错误分析理论在高中英语语法教学中的应用研究——以两所高中为例 60页

学校代码：10663学号：4201420000684贵州师范大学教育硕士学位论文错误分析理论在高中英语语法教学中的应用研究—以两所高中为例AnApplicationStudyofErrorAnalysisTheoryinHighSchoolGrammarTeaching—TakingTwoHighSchoolsastheCase专业名称：学科教学（英语）专业代码：040102研究方向：外语教学申请人姓名：许华尊导师姓名：冒国安教授2016年5月 原创性声明本人郑重声明：所呈交的学位论文，是本人在导师的指导下，独立进行所取得的成果。除论文中已经注明的内容外，本论文不包含任何其他个人或集体已经发表或撰写过的科研成果。对本文的研究做出重要贡献的个人或集体，均已在文中以明确方式标明。本人完全意识到本声明的法律责任由本人承担。论文作者签名：年月日关于学位论文使用授权的声明本人完全了解贵州师范大学有关保留、使用学位论文的规定，同意学校保留或向国家有关部门或机构送交论文的复印件和电子版，允许论文被查阅和借阅：本人授权贵州师范大学可以将本学位论文的全部或部分内容编入有关数据库进行检索，可以采用影印、缩印或其他复制手段保存论文和汇编学位论文。（保密论文在解密后应遵守此规定）论文作者签名：导师签名：年月日 摘要语言学习者的语法错误是语言教师在教学中一定会遇到的最主要的语言产出错误之一。这些错误对于学习者来说是习得相关语言的巨大阻碍，也是教师采取和调整语法教学方式方法的重要依据。本文以错误分析理论及其相关理论为基础，通过观察高中英语课堂的语法教学，收集学生写作和习题中的语法错误，以及对英语教师进行访谈的方式，分析高中生出现的语法错误，探究教师的语法教学方式。从学生语法错误产生的原因及类别反观教师的语法教学方法方式，分析其中利弊，寻求减少学生语法错误，降低犯错重复率的高效语法教学方式。错误分析理论把学习者作为研究中心，通过分析学习者的错误来探究学习者习得第二语言的过程。它最大的贡献在于提高了学习者的地位，错误不再被看作“有缺陷的语言形式”。犯错误是语言学习的一种手段，是不可避免的。学习者据此来检验其对所学语言本质所做的假设。教师通过系统分析学生所犯错误，可以发现学生在向目的语接近的过程中已经达到了哪一阶段，还剩下多少内容需要继续学习,在了解学生学习策略和步骤的同时筛选和调整自身的语法教学策略和方法。因此错误分析理论对语言教学活动具有举足轻重的实用价值和作用。本文以定性研究为主，通过对学习者语法错误的分类和原因分析，以及教师对语法错误的看法和教学方式，探寻高效实用的语法教学模式。分析结果表明，学习者的语法错误主要分为两大类，语际错误和 语内错误。每类中分别包词类错误和句法错误。课堂观察和课后访谈则说明，仅管对待语法错误的观点基本一致，但教师教授语法的方式十分不同。一部分教师将语法作为全部英语教学最核心的部分，弱化课文内容；一部分教师将语法和课文内容并重；另有教师在高中前半期以课文内容为重，弱化语法，后半期将语法系统化，重点化。在对待应该如何纠正错误和讲授语法的问题上，教师们的观点也不尽相同。研究结果表明，针对高中英语语法错误，应努力寻求改善语法教学方式的应对措施。通过帮助学习者在高中前期时间积累大量的语料，在此基础上到后期系统讲授语法知识，以达到降低学生语法错误的发生，提高语法教学效率的目的。关键词：错误分析，语言迁移，语法错误，高中英语语法教学 AbstractLanguagelearners’grammarerrorsareoneofthemostfrequentlanguageoutputerrorsthatteachersdefinitelymeetinteaching.Theseerrorsobstructlearners’acquisitionofrelevantlanguagetoagreatextent.Theyarealsothesignificantreferenceforteacherstoadoptandadjustgrammarteachingmethods.Basedonerroranalysistheoryandrelevanttheories,thisthesisanalyzeshighschoolstudents’grammarerrorsandinvestigatesteachers’grammarteachingmethodsbyobservinggrammarteachinginhighschoolEnglishclass,collectingstudents"grammarerrorsinwritingandinterviewingEnglishteachers.Reviewingteachers’grammarteachingmethodsafteranalyzingandclassifyingstudents’grammarerrors,thisthesisanalyzestheprosandconsofdifferentgrammarteachingmethodsandsearchforthegrammarteachingmethodwithhighefficiencytodecreasestudents’grammarerrors.Erroranalysistheorytakeslearnersasthecenterofthestudybyanalyzinglearners’errorstoexploretheprocessofsecondlanguageacquisition.Itcontributesenormouslytoenhancinglanguagelearners’position,anderrorsarenomoretreatedasthe“deficientlanguageforms”.Makingerrorsisawaytostudylanguages,whichisunavoidable.Basedontheerrors,thelearnerscanchecktheirhypothesistothenatureofthetargetlanguage.Byanalyzingtheerrors,teachersareabletohaveaclearpictureaboutwhichstagethestudentsareinduringtheprocess approachingtothetargetlanguageandhowmanycontentsleftarestillneededtolearn.Teacherscanselectandadjusttheirgrammarteachingmethodsandstrategieswhileknowingstudents’learningstrategiesandsteps.Therefore,erroranalysistheoryhassignificantpracticalvalueandfunctioninlanguageteachingactivities.Thisthesismainlytakesqualitativeanalysistoexplorethegrammarteachingmodelswithhighefficiencyandpracticabilitybyclassifyingandanalyzingthereasonsoflearners’grammarerrorsaswellasteachers’attitudestowardsgrammarerrorsandteachingmethods.Theresultofanalysismanifeststhattherearetwomaincategoriesofstudents’grammarerrors:interlingualerrorsandintralingualerrors,andeachcategorycontainslexicalerrorsandsyntacticerrors.Classroomobservationandinterviewindicatethatalthoughteachers’viewstowardsgrammarerrorsarebasicallyofnodifference,theirmethodstoteachgrammararequitedifferent.SometeacherstakegrammarasthecoreofthewholeEnglishteachingandweakenthecontentofthetext.Someteacherstakegrammarassignificantasthetext.Someteachersfocusonthetextintheearlierhalfperiodofhighschoolandweakengrammar,whichistobetaughtsystematicallyasthekeypointinthelaterhalfperiod.Onthequestionofhowtocorrecterrorsandteachgrammar,theteachers’viewsarealsovarious.Theresultoftheresearchindicatesthatforhighschoolstudents’ grammarerrors,measurestoimprovegrammarteachingmethodsshouldbeexploredwithgreatefforts.Basedonthefoundationofhelpinglearnersaccumulatealargenumberoflanguagematerialsintheearlierperiodofhighschool,thegrammarknowledgeistobetaughtinthelaterperiodsystematicallysothatthepurposeofreducingstudents’grammarerrorsandenhancinggrammarteachingefficiencycanbereached.Keywords:erroranalysis,languagetransfer,grammarerrors,highschoolEnglishgrammarteaching CONTENTSChapterOneIntroduction.................................................................11.1Background..........................................................................................................11.2Necessityandsignificanceofthestudy...............................................................21.3Theaimofthisstudy............................................................................................31.4Organizationofthethesis.....................................................................................3ChaptertwoLiteratureReview..........................................................52.1Thedefinitionoferrors........................................................................................52.2Thesignificanceofstudyingerror.......................................................................62.3Languagetransfer.................................................................................................72.3.1Thedefinitionoflanguagetransfer................................................................82.3.2Classificationandmanifestationoftransfer..................................................92.4Theoriesrelatedtoerroranalysis.......................................................................112.4.1Contrastiveanalysistheory..........................................................................112.4.2Erroranalysistheory....................................................................................132.4.3Interlanguagetheory....................................................................................152.4.4Therelationshipbetweenthethreetheories................................................162.5Theclassificationsoferrors...............................................................................172.6Threeviewsongrammarteaching.....................................................................192.7Principlesofgrammarteaching..........................................................................20ChapterResearchDesign................................................................243.1Thesubjectsinthisresearch...............................................................................243.2Theinstrumentsandprocedures.........................................................................243.2.1Thewritingtasksandquestionsinworkbook.............................................243.2.2Theclassroomobservation..........................................................................253.2.3Theinterview...............................................................................................253.3Researchquestions.............................................................................................25ChapterFourDiscussionsandAnalysisoftheResearch......................27 4.1Theclassificationsofstudents’grammarerrors................................................274.1.1Interlingualgrammarerrors.........................................................................274.1.2Intralingualgrammarerrors.........................................................................324.2Resultsfromclassroomobservation..................................................................344.2.1Theapplicationoferroranalysistheoryinclass.........................................344.2.2Thegrammarteachingmodesinclass.........................................................354.3Resultsfrominterviewstotheteachers..............................................................364.3.1Theteachers’attitudestowardsstudents’grammarerrors..........................364.3.2Theteachers’ideasofgrammarteaching....................................................37ChapterFiveImplicationsandConclusion........................................395.1Implicationsforreducinggrammarerrors.........................................................395.1.1EmphasizingthedifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglish.......................395.1.2EnlargingthetargetlanguageinputthroughintensiveEnglishreading......395.2Implicationsforgrammarteaching....................................................................405.2.1Takinglanguageapplicationastheoutputdrive.........................................405.2.2Teachinggrammarinthelatterperiod........................................................405.2.3Teachinggrammarincontexts....................................................................415.3Conclusion..........................................................................................................425.3.1Majorfindings.............................................................................................425.3.2Limitsandsuggestionsforfurtherresearch................................................44References....................................................................................46Appendix.....................................................................................49Acknowledgements.......................................................................50 ChapterOneIntroduction1.1BackgroundAsthemostwidelyusedlanguageintheworld,EnglishisacompulsorysubjectinChina’scollegeentranceexamination.Ithashighrequirementsfortheteacherandthestudent.AsthekeyanddifficultpointinEnglishlanguageteaching,Englishgrammarknowledgehasbeenasignificantparttestedinexaminationswithvarioustypesofquestions.GrammarteachingofhighschoolunderthenewteachingsituationrequiresstudentstoutilizeEnglishlanguageinpracticalactivitiesoflistening,speaking,readingandwritingratherthanlearninggrammarrulesbyrote.However,inrecentyears,someteacherdon’tcomprehendtheimplicationoftheteachingprogramandpaytoomuchortoolittleattentionongrammarteaching,whichbringsaboutmanyproblemstothestudentsintheprocessofgrammarlearning.Errorsareinevitableduringthewholeprocessofthetargetlanguagelearning.GrammarerroristhebiggestobstacleforhighschoolstudentsinEnglishlearning.Neithertheteachernorthestudentscanignorethem.Grammarerrorsaccountsformorethanhalfpercentageofthetotalerrorsinwritinganddailylearning.Therefore,thestudyofgrammarerrorsisquitevaluableandnecessary.Erroranalysistheorysystematicallyanalyzesthelearner’slanguageerrorphenomenaduringthesecondlanguageacquisition.Itisaprocessthatfindsoutthenatureoftheerrorsandanalyzesthecausesoftheerrorstopreventorreducelanguageerrors.Itisamethodwithpracticalvaluestostudygrammarerrors.Theauthoranalyzesgrammarerrorsinhighschoolstudents’writingsandinvestigatesgrammarteachinginclasstoexplorehowtoapplyerroranalysisintohighschoolgrammarteachingbycombiningthetheorysothattheefficiencyofgrammarteachingcanbeimproved.Erroranalysisisalsosignificantforthelearnerhimself.Throughscientificanalysis,thelearnercanhaveaclearcomprehensiontohisgrammarerrorsandcorrectthemeffectively.Meanwhile,thelearnercanhaveanideaofhis1 