圣经谚语俗语成语大全.doc 94页

六、圣经谚语俗语成语大全1．thetreeofknowledge使人分辨善恶的智慧之树2．theserpent恶魔3．asoldasMethuselah玛土撒拉，寿同彭祖4．Noah’sark诺亚方舟5．olivebranch橄榄枝；和平的象征6．theTowerofBabel巴别塔，[喻]空想的计划7．sellone’sbirthrightforamessofpottage为一碗红豆汤出卖长子继承权，[喻]见利忘义，因小失大8．Jacob’svoiceinEsau’shand鱼目混珠，以假乱真9．Benjamin’smess最大的份额10．landflowingmilkandhoney[喻]富饶之地，鱼米之乡 11．thegoldcalf[喻]金钱崇拜12．Balaam’sass[喻]语出惊人13．aneyeforaneye,andatoothforatooth以眼还眼，以牙还牙14．appleofone’seye[喻]掌上明珠15．DavidandJonathan[喻]生死之交16．LetterofUriah[喻]给自己带来灾难的消息17．one’sownlamb[喻]唯一的宝贝；最珍爱的东西18．manofblood凶手；残忍嗜杀的人19．aswiseasSolomon[喻]极有智慧的人20．Solomon’swisejudgment[喻]明智的判断21．widow’scruse[喻]取之不尽的聚宝盆 22．astillsmallvoice良心的呼声23．Naboth’svineyard[喻]使人垂涎的事物24．drawabowataventure随便开弓；做事不顾前后25．deathinthepot[喻]暗藏的危险26．acovenantofsalt[喻]不可违背的盟约27．thepatientofJob[喻]极大的耐心28．asthesparksflyupward必然的，象自然规律那样丝毫不差29．bytheskinofone’steeth幸免遇难，侥幸30．thelightofone’scountenance恩宠，嘉许31．BullofBashan[喻]凶猛的敌人32．thevalleyoftheshadowofdeath[喻]濒死的痛苦时刻 33．havecleanhands正直；清白无辜34．lickthedust被打倒；屈服35．heapcoalsoffireonsomebody’shead[喻]以德报怨，使某人悔恨36．alionintheway拦路虎；可怕的障碍37．theflyintheointment[喻]美中不足，使人扫兴的小事38．castone’sbreaduponthewaters[喻]真心行善；不图回报39．adropinabucket[喻]沧海一粟40．amanofsorrows耶稣基督41．balminGilead[喻]灵丹妙药；减轻痛苦的东西42．setone’steethonedge使人难受43．gallandwormwood[喻]令人憎恨的事；极不愉快的事 哈哈44．stirringofthedrybones枯骨复生；[喻]沉寂中忽现生机45．feetofclay[喻]受人崇拜的人或物所不为人知的弱点46．thewriting(orfinger,hand,handwriting)onthewall不祥之兆；灾难降临的预兆47．Danielinthelion’sden[喻]真金不怕火炼48．sowthewindandreapthewhirlwind恶有恶报49．abrandfromtheburning幸免遇难的人；劫后余生50．Jonah’sgourd[喻]朝生暮死的东西51．rootandbranch连根带叶；彻底地；全部地52．out-HerodHerod比西律王更残忍53．thesaltoftheearth[喻]社会的中坚 54．turntheothercheek转过脸让人打55．asbirdsdo[喻]衣食无忧56．theliliesofthefield野地里的百合花57．castpearlbeforeswine明珠暗投；对牛弹琴58．askforbreadandbegivenastone[喻]得非所求59．thenarrowway(orgate)窄路；正值60．wolfinsheep’sclothing披着羊皮的狼61．buildonthesand[喻]基础不稳定62．bearone’scross[喻]忍受痛苦63．acupofcoldwater[喻]施舍64．agrainofmustardseed[喻]极有发展的小东西 65．Judas’kiss犹大之吻；[喻]出卖，背叛66．widow’smite寡妇的一文钱；[喻]少而可贵的捐献67．thegoodSamaritan善良的撒玛利亚人；[喻]乐善好施者68．theprodigalson败家子，浪子69．theMammonofunrighteousness不义之财；贪欲之神70．agreatgulffixed深渊；鸿沟；分歧71．Lightoftheworld世上的光72．theLastSuper最后的晚餐73．doubtingThomas[喻]多疑的人74．thescalesfallfromone’seyes重见光明；茅塞顿开75．breakbread进圣餐；受到款待 76．thewagesofsin罪恶的报应；死亡77．beattheair白费力气；徒劳无益78．soundingbrass[喻]没有行动的夸张言语79．inthetwinklingofaneye转瞬间80．athornintheflesh眼中钉，肉中刺81．fallfromgrace误入歧途82．bowelsofmercy恻隐之心；慈悲为怀83．alaboroflove不计报酬的工作84．therootofallevil祸根；万恶之源85．filthylucre不义之财；肮脏钱86．strongmeat[喻]难理解的东西 87．entertainanangelunawares招待了贵客而不知；没有注意到朝夕相处的人的长处88．girduptheloins[喻]准备行动89．theweakervessel女人90．abookoflife生命册Australia"skoalapopulationhitsnewlow(DavidGray/Reuters) ManyofthekoalasarestarvingtodeathAnenvironmentalgrouphasappealedtotheAustralianGovernmenttolistthecountry’siconickoalabearsas"endangered"afteranewstudyfoundthatthepopulationoftheanimalshasfallentoadramaticnewlow.AccordingtoastudybytheAustralianKoalaFoundation,therecouldbeasfewas43,000koalaslivinginthewild–apossible90percentdeclineoverthepast21years.Thefoundationsubmittedtheirstudytoday,thebiggestnationalsurveyofoneofthecountry’smostfamousanimals,tothefederalgovernment’snationalThreatenedSpeciesScientificCommittee(TSSC).Itwantsthecommitteetoofficiallylistthespeciesasvulnerableofextinction. Itisthesecondattemptbythefoundationtohavethekoalalistedasendangeredafterapreviousrejectionforlackofscientificdata.TheheadofthefoundationDeborahTabartsaidthatthistimethegrouphadthestatisticstobackitup.窗体顶端窗体底端MsTabartsaidthatthefoundationhadscouredthebush,surveyed1,000forestsin1,800fieldsitesandmeasuredover80,000treesoverthepasttwodecadeswhenthekoalapopulationwasgenerallyconsideredtobearound400,000.“Thekoalahabitatisjustnottherenow,thekoalasaremissingeverywherewelook,”shesaid.Themaincausesforthedeclineincludethedestructionoftheirnaturalhabitatduetologgingandurbandevelopment;disease,suchaschlamydia,whichaffectsalargeproportionofkoalas; dogattacks;bushfiresandroadaccidents.Mostrecently,MsTabartsaid,koalashavebeenfoundstarvingtodeathanddyingofdehydrationthroughlackofwaterduetothedroughtinAustralia.Shealsoaddedthatclimatechangecouldbebehindtheirmostrecentdecline.“Thekoalasarejustdroppingoutofthetreeslikefliesbecausethere’snowater,”shesaid.“Andavettoldmerecentlythathehaddone700postmortemsonkoalasandhalfofthemstarvedtodeath,soitisarealproblem.”Shesaidthatwhiletherewasnowaytoputafigureontheexactamountofkoalasinthewild,thefoundation’scurrentpopulationestimateofbetween43,000and80,000wouldstillmakeit abletobecategorisedasanendangeredspecies.“Ireallybelievethereisnomorethan50,000koalasleftinAustralia,”shesaid.“WedrovethroughwesternQueenslandrecentlyanddidn’tseeoneforthreedayswhichtraditionallyhadbeenfullofthem.”In2003therewereestimatedtobe100,000koalasinmainlandAustralia.Somescientistsbelievethenumbersmaybehigher.However,lastyeartheAustralianGovernmentendorsedanationalconservationstrategyforkoalas.ProfessorBobBeeton,thechairmanoftheTSSC,saidthatthecommitteewasopentodiscussionsovertheissueatameetinginCanberratoday,butwouldnotmakeadecisiononthestatusofthekoalauntilnextyear. “We’reinterestedinwhetherthere’sadeclineinnumbers,whetherthere’sadeclineinrange,howrapidlythosethingsareoccurring,what’stheprobabilityofextinction,”ProfessorBeetontoldtheAustralianBroadcastingCorporation,addingthattheiconicstatusoftheAustraliankoalawouldnotinfluencetheirdecision.