.WhyareyoutalkingtomeasifI__it?A.haddoneB.havedoneC.didD.amdoing7.Themanagersuggestedanearlierdate_______themeeting.A.onB.forC.aboutD.with8.Itisgenerallyacceptedthat_____boymustlearntostandupandfightlike______man.A.a;aB.a;theC.the;theD.a;不填9.Igottotheofficeearlierthatday,the7:30trainfromPaddingtonA.caughtB.tohavecaughtC.tocatchD.havingcaught10.Lookatthebook,it"snotmine,andit"snotyours,soitmustbe________.A.somebodyelse"sB.somebodyelse"C.somebody"selseD.somebody"else11.MyfriendDavehelpedmealotbygivingme_________onEnglishlearning.A.advicesB.manyadviceC.someadvice61 12.Finallyhereachedalonelyisland________wascompletelycutofffromtheoutsideworld.A.whenB.whereC.whichD.whom13.Helenwasmuchkindertoheryoungersonthantotheothers,_______,ofcourse,madetheothersenvyhim.A.whoB.thatC.whatD.which14.Borrishasbrains．Infact，Idoubtwhetheranyoneintheclasshas_____IQ.A．ahighB．ahigherC．thehigherD．thehighest15.Henrywasawayfromhomeforquiteabitand________sawhisfamily.A.frequentlyB.seldomC.alwaysD.usually第二部分阅读下列材料，在空白处填入适当的内容（不多于3个单词）或括号内单词的正确形式。（共10小题：每小题1.5分，满分15分）Mum:(puttingonhercoat)I"mgoingtohavetogodowntotheshopformorebread.Alan:Why?Mum:I"mnotsurewhat1(happen).Imadesomesandwichesearlierandleftthemonthetable2Iwenttoanswerthephone.Butsomeonemusthavetakenthembecausethey"re3(go).Alan:Oh,itmusthavebeenDad.I"msurehewasinthekitchen4(early).Mum:No,hewentofftohistennismatchbeforeIfinished5them,sohecouldn"thavedoneit.6,hecouldn"tcarryaplateofsandwichesaswellasallhistennisstuff,soI"msure7wasn"thim.Alan:(openingthefridgedoor)Well,itwasn"tme.ButMum,look!Aretheseyoursandwicheshereonthebottomshelfof8fridge?Mum:Aretheythere?Oh,mygoodness.I9(put)themintherewhenthephonerang.Oh,dear.Ireallymustbelosingmy10.Now,whydidIputonmycoat?62 AppendixⅣ:Post-test第一部分单项填空（共15小题；每小题1分，满分15分）1.Themanagersdiscussedtheplanthattheywouldliketosee________thenextyearA.carriedoutB.carryingoutC.carryoutD.tocarryout2.SalesofCDshavegreatlyincreasedsincetheearly1990s,whenpeople________toenjoytheadvantagesofthisnewtechnology.A.beginB.beganC.havebegunD.hadbegun3.Thereisnolightinthedormitory.Theymusthavegonetothelecture,_________?A.didn"ttheyB.don"ttheyC.mustn"ttheyD.haven"tthey4.Wepromise______attendsthepartyachancetohaveaphototakenwiththemoviestar.A.whoB.whomC.whoeverD.whomever5.Justbepatient.You______expecttheworldtochangesosoon.A.can‘tB.needn‘tC.maynotD.whether6.—Happybirthday!—Thankyou!It’sthebestpresentI________for.A.shouldhavewishedB.musthavewishedC.mayhavewishedD.couldhavewished7.Thisisajuniorschool.Youshouldgotoaseniorschool_______girlsofyourage.A.forB.aboutC.fromD.to8.Takeyourtime—it’sjust_____shortdistancefromhereto_____restaurant.A.不填；theB.a;theC.the;aD.不填；a9.Thepartywillbeheldinthegarden,weather_____.A.permittingB.topermitC.permittedD.permit10.Heis________.A.onestudentofmyfatherB.oneofmyfather"sstudent63 C.myfather"sstudentsD.onestudentofmyfather"s11.Theparkisquitenearhere.It"sonly_________.A.tenminuteswalkB.tenminute"swalkC.tenminutes"walkD.tenminute"swalks12.Somepre-schoolchildrengotoadaycarecenter,_____theylearnsimplegamesandsongs.A.thenB.thereC.whileD.where13.Yourperformanceinthedrivingtestdidn"treachrequiredstandard＿,youfailed..A.intheendB.afterallC.inotherwordsD.atthesametime14.Howbeautifullyshesings！Ihaveneverheard_____．A．thebettervoiceB．agoodvoiceC．thebestvoiceD．abettervoice15.Thanksforyourdirectionstothehouse;wewouldn"thavefoundit________.A.nowhereB.howeverC.otherwiseD.instead第二部分阅读下列材料，在空白处填入适当的内容（不多于3个单词）或括号内单词的正确形式。（共10小题：每小题1.5分，满分15分）Oneofmyfather"sfavorite1(say)asIwasgrowingupwas“Tryit!”Icouldn"tsayIdidn"tlikesomething,2itmightbe,untilafterItriedit.OvertheyearsI"vecometorealizehowmuchofmysuccessIowetomy3(accept)ofthosewordsasoneofmyvalues.MyfirstjobwasjustoneIdecidedtotryforacoupleofyearsuntilIdeterminedwhatIwantedtodoasacareer(职业).4(actual)IbelievedIwouldworkforafewyears,get5(marry),stayhomeandraiseafamily,soIdidn"tthinkthejobItookmatteredthatmuch.Icouldn"t6moremistaken.Imasteredtheskillsofthat7(begin)levelpositionandIwasgiventheopportunity(机会)tomoveupthroughthecompanyinto8(differ)positions.Iacceptedeachnewopportunitywiththethought,“Well,I"lltryit;9Idon"tlikeitIcanalwaysgobacktomy10(early)position.”ButIwaswiththesamecompanyforthepast28years.64 AcknowledgementsTheauthorisverygratefulforallherteachersandfriendswhohaveofferedtheirinvaluablehelpandsupporttoherincompletingthisthesis.First,theauthorwantstoexpressherheartfeltthankstoProfessorLiang,heracademicsupervisor.ProfessorLianghasgivenherpatientguidance,insightfulcomment,andwarmencouragementinthewholeprocessofcomposingthisthesis,aswellasintheauthor’spostgraduateperiod.WithoutProfessorLiang’shelp,theauthorcannotfinishthisthesis.Second,theauthorwantstothankstothefriendlyteacherswhoallowedhertoattendtheirclassesandthestudentswhocarefullyansweredthequestionnaires.Third,theauthorwantstothankherclassmatesandfriends,whohavegiventheirconstructiveadviceandenthusiasticsupport.65