insufficiencyintheprocessoflanguageacquisitionandfurtherimprovehislearningprocedure.Actually,thelearnercancheckthesituationthathehasmasteredaboutthenatureofthetargetlanguagethrougherroranalysis,forerroritselfisacomponentoflanguageacquisition.Therefore,erroranalysistheorynotonlyinfluencesthepracticalEnglishlanguageteachingactivities,butalsoshowsgreatsignificanceinpromotingEnglishteacherstoexplorenewteachingideasandimproveEnglishteaching.Theauthoranalyzesandclassifiesthegrammarerrorsinstudents’writingsandinvestigatesgrammarteachinginclasstoexploretheeffectivewaysinreducingstudents’grammarerrorsandimprovinggrammarteaching.1.2NecessityandsignificanceofthestudyGrammaristheframeofalanguageasasignificantcomponent.Englishisthemostwidelyusedsecondlanguageinournation.ThereisrarelythenurturingofsecondlanguageenvironmentinChina,thereforetosystematicallyandcorrectlylearngrammarisofgreatimportancetoskillfullymasteringandapplyingEnglish.TheEnglishgrammarknowledgeinhighschoolhasoccupiedmostgrammarknowledgeofthewhole.Therefore,itisquitenecessarytoinstructanddevelopEnglishgrammarteachingwithcorrecttheoryandmethod,whichcanalsohelpstudentsformasolidfunctionforfutureEnglishlearningandapplication.Oneofthemostinevitableproblemsintheprocessofgrammarteachingistheerrorsmadebystudents.Students’grammarerrorsandthecategoriesoftheerrorsreflectthedegreesandeffectivenessofthegrammarrulesthatstudentsmastered.Throughtheanalysisofstudents’grammarerrors,theweakpartintheirgrammarknowledgesystemscanbeseen,bywhichtheteachercanexploreeffectivegrammarteachingandpracticingmethodspurposefullytoenhancetheefficiencyofgrammarteaching.Erroranalysistheoryisthetheoreticalfoundationinanalyzingstudents’grammarerrorsduringtheprocessofforeignlanguagelearning.Itisthecriticismanddevelopmentofcontrastiveanalysis.Itpointsoutthattheerrorsinlanguagelearningcomesnotonlyfromthenegativetransferofthenativelanguage,butalsoaffectedby2 otherfactors.Itfocusesontheprocedureofthelearner’sforeignlanguagelearningandgivesthemodetoanalyzeerrors,whichgivestheteacheraclearinstructiontoclassifyandanalyzestudents’grammarerrors.Erroranalysistheorymakestheteachercognizestudents’grammarerrorscorrectly.Basedonthetheory,theteachertreatsvarioustypesoferrorspurposefullyandmakesadjustmentongrammarteachingmethodstoadapttherulesofforeignlanguagelearningsothattheefficiencyofhighschoolEnglishgrammarteachingcanbehighlyimproved.1.3TheaimofthisstudyStudents’errorsingrammarisoneofthemostvaluableandsignificantmaterialsinEnglishteaching.Bycollectingandanalyzingtheseerrors,theteachercanhaveaclearpictureaboutthegrammarlevelsthatstudentsareinandaccordinglydosomeadjustmentsandchangestoimprovegrammarteaching.Thisstudycollectshighschoolstudents’grammarerrorsintheirwritings,thenclassifiesandanalyzesthereasonsoftheerrorsaswellasdiscussesthedeficiencyingrammarteachingsothattheefficientsuggestionstoimprovegrammarteachingcanbegivenandtheteacherscanbeinspired.Theauthorchoosestheerrorsinwritingsasthematerialstoanalyzeisforthattheseerrorsaremoreoverallandvisualizedandcanrepresentmostgrammarerrorshappenedinstudents’Englishlearning.1.4OrganizationofthethesisThethesisconsistsoffivechapters:Chapteroneintroducesthebackground,necessityandsignificanceofthestudy.Withinthissection,thepurposeandimportanceofthestudyontheapplicationoferroranalysistheoryingrammarteachingarepresentedexplicitly.Andtheoutlineofthethesisisalsoincludedinthispart.Chaptertwofocusesontheliteraturereview.Therelevanttheoriesoferroranalysis,contrastiveanalysisandinterlanguageonwhichthethesisisbasedarepresentedindetailsstartingwithdefinitionsofcertainitemssuchaserrors,mistakes,3 interlanguageandsoon.Themethodsandprinciplesofgrammarteachingarealsogiventopreparefortherelatedinvestigations,discussionsandsuggestions.Chapterthreeintroducesthedesignoftheresearchbasedontheerroranalysistheoryandgrammarteachingmethods.Theresearchisanexperimentpresentedwithsubjectsandinstruments.Theinstrumentsconsistoftwowritingtasks,classroomobservationsandashortinterview.Thethreeresearchquestionsarepresentedinthissection.Chapterfourpresentstheanalysisanddiscussionsfromtheexperimentwithprovidingtheanalysisofthegrammarerrorsandtheresultsofclassroomobservationandinterviewstotheteachers.Chapterfiveexploresthepedagogicalimplicationsineffectivegrammarteachingbasedonerroranalysis.TheauthorpresentsfourcorrespondingstrategiestohelpteacherssolvetheproblemofgrammarerrorsinEnglishteaching,andthethreequestionsareansweredinthispart.Inaddition,theconclusionandlimitationofthestudyandsuggestionsforfurtherstudyarealsomentionedinthischapter.4 ChaptertwoLiteratureReview2.1ThedefinitionoferrorsLanguagelearningisfundamentallyaprocessthatinvolvesthemakingofmistakes.Errorsactuallyexistintheentireprocessoflanguagelearning.AmericanlinguisticDulay(1974)suggestedthatwithoutmistakesanderrors,languagelearningcouldnotbeachieved.“Thespeechwithouterrorsisnotnormalspeech”(BoomerandLarver1968:2),therefore,errorsandmistakesareubiquitousinactuallanguageapplicationandcommunicationprocessaswell.However,duetothecomplexityandunpredictability,theoccurrenceoferrorsisrandomandimplicit.Also,consideringthevariouslinguisticjudgmentstandardsgivenbydifferentoccasions,researchershaven’treachedanagreementonthedefinitionoferrorssofar.Thetwoconceptions“competence”and“performance”werepresentedbyChomsky(1965:4)inhisAspectsoftheTheoryofSyntaxin1965.Basedonthat,Corder(1967:167)dividederrorsinto“error”and“mistake”.Erroristhedeviationcausedbylanguagelearners’unsoundgraspofthetargetlanguagesystem.Relativelyspeaking,mistakeisthesituationthatlanguagelearnersarenotabletoutilizetheknowledgeoftargetlanguagethattheyhaveacquiredcorrectlyforvariousreasons.Corderconsideredthaterroristhereflectionoflearners’incompletemasteringofthetargetlanguagerules.Itistheinsufficiencyoflanguageabilitycausedbylackingoflinguisticknowledge.Nevertheless,mistakeisthereflectionoflearners’surfacelanguageutilization.Itisthefailureoflanguagebehaviorderivedfromincorrectutilizationofthealready-masteredlanguagesystemthatiscausedbysomeunmeantfactors,suchasmemory,health,mentalitysituationandenvironment.Errorisasystematicproblemwhichcannotbecorrectedbylearnersthemselves.Onthecontrary,mistakeisanaccidentalphenomenonthatcanberealizedandcorrecttimelybylearnersthemselves.Otherresearchershavealsogivenvariousdefinitionsoferror.Rechards(1971:5-6)consideredthaterroristhe“errororincompletestudyfeature”presentedin5 learners’oralorwrittenexpressionsofsecondlanguagewhenusingsomelanguageitems(words,grammarandspeechbehavior)intheviewofnativelanguagespeakersorfluentlanguagelearners.Chunetalpointedoutthataccordingtothefluentspeakersofacertainlanguage,erroristheinsufficiencyorimproprietyduringtheprocessofusingsomelanguageitemsbylanguagelearners.LiskiandPuntanenconsideredthaterrorhappenedinthesituationthatthespeakerhadadifferentwayfromthoseeducatedEnglishspeakerswhenusinglanguagepatternsandmethods.Chaudron(1988)summarizederrorasthelanguageformorcontentthatwasdifferentfromthestandardofnativespeakersoranyotherbehaviorrequiredteachers’suggestionstoimprove.Lennon(1992:12)pointedoutthaterroristhe“languageformorcombinationofforms”whichwasusedbylanguagelearnersbutavoidedbynativespeakerswiththesamestatusinthesameandsimilarcontexts.Ellis(1994)definederrorastheutterancethatdidn’tconformtothecorrectformandcontextoftargetlanguage.James(1998)pointedthaterroristheunsuccessfulpartoflanguage.Combinethedefinitionsabove,somecommoncharacterscanbeseen:first,errorisadeviationorimperfectionwhichreferencesthestandardoftargetlanguagerulesystem;second,errorcanbejudgedbynativespeakers,fluentlanguagespeakersorlanguageteacherswithtargetlanguagerules;third,errorisnotstatic.Itshouldincludetheerrorofactuallanguageutilizationpatternandbehaviorincertaincontext;fourth,errorcanbeimprovedandcorrected.Drawontheexperienceofthedefinitionsbyvariouslinguistsabove,theauthorhasdefinederrorinthisresearchasthegrammardeviationviolatingEnglishlanguagerulesystemandfailedtogettothepurposeofcommunicationincertaincontextwhichhappensinhighschoolstudentsoralandwrittenEnglishexpressions.2.2ThesignificanceofstudyingerrorCorder(1967)stressedtheeffectandimportanceoferrorinlanguagelearninginTheSignificanceofLearners’Error.Hesaidthatduringtheprocessoflanguagelearning,theoccurrenceoferrorwasnotonlyunavoidablebutalsorequisitebecause6 itreflectsthedifferencesofrulesbetweenalearner’sinterlanguageandtargetlanguage.HealsomentionedinIdiosyncraticDialectsandErrorAnalysisthatthediscoveryofconceptsandrulesinlanguageneededsomeevidencetothecontrary,andthestudyoflearners’errorcanprovidetheseevidence(Corder,1971).Thesignificanceoferroranalysiscanbeseenfromthreeaspects.First,itisconductivetogainaclearideaoflearner’srateofprogressinlanguagedevelopment.Inotherwords,byanalyzingastudent’serror,teachercanhaveapictureofhowclosehegetstothetargetlanguage.Second,itisawaytoknowaboutalearner’slearningmethods,stepsandstrategies.Thatistosay,thestudyoferrorcanmakeclearaboutifalearnerhasacquiredforeignlanguageknowledgeandhowheacquires.Third,errorisquitesignificanttothelearnerhimself,forhecaninspectthehypothesishemakestothenatureoftargetlanguagebymakingerrors,andthisprocesscanbeunderstoodasawayoflearninglanguage.Thusitcanbeseenthattheerrorofsecondlanguagelearnerisofgreatimportancetoboththeteacherandthestudent.Totheteacher,itisatoolofdiagnosisandfeedbackwhichgivesawaytoknowlearners’presentsituationandmethodoflanguagelearning.Errorcanalsoimprovethereasonabilityandefficiencyinteacher’sself-examinationabouttheorganizationofteachingmaterials.Meanwhile,itisawaythathelpstheteacherhasaclearideaaboutthedifficultiesandproblemsinstudents’learning,whichgivestheteacheradirectiontoorganizeeffectivemendingteaching.Tothestudent,errorhasthefunctionoftestinghypothesisandmakingcorrection.Makingerrorsintheprocessofastudent’slanguagelearningdoesnotmeanfailurebutamethodandstrategyintheirstudy.Duringtheprocessofmakingerrors,thelearnermakeshypothesistothetargetlanguageandunceasinglyverifiesandimproveshislanguagestudy,bywhichheconstantlyapproachestothetargetlanguagesystem.2.3LanguagetransferDuringtheprocedureofforeignlanguageacquisition,learnersareinclinedto7 