“We’dconsiderthekoalawiththesamelevelofdiligenceanddedicationasifitwerethedeathadder.”NorthAmericanOriginsfortheFalklandsWolf ZoologyoftheVoyageofH.M.S.BeagleAnillustrationoftheFalklandswolffromTheZoologyoftheVoyageofH.M.S.Beagle,whichwaspublishedinthelate1830s.窗体顶端TheFalklandswolfhaspuzzledevolutionarybiologistssinceCharlesDarwinfirstencountereditduringthevoyageoftheBeagleinthe1830s.ItwastheonlynativelandmammalontheFalklandIslands,whichare300milesoffthecoastofArgentina.Nooneknewhowitgotthereorwhatmainlandanimalsit wasdescendedfrom—anditdidnothelpthatthewolfwashuntedtoextinctionby1876.SkiptonextparagraphButusinggeneticanalysis,GrahamJ.Slater,apost-doctoralresearcherattheUniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles,andcolleagueshavesolvedsomeofthemystery.TheclosestlivingrelativeoftheFalklandswolf,theywriteinCurrentBiology,isaSouthAmericanspecies,butthetwodivergedinNorthAmerica.TheresearchersobtainedsnippetsofDNAfromfivemuseumspecimens,lookedatvariationsamongthesamplesandcomparedthemwithDNAfromlivingspecies.Theywereabletobuildafamilytreeandatimelineofwhenthevariousbranchesdiverged.EarlierstudiesoftheFalklandswolfhadsuggesteditwasrelatedtofoxes,buttheDNAworkshowedtheclosestliving relativetobeanotherSouthAmericancanid,themanedwolf.Dr.SlatersaidtheresearchshowedthatthemanedwolfandtheFalklandswolflasthadacommonancestorsixmillionyearsago.“Butcanidsdidn’tshowupinSouthAmericauntiltwoandahalfmillionyearsago,”hesaid,aftertheisthmusofPanamawasformed.HesaiditwasquitelikelythatthetwospeciesevolvedinNorthAmericaandthen,facedwithincreasingcompetitionfromcanidsthatenteredthecontinentfromAsia,“managedtosurvivebygoingtoSouthAmerica.”Dr.SlatersaidtheresearchalsopartlyansweredhowthewolvesgottotheFalklands.Theycouldnothavebeenbroughttotheislandsbyancientpeoples,assomeresearcherssuggested,becausethemostrecentcommonancestorofthefivesamplesstudiedlivedatleast70,000 yearsago,longbeforehumansarrived.Instead,hesaid,thewolvesmusthavefloatedoveronvegetationoricefloes.ChristmasFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopediaJumpto:navigation,search"ChristmasDay"redirectshere.Forotheruses,seeChristmas(disambiguation)andChristmasDay(disambiguation)."Christmass"redirectshere.FortheFrankBlackalbum,seeChristmass(album).ChristmasChristmasdecorationson displayAlsocalledChrist"smassNativityYuletideNoelWinterPaschaObservedbyChristiansManynon-Christians[1]TypeChristian,culturalSignificanceTraditionalbirthdayofJesusDateDecember25ObservancesGiftgiving,churchservices,familymeetings,decorating RelatedtoAnnunciation,Advent,Epiphany,BaptismoftheLordChristmas[2]orChristmasDay[3][4]isanannualholidaythat,inChristianity,commemoratesthebirthofJesusChrist.[5][6]ItiscelebratedonDecember25,butthisdateisnotknowntobeJesus"actualbirthday,andmayhaveinitiallybeenchosentocorrespondwitheitherthedayexactlyninemonthsaftersomeearlyChristiansbelievedJesushadbeenconceived,[7]ahistoricalRomanfestival,[8]orthedateofthenorthernhemisphere"swintersolstice.[9]ChristmasiscentraltotheChristmasandholidayseason,andinChristianitymarksthebeginningofthelargerseason ofChristmastide,whichlaststwelvedays.[10]AlthoughtraditionallyaChristianholiday,Christmasisalsowidelycelebratedbymanynon-Christians,[1][11]andsomeofitspopularcelebratorycustomshavepre-Christianorsecularthemesandorigins.Popularmoderncustomsoftheholidayincludegift-giving,music,anexchangeofgreetingcards,churchcelebrations,aspecialmeal,andthedisplayofvariousdecorations;includingChristmastrees,lights,garlands,mistletoe,nativityscenes,andholly.Inaddition,FatherChristmas(knownasSantaClausinsomeareas,includingNorthAmerica,AustraliaandIreland)isapopularmythologicalfigureinmanycountries,associatedwiththebringingofgiftsforchildren.[12] Becausegift-givingandmanyotheraspectsoftheChristmasfestivalinvolveheightenedeconomicactivityamongbothChristiansandnon-Christians,theholidayhasbecomeasignificanteventandakeysalesperiodforretailersandbusinesses.TheeconomicimpactofChristmasisafactorthathasgrownsteadilyoverthepastfewcenturiesinmanyregionsoftheworld. Contents[hide]·1Etymology·2Celebrationo2.1CommemorationofJesus"birtho2.2Variedtraditionso2.3Decorationso2.4Musicandcarolso2.5Cardso2.6Stampso2.7SantaClausandotherbringersofgifts·3Historyo3.1Pre-Christianbackground§3.1.1DiesNatalisSolisInvicti§3.1.2Winterfestivalso3.2Christianestablishment§3.2.1Feastestablished§3.2.2MiddleAgeso3.3Reformationintothe19thcentury·4Controversyandcriticism ·5Economics·6Seealso·7References·8Furtherreading·9ExternallinksEtymologyThewordChristmasoriginatedasacompoundmeaning"Christ"sMass".ItisderivedfromtheMiddleEnglishChristemasseandOldEnglishCristesmæsse,aphrasefirstrecordedin1038.[6]"Cristes"isfromGreekChristosand"mæsse"isfromLatinmissa(theholymass).InGreek,theletterΧ(chi),isthefirstletterofChrist,andit,orthesimilarRomanletterX,hasbeenusedasanabbreviationforChristsincethemid-16thcentury.[13]Hence,XmasissometimesusedasanabbreviationforChristmas. CelebrationFurtherinformation:ChristmasworldwideChristmasDayiscelebratedasamajorfestivalandpublicholidayinmostcountriesoftheworld,eveninmanywhosepopulationsarenotmajorityChristian.Insomenon-Christiancountries,periodsofformercolonialruleintroducedthecelebration(e.g.HongKong);inothers,Christianminoritiesorforeignculturalinfluenceshaveledpopulationstoobservetheholiday.Majorexceptions,whereChristmasisnotaformalpublicholiday,includePeople"sRepublicofChina,(exceptHongKongandMacao),Japan,SaudiArabia,Algeria,Thailand,Nepal,Iran,TurkeyandNorthKorea.WhilemostcountriescelebrateChristmasonDecember25eachyear,someeasternnationalchurches,including thoseofRussia,Georgia,Egypt,Armenia,Ukraine,FYROMandSerbiacelebrateonJanuary7.ThisisbecauseoftheiruseofthetraditionalJulianCalendar,underwhichDecember25fallsonJanuary7asmeasuredbythestandardGregorianCalendar.Aroundtheworld,Christmascelebrationscanvarymarkedlyinform,reflectingdifferingculturalandnationaltraditions.CountriessuchasJapanandKorea,whereChristmasispopulardespitetherebeingonlyasmallnumberofChristians,haveadoptedmanyofthesecularaspectsofChristmas,suchasgift-giving,decorationsandChristmastrees.CommemorationofJesus"birthMainarticles:Annunciation,NativityofJesus,andChildJesusFormoredetailonreligiousobservances,see ChristmasEve.AdorazionedelBambino(AdorationoftheChild)(1439-43),amuralbyFlorentinepainterFraAngelico.InChristianity,ChristmasisthefestivalcelebratingtheNativityofJesus,theChristianbeliefthattheMessiahforetoldintheOldTestament"sMessianicprophecieswasborntotheVirginMary.ThestoryofChristmasisbasedonthebiblicalaccountsgivenintheGospelofMatthew,namelyMatthew1:18-Matthew2:12andtheGospelofLuke ,specificallyLuke1:26-Luke2:40.Accordingtotheseaccounts,JesuswasborntoMary,assistedbyherhusbandJoseph(圣经中的)约瑟,inthecityofBethlehem伯利恒(耶稣降生地);.Accordingtopopulartradition,thebirthtookplaceinastable马棚;畜舍,surroundedbyfarmanimals,thoughneitherthestablenortheanimalsarespecificallymentionedintheBiblicalaccounts.However,amanger马槽ismentionedinLuke2:7,whereitstates,"Shewrappedhiminclothsandplacedhiminamanger,becausetherewasnoroomforthemintheinn."Earlyiconographicrepresentationsofthenativityplacedtheanimalsandmangerwithinacave(located,accordingtotradition,undertheChurchoftheNativityinBethlehem).ShepherdsfromthefieldssurroundingBethlehemweretoldofthebirthbyan angel,andwerethefirsttoseethechild.[14]ManyChristiansbelievethatthebirthofJesusfulfilledmessianic弥赛亚的;救世主的;以救世主自居的;propheciesfromtheOldTestament.[15]TheGospelofMatthewalsodescribesavisitbyseveralMagi,orastrologers,whobringgiftsofgold,frankincense,andmyrrhtotheinfant.Thevisitorsweresaidtobefollowingamysteriousstar,commonlyknownastheStarofBethlehem,believingittoannouncethebirthofakingoftheJews.[16]Thecommemorationofthisvisit,theFeastofEpiphanycelebratedonJanuary6,istheformalendoftheChristmasseasoninsomechurches.ChristianscelebrateChristmasinmanyways.Inadditiontothisdaybeingoneofthemostimportantandpopularforthe attendanceofchurchservices,therearenumerousotherdevotionsandpopulartraditions.PriortoChristmasDay,theEasternOrthodoxChurchpractisestheNativityFastinanticipationofthebirthofJesus,whilemuchofWesternChristianitycelebratesAdvent.ThefinalpreparationsforChristmasaremadeonChristmasEve.OvertheChristmasperiod,peopledecoratetheirhomesandexchangegifts.InsomeChristiandenominations,childrenperformplaysre-tellingtheeventsoftheNativity,orsingcarolsthatreferencetheevent.SomeChristiansalsodisplayasmallre-creationoftheNativity,knownasaNativitysceneorcrib,intheirhomes,usingfigurinestoportraythekeycharactersoftheevent.LiveNativityscenesandtableauxvivantsarealso performed,usingactorsandanimalstoportraytheeventwithmorerealism.[17]Alongartistictraditionhasgrownofproducingpainteddepictionsofthenativityinart.NativityscenesaretraditionallysetinabarnorstableandincludeMary,Joseph,thechildJesus,angels,shepherdsandtheThreeWiseMen:Balthazar,Melchior,andCaspar,whoaresaidtohavefollowedastar,knownastheStarofBethlehem,andarrivedafterhisbirth.[18]VariedtraditionsAmongcountrieswithastrongChristiantradition,avarietyofChristmascelebrationshavedevelopedthatincorporateregionalandlocalcultures.FormanyChristians,participatinginareligiousserviceplaysanimportantpartintherecognitionoftheseason.Christmas,alongwithEaster,isthe periodofhighestannualchurchattendance.InmanyCatholiccountries,thepeopleholdreligiousprocessionsorparadesareheldinthedaysprecedingChristmas.Inothercountries,secularprocessionsorparadesfeaturingSantaClausandotherseasonalfiguresareoftenheld.Familyreunionsandtheexchangeofgiftsareawidespreadfeatureoftheseason.GiftgivingtakesplaceonChristmasDayinmostcountries.OtherspractisegiftgivingonDecember6,SaintNicholasDay,andJanuary6,Epiphany.AspecialChristmasfamilymealisanimportantpartofthecelebrationformany,andwhatisservedvariesgreatlyfromcountrytocountry.Someregions,suchasSicily西西里岛(地中海之最大岛屿),havespecialmealsforChristmasEve, when12kindsoffishareserved.InEnglandandcountriesinfluencedbyitstraditions,astandardChristmasmealincludesturkey(broughtfromNorthAmerica),potatoes,vegetables,sausagesandgravy肉汁;(作调味用的)卤,followedbyChristmaspudding,mincepiesandfruitcake.InPolandandotherpartsofeasternEuropeandScandinavia,fishoftenisusedforthetraditionalmaincourse,butrichermeatsuchaslambisincreasinglyserved.InGermany,FranceandAustria,gooseandporkarefavored.Beef,hamandchickeninvariousrecipesarepopularthroughouttheworld.HamisthemainmealinthePhilippines.Specialdessertsarealsoprepared:bûchedeNoël柴薪圣诞蛋糕inFrance,panettone意大利水果蛋糕inItaly,andelaborate精心制作的;精巧的tarts甜品 