applythepreviouslanguageknowledgesuchaslexicalmeanings,grammarstructuresandculturalhabitsoftheirnativelanguageintothetargetlanguagewhencommunicationhappens.Thisiscalledlanguagetransfer.Theinfluenceofthenativelanguageonthetargetlanguagelearningisoneofthemostsignificantissuesexploredbyplentyoflinguistsinthefieldofforeignlanguageresearch.Theinfluencethatdisturbsandfrustratesthelearningofthetargetlanguageiscallednegativetransfer.2.3.1ThedefinitionoflanguagetransferLanguagetransferisalsoknownascross-linguisticinfluence.Eversinceacenturyago,ithasbeenacoreissueinthefieldofsecondlanguageacquisition,appliedlinguisticsandforeignlanguageteaching.Itisthelinchpinthatcausestheformationofinterlanguage.Ellis(2001)hasalmostarguedthatlanguagetransferisthemostcrucialfactorbutnottheonlyoneintheproductionoferrorsbypresentingtheresearchesonlanguagetransferprimarilyfocusedontheerrorsmadebylearners.Transferisapsychologicaltermoriginally,whichreferstotheinfluenceoftheacquiredknowledge,skillsandlearningattitudestowardsthenewknowledge,skillsandproblemstobeacquiredduringtheprocedureofmastering.Intheprocessofforeignlanguagelearning,thetransferphenomenoncontainsthefacilitationofoneforeignlanguagetoanotherandtheimprovementofreadingcompetencethatelevateswritingability.Transferwidelyexistsnotonlyinknowledgelearningbutalsootherdomainsoflearningaswell(张大均1999).Ellis(1965)gavethedefinitionoftransferasahypothesisoftheinfluencefromthelearningoftaskAtotaskB.James(1980)substitutedL1andL2forEllis’staskAandtaskB.Lord(1957:58)consideredthatlinguisticdifferenceindicatedlinguisticdifficultyandnegativetransferwhileadopted“transferhabits”termedbybehaviorists.Inthecircumstances,transferisregardedastheinterferenceofL1.SimilaritiesbetweenL1andL2facilitatetheprocedureofL2learninganddifferencesbetweenthemhinderthisprocedure.Lado’shypothesishasbeenwidelybelieved.Itwasalsobelievedthat8 thelearner’serrorsanddifficultiescouldbepredictedthroughthecontrastofnativeandtargetlanguages(Lado,1957).Odlin(1989:27)hastriedtoclarifysomemisreadingaboutLord’slanguagetransfer:L1interferencecanbebothpositiveandnegative.Theinterferenceistheequivalencetonegativetransfer.Positivetransfermanifeststransferwhichcanfacilitateforeignlanguagelearning,andnegativetransferreferstothenegativeinterferencefromthenativelanguagetoL2acquisition.Odlin’s“workingdefinition”oftransferhasbeenwidelyacceptedbylinguists.Heoffersitasfollows:Transferistheinfluenceresultingfromthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthetargetlanguageandanyotherlanguagethathasbeenpreviously(andperhapsimperfectly)acquired(odlin,1989:27).2.3.2Classificationandmanifestationoftransfer1.ClassificationAccordingtothesequenceoflanguagetransfer,proactivetransferandretroactivetransferarebothexisted.Theycanbedistinguishedbytheorderoftheinfluence.Proactivetransferis“thetransferofexistingskillsontonewskills”andretroactivetransferis“thetransferofnewskillsontoexistingskills”(Ellisetal,1986:49).Duetotheimpactonsecondlanguageacquisition,transfercanbedividedintopositivetransferandnegativetransfer.Positivetransfermakeslanguagelearningeasierandmayoccurwhenthenativelanguageandthetargetlanguagehavethesamestructure,whichisthecasethatL1facilitatesL2learning.Negativetransferistousethepatternsorrulesofthenativelanguageintothetargetlanguage,whichcausesanerrororinappropriateform(Richards,2002).ThereisanuniversallyacknowledgmentthatEnglishandChinesearetwodifferentlanguagesystemswhichbelongtoIndo-EuropeanandSino-Tibetanlanguagefamiliesrespectively.DuringtheprocessofEnglishlanguagelearning,itisquitepossiblethatChineseknowledgelearntpreviouslyaffectsChinesestudentsandinducesthemtoutilizeChineserulesandstructuresmechanicallyintoEnglish.Therefore,threecategoriesoferrorscausedby9 theinterferencesfromthenativelanguagetothetargetlanguagecanbedivided:substitutions,calquesandalternationsofthestructure.Substitutionsaretheuseofnativeformsinthetargetlanguage;calquescloselyreflectanativelanguagestructure,andalternationsare“overreactionstoaparticularinfluencefromthenativelanguage”(Odlin,1989).Transfernotonlyhappensbetweenthenativelanguageandthetargetlanguage,italsohappensintargetlanguageitself,whichiscalledintralingualtransfer.Accordingtotheresearch,thelinguisticruleslearnedpreviouslywouldinfluencetheruledlearnedlater,andviceversa.Forinstance,whenstudentslearnthesimplepasttense,theyarequitelikelytoapplytherulesofsingularpresenttensetotheirregularwords,whichistoputthesuffix“-ed”totheendofanywordssuchas“comed”,“bringed”,“putted”andsoon,theretheerrorsemerge.2.ManifestationTheinterferenceofthenativelanguageisextremelycommoninsecondlanguageacquisition.Theerrorsthatlearnersmakearethemainresourceoftherelatedresearch.Auniversallyacknowledgmentisthatnegativetransferfromthenativelanguagepatternsintothelearner’ssecondlanguageisthecauseoferrorsoccurrence.Odlin(1989)hasmadeageneralizationofthenegativetransferintothreecategories,under-production(oravoidance),over-productionandmis-interpretation.Whenlearnersfindthelinguisticstructuresdifficult,theyrarelyusethemorevenavoidusingthesestructures.Inthiscircumstance,theerrorsoccurforwhattheyhaven’tdoneratherthanwhattheyhavedone.Forinstance,ChineselearnersseldomuserelativeclausesineithertheirEnglishspokenorwrittensentences.AccordingtoSchachter’research(1974,205:14),relativeclauseisusedofgreateraccuracybutfewerfrequencythanspeakersfromothercountrieswhoselanguagesaremuchmoresimilartoEnglishthanChinese.Itisalsothestrategytoavoidproducingcomplicatedsentenceswithunfamiliarstructures.However,thisalsocausestheoveruseofcertainsimplesentences,whichfailstoachievetheaboriginalityofthetargetlanguage.Forexample,thelearnersmaybequitepossibletotranslateamainclausewitharelativeclauseinEnglishintotwo10 mainclausesandconnectthemwithconjunctions(Kamimotoetal,1992:268).Over-generationisalsoknownasoverproduction.Itiscausedbyintralinguistictransfermentionedabove.Over-generationistheover-useofcertaingrammaticalformsintosecondlanguagelearning.Forinstance,secondlanguagelearnershavebeenfoundtoover-generalizetheregularpasttenseinflectiontoirregularverbsinEnglishsecondlanguagelearning,suchas“bringed”,“teached”.Misinterpretationiscausedbythemisunderstandingofthelinguisticinformationinthetargetlanguagewiththehelpofthesecondlanguagelearners’nativelanguage.2.4Theoriesrelatedtoerroranalysis2.4.1ContrastiveanalysistheoryThestudyaboutforeignlanguagelearner’serrorisoriginatedin1950s.AmericanlinguistRobertLado(1957)firstputforwardtheconcept“contrastiveanalysis”.Thelinguisticfoundationofcontrastiveanalysisisstructuralismlinguisticsandbehaviorismlinguisticsisitspsychologyfoundation.Behaviorismlinguisticsconsiderslanguageassetofbehaviorcustom,andlanguagelearningistheprocesstobuildthecustom.Secondlanguageacquisitionis“theprocesstoovercomethedisturbanceofpreciouslanguage(themothertongue)customandcultivatepresentlanguagecustom(thesecondlanguage)”.Therulesthataleanerhasmasteredcanhavepositiveornegativeeffects(positivetransferandnegativetransfer)onsecondlanguageacquisition,andaccordinglypromoteordisturbhissecondlanguageacquisition.“…inthecomparisonbetweennativeandforeignliesthekeytoeaseordifficultyinforeignlanguagelearning…Thoseelementsthataresimilarto[thelearner’s]nativelanguagewillbesimpleforhimandthoseelementsthataredifferentwillbedifficult”(Lado1957:2).Thereforecontrastiveanalysisconsidersthatthemajorcauseofmakingerrorscomesfromthetransferthatthelearnermakesfromtheirmothertonguetosecondlanguage.Theformandmeaningdisturbssecondlanguagelearning.Bycomparingthedifferencebetweenmothertongueandtargetlanguage,theconceivableerrorsofspecificlanguagelearnerscanbepredictedand11 prevented.Theprincipalpracticeofcontrastiveanalysisistosystematicallycontrastthestructureofeachlevelinmothertongueandtargetlanguage,sothattocomprehendthedifficultythatthelearnermayexperienceintargetlanguagelearning.Wardhaugh(1970)dividedcontrastiveanalysisintotwoversions,thestrongversionandtheweakversion.Theattempttopredictdifficultybymeansofcontrastiveanalysisisthestrongversion.Theweakversionrecognizesthesignificanceofinterferenceacrosslanguages,whichistheobservationaluseofcontrastiveanalysis.Hebelievedthatthepredictionofthelearner’sprobableerrorinsecondlanguagelearningcanberealizedbycontrastivestudyofthetwolanguages,whichmeantalottothecompilationofteachingmaterials.Theweakversionofcontrastiveanalysisdescribestheobservableerrorandexplainsitwiththedifferencebetweentwolanguages.Itcanbeusedtoconfirmtheerrorcausedbythedisturbanceofmothertongue.Contrastiveanalysisimpelledresearcherstofocusontheerrorinlanguagelearning.Itpossessesafairlysignificantpositioninthehistoryoflinguistictheoriesandlanguageteachingtheories.Ithasmadeafundamentalcontributiontolinguisticsinprovidingresearchingmethods,colletingmaterialsandenrichingtheoriesanditalsohasagreateffectonteachingdomain.However,inlate1960s,contrastiveanalysisbegantogetsuspicionandcriticism.First,withtherisingoftransformationalgenerativelinguisticsanddeepeningofsecondlanguagestudy,thepsychologyfoundationandlinguisticfoundationofcontrastiveanalysisbegantobesuspected.Second,bydoingresearchandanalysis,theresearcherhadfoundthatnotallerrorswerecausedbythedisturbanceofmothertongue.Alargenumberoferrorswerenotpredictedbycontrastiveanalysis,andsomepredictederrorsbasedoncontrastiveanalysisdidn’temerged.Thereforethepredictionfunctionofcontrastiveanalysisstartedtogetsuspected.Third,somescholarsoppugnedthatthedegreeofdifficultyinlanguagewasaconceptofpsychologylevel,whereastheerrorinlanguagelearningwasalinguisticconcept.Theycouldnotbesimplyequal.Therefore,eventhedifficultyinlanguagelearninghadbeensuccessfullypredicted,thepossibleerrormightnotbeforeseenaccurately.Fourth,contrastiveanalysistreatedtheerrorin12 languagelearningnegativelyanddidn’tpayenoughattentiontothelanguagelearnerhimself.Onaccountofthereasonsabove,contrastiveanalysishadbeenfadedoutoftheviewoflanguagestudyandreplacedbyothertheories.2.4.2ErroranalysistheoryContrastiveanalysistheorystudieserrorsbycomparingmothertongueandtargetlanguagebutignoresthelearnerhimself.Erroranalysismakesupforthedeficiencyandstartstofocusonthelearner’slanguageerroritself.Corder’sTheSignificanceofLearner’sErrorspublishedin1967isthepioneeroferroranalysistheory.Corder(1971)viewederrorasacontrastoflanguage.Itisamethodtodescribethesecondlanguagelearners’errorsbycomparingthedifferencebetweenthelearner’sinterlanguageandtargetlanguage.Itsmainpracticeistosystematicallyanalyzetheerrorthatthelearnermakesintheprocessoftryingtoexpresshimselfintargetlanguage.Throughanalyzing,researcherscanunderstandthelearner’s“transitionability”(Corder1967:166),“approximativesystem”(Nemser1971)，“idiosyncraticdialect”(Corder,1981:15)and“interlanguage”(Selinker,1972).Bythecontrastingwithtargetlanguage,researcherscanfurtherexplainthereasonfortheerrorandexplorethelearner’spsychologymechanismandconditionoflanguageacquisition.Theproximityofinterlanguagetotargetlanguagecanalsobesearched.ThelinguisticsandthepsychologyfoundationoferroranalysistheoryareputforwardbyChomsky,theTransformational-GenerativeGrammar(1957)andtheLanguageacquisitionDevice(1965:22).Heconsideredthatlanguagewasnotmerelyaprocedureofimitatingandmemorizing.Itwasaprocedurethatthelearnerbroughthissubjectiveinitiativeintoplayandcreatednewlanguage.Oneofthebasichypothesiswasthathumanwasbornwithaparticularmechanismusedforprocessinglanguageknowledge,andlanguagewasdominatedbytheparticularlanguageknowledgesystemexistedinhuman’brainbynature,whichwascalledUniversalGrammar(Chomsky1965).Languagestudyisinfactaprocedurethatthelearnermakeshypothesisonthebaseofacceptinginputmaterialsandteststhehypothesis13 