西点andcakes.Theeatingofsweetsandchocolateshasbecomepopularworldwide,andsweeterChristmasdelicaciesincludetheGermanstollen,marzipancakeorcandy,andJamaicanrumfruitcake.Asoneofthefewfruitstraditionallyavailabletonortherncountriesinwinter,orangeswerelongassociatedwithspecialChristmasfoods.DecorationsChristmasportalMainarticle:ChristmasdecorationSeealso:Christmastree,Christmaslights,Christmasstocking, andChristmasornamentAhousedecoratedforChristmas ThepracticeofputtingupspecialdecorationsatChristmashasalonghistory.Frompre-Christiantimes,peopleintheRomanEmpirebroughtbranchesfromevergreenplantsindoorsinthewinter.Christianpeopleincorporatedsuchcustomsintheirdevelopingpractices.Inthefifteenthcentury,itwasrecordedthatinLondon,itwasthecustomatChristmasforeveryhouseandalltheparishchurchestobe"deckedwithholm,ivy,bays,andwhatsoevertheseasonoftheyearaffordedtobegreen".[19]Theheart-shapedleavesofivyweresaidtosymbolisethecomingtoearthofJesus,whilehollywasseenasprotectionagainstpagansandwitches,itsthornsandredberriesheldtorepresenttheCrownofThornswornbyJesusatthecrucifixionandthebloodheshed.[20] Nativityscenesareknownfrom10th-centuryRome.TheywerepopularisedbySaintFrancisofAsissifrom1223,quicklyspreadingacrossEurope.[21]ManydifferenttypesofdecorationsdevelopedacrosstheChristianworld,dependentonlocaltraditionandavailableresources.ThefirstcommerciallyproduceddecorationsappearedinGermanyinthe1860s,inspiredbypaperchainsmadebychildren.[22]TheChristmastreeisoftenexplainedasaChristianisationofpagantraditionandritualsurroundingtheWinterSolstice,whichincludedtheuseofevergreenboughs,andanadaptationofpagantreeworship.[23]TheEnglishlanguagephrase"Christmastree"isfirstrecordedin1835[24]andrepresentsanimportationfromtheGermanlanguage .ThemodernChristmastreetraditionisbelievedtohavebeguninGermanyinthe18thcentury[23]thoughmanyarguethatMartinLutherbeganthetraditioninthe16thcentury.[25][26]FromGermanythecustomwasintroducedtoBritain,firstviaQueenCharlotte,wifeofGeorgeIII,andthenmoresuccessfullybyPrinceAlbertduringthereignofQueenVictoria.By1841theChristmastreehadbecomeevenmorewidespreadthroughoutBritain.[27]Bythe1870s,peopleintheUnitedStateshadadoptedthecustomofputtingupaChristmastree.[28]Christmastreesmaybedecoratedwithlightsandornaments.Sincethe19thcentury,thepoinsettia,anativeplantfromMexico,hasbeenassociatedwithChristmas.Otherpopularholidayplantsincludeholly,mistletoe,redamaryllis,andChristmas cactus.AlongwithaChristmastree,theinteriorofahomemaybedecoratedwiththeseplants,alongwithgarlandsandevergreenfoliage.EuropeanHolly,traditionalChristmasdecoration.InAustralia,NorthandSouthAmerica,andEurope,itistraditionaltodecoratetheoutsideofhouseswithlightsandsometimeswithilluminatedsleighs,snowmen,andotherChristmasfigures.Municipalitiesoftensponsordecorationsaswell.ChristmasbannersmaybehungfromstreetlightsandChristmastreesplacedinthetownsquare.[29] IntheWesternworld,rollsofbrightlycoloredpaperwithsecularorreligiousChristmasmotifsaremanufacturedforthepurposeofwrappinggifts.ThedisplayofChristmasvillageshasalsobecomeatraditioninmanyhomesduringthisseason.Othertraditionaldecorationsincludebells,candles,candycanes,stockings,wreaths,andangels.InmanycountriesarepresentationoftheNativitySceneisverypopular,andpeopleareencouragedtocompeteandcreatemostoriginalorrealisticones.Withinsomefamilies,thepiecesusedtomaketherepresentationareconsideredavaluablefamilyheirloom.ChristmasdecorationsaretraditionallytakendownonTwelfthNight,theeveningofJanuary5.Thetraditionalcolorsof Christmasarepinegreen(evergreen),snowwhite,andheartred.MusicandcarolsMainarticle:ChristmasmusicTrumpeterataconcertofChristmasmusic.ThefirstspecificallyChristmashymnsthatweknowofappearinfourthcenturyRome.LatinhymnssuchasVeniredemptorgentium,writtenbyAmbrose,ArchbishopofMilan,wereausterestatementsofthetheologicaldoctrineoftheIncarnationinoppositiontoArianism.CordenatusexParentis(OftheFather"slovebegotten)bytheSpanishpoetPrudentius (d.413).isstillsunginsomechurchestoday.[30]Intheninthandtenthcenturies,theChristmas"Sequence"or"Prose"wasintroducedinNorthEuropeanmonasteries,developingunderBernardofClairvauxintoasequenceofrhymedstanzas.InthetwelfthcenturytheParisianmonkAdamofSt.Victorbegantoderivemusicfrompopularsongs,introducingsomethingclosertothetraditionalChristmascarol.Bythethirteenthcentury,inFrance,Germany,andparticularly,Italy,undertheinfluenceofFrancisofAsissi,astrongtraditionofpopularChristmassongsinthenativelanguagedeveloped.[31]ChristmascarolsinEnglishfirstappearina1426workofJohnAwdlay,aShropshirechaplain,wholiststwenty-five"carolesof Cristemas",probablysungbygroupsofwassailers,whowentfromhousetohouse.[32]Thesongsweknowspecificallyascarolswereoriginallycommunalfolksongssungduringcelebrationssuchas"harvesttide"aswellasChristmas.Itwasonlylaterthatcarolsbegantobesunginchurch.Traditionally,carolshaveoftenbeenbasedonmedievalchordpatterns,anditisthisthatgivesthemtheiruniquelycharacteristicmusicalsound.Somecarolslike"Personenthodie","GoodKingWenceslas",and"TheHollyandtheIvy"canbetraceddirectlybacktotheMiddleAges.Theyareamongtheoldestmusicalcompositionsstillregularlysung.AdesteFidelis(OComeallyefaithful)appearsinitscurrentforminthemid18thcentury,althoughthewordsmayhaveoriginatedinthethirteenthcentury. SingingofcarolsinitiallysufferedadeclineinpopularityaftertheProtestantReformationinnorthernEurope,althoughsomeReformers,likeMartinLuther,wrotecarolsandencouragedtheiruseinworship.Carolslargelysurvivedinruralcommunitiesuntiltherevivalofinterestinpopularsongsinthe19thcentury.The18thcenturyEnglishreformerCharlesWesleyunderstoodtheimportanceofmusictoworship.Inadditiontosettingmanypsalmstomelodies,whichwereinfluentialintheGreatAwakeningintheUnitedStates,hewrotetextsforatleastthreeChristmascarols.Thebestknownwasoriginallyentitled"Hark!HowAlltheWelkinRings",laterrenamed"Hark!theHeraldAngelsSing".[33]FelixMendelssohnwroteamelodyadaptedtofitWesley"swords.InAustriain1818MohrandGrubermadeamajoradditionto thegenrewhentheycomposed"SilentNight"fortheSt.NicholasChurch,Oberndorf.WilliamB.SandysChristmasCarolsAncientandModern(1833),containedthefirstappearanceinprintofmanynow-classicEnglishcarols,andcontributedtothemid-Victorianrevivalofthefestival.[34]CompletelysecularChristmasseasonalsongsemergedinthelateeighteenthcentury."DeckTheHalls"datesfrom1784,andtheAmerican,"JingleBells"wascopyrightedin1857.Inthe19thand20thcentury,AfricanAmericanspiritualsandsongsaboutChristmas,basedintheirtraditionofspirituals,becamemorewidelyknown.Anincreasingnumberofseasonalholidayssongswerecommerciallyproducedinthetwentiethcentury,includingjazzandbluesvariations.Inaddition,therewasa revivalofinterestinearlymusic,fromgroupssingingfolkmusic,suchasTheRevels,toperformersofearlymedievalandclassicalmusic.CardsMainarticle:ChristmascardAChristmascardfrom1870ChristmascardsareillustratedmessagesofgreetingusuallyexchangedbetweenfriendsandfamilymembersduringtheweeksprecedingChristmasDay.Thecustomhasbecomepopularamongawidecross-sectionofpeople,includingnon-Christians,inWesternsocietyand inAsia.Thetraditionalgreetingreads"wishingyouaMerryChristmasandaHappyNewYear",muchlikethatofthefirstcommercialChristmascard,producedbySirHenryColeinLondonin1843.Howeverthereareinnumerablevariationsofthisformula,manycardsexpressingamorereligioussentiment,orcontainingapoem,prayerorBiblicalverse;whileothersdistancethemselvesfromreligionwithanall-inclusive"Season"sgreetings".Christmascardsarepurchasedinconsiderablequantities,andfeatureartwork,commerciallydesignedandrelevanttotheseason.ThecontentofthedesignmightrelatedirectlytotheChristmasnarrativewithdepictionsoftheNativityofJesus,orChristiansymbolssuchastheStarofBethlehem,orawhitedovewhichcanrepresentboth theHolySpiritandPeaceonEarth.OtherChristmascardsaremoresecularandcandepictChristmastraditions,mythicalfiguressuchasSantaClaus,objectsdirectlyassociatedwithChristmassuchascandles,hollyandbaubles,oravarietyofimagesassociatedwiththeseason,suchasChristmastimeactivities,snowscenesandthewildlifeofthenorthernwinter.Therearealsohumorouscardsandgenresdepictingnostalgicscenesofthepastsuchascrinolinedshoppersinidealized19thcenturystreetscapes.StampsMainarticle:ChristmasstampAnumberofnationshaveissuedcommemorativestampsatChristmastime.PostalcustomerswilloftenusethesestampstomailChristmascards,andtheyarepopularwithphilatelists.These stampsareregularpostagestamps,unlikeChristmasseals,andarevalidforpostageyear-round.TheyusuallygoonsalesometimebetweenearlyOctoberandearlyDecember,andareprintedinconsiderablequantities.In1898aCanadianstampwasissuedtomarktheinaugurationoftheImperialPennyPostagerate.Thestampfeaturesamapoftheglobeandbearsaninscription"XMAS1898"atthebottom.In1937,Austriaissuedtwo"Christmasgreetingstamps"featuringaroseandthesignsofthezodiac.In1939,Brazilissuedfoursemi-postalstampswithdesignsfeaturingthethreekingsandastarofBethlehem,anangelandchild,theSouthernCrossandachild,andamotherandchild. BoththeUSPostalServiceandtheRoyalMailregularlyissueChristmas-themedstampseachyear.SantaClausandotherbringersofgiftsMainarticles:SantaClausandFatherChristmasSinterklaasorSaintNicholas,consideredbymanytobetheoriginalSantaClaus.Christmashasformanycenturiesbeenatimeforthegivingandexchangingofgifts,particularlybetweenfriendsandfamilymembers.AnumberoffiguresofbothChristianandmythicaloriginhave beenassociatedwithChristmasandtheseasonalgivingofgifts.AmongtheseareFatherChristmas,alsoknownasSantaClaus,PèreNoël,andtheWeihnachtsmann;SaintNicholasorSinterklaas;theChristkind;KrisKringle;Joulupukki;BabboNatale;SaintBasil;andFatherFrost.ThemostfamousandpervasiveofthesefiguresinmoderncelebrationworldwideisSantaClaus,amythicalgiftbringer,dressedinred,whoseoriginshavediversesources.ThenameSantaClausisacorruptionoftheDutchSinterklaas,whichmeanssimplySaintNicholas.NicholaswasBishopofMyra,inmoderndayTurkey,duringthefourthcentury.Amongothersaintlyattributes,hewasnotedforthecareofChildren,generosity,andthegivingofgifts.Hisfeastonthe6thofDecembercametobe celebratedinmanycountrieswiththegivingofgifts.SaintNicholastraditionallyappearedinbishoplyattire,accompaniedbyhelpers,andenquiredaboutthebehaviourofchildrenduringthepastyear,beforedecidingwhethertheydeservedagiftornot.Bythe13thcenturySaintNicholaswaswellknownintheNetherlands,andthepracticeofgift-givinginhisnamespreadtootherpartsofcentralandsouthernEurope.AttheReformation,manyProtestantschangedthegiftbringertotheChristChildorChristkindl,(corruptedinEnglishtoKrisKringle),andthedateofgivinggiftschangedfromDecemberthe6thtoChristmasEve.