withUniversalGrammarbywhichthelearnercanconstantlyapproachtotargetlanguagesystem.Thus,errorisaninevitableandfairlynaturalphenomenoninlanguagelearning.OneofthemajorpurposesoferroranalysisistorevealthathowmuchUniversalGrammarinfluencestheprocessofsecondlanguageacquisitionandexploretheruleofsucheffectbysystematicallystudyingthelanguagelearners’linguisticerrors.ErrorAnalysisisoneofthesignificantmethodsinstudyingsecondlanguageacquisition.Itgivesresearchersanewviewtostudyerror.Researchersbegintotransferthefocusfromthestudyingofexteriorlanguagetothelanguagelearnerhimselfandtheerrorhemakes.Theattitudetoerrorhasalsochangedfromunbearabletoobjective,rationalandpositive.Thechangeislikenothingelsebutarevolutiontolanguagestudying.Languageteachinghasbeenprofoundlyinfluencedbyerroranalysislikewise.Theresearchtothestudent’serrorprovidesabundantlanguagematerialsforlanguageteaching,whichgivesadirectiontotheteacherinunderstandingthestudent’slearningsituationandwhatstepandstrategythestudenttakes.Itisareferencetotheteacheronhowtomakeremedyandhowtomakeadjustmentinteaching.However,somequestionsstillremaintobeansweredinerroranalysistheory.Forexample,thereisneitheraconcordantdefinitionnoranacknowledgedcriterionabouterror.Someclassifications“don’tworkasaclearsegmentation”(TheovanEls1984:60).Moreover,erroranalysisstudiestheerrorinlanguageasthesubjectbutignorestheformthatconformstothestandardoftargetlanguageinlanguagelearning,whichmaybringaninappropriatetendencytothelanguagelearner.Thelearnermayfocustoomuchonwhatisimproperratherthanwhatisproperexpressionform.Also,erroranalysiscannothaveaninsightintotheconcretecomprehensionprocedureinlanguagelearning.Therefore,somelanguagephenomenacannotbecapturedandexplainedbyerroranalysis,likethepossibleerrorthatshouldhappenwhenitdoesn’tontheconditionthatthelearnertakesavoidantstrategy.Furthermore,therearenowstillsomedeficienciesabouterroranalysisstudy.First,thestudyaboutlanguageapplicationisplentiful,butthestudyaboutlanguage14 comprehensionisinsufficient.Second,thestudyabouttheprocedureoflanguageerrorisnotenough.Third,erroranalysisstudypaysmuchattentiontolearners’horizontalcomparisonbutgiveslittlesighttothediachronicresearchofthesamelearner’serrorsduringthegrowthprocessofhislanguagelearning.2.4.3InterlanguagetheoryBythelate1960s,thestudyofcontrastiveanalysishadgraduallyfadedout.Tomakeabettercomprehensionofsecondlanguagelearning,peoplebegantostudyinterlanguagefromvariousanglesbasedonnumerousmothertongueacquisitionstudies.TheconceptofinterlanguagewasfirstpresentedbySelinker(1969)inLanugageTransfer.HisdissertationInterlanguagepublishedin1972has“formallyestablishedthestatusofinterlanguageinthestudyofsecondlanguageacquisition”(束定芳&庄智象2008:66).Selinkerpointedoutthatinterlanguagereferredtotheseparatenessofasecondlanguagelearner’ssystem,asystemthathadastructurallyintermediatestatusbetweenthenativeandtargetlanguages.Thegrammarrulesofinterlanguageexistsonlyinthelanguagesystemproducedbysecondlanguagelearningcontexts.Nemser(1971)referredtothesamegeneralphenomenoninsecondlanguagelearningbutstressedthesuccessiveapproximationtothetargetlanguageinhistermapproximativesystem.Corder(1971:151)usedthetermidiosyncraticdialecttoconnotetheideathattherulesofthelearner’slanguageisuniquetoaparticularindividual,thattherulesofthelearner’slanguagearepeculiartothelanguageofthatindividualalone.Althougheachofthesedesignationsemphasizesaparticularnotion,theysharedtheconceptthatsecondlanguagelearnersareformingtheirownself-containedlinguisticsystems.Thisisneitherthesystemofthenativelanguagenorthesystemofthetargetlanguage,butinsteadfallsbetweenthetwo.Interlanguageisasystembasedonthebestattemptoflearnerstoprovideorderandstructuretothelinguisticstimuliaroundthem.Itledtoawholeneweraofsecondlanguageresearchandteaching.Thestudyofthespeechandwritingoflearners,whichhasbeencalledlearner15 language(James1990)isthemostapparentmethodtoanalyzinginterlanguage.Productiondataispubliclyobservableandispresumablyreflectiveofalearner’sunderlyingcompetence—productioncompetence.Thatistosay,comprehensionofasecondlanguageismoredifficulttostudysinceitisnotdirectlyobservable.Itmustbeinferredbyovertverbalandnonverbalresponses,byartificialinstruments,orbytheintuitionoftheteacherorresearcher.Itfollowsthatthestudyofthespeechandwritingoflearnersislargelythestudyoftheerrorsoflearners.Interlanguagedevelopsfromerroranalysistheory.Erroranalysisstudiestheerrorintheleaner’sinterlanguage,whichisconductivetothelearnerinidentifyingthestageofhisinterlanguage.Thusthelearner’slearningconditionandstrategycanbeseenandthepropercorrectionmeasurescanbeputintoeffectinhislanguageapplication.Thelearner’sabilityoflanguageperformancecanbehighlyimprovedaccordingly.Likecontrastiveanalysisanderroranalysistheories,thestudytointerlanguageisnotperfect.First,thedepthandwidthofstudyisinsufficient.Thepresentstudyfocusesmuchonthelevelofmorphemeandsyntaxbutlessonsemanticandpragmatics.Second,inthecaseofreferencecriterioninthestudy,themethodoftakingthetargetlanguageasthereferencehasignoredthelearner’sself—criterion.Third,thecriteriondiversityofinterlanguageanditslanguagevariantdrawsnoattention.Fourth,intheperspectiveofmethod,sometechnicalquestionsstillneedtobesettledtoproceedfurtherverticalandcrossingstudy(戴炜栋&束定芳1994:7).2.4.4TherelationshipbetweenthethreetheoriesInterlangagueisthetheoreticalfoundationoferroranalysis.Ithasmadethestudytoerroranalysismoresystematicandfurther.Contrastiveanalysislaysemphasisoncomparingthedifferencebetweenthenativelanguageandthetargetlanguage,whereaserroranalysisstudiesthelearner’serrorbycomparinginterlanguageandthetargetlanguage.Contrastiveanalysisisstillaneffectivemethodinpredictinglearningdifficultiesconcernedwithlanguagetransfer.Itgivesan16 directionofscientificallycompilingandorganizingtheordersofteachingmaterialstoimprovetheteacher’steachingpurpose,predictabilityandpreparation.Evenintoday’slanguageteachingactivities,itremainsthevalueofdirectiveandpractical.However,sincethecontrastivedescriptionisnotabletosoundlypredicttheerrorinlanguagelearning,thestudyaboutstrongversionofcontrastiveanalysishasbecomefewerandfewer.Ithasbeenreplacedbythestudyofcross-languagetransfer.Nevertheless,theweakversionhasmeltedwitherroranalysisandbecomeanefficientcomplementoferroranalysistheory.Moreover,peoplestarttointrospectthecriticismtocontrastiveanalysistheoryin1970sandconcludesomeareunfair.Contrastiveanalysisagaingetspeople’sattentionandbroadensitsstudyscope.Contrastiveanalysistheoryanderroranalysistheoryfocusondifferentpoints,buttheirstudiesarebothoppositelystaticandnegative,whereasinterlanguagestudyismorecomprehensiveandpositive.Thepresentstudytendstounifycontrastiveanalysisanderroranalysisintotheframeofinterlanguageforfurtherresearch.2.5TheclassificationsoferrorsErrorisunavoidableintheprocessofsecondlanguageacquisition.Sincedifferentlinguistsrecognizeerrorfromdifferentangles,theclassificationstoerrorarealsovarious.Aclearcomprehensiontoclassificationsoferrorsisakeypointtofurtherstudythecausesoferror.Basedonthefeaturesofthelearner’slanguagelearningdevelopment,Corder(1984)stressedthepsychologyprocedureoflanguagelearninganddividedthelearner’slanguageerrorintothreecategories:“pre-systematicerrors”—theerrorsthathappenbeforetheformationoflanguagesystem.Thiskindoferrorsiscausedbythelearner’sfailureinmasteringsomecertainruleinthetargetlanguage.Theycan’tberecognizedbythelearnerhimself,letalongcorrections.“systematicerrors”—theerrorsthathappenwhenthelearnerhaspreliminarilyformedthelanguagesystembuthasn’ttrulyunderstoodtherulesofthetarget17 language.Thelearnercanpreventerrorsbysubstitution,butheisnotabletocorrecterrorseither.“post-systematicerrors”—theerrorsthathappenafterthelearnerhasmasteredsomecorrecttargetlanguagerulesbutstilllacksoftheabilityofpracticallanguageapplication.Thelearnercanrealizetheerrorsandcorrectthemhimself.Later,withthefurtherstudyofthetheory,researchersoferroranalysishavegeneralizederrorsasthethreefollowingcategories:(1)interlingualerrorsInterlingualerrorsderivefromthenegativetransferbetweenthenativelanguageandthetargetlanguage.Itiscausedbytheinterferenceofthelearner’smothertongue.ChineseandEnglishareenormouslydifferentingrammarstructureandculturalbackground.AndtheeducationenvironmentofelementaryandsecondaryschoolsinourcountryistostudyEnglishinChineseculturalbackground.ThereforethelearnerinevitablyaddsthelinguisticphenomenaofthenativelanguageintotheprocedureofEnglishlanguagelearning,andthisistheprincipalcauseofmostEnglishlearner’sChinglish.(2)intralingualerrorsIntralingualerrorsarecausedbythelearner’sfailureincorrectlyunderstandingrulesofthetargetlanguage.Theyaretheerrorsdirectedatthetargetlanguagerulesintheprocessofacquisition.Theyarethewrongapplicationsofsomerulesintheplacewheretherulesarenotapplicable.Andmostoftherulesdon’texistinthenativelanguage.Themajorreasonforthiskindoferroristhatthelearnerhasn’tsystematicallyunderstoodandmasteredthesecondlanguagesystem.(3)InducederrorsInducederrorsarefirsttermedbyStenson(1983).Excepttheerrorscausedbythelearner’slowtargetlanguagelevelandinterferenceofthenativelanguagepresentedbypreviouslinguists,therearesomelanguagecapabilityerrorscausedbythemisleadingofclassroomsituations.Stensoncalledtheseerrorsinducederrors.Thiscategoryoferrorsiscloselyconnectedtoclassroomteaching.Thetimeandplacethattheerrorshappenarerelativelyfixed.Theyusuallyhappenduringtheprocesswhere18 theteacherteachesthetargetlanguagerulesorrequiresthelearnertopracticethelinguisticrules.2.6ThreeviewsongrammarteachingTherearethreeviewsaboutgrammarteaching(舒白梅2005：:102-108),theviewofteachinggrammarasproduct,theviewofteachinggrammarasprocessandtheviewofteachinggrammarasskill.Theproductviewconsidersthatgrammarteachingisembodiedintheteacher’sconcreteexplanationaboutgrammarformsandrules.Studentsfinallymastergrammarknowledgeandtheirmeaningsbytheteacher’steachingandthepracticeoflanguageforms.Twotopmajorstepsinteachingshouldbefollowed:first,theteacher’spresentationaboutnewlanguageknowledgeshouldbetypicalenoughtocatchstudents’attention;second,studentsshouldbeprovidedwithsufficientchancestopractice,exchangeandreformthenewlanguageformssothattheycanbeproficientinthegrammarknowledge.However,thiskindofteachingviewusuallyresultsinplentyofgrammarknowledgemasteredbystudentsbutnotnecessarilycommunicativeeffects.Theviewofteachinggrammarasprocessfocusesmoreoncommunication.Itconsidersthatgrammarteachingistoprovidestudentswithalargenumberofopportunitiestopracticesothatstudentscanobtaingrammarrulesbytheprocessofnoticing,comparingandanalyzing.Studentscan’tacquiretherulesmerelybytheteacher’sexplanation.Thisprocessteachingsometimesisalsocalled“task-based”teaching.Usuallythetasksarecommunicativeandfocusonmeaningratherthanform.Studentshavetoattendtothecommunicationthatfocusesonmeaningandutilizeslanguagewithpurpose.Studentsshouldfirsttouchlanguageformsandknowthestructuresandtheirfunctions,thenberequiredtousetheselanguageformstohandlequestionsinspecifictasks.Duringtheprocessofutilizinglanguage,studentscanformcomprehensionofmeaningstotheselanguageformsandsequencethegrammarknowledge.Nevertheless,theteacherneedstoadjustandcontrolstudents’participationtopreventdisorder.19 