[35]ThemodernpopularimageofSantaClaus,however,wascreatedintheUnitedStates,andinparticular,inNewYork .ThetransformationwasaccomplishedwiththeaidofsixnotablecontributorsincludingWashingtonIrvingandtheGerman-AmericancartoonistThomasNast(1840–1902).FollowingtheAmericanRevolutionaryWar,someoftheinhabitantsofNewYorkCitysoughtoutsymbolsofthecity"snon-Englishpast.NewYorkhadoriginallybeenestablishedastheDutchcolonialtownofNewAmsterdamandtheDutchSinterklaastradition,wasreinventedasSaintNicholas.[36]In1809,theNew-YorkHistoricalSocietyconvenedandretroactivelynamedSancteClausthepatronsaintofNieuwAmsterdam,theDutchnameforNewYorkCity.[37]AthisfirstAmericanappearancein1810,SantaClauswasdrawninbishops"robes.Howeverasnewartiststookover,SantaClausdevelopedmoresecularattire.[38]Nastdrewanewimageof"SantaClaus" annually,beginningin1863.Bythe1880s,Nast"sSantahadevolvedintotherobed,furclad,formwenowrecognize,perhapsbasedontheEnglishfigureofFatherChristmas.Theimagewasstandardizedbyadvertisersinthe1920s.[39]SantaClausisfamousaroundtheworldforgivinggiftstogoodchildrenFatherChristmas,ajolly,wellnourished,beardedmanwhotypifiedthespiritofgoodcheeratChristmas,predatestheSantaClauscharacter.Heisfirstrecordedinearly17thcenturyEngland,butwasassociatedwithholiday merrymakinganddrunkennessratherthanthebringingofgifts.[24]InVictorianBritain,hisimagewasremadetomatchthatofSanta.TheFrenchPèreNoëlevolvedalongsimilarlines,eventuallyadoptingtheSantaimage.InItaly,BabboNataleactsasSantaClaus,whileLaBefanaisthebringerofgiftsandarrivesontheeveoftheEpiphany.ItissaidthatLaBefanasetouttobringthebabyJesusgifts,butgotlostalongtheway.Now,shebringsgiftstoallchildren.InsomeculturesSantaClausisaccompaniedbyKnechtRuprecht,orBlackPeter.Inotherversions,elvesmakethetoys.HiswifeisreferredtoasMrs.Claus.TherehasbeensomeoppositiontothenarrativeoftheAmericanevolutionofSaintNicholasintothemodernSanta.IthasbeenclaimedthattheSaintNicholas Societywasnotfoundeduntil1835,almosthalfacenturyaftertheendoftheAmericanWarofIndependence.[40]Moreover,astudyofthe"children"sbooks,periodicalsandjournals"ofNewAmsterdambyCharlesJonesrevealednoreferencestoSaintNicholasorSinterklaas.[41]However,notallscholarsagreewithJones"sfindings,whichhereiteratedinabooklengthstudyin1978;[42]HowardG.Hageman,ofNewBrunswickTheologicalSeminary,maintainsthatthetraditionofcelebratingSinterklaasinNewYorkwasaliveandwellfromtheearlysettlementoftheHudsonValleyon.[43]CurrenttraditioninseveralLatinAmericancountries(suchasVenezuelaandColombia)holdsthatwhileSantamakesthetoys,hethengivesthemtotheBabyJesus,whoistheonewhoactually deliversthemtothechildren"shomes,areconciliationbetweentraditionalreligiousbeliefsandtheiconographyofSantaClausimportedfromtheUnitedStates.InAltoAdige/Südtirol(Italy),Austria,CzechRepublic,SouthernGermany,Hungary,Liechtenstein,SlovakiaandSwitzerland,theChristkind(JežíšekinCzech,JézuskainHungarianandJežiškoinSlovak)bringsthepresents.TheGermanSt.NikolausisnotidenticalwiththeWeihnachtsman(whoistheGermanversionofSantaClaus).St.Nikolauswearsabishop"sdressandstillbringssmallgifts(usuallycandies,nutsandfruits)onDecember6andisaccompaniedbyKnechtRuprecht.AlthoughmanyparentsaroundtheworldroutinelyteachtheirchildrenaboutSantaClausandothergiftbringers, somehavecometorejectthispractice,consideringitdeceptive.[44]HistoryMosaicofJesusasChristoSole(ChristtheSun)inMausoleumMinthepre-fourth-centurynecropolisunderStPeter"sBasilicainRome.[45]Formanycenturies,ChristianwritersacceptedthatChristmaswastheactualdateonwhichJesuswasborn.[46]However,intheearlyeighteenthcentury,scholarsbeganproposingalternativeexplanations.IsaacNewtonarguedthatthedateofChristmaswasselectedtocorrespondwiththewintersolsticein thenorthernhemisphere,[9]whichinancienttimeswasmarkedonDecember25.[47]In1743,GermanProtestantPaulErnstJablonskiarguedChristmaswasplacedonDecember25tocorrespondwiththeRomansolarholidayDiesNatalisSolisInvictiandwasthereforea"paganization"thatdebasedthetruechurch.[8]In1889,LouisDuchesnesuggestedthatthedateofChristmaswascalculatedasninemonthsaftertheAnnunciation(March25),thetraditionaldateoftheIncarnation.[48]Pre-ChristianbackgroundDiesNatalisSolisInvictiMainarticle:SolInvictusDiesNatalisSolisInvictimeans"thebirthdayoftheunconqueredSun."TheuseofthetitleSolInvictusallowedseveralsolardeitiestobeworshipped collectively,includingElah-Gabal,aSyriansungod;Sol,thegodofEmperorAurelian;andMithras,asoldiers"godofPersianorigin.[49]EmperorElagabalus(218–222)introducedthefestival,anditreachedtheheightofitspopularityunderAurelian,whopromoteditasanempire-wideholiday.[50]ThisdayhadpreviouslybeendedicatedtoBacchus,intheBrumaliafestival.Brumabeinglatinfor"shortestday."[51]ThefestivalwasplacedonthedateofthesolsticebecausethiswasonthisdaythattheSunreverseditssouthwardretreatandproveditselftobe"unconquered."SeveralearlyChristianwritersconnectedtherebirthofthesuntothebirthofJesus.[6]"O,howwonderfullyactedProvidencethatonthatdayonwhichthatSunwasborn...Christshouldbeborn",Cyprian wrote.[6]JohnChrysostomalsocommentedontheconnection:"Theycallitthe"BirthdayoftheUnconquered".WhoindeedissounconqueredasOurLord...?"[6]WinterfestivalsMainarticle:ListofwinterfestivalsAwinterfestivalwasthemostpopularfestivaloftheyearinmanycultures.Reasonsincludedthefactthatlessagriculturalworkneedstobedoneduringthewinter,aswellasanexpectationofbetterweatherasspringapproached.[52]ModernChristmascustomsinclude:gift-givingandmerrymakingfromRomanSaturnalia;greenery,lights,andcharityfromtheRomanNewYear;andYulelogsandvariousfoodsfromGermanicfeasts.[53]PaganScandinaviacelebratedawinterfestivalcalledYule,heldinthelateDecembertoearly Januaryperiod.AsNorthernEuropewasthelastparttoChristianize,itspagantraditionshadamajorinfluenceonChristmas.ScandinaviansstillcallChristmasJul.InEnglish,thewordYuleissynonymouswithChristmas,[54]ausagefirstrecordedin900.ChristianestablishmentThereisnoevidencescripturallyorsecularlythatearlyChristiansinthefirstcenturycommemoratedthebirthofJesusChrist.Infact,inkeepingwithearlyJewishlawandtradition,itislikelythatbirthdayswerenotcommemoratedatall.AccordingtoTheWorldBookEncyclopedia:"earlyChristiansconsideredthecelebrationofanyone"sbirthtobeapagancustom."(Vol.3,page416)Ratherthancommemoratinghisbirth,theonlycommandJesusgaveconcerninganysort ofcommemorationofhislifeactuallyhadonlytodowithhisdeath(Luke22:19).ItwasnotuntilseveralhundredyearsafterthedeathofJesusChristthatthefirstinstancesofthecelebrationofChristmasbegintoappearinthehistoricalrecord.AccordingtothenewEncyclopediaBritannica,somewholaterclaimedtobeChristianlikely"wishedthedatetocoincidewiththepaganRomanfestivalmarkingthe"birthdayoftheunconqueredsun"."Thefestivalwascelebratedwithsimilarcustoms(giftgiving,feasting)thataredonetocelebrateChristmastoday.TheNewTestamentdoesnotgiveadateforthebirthofJesus.[6][55]AroundAD200,ClementofAlexandriawrotethatagroupinEgyptcelebratedthenativityonPachon25.[6]ThiscorrespondstoMay20.[56]Tertullian(d.220)doesnot mentionChristmasasamajorfeastdayintheChurchofRomanAfrica.[6]However,inChronographai,areferenceworkpublishedin221,SextusJuliusAfricanussuggestedthatJesuswasconceivedonthespringequinox,popularizingtheideathatChristwasbornonDecember25.[57][58]TheequinoxwasMarch25ontheRomancalendar,sothisimpliedabirthinDecember.[59]DePaschaComputus,acalendaroffeastsproducedin243,givesMarch28asthedateofthenativity.[60]In245,thetheologianOrigenofAlexandriastatedthat,"onlysinners(likePharaohandHerod)"celebratedtheirbirthdays.[61]In303,ChristianwriterArnobiusridiculedtheideaofcelebratingthebirthdaysofgods,whichsuggeststhatChristmaswasnotyetafeastatthistime.[6] FeastestablishedAnearlyreferencetothedateofthenativityasDecember25isfoundintheChronographyof354,anilluminatedmanuscriptcompiledinRomein354.[62]IntheEast,earlyChristianscelebratedthebirthofChristaspartofEpiphany(January6),althoughthisfestivalemphasizedcelebrationofthebaptismofJesus.[63]ChristmaswaspromotedintheChristianEastaspartoftherevivalofCatholicismfollowingthedeathofthepro-ArianEmperorValensattheBattleofAdrianoplein378.ThefeastwasintroducedtoConstantinoplein379,andtoAntiochinabout380.ThefeastdisappearedafterGregoryofNazianzusresignedasbishopin381,althoughitwasreintroducedbyJohnChrysostominabout400.[6] TheExaminationandTrialofFatherChristmas,(1686),publishedshortlyafterChristmaswasreinstatedasaholydayinEngland.MiddleAgesIntheEarlyMiddleAges,ChristmasDaywasovershadowedbyEpiphany,whichinthewestfocusedonthevisitofthemagi.ButtheMedievalcalendarwasdominatedbyChristmas-relatedholidays.ThefortydaysbeforeChristmasbecamethe"fortydaysofSt.Martin"(whichbeganonNovember11,thefeastofSt.MartinofTours),nowknownasAdvent.[64]InItaly,formerSaturnaliantraditions wereattachedtoAdvent.[64]Aroundthe12thcentury,thesetraditionstransferredagaintotheTwelveDaysofChristmas(December25–January5);atimethatappearsintheliturgicalcalendarsasChristmastideorTwelveHolyDays.[64]TheprominenceofChristmasDayincreasedgraduallyafterCharlemagnewascrownedEmperoronChristmasDayin800.KingEdmundtheMartyrwasanointedonChristmasin855andKingWilliamIofEnglandwascrownedonChristmasDay1066.BytheHighMiddleAges,theholidayhadbecomesoprominentthatchroniclersroutinelynotedwherevariousmagnatescelebratedChristmas.KingRichardIIofEnglandhostedaChristmasfeastin1377atwhichtwenty-eightoxenandthreehundredsheepwereeaten.[64]TheYule boarwasacommonfeatureofmedievalChristmasfeasts.Carolingalsobecamepopular,andwasoriginallyagroupofdancerswhosang.Thegroupwascomposedofaleadsingerandaringofdancersthatprovidedthechorus.Variouswritersofthetimecondemnedcarolingaslewd,indicatingthattheunrulytraditionsofSaturnaliaandYulemayhavecontinuedinthisform.[64]"Misrule"—drunkenness,promiscuity,gambling—wasalsoanimportantaspectofthefestival.InEngland,giftswereexchangedonNewYear"sDay,andtherewasspecialChristmasale.[64]ChristmasduringtheMiddleAgeswasapublicfestivalthatincorporatedivy,holly,andotherevergreens.