Theviewofteachinggrammarasskillpaysmuchattentiontoutilization.Itsuggeststhatduringgrammarteaching,theteacherprovidesvariouslanguagecircumstanceswhichimitatetherealcommunicationinlife.Theutilizationoflanguageisthecoretask,andduringthisprocedurestudentsareremindedtopayattentiontogrammarknowledge.Forinstance,studentscanbetrainedtotellthetenseofdifferentthingsbylisteningtoadialogue.Thismethodcannotonlydrawstudents’attentiontogrammarknowledge,butalsomakethemfocusonusinglanguageskills.Eachofthethreegrammarteachingviewshasitsownadvantagesandeachcanlearnfromothers’strongpointsandclosethegap.Theproductgrammarteachingviewbelongstoexplicitinstructionsandfocusesonlanguageforms.However,onlythroughprocessgrammarteachingcantheteacherhelpstudentsgettheskillsofusinglanguage.Andbyskillgrammarteaching,theteachercanguidestudents’languageactivitiestoavoidpossibleincontrollablephenomenaduringprocessteaching.2.7PrinciplesofgrammarteachingTheparticularityofgrammarenduesitwithdeservedsignificanceandclassteachingcharacteristic.Studentsneedtosystematicallymasterthewholegrammarrulesandutilizetheserulescorrectlyandproperlyinpracticesothattheycangettopurposeofcommunicatingfreely.Consideringallthefactorsingrammarteaching,asuccessfulgrammarteachingshouldfollowtheprinciplesbelow:1.CognitionprincipleInearly1960s,thefamousSwisspsychologistPiagetfounded“geneticepistemology”.Heconsideredthattomasternewknowledgeisasapientialactivity,andeachsapientialactivitycontainscertaincognitivestructures.Itcannotbecompletedbytheformulaof“S-R”(“Stimulate-Reflect”)presentedbynonbehavioralpsychology.Hisgeneticepistemologystressedthefunctionofcreativityinthinkingwhilelearning.Americanwell-knownpsychologistBrunaputforwardstructuralismleaningview.Hethoughtthatthemasteringofbasicstructuresensuredstudentstounderstand20 thesubjectmoreeasily,whichwashelpfultokeeptheknowledgeinmemoryforalongtime.Italsocontributedtotransferandthestudyofeachsubject.MeanwhileBrunaadvocateddiscoverylearning.Theteachershouldmotivestudents’learninginterestandstrongmotivationsothatstudentscouldfullyexerttheirinitiativetodiscoverlanguagerulesandprinciplesbylogicalthinkingactivitieslikeindependentthinking,analyzing,summarizingandcomparing.AnotherpsychologistAusubeladvancedmeaningfullearningandassimilationtheory.Hethoughtmeaningfullearningiscognitivelearning.Thenewknowledgewasabsorbedbytheproperviewsinthelearner’scognitivestructureandbecamemeaningful,whichalsomadethepreviousoldknowledgegetnewmeaning.Combiningthetheoriesabove,itcanbeseenthatcognitivelearningviewconsidersthatacognitionprocessexistsinlearning.Learningisaprocessinwhichthelearnerpositivelyrecognizesandobtainsmeanings.Hisintensionformsduringtheprocess.Intheprocess,cognitionstructuresorganizeandreorganize.Thisviewemphasizesnotonlythefunctionoftheknowledgeandexperiencethatarealreadyexisted,butalsotheinnerlogicalstructureofthelearningmaterials.Theteachingmaterialswithinnerlogicalstructureassociateswithstudents’originalcognitionstructure,whichmeanstheinteractionofthenewknowledgeandtheoldknowledge.Therefore,thenewmaterialsgetnewmeaningsinthelearner’shead,andthatistheessenceofleaningchange.ThedistinguishedAmericanlinguistChomskyconsideredthatlanguagewasacompletesystemdominatedbyitsownrules.Theprocessthathumanlearnslanguagewasnotmerelygoingbysimplyimitatingandmemorizing.Itwasaprocessofapplicationwithcreativity.Theteachershouldteachstudentstofindandmasterlanguagerules,andcultivatestudentstousethoserulescreatively.BasedonPiaget’sgeneticepistemology,Bruna’sfundamentalstructureanddiscoverylearning,thecognitiveapproachwhichtakesChomsky’sTransformational-GenerativeGrammaraslinguistictheoryfoundationconsidersthatduringthegrammarteachingofforeignlanguage,theteachershouldtakecognitivepsychologyastheoreticalbasisandemphasisthepositivefunctionsofintelligence21 activitieslikeperception,comprehension,logicalthinkingandsoon.Theteachermuststressthecomprehensiontolanguagerulesandpayattentiontothefunctionofcomparingthenativelanguageandtheforeignlanguage.Theteachershouldfocusoncultivatestudents‘comprehensiveabilitiesinusingforeignlanguagepractically.Consideringstudents’presentcognitionabilitiesandlevels,theteachershouldfullyuseanddevelopstudents’subjectiveinitiativesinarranginggrammarsubjectsandchoosingteachingmethods.2.CommunicationprincipleSociolinguisticsconsidersthatthefunctionoflanguageistocommunicate.SociolinguistHymes(1972)advancedthefamousconcept—“communicativecompetence”.Hethoughtthatifapersoncanreallyusealanguagetocommunicate,heneedsnotonlythelinguisticcompetenceadvancedbyChomskytomakegrammaticalsentences,butalsothecompetencetospeakappropriatelytodifferentpeopleinvarioussituationsbydiversemethods.Thatis,thecommunicativecompetence.Thistheoryclearlyshowstherelationshipbetweenlinguisticcompetenceandcommunicativecompetence.Communicativecompetenceincludeslinguisticcompetence,andthelatteristhefoundationoftheformer.Withoutcertainlinguisticknowledge,theutilizationoflanguagecanbesourcedfromnowhere.Thepurposeofforeignlanguageteachingistocultivatestudents’communicativecompetence.Tomakestudentsgetthecapacityofcommunication,thetransformationfromtheirlinguisticcompetencetocommunicativecompetenceisabsolutelynecessary.Thereallinguisticcompetenceistrainedintheprocessofcommunicationandutilization.Therefore,thelanguagerulesandcommunicationrulesshouldbecombinedingrammarteaching.3.Step-by-stepandstage-circleprincipleAccordingtotheviewofcognitivepsychology,human’scognitiontothenatureofthings’developmentlawsisnotrealizedinonetime.thereisaprocessofconstantlychanging,repeatedlyconsolidatingandimprovinginthecognitiontoknowledge.Itfollowstheorderfromtheshallowertothedeeper,thelowertothehigher,theeasytocomplicatedandtheoldtothenew.Agrammaritemhasmany22 contents,rulesandexceptions.Theycannotbepresentedtostudentsatastroke,norcanbetaughtoncetheyaremet.Grammarteachingshouldnotonlypayattentiontosystematicorganization,butalsohierarchy.Itshouldbegoingfromthesurfacetothecoregradually.Grammarisabstractwithalargerange.Itisimpossibletomakestudentsfixthequestionsbyoneortwotimesexplanation.Itisaprocesswithrepeatingthestepsof“cognize-comprehend-master-utilize”,whichisbenefittostudents’long-timememory.Therefore,thecirculationsofstep-by-stepandgraduallygettingfurtherwithfocusingonthekeypointsapplytogrammarteaching.4.SystemprincipleGrammaristhesystematicdescriptionaboutlanguageknowledge.李彬(2004:43)consideredthatthecognitiontothepartisinevitablyisolatedandunilateralwithoutthecomprehensiveperceptiontothewhole.Ifthegrammarknowledgethatstudentskeepisscatteredandisolatedwithnosystemsatall,itcangoagainststudents’comprehensionandmemorizationtogrammarknowledgeandfailthemtoformawholeconcepttowhattheyhavelearned.Thustheycannotutilizethelanguageflexibly.Sternstressedthatstudentsshouldnotonlylearnandrememberwelleachgrammaritems,butalsopayattentiontotherelationshipsbetweentheitemsandbuildasystem(Quotedfrom王宗炎2001：95).“Therefore,theknowledgemasteredingrammarteachingshouldbefurthersummarizedincertainstagesandmakeitsystem.Basedonthat,thelearnercanunderstandtherelationshipsbetweeneachpartandformaclearandcompleteschemabyanalogizing,whichisbenefittoabsorbingmorenewmaterials”(朱纯2004:250).Grammarisacompletesystemitself.Theteachermusthaveaclearpictureinmindwhileteachinganddescribeslanguageasasystemofsymbols.23 ChapterResearchDesign3.1ThesubjectsinthisresearchThesubjectsofthisstudyarewritingsamplesandsomequestionsintheworkbookcollectedfromthestudentsoftheNO.8highschoolinGuiyangCity.Thestudentsareagedfrom16-18andinthefirstyearofseniorhighschool.MostofthemhavebeenleaningEnglishforatleastthreeyearsandalreadyobtainedacertainmasteryofEnglishlanguage.Therefore,theyareabletodoanunderstandablewritingbythemselves.Nevertheless,afterseveralyearsofEnglishlearning,theystillmakevariousgrammarerrorsintheirwritingnomatterthegrammarphenomenonhasbeentaughtornot.Theauthorchoosesthefirst-yearhighschoolstudents’writingsasthematerialisbecausethatstudents’grammarlearningatthisstagehasn’tbeenfixedfortheyarelimitedbysomegrammaticalandlexicalknowledge.Thereisalargeroomfortheteachertochangeandimprovehisgrammarteaching.3.2TheinstrumentsandproceduresThisstudyadoptsqualitativemethodasthemainresearchinstrument.Itfocusesonempiricalstudyandtakesnon-empiricalstudyasacrucialsupplement.Theprocedureincludestheanalysisofthewritings,datacollectionfromtheclassroomobservationandinformationfromtheinterviews.3.2.1ThewritingtasksandquestionsinworkbookThesubjectsarerequiredtowritecompositionswithabout120words.Therearetwowritingtopics,WhyandHowdoweLearnEnglishandFriendship.Thetopicsaregivenbytheteacherinadvancesothatthewritingresultscanbecontrolledandthevalidityofthisresearchcanbeensured.Allthegrammarerrorsinstudents’writingsaretobecollectedandclassifiedsothattheycanbeanalyzedfortheaimofthisstudy.24 Besides,somequestionspresentingtypicalgrammarerrorsinstudents’workbookarealsocollectedandclassified.3.2.2TheclassroomobservationToinvestigategrammarerrorsstudentsmadeintheclassroomandtheteacher’sgrammarteachingstrategiesandmethods,theauthorchoosessixEnglishteacher’sclasstoobserveandrecordtheirattitudestowardsstudents’grammarerrorsandthepracticalteachingideasandmethods.Classroomobservationisacrucialsourcefortheauthortoobtainmaterialsanddoreflectionsaboutthisstudy.3.2.3TheinterviewTofurtherexplainthereasonsofgrammarerrorsfromtheteacher’sviewandexploreeffectivesuggestionandmethodstoimprovegrammarteaching,theinterviewgoesamongsixteachersintwohighschoolsinGuiyang.TheyarefromNO.8seniorhighschoolandaffiliatedhighschoolofGuizhouNormalUniversityinGuiyangcity.Theformeroneisanordinaryschoolandthelatteroneisakeyschool.Theauthorchoosesthestudentsandteachersfromschoolsofdifferentlevelstoensurethereliabilityanduniversalityoftheresultaboutthisresearch.3.3ResearchquestionsThisstudyproposedtosolvethreequestionswitheverytwosub-questionsforeach:1.Whatkindofgrammarerrorsdohighschoolstudentsmake?(1)Iftheerrorsareinterlingualerrors,isitnecessarytoexplaintothestudentsindetailthattheycomefromthenegativetransferoftheirmothertongue?(2)Willtheexplanationconfusethestudentsormakethemclear?2.Howdoeserroranalysistheoryhelptheteacheradjusthis/herteachingmethodsandstrategies?(1)Canthetheoryhelptoraisetheleveloftheteacher’steachingreflectionand25 grammarteachingeffects?(2)Ifso,howdotheyperform?(e.g.bywhatkindofteachingmethods?)3.Howtocorrecthighschoolstudents’grammarerrors?(1)Whatarethemostefficientandpracticalwaystocorrectstudents’intralingualandinterlingualerrors?(2)Howtoreducetherepetitionrateoftheerrorsthathavebeencorrected?26 ChapterFourDiscussionsandAnalysisoftheResearch4.1Theclassificationsofstudents’grammarerrorsAfterstudyingtheachievementofformerresearchersandtomaketheclassificationrefinedandintuitive,theauthoradoptstheviewofclassifyingthegrammarerrorsintotwocategories:interlingualerrorsandintralingualerrors.Eachofthecategoriesisalsoseparatedintolexicalerrorsandsyntacticerrorsformostofthegrammarerrorsareeitherlexicalorsyntactic.However,althoughtheauthorhasclassifiedthegrammarerrorsintointerlingualerrorsandintralingualerrors,sometimesitisreallyhardtosaywhichcategorytheerrorabsolutelybelongsto.Therefore,abetterunderstandingofthisproblemshouldbewhichcategorytheerrorismorelikelybelongsto.4.1.1InterlingualgrammarerrorsDuetotheenormousdifferencebetweenChineseandEnglishingrammarstructuresandculturalbackground,manygrammarerrorsarecausedbynegativetransferfromthenativelanguagetothetargetlanguage.Sometimestheteacherfindsithardtounderstandstudents’expressions,butwhenhetriestocomprehendthesentenceswithChineselogic,hecanseethemeaningsstudentswanttoshow.InterlingualgrammarerrorsusuallyhappenbeforeandduringthestudentsformthesystemofEnglishstructures.1.Lexicalerrors1)ErrorsinprepositionsPrepositionscomebeforenounsandpronounstodescribetime,place,direction,means,comparison,objective,reason,andmore.Thiscategoryofwordsisquiteversatile,anditdemandsparticularintensivestudytomasterthem.However,moststudentspaylittleattentiontotheconcreteuseofcertainprepositionsandfailtousethecorrectprepositionsinvarioussituations.Forexample:27 (1)Theteachergotextremelyangrywithourscoresoftheexamination.(at)(2)IhadagreatneedandinterestinEnglish.(needfor)Besides,somestudentsfeelveryhardtoseparatetransitiveverbsfromintransitiveverbsbecausethereisnosuchrequirementfortheuseofprepositionsduetothetransitivityofverbsinChinese,whichresultsintheomissionofcertainprepositions.Forexample:(3)Welistentheclasscarefullyeveryday.(listento)(4)Agoodfriendshipdependsourattitude.(dependson)(5)Makesureyouknockthedoorfirstwhenyouareenteringyourfriend’sroom.(knockat)(6)Andweallrespectofher.(respect)Insomecases,thestudentsareapttolookontheprepositionphrasesastheverbsaccordingtothemeaning.Forexample:(7)OurEnglishteacherinchargeofourclass.(isinchargeof)(8)Iafraidmyfriendswillleavesomeday.(amafraid)ThetwophrasesunderlinedabovebothhavethemeaningoftheverbsaccordingtotheChinesetranslation.StudentstransferthestructureunconsciouslyintoEnglishwithoutconsideringtheirdifferenceinapplication.2)ErrorsinpronounsandconjunctionsThepronounsysteminEnglishconsistsofthepersonalpronouns,possessivepronouns,reflectivepronouns,reciprocalpronouns,demonstrativepronouns,interrogativepronouns,relativepronounsandinfinitepronouns(章振邦，1997).PronounsarefrequentlyusedbyEnglishnativesevenifitmatterslittleinunderstandingthemeaningaccordingtothecontext.WhileinChinese,peopletendtodropthespareonesifthemeaningsarenotinfluencedwithoutthem.Moreover,Theuseofthenominative,accusativeandgenitiveformsofpronounsaresoexplicitlydifferentiatedthatit"sdifficultforChineselearnerstoselecttherightpronounoncertainoccasions.ThentheChinesehabitofusingpronounsmayinterferewiththeoutputofEnglish.Forexample:(1)Allmyfriendslikeheverymuch.(him)28 (2)Withthehelpofshe,IhavemadegreatprogressinEnglish.(her)(3)DoyouhavesomesuggestionsforlearningEnglish?(any)SentencesaboveshowthatpronounsareusedwhenitisnecessaryinChinesestructure,andstudentsmayrunintodifficultywhenitinvolvesthecasesofnominative,accusativeandgenitive.Besidesprepositions,learnerstendtousesomeoftheconjunctionsaccordingtothesyntacticstructuresinChinese.Take“because”and“so”,“although/though”and“but”forexample,thetwowordsineachpaircannotbeusedinthesamesentenceinEnglish,butinChineseitisrequiredforbothtoappearsimultaneously.Forinstance:(1)BecauseIlikeEnglishalot,soIreaditeverymorning.(2)Althoughwequarrelwitheachothersometimes,butwearestillfriends.3)ErrorsinnounsAnounisthenameofaperson,aplace,orathing,orsomequality,stateoraction.AcommonproblemforChinesestudentsinusingEnglishnounsistoacquirecountableanduncountablenouns.Forexample:(1)WecanlearnalotofknowledgesbyreadingEnglishbooks.(knowledge)(2)Therearesomuchwaystomakeafriend.(many)(3)Iwanttoreadallkindsofworkofthewriter.(works)ThereisnosuchrulefortheinfectiouschangeofnounsthenitispluralinnumberinChinese.Learnerstendtotakeallnounsascountableforgranted.SomenounsinEnglishareeithercountableoruncountableindifferentcontexts,whichisevenharderforlearnerstomaster.4)ErrorsinadjectivesAdjectiveinEnglishcanbeclassifiedintogradableandnon-gradableones.However,mostadjectivesinEnglisharegradableandhavetheformofcomparativedegreeandsuperlativedegree.TheruletoexpresstheconceptofdegreeismuchmorecomplexinEnglishthaninChinese,whichcausedlearners’errorsquiteoften.Forexample:(1)Friendscanmakeusmorehappier.(happier)(2)Givingismuchimportantthanreceiving.(moreimportant)29 (3)Mybestfriendisoneofthemostexcellentandcleverstudentinmyclass.(cleverest)ItisobviousthatstudentsfindithardtoapplyEnglishrulesinexpressingtheconceptofadjectivedegree.2.Syntacticerrors1)NegativetransferinthesubjectandpredicateItiscommontocutunnecessarypartwithoutcausingmisunderstandingofexpressioninChinese,whileinEnglishtheelementsinthesentenceshouldbereservedregardlessofwhethertheyareuseful.SuchdifferencemaydirectlyleadtosuchproblemsinChinesestudents"sentencesasthemisplacementofthesubjectandpredicate;theinconsistencybetweenthesubjectofthepredicateandthelogicalsubjectofthesentence;theabuseofthethere-besentencepattern;andtheomissionofthesubjectorpredicate.Forinstance:(1)Hisfacewaspale,walkedveryslowly.(2)Hewenttobedassoonascamehome.Insentence(1)and(2),thesubject“he”isomittedbecauseitisalwaysomittedinChinesewithoutcausinganddifficultyinunderstanding.(3)OurSchoolhastakenplacegreatchangesinthepasttenyears.(4)Sucharesultisthattheteachersandstudentsdonotliketosee.(5)Joininthiscompetitionthestudentscanimprovethemselves.Fromthelistedsentence,itiseasytoobservethattheChineselanguageemphasizesthetopicwhileEnglishgivestheprominencetothesubject.Therefore,theChinesestudentstendtoputthephrasespertainingtothetopicwhereweshouldputthesubject,orsometimesevenomitthesubject;inthiscase,errorscomeintobeing.Inshort,thewayinwhichChinesesentencesareorganizedposesgreatblockinthesentenceorganizationinEnglish.(6)Therearemanystudentsdon’tknowhowtomakegooduseoftheirtime.(7)TherearelotsofstudentsreadEnglishinthemorningeverydayInChinese,verbscanbeusedtogether(动词连用是汉语常见的现象)(连淑能，1993),butinEnglishonesubjectcanonlybefollowedbyonepredicate(exceptthe30 compoundpredicate)nomatterhowlongorhowcomplicatedthesentenceis.Thereforelearnersoftenmakeerrorsinsentenceswiththepatternthere-be.2)ErrorsinwordorderAccordingtoDular,BurandKrashen(1982),theerrorsintermsofwordorderaremainlycausedbystudents"literaltranslationofthesuperficialstructurefromthenativelanguagetothetargetlanguage.PeopletendtoadoptdifferentLanguageordertoexpressthesamethinginEnglishandChinese.TheEnglishlanguageadherestotheorderofsubject,predicate,objectandadverbial,andthemostfrequentlyusedorderisconformingtothetimeadverbial,placeadverbialandadverbialindicatingdegreeandmanner;whiletheChineselanguagefollowstheorderofsubject,adverbial,predicateandobject.Inaddition,theplacementofthetimeandplaceshouldbeprogressive,thatis,fromtothelowgradetothehighgrade.(1)IverymuchlikeourEnglishteacher.(IlikeourEnglishteacherverymuch.)(2)Theroomhassomechildren.(Therearesomechildrenintheroom.)(3)Iwithmysisterarebothinthiskeyschool.(MysisterandIarebothinthiskeyschool.)(4)Heisasogoodfriend.(Heissogoodafriend.)(5)ThelocatedbesidetheWestLakehouseishishouse.(ThehouselocatedbesidetheWestLakeishishouse.)3)ErrorsoftenseandvoiceThegrammaticalfunctionoftensesisrealizedthroughthechangesoftheverbforminEnglish.WhileinChinesethechangeofthetimeisrealizedwiththehelpofsuchadverbialmodifiersoftimeas“已经”,“就要”,“了”，“正在”andsoonwithoutandchangesintheverbforms.(1)Ihopewearefriendsforever.(willbe)(2)Sheischeckingtheansweratthattime.(was)TheEnglishverbscanbealsodividedintoactiveandpassivevoice.Theformof31 structureofpassivevoiceis“be+pastparticipleofverbs”,andtheformchangesaccordingtodifferenttenses.However,inChinesethecharacters“被”and“把”areusedtoexpressthepassivevoiceandinmostcircumstancestheyareomittedwithoutcausinganymisunderstanding.(1)MyEnglishhasgreatlyimprove.(beenimproved)(2)Theflowerissmeltnice.(smells)4.1.2IntralingualgrammarerrorsIntralingualgrammarerrorshavelittlerelationshipswithlanguagetransfer.Theyarecausedbythelearner’smisunderstandingofthetargetlanguagerules.Adistinctionbetweenintralingualgrammarerrorsandinterlingualgrammarerrorsiswhethertherulesstudentsviolateexistinthenativelanguage.Intralingualgrammarerrorsusuallyhappenwhentherulesstudentsfailtoobeydoesnotexistintheirmothertongue.Thiscategoryoferrorsusuallyhappenswhenstudentshavealreadyformedacertainsystemofthetargetlanguagebutstillnotimproved.1.LexicalerrorsErrorsinarticlesAsawayofindicatingthedeterminationofnouns,articlesareusedinEnglishbutneverexistinChinese.Besides,therearemanyexceptionsintheEnglishgrammaraboutarticles.Thus,theuseofEnglisharticles(a/an/the)isofgreatdifficultyforlearnersalthoughtheyhavelearnedasetofrulesaboutarticles.Anobviouserroristhatstudentscannotdistinguish“a”from“an”.Forexample:(1)Myfriendwantstobeenrolledbyanuniversity.(a)(2)Englishplaysaimportantroleinourstudy.(an)Studentshavenoideawhenitisappropriateandnecessarytoaddadefiniteorindefinitearticle,whichmakesthemdependonChinesetranslation,andthensomearticlesareomitted:(3)Inmysparetime,Iliketoplayguitarwithmyfriends.(the)(4)Ialwaysdomybesttobegoodfriend.(a)32 Contrarytotheomissionofarticles,ChineselearnerssometimestendtoinsertunnecessaryarticlestosomeexpressionsaccordingtotheirownunderstandinginChinese.Forinstance:(5)Thejob-huntingbecomesmoreandmoredifficult.(The)(6)MyfirstEnglishteacheroftenjoinsusinactivitiesaftertheclass.(the)Inaword,therulesandusageofarticlesinEnglishalwaysconfuseChineselearnersasthereisnoarticlesysteminChineseatall,whichresultsintheirgrammarerrorsinwritings.2.SyntacticerrorsDisagreementbetweensubjectandpredicateAccordingtoZhangZhenbang(章振邦，1995:11),therearethreeprinciplesguidingthesubject-predicateagreement.Theyareprincipleofgrammaticalagreement,notionalagreementandproximity,amongwhichthegrammaticalagreementwhichrequirestheverbagreeswiththesubjectinnumberandpersonisthebasicone.However,ChinesesentencesarediffusivethatthepredicateisfreefromtherestrictionofsubjectsuchasnumberandpersonlikeEnglish.Thedifferencecauseslearners’errorsindisagreementbetweensubjectandpredicate.Forinstance:(1)ShestudyEnglishhard.(studies)(2)Peopleknowstohaveatrulyfriendislucky.(find)(3)Theteacher,togetherwiththestudents,aretobeawardedfortheirwonderfulperformanceintheexam.(is)InEnglish,thepredicateverbmustbeidenticalwithitssubjectinpersonandnumber,whileinChinese,predicateverbdoesnotchangeitsformaccordingtosubject.Therefore,intermsoftheagreementbetweensubjectandpredicate,learners’awarenessofEnglishrulesshouldberaisedthroughintensiveexercisesinputaccumulation.33 4.2Resultsfromclassroomobservation4.2.1TheapplicationoferroranalysistheoryinclassNotallEnglishclassroomsthattheauthorobservedforthisresearchtakestheideaoferroranalysistheorywhenteachinggrammar.Amongthesixdifferentclassroomstheauthorobserved,threeofthemshownothingabouterroranalysistheorywhentheteacherteachesgrammarinclass.Theseteachersgiveaconcreteandprofessionalexplanationoftherelatedgrammaritembutleavesnottimeforstudentstodoexerciseinclass.Evenwhenthehomeworkhassomequestionsaboutthegrammaritemandstudentsmakeerrorsonthesequestions,theteachermerelyrepeatstheexplanationsofthegrammaritemandgivesthemthecorrectanswer.Theyrarelyanalyzeandexplainthereasonsofthesegrammarerrorsbyrepeatingtherulestostudentsconsideringthatmightbeawasteoftimeandtoomuchextrawork.Theauthorconsidersthattheteachers’methodtogrammarerrorsisactuallythewaytocorrectintralingualgrammarerrors.Twooftheteacherspartlyshowtheideaoferroranalysistheoryintheirclasseswhenteachinggrammar.Theypresentgrammaritemlikethethreeteachersabove,butleavestudentsafewminutestodosomegrammarexercise.Oncestudentsmakegrammarerrorsinclass,theteacherpointsthemoutandgivesabriefexplanationaboutwhytheyarewrong.Theyalsotakesometimetoexplainthegrammarerrorsinstudents’homework.Toassistgrammarteaching,thesetwoteachersoftenemphasizethedifferencebetweenChineseandEnglishgrammarrulesbycomparingthem,whichisactuallytoexplainthereasonsofinterlingualgrammarerrorscausedbynegativetransfer.Thelastteacherdoesn’tpaymuchattentiontostudents’grammarerrorsinclassandafterclass,sometimesevenignoresthem,likethegrammarerrorsinstudents’exams.Herarelyexplainsgrammarrulesandstudents’grammarerrorsinclass.Instead,hejustkeepshelpingstudentsabsorbcorrectlanguageinputsintheirfirstgrade.34 4.2.2ThegrammarteachingmodesinclassThegrammarteachingmodesofthesixclassestheauthorobservedcanbedividedintothreetypes.Thefirsttypeistoteachgrammarasthecoreoftheclassandsimplifyotherpartsofthelanguage.Theteachertakesaguidancebookasthemainteachingmaterialandthetextbookastheminormaterialfortheguidancebookhasalargenumbercontentsofgrammarexplanationandthetextbookcontainstoomuchlongtexts.Almosteveryclassgoeswithprofessionalandconcretegrammarexplanations.Theteacherspendsmuchtimeinclasstogivestudentsthecorrectanswersofthequestionsintheguidancebookandexplainthem.Thereisneithertimeforstudentstodolisteningandspeakingpracticenorreadingbythemselves.Whenaunitisfinished,theteachertakesabouttwoclassestoleadstudentstolearnvocabularyandcircletheexpressionswithnewwordsandphrasesorgrammaritems.TheteacheradoptsgrammartranslationanddeductivemethodtoteachgrammarandputitinthecenterofthewholeEnglishclass.TheteacherofthesecondtypetreatsgrammarteachingashalfofEnglishteaching.Grammarteachingisstillquitesignificantinclass,buttheteachertakesthecontentsofthetextbookasthemajoroneassistedwithguidancebooks.Grammarteachinggoeswiththetextsineachunit.Thereistimeforstudentstodosomelisteningandspeakingpractice,andtheteacheralwaysaskstudentstoreadthetextbythemselvesbeforeclass.Theteacherinthistypealsotakesdeductiveandgrammartranslationmethodasthemainmodeofgrammarteachingassistedwithcertainaudio-lingualmethod.Thethirdtypeisquitedifferentfromthetwoabove,fortheteacherneverteachesgrammarconcretelyinfirstgrade.Thisteachertakesthetextbookasthemostsignificantteachingmaterialsinclassandafterclass.HechoosesnoextraguidancebookasthesupplementalmaterialsexceptthoseEnglishpapersrequiredbyschool.Inclass,herequiresstudentstodointensivereadingaboutthetextineachunitofthebookandunderlinetheexpressionswhichstudentsthinkareuseful.Afterthereading,35 heasksstudentstogivethecorrespondingexpressionsinEnglishthathegivesinChinese.Healsoleavessometimeforstudentstodolisteningpracticebyplayingthetextrecordinginthetape.Whentherearegrammaritemsinthetext,theteacheralwaysbrieflyintroducesthenameofthegrammaranddon’tdofurtherexplanations.Itseemsthattheteacherdoesn’ttreatgrammarteachingseriously,however,aftertheinterviewinginnextpart,itcanbeseenthatthisteachertakesaudio-lingualandinductivemethodstoteachgrammar.4.3ResultsfrominterviewstotheteachersAftertheobservationofeachteacher’sclass,theauthorinterviewedthemwithsomequestionsrelatedtoerroranalysisandgrammarteachingtocollectmoreinformation.4.3.1Theteachers’attitudestowardsstudents’grammarerrorsAlltheteachersconsiderthatstudents’grammarerrorsarevaluableandinevitable.However,onlytwoteachersknowaboutthecategoriesofgrammarerrorsandtheotherfourteachersdon’tseparategrammarerrorsintodifferenttypes.Theythinkwhatevertypestheyare,errorsareerrors.Fortheoralgrammarerrorsstudentsmadeinclass,twoteacherschoosetocorrectthemdirectlybygivingtherightanswer.Threeteacherschoosetocorrectthembyrepeatingtheerrorwiththehopethatthestudentcancorrectthemhimself.However,duetotheattributeoferror,itcannotberectifiedbythelearnerhimself.Therefore,whentheteacherrepeatsthestudent’soralgrammarerror,thestudentalwayslooksconfusedbuttryingtothinkhard.Insuchcircumstance,theerrorusuallyiscorrectedbyotherstudents,whichiscalledpeer-correction.Oneteacherchoosestoignorestudents’oralgrammarerrorsforhethinksthatthereisnoneedtoworryaboutstudents’grammarerrorsinspeakingintheirfirstgradeatall.Thecorrectionandexplanationoftheseerrorscanonlygethalftheresultwithdoubletheeffort.Forthegrammarerrorsinstudents’testpaperandwritings,threeteachersgive36 thecorrectionandexplanationaboutthequestionsinthetestpaperbutignorethoseinthewritings.Twoteacherscorrectandexplaintheerrorsbothinthepaperandthewritings.Oneteachergivesthecorrectionafterclassandexplainsneitheroftheerrorsconsideringthesamereasoninnotrectifyingstudents’oralgrammarerrorsintheendoftheparagraphabove.Forhowtocheckifthestudentshaverectifiedthegrammarerrors,twoteachersthinkthattodomoreexercisesandexamsistheonlywaytocheckwhetherstudentshavemasteredthegrammaritemornot.Threeteachersconsiderthatexceptthetestpaperandquestions,students’oralexpressionsanddailywritingsarealsogoodmaterialstochecktheircorrections.Oneteacherthinksthatthereisnoneedtocheckstudents’grammarerrorsbyleavingthemplentyoftestpaperandwritingtasks,fortheyareformingthesystemofEnglishrulesinfirstgrade.Theywilldefinitelymakegrammarerrorsiftheyareaskedtofinishtoomuchtaskslikewritingswithoutenoughlanguageaccumulation.4.3.2Theteachers’ideasofgrammarteachingAlltheteachersconsiderthatgrammarteachingisquitecrucialinhighschoolEnglishteachingbecausegrammaristheframeoflanguage.However,theteachers’ideasabouthowtoteachergrammararequitedifferentandcanbedividedintotwothreetypesingeneral.Theteacherinthefirsttypeconsidersthatgrammarmustbetaughtfromtheverybeginningofhighschool.Otherwisetherewon’tbeenoughtimetofinishthispart.GrammaristhemostimportantcontentinEnglishteachingandshouldbeputinthecoreposition.Theteacherthinksthatthemosteffectivewaytoteachgrammaristoteachwithaguidancebookaccordingtoitsarrangementstepbystepandmakethetextbookassupplement.ByexplainEnglishgrammarrulesconcretelyinChineseclassafterclass,theteacherapparentlyusesgrammartranslationmethodasthemainandonlymethodtoteachgrammar.Theteacherofthesecondtypealsothinksgrammarshouldbetaughtfromthe37 beginningoffirstgrade.However,unliketheteacherinthefirsttype,thistypeofteacherconsidersthatgrammarshouldbetaughtalongthepaceofthetextbook.Thereshouldbeaguidancebook—butjustasthesupplementofthetextbook,andthecontentsinitshouldbechosenbytheteacherhimselfaccordingtoconcreteteachingsituations.Thetextbookisstillthebasicmaterialforgrammarteaching.Theteacherofthethirdtypeisquitedifferentfromtheformertwo.Heconsidersthatgrammarshouldn’tbetaughtatthebeginningoffirstgradeorthefirstsemesterofthesecondgrade.Itshouldbetaughtfromthesecondsemesterofgradetwoorevengradethree.Theteacherthinksthatgrammarmustbetaughtafterthestudentshavealargeaccumulationofcorrectlanguage.Otherwiseboththeteacherandthestudentsaregoingtohaveaveryhardtimeongrammarteachingandlearning.ThetextbookisthebestresourceforaccumulatingcorrectEnglishlanguage.Theteachershouldfullyuseitwithactivitiesofreading,speakingandlisteningtohelpstudentsincreasetheirlanguagematerials.Afterallthepreparationsinthefirsttwooroneandhalfyears,grammarteachingbecomesmucheasierandeffectiveforboththeteacherandthestudents.Hesaidthatthisideaofgrammarteachingislikewhenwaterflows,achannelisformed.38 ChapterFiveImplicationsandConclusion5.1Implicationsforreducinggrammarerrors5.1.1EmphasizingthedifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglishInterlingualgrammarerrorsaremostlycausedbynegativetransferfromthenativelanguagetothetargetlanguage.Whenthelearnermeetsthelinguisticsituationthathecannotfixwithhislimitedtargetlanguagerules,henaturallyresortstohisnativelanguagerules,whichbringsaboutnegativetransferandinterlingualgrammarerrors.Therefore,toreduceinterlingualgrammarerrors,thedifferencesthatmaycausenegativetransfermustbeemphasizedtothelearner.Duringthedailygrammarteaching,theteachershouldhaveaclearviewonthedifferencesbetweenChineseandEnglish.Theteachershouldkeepremindingstudentstopayattentiontothedifferencesandhelpthemavoidnegativetransferfromthenativelanguageaspossibleastheycan.5.1.2EnlargingthetargetlanguageinputthroughintensiveEnglishreadingWithoutenoughcorrecttargetlanguageinput,thelearner’soutputcannotbeaccurateandfluent.Exceptthenecessitytoreduceinterlingualgrammarerrors,themethodtoreduceintralingualgrammarerrorsisalsosignificant.Comparedwiththememorizationoftherulesthattendstocauseinterlingualgrammarerrors,thememorizationtotherulesthatdon’texistinthenativelanguageisevenharder.Tolearnthembyroteworkslittle,forthelearnerdoesn’tknowhowtousethem.Besides,theserulesarequiteeasilytobemixedupandmakethelearnerconfused.Therefore,themosteffectivewaytoreduceintralingualgrammarerrorsistoenlargethelearner’stargetlanguageinputincontext,whichmeansbyintensiveEnglishreading.Forstudentsinthefirstgradeofhighschool,thebestwaytolearngrammaristoreadthetextintensivelyratherthandoingexercisesdaybyday,forintensivereadingprovidesgrammarteachingandlearningwithplentyofnativelanguagematerials.39 Comparedwithteachingandlearninggrammarbyjustexplainingthegrammarrulesanddoingendlessexercises,intensivereadingismuchmorealiveandeffective.Thoughintensivereading,studentscanseehowthegrammaritemisusedinconcretecontextandbeimpresseddeeply.5.2Implicationsforgrammarteaching5.2.1TakinglanguageapplicationastheoutputdriveGrammarteachingcan’tgoesonlyonthedriveofexamination.Amongtheclassestheauthorobserved,themostboringandinefficientclassistheonethattheteachertotallytakescollegeentranceexaminationasthedrivewiththemethodofgrammartranslation.Unfortunately,therearestillplentyofteachersteachingEnglishgrammarlikethis.Thistypeofteachingviolatesthenatureoflanguagelearning.StudentslearningEnglishgrammarinthismethodusuallycan’tutilizeEnglishwell.Theapplicationoflanguagedoesn’tgoagainstexaminations.Theteachershouldtakebothlanguageapplicationandexaminationastheinputdrivetoteachgrammar.Accordingly,audio-lingualmethodisnecessaryforgrammarteachingasitsfunctiononcultivatestudents’abilityofspeakingandlistening.Itshouldbethemainmethodinteachinggrammar.Grammartranslationmethodalso,canbeanecessarysupplementwhenaudio-lingualmethodisinadequate.Withoutpracticallanguageapplication,thegrammarerrorsarealwaysabouttohappenwhenthelearnertrytousethelanguage.5.2.2TeachinggrammarinthelatterperiodAccordingtotheauthor’sclassroomobservation,mostteachersteachEnglishgrammarconcretelyfromtheverybeginningofhighschoolwithbarelysatisfactoryresults.Onlyoneteacherchoosestoteachgrammarfromthesecondsemesterofgradetwoorthefirstsemesterofgradethreebutwithexcellentresults.Hefocusesonstudents’accumulationofnativeEnglishlanguagematerialsintheformeryearsof40 highschoolandmeanwhiletrainsstudents’abilitiesonlistening,speakingandreading.Heleavesgrammarteachingandwritinginthelatterparttosystematicallyexplain,forhethinksthatwithoutenoughlanguagematerialsgrammarandwritingteachingcangoveryhard.Thisteachergetsthebestteachingresultsamongallthesixteachers.Therefore,theauthorhassummarizedhisgrammarteachingideaandgivesthesuggestionthatgrammarshouldbesystematicallytaughtinthelatterpartofhighschool.Studentsneedtoaccumulateenoughnativelanguagematerialsthoughpracticingreading,speakingandlisteningbeforetheystarttolearntheconcretegrammarrules.Withouttheaccumulation,grammarteachingcan’tgetsatisfactoryresultsforboththeteacherandthestudents.TheteachershouldenhancehisprofessionalabilityinEnglishgrammarteachingbyusingdifferentmethodsandhelpstudentslearngrammarwithhighefficiency.Largelyaccumulatingnativelanguagematerialsandleavinggrammarteachinginthelatterpartcanreducemanyinterlingualandintralingualgrammarerrorsforhighschoolstudentsandimprovegrammarteachingenormously.5.2.3TeachinggrammarincontextsGrammarcannotbetaughtthroughisolatedexplanationanddrillswhicharefarawayfromthereallanguageenvironment.Byobservingclassroomteaching,theauthorhasfoundthatteacherswhocreatevariouscontextstoteachgrammaralwayshaveanactiveclassroomatmosphereandexcellentteachingresult,andteacherswhoteachgrammarinisolationusuallygetdepressingclassroomenvironmentandcommonteachingresult—sometimesevenbad.Studentsappreciatecontextualizedstudyofgrammarasopposedtoisolatedlearningofgrammarusingmemorization,drillsandpractices.Therefore,grammarteachingwithhighefficiencyshouldbeprecededincontextstomakestudentshaveanintuitiveanddeepimpressiontowardthegrammar.41 5.3ConclusionThisthesishasattainedtheresultsthroughtheresearchbymeansofdatacollectionandanalysisoferrorsinstudents’writingsamples,theobservationofEnglishclassroomandtheinvestigationofinterviewstotheteachers.5.3.1MajorfindingsHighschoolstudentsmakelexicalandsyntacticgrammarerrorsmainlyintheirstudy.Accordingtoerroranalysistheory,theseerrorscanbeclassifiedintothreecategories:interlingualerrors,intralingualerrorsandinducederrors.Themostfrequenterrorsstudentsmakeareinterlingualerrors,thencomesintralingualerrors.Inducederrorshappenlesscomparedwiththefirsttwoerrors.Wheninterlingualerrorshappen,itisnecessarytoexplaintothestudentsthattheseerrorsarecausedbythedifferencesbetweentheirmothertongueandthetargetlanguge.Thisexplanationisquitehelpfulforstudentstounderstandtheirerrors.Aftertheexplanationtheypaymuchattentiontothedifferencesandemphasizetheirmemoriestotheexpressionsinthetargetlanguage.However,theexplanationshouldn’tgowithtoomuchterms.Termslike“negativetransfer”areunnecessarytobetaughttostudentsbecauseitisquitepossibletoaddextraburdensduringtheprocessofstudents’memorizationandmakethemconfusedinunderstandingtheterms.Nevertheless,theteachershouldhaveaclearideaaboutthesetermsandtheirmeaningssothatheorshecantreatstudents’grammarerrorscorrectlywithsystematictheorysupport.Erroranalysistheorycanhelptoraisetheleveloftheteacher’steachingreflectionandgrammarteachingeffects.Throughtheclassroomobservationandinterviewstotheteachers,theauthorhasfoundthatteacherswhohaveasystematiccomprehensionabouterroranalysistheoryspendmoretimeonanalyzingstudents’grammarerrorsandreflectingtheirgrammarteachings.Theseteachersaremoreeffectiveinadoptinggrammarteachingstrategiesandmethodsthanthosewhohaveavagueorevennounderstandingabouterroranalysistheory.Theformerteachershavesystematicideasindefiningstudents’grammarerrors,explainingthereasonsand42 correctingerrors.Theyclearlyknowthaterrorsarenotmerelyerrorsinsurface.Theseerrorsaresignificantpartinthewholesystemofforeignlanguagelearningandshouldbetreatedwithmuchattention.Theseteachersalwaysgivefeedbacktostudents’grammarerrorsintimeandadjusttheirteachingstrategiesandmethodstofollowstudents’learningrequirementindifferentperiodsandcontents.Theyteachgrammarafterhelpingstudentsaccumulateenoughlanguagematerials.Theyrarelyusegrammartranslationmethodtoteachgrammaratthebeginningofstudents’foreignlanguagelearning.Theknowgrammarissignificantinlanguagelearning,buttheyneverpushstudentstorememberhowimportantgrammaris.Theyleadstudentstorealizethesignificanceofgrammarindailystudythemselves.Thelaterteachers’ideasabouterrorsarecomparativelynarrow.Theyconsiderthaterrorsarejusterrors,andthereisnoneedtopaymuchattentiontothem.Oncethereareerrors,whattheteacherneedstodoistocorrectthem.Dealingwithstudents’grammarerrorshaslittlerelationshipwithadjustingteachers’grammarteachingstrategiesandmethods.Teachersinthistypeusegrammartranslationmethodquiteoften.TheytendtostresstheimportanceofgrammarattheverybeginningofhighschoolEnglishlearningandteachgrammarwithlargenumberoftermsandremindstudentsthesignificanceofgrammarallthetimeandrarelydoadjustmentontheirteachingstrategiesandmethods.Theformerteachersusuallygetexcellentteachingresultsandthelaterteachersoftengetordinaryteachingresults.Incorrectingstudents’grammarerrors,themostefficientandpracticalwaystocorrectstudents’interlingualerrorsandintralingualerrorsarecorrectionfromthestudentsthemselvesundertheteacher’sguidanceandcorrectionfromtheteacher.Whentimeisenough,students’selfcorrectionsundertheteacher’sguidanceworkeffectively.Theteachergivessufficientexplanationstostudents’errorsandleadstudentstocorrecttheerrorsthemselves.Duringtheprocess,studentsgraduallyunderstandtheirerrorsandtryhardtofixthem.Thiskindofcorrectionleavesstudentswithdeepimpressionandabetterunderstandingofthegrammarphenomenon.Althoughitisknownthatcomparedwithmistakes,errorscannotbecorrectedbythelearnerhimself,thecorrectionundertheteacher’sguidanceistotally43 different.Errorsinsuchcircumstancescanbecorrectedbythelearnerhimself.Correctionfromtheteacherhappenswhentimeislimited.Theteacherusuallygivesthecorrectiondirectlyandrequiresstudentstofindoutthereasons.Thiskindofcorrectioncanalsoimpressstudentsbymakingthemcheckthedetailsofthegrammar.Bothofthecorrectionstreatstudentsasthecenteroflanguagestudyandgiveplaytotheirsubjectiveinitiative,whichisasignificantperformanceoferroranalysistheory.Aftercorrections,themostcrucialthingistoreducetherepetitionrateoftheerrors.Teacherswithexcellentteachingresultusuallygiveremarkableperformanceonthisproblem.Theypaymuchattentiontolanguageinputandhelpstudentsaccumulateenoughtargetlanguagematerials.Theyalsosetvariouscontextstomakestudentspracticetheerrorstheyhavemade.Withafirmfoundationoflanguageinput,themorestudentspracticetheirgrammarindifferentcontexts,thefewererrorstheymake.Comparedwithcheckingerrorsjustbydoingisolatedquestionsandexamsbysometeachers,thesewaystoreducestudents’errorsaremoreefficientandpractical.5.3.2LimitsandsuggestionsforfurtherresearchTheauthorhastoadmitthatthisthesisisnotafull-scaleoneforthereasonsbelow.Thevarietyofthesubjectschosenisnotwideenough.Theauthorselectedacertainnumberofstudentsonlyinoneclassofonegrade.Thegrammarerrorsthesestudentsmadecannotrepresentalltheproblemsinstudents’targetlanguagecompetenceofdifferentlevels.Thusadiachronicstudyincludingthestudentsofallgradesshouldbeofgreatnecessityforitmaybringamorecomprehensiveandreliableconclusionregardingstudentsgrammarerrorsinwritings.Thisstudyiscarriedoutinashortperiodoftime,therefore,theresultisfarfromreliableandcanbarelyreflectstudents’authenticsituationsinmasteringEnglishgrammarrules,forstudentsmayproducedifferentcategoriesofgrammarerrorsindifferentstagesduringtheprocessofthetargetlanguageacquisition.Inaddition,thesamplesentenceswithgrammarerrorsinthepartofclassifying44 theerrorsareofgreatinsufficient.Althoughtheauthortendstofocusmoreongrammarteaching,erroranalysisisthestartingpointandshouldbegivenmoresamples.Thequantitativemethodalsoisn’tsufficientenough.Thelackingofpreciselyanalyzingthedataweakensthepersuasivenessofthestudy.SincemanyhighschoolEnglishteachersarenowstillteachinggrammarwithgrammartranslationasthemainoronlymethodanddoingnoadjustmentandchangesaccordingtostudents’grammarerrors,furtherstudiesareneededtoinvestigatenotonlytheteacher’sattitudetogrammarerrorsandgrammarteachingideasandmethods,butalsothereasonsthattheyrarelychangeandadjusttheirmethodsongrammarteaching,sothatreliableexplanationsandsuggestionscanbegiventoimprovegrammarteaching.45 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AppendixInterviewThequestionsarecarefullydesignedtoinvestigateteachers’opinionstostudents’grammarerrors,erroranalysistheoriesandgrammarteachingmethods.Pleaseanswerthequestionsaccordingtoyourownacquaintanceandexperiencewithyourstudents.Allthedatacollectedwillbeconfidentialandwillbeusedfortheinvestigationonly.1.Howdoyouconsiderstudents’grammarerrors?2.Whatisyouropiniontoerroranalysistheory?3.Howdoyouclassifystudents’grammarerrorsandwhy?4.Whatdoyouthinkaretheeffectivemethodsincorrectingstudents’grammarerrorsandreducingtheseerrors?5.Howdoyouselectandadjustgrammarteachingmethodsaccordingtostudents’grammarerrorsanderroranalysistheory?49 AcknowledgementsIgreatlyappreciateallthosepeoplewhohaveassistedmewiththeproductionofthisMaster’sDegreethesis.Withouttheirencouragementandsupport,thisthesiswouldnothavebeenfinished.MygratitudefirstgoestoProfessorMaoGuoan,mymentor,forhisunreservedhelp,greatencouragementandcompletetrust.Ihaveacquiredalotfromhisvaluableadvice.Ifitisnotforhismeticulousproof-readingandrevision,mythesiswouldnotbelikewhatitistoday.Mysincerethanksthengototheprofessorswhohavetaughtmeandinfluencedmewiththeirprofoundknowledgeandconscientiousinstructions.TheyareProfessorGanLiping,ProfessorChenQing,ProfessorXiaoTangjin,andProfessorZhaoShouying.Ihavebenefitedenormouslyfromtheirinsightfullecturesandfromtheconcernandcaretheyhaveshownforme.Duringtheperiodofthisthesiswriting,IhaveobtainedsupportandhelpoftheteachersandleadersfromThe8thHighSchoolandTheAffiliatedMiddleSchoolofGuizhouNormalUniversityinGuiyangcity,Guizhouprovince.Ipaymyrespectsandcordialthankstothem.Finally,Iamalsoextremelyappreciativeofmyparentsandmydearestfriends.I’mreallygratefulfortheirunderstandingandencouragementtomystudy.50 攻读硕士期间主要研究成果：1.许华尊，汉语“的”字在英文中的表达—以鲁迅作品的汉英对照本为例[J].开封教育学院学报，2016(1):54-552.许华尊，“输出驱动—输入促成假设”应用于高中英语教学的探究与思考[J].英语广场，2016(2):150-1513.许华尊，“语法后行”在高中英语教学中的可行性探究—基于两种英语课堂的反思[J].英语广场，2016(3):146-14751