[65]Christmasgift-givingduringtheMiddleAgeswasusuallybetweenpeoplewithlegalrelationships,suchastenantand landlord.[65]Theannualindulgenceineating,dancing,singing,sporting,cardplayingescalatedinEngland,andbythe17thcenturytheChristmasseasonfeaturedlavishdinners,elaboratemasquesandpageants.In1607,KingJamesIinsistedthataplaybeactedonChristmasnightandthatthecourtindulgeingames.[66]Reformationintothe19thcenturyEbenezerScroogeandtheGhostofChristmasPresent.FromCharlesDickens"AChristmasCarol,1843 FollowingtheProtestantReformation,groupssuchasthePuritansstronglycondemnedthecelebrationofChristmas,consideringitaCatholicinventionandthe"trappingsofpopery"orthe"ragsoftheBeast."[67]TheCatholicChurchrespondedbypromotingthefestivalinamorereligiouslyorientedform.KingCharlesIofEnglanddirectedhisnoblemenandgentrytoreturntotheirlandedestatesinmidwintertokeepuptheiroldstyleChristmasgenerosity.[66]FollowingtheParliamentarianvictoryoverCharlesIduringtheEnglishCivilWar,England"sPuritanrulersbannedChristmasin1647.[67]Protestsfollowedaspro-ChristmasriotingbrokeoutinseveralcitiesandforweeksCanterburywascontrolledbytherioters,whodecorateddoorwayswithhollyandshoutedroyalistslogans.[67]Thebook,TheVindicationofChristmas(London, 1652),arguedagainstthePuritans,andmakesnoteofOldEnglishChristmastraditions,dinner,roastapplesonthefire,cardplaying,danceswith“plow-boys”and“maidservants”,andcarolsinging.[68]TheRestorationofKingCharlesIIin1660endedtheban,butmanyclergymenstilldisapprovedofChristmascelebration.InScotland,thePresbyterianChurchofScotlandalsodiscouragedobservanceofChristmas.JamesVIcommandeditscelebrationin1618,howeverattendanceatchurchwasscant.[69]InColonialAmerica,thePuritansofNewEnglandsharedradicalProtestantdisapprovalofChristmas.CelebrationwasoutlawedinBostonfrom1659to1681.ThebanbythePilgrimswasrevokedin1681byEnglishgovernorSirEdmundAndros,howeveritwasn"tuntilthemid 1800"sthatcelebratingChristmasbecamefashionableintheBostonregion.[70]Atthesametime,ChristianresidentsofVirginiaandNewYorkobservedtheholidayfreely.PennsylvaniaGermanSettlers,pre-eminentlytheMoraviansettlersofBethlehem,NazarethandLititzinPennsylvaniaandtheWachoviaSettlementsinNorthCarolina,wereenthusiasticcelebratorsofChristmas.TheMoraviansinBethlehemhadthefirstChristmastreesinAmericaaswellasthefirstNativityScenes.[71]ChristmasfelloutoffavorintheUnitedStatesaftertheAmericanRevolution,whenitwasconsideredanEnglishcustom.[72]GeorgeWashingtonattackedHessianmercenariesonChristmasduringtheBattleofTrentonin1777.(ChristmasbeingmuchmorepopularinGermanythaninAmericaatthistime.) Bythe1820s,sectariantensionhadeasedinBritainandwriters,includingWilliamWinstanly,begantoworrythatChristmaswasdyingout.ThesewritersimaginedTudorChristmasasatimeofheartfeltcelebration,andeffortsweremadetorevivetheholiday.In1843,CharlesDickenswrotethenovelAChristmasCarol,thathelpedrevivethe"spirit"ofChristmasandseasonalmerriment.[73][74]ItsinstantpopularityplayedamajorroleinportrayingChristmasasaholidayemphasizingfamily,goodwill,andcompassion.[75]Themid-VictorianrevivaloftheholidayspearheadedbyAChristmasCarol,historianRonaldHuttonarguesthatDickenssoughttoconstructChristmasasafamily-centeredfestivalofgenerosity,incontrasttothecommunity-basedandchurch-centeredobservations,theobservanceofwhich haddwindledduringthelateeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturies.[76]Superimposinghissecularvisionoftheholiday,DickensinfluencedmanyaspectsofChristmasthatarecelebratedtodayinWesternculture,suchasfamilygatherings,seasonalfoodanddrink,dancing,games,andafestivegenerosityofspirit.[77]Aprominentphrasefromthetale,"MerryChristmas",waspopularizedfollowingtheappearanceofthestory.[78]ThetermScroogebecameasynonymformiser,with"Bah!Humbug!"dismissiveofthefestivespirit.[79]Alsoin1843,thefirstcommercialChristmascardwasproducedbySirHenryCole.[80]In1847,theChristmascrackerwasinventedbyThomasJ.SmithofLondon.[81]TherevivaloftheChristmasCarolbeganwithWilliamB.SandysChristmasCarolsAncientandModern(1833),withthefirstappearancein printof"TheFirstNoel","ISawThreeShips","HarktheHeraldAngelsSing"and"GodRestYeMerry,Gentlemen",popularizedinDickens"AChristmasCarol.OtherEnglishcarolssuchas"WeWishYouAMerryChristmas"and"OhComeAllYeFaithful"alsogrewinpopularity.SingingcarolsinchurchwaslaterinstitutedonChristmasEve1880(NineLessonsandCarols)inTruroCathedral,Cornwall,England,whichisnowseeninchurchesallovertheworld.[82]TheQueen"sChristmastreeatWindsorCastle,1848.RepublishedinGodey"sLady"sBook, PhiladelphiaDecember,1850.Victoria"scrown,andPrinceAlbert"smustacheeditedInBritain,theChristmastreewasintroducedintheearly1800satthetimeofthepersonalunionwithHanover,byCharlotteofMecklenburg-Strelitz,QueentoKingGeorgeIII,butthecustomdidnotimmediatelyspreadfarbeyondtheroyalfamily.QueenVictoriawasfamiliarwiththecustomasachild,andin1832theyoungprincesswroteaboutherdelightathavingaChristmastree,hungwithlights,ornaments,andpresentsplacedroundit.[83]AfterhermarriagetoherGermancousinPrinceAlbert,by1841thecustombecamemorewidespreadthroughoutBritain.[27]ApowerfulimageoftheBritishRoyalfamilywiththeirChristmastreeatWindsorCastle,initiallypublishedintheIllustratedLondonNews1848,was copiedintheUnitedStatesatChristmas1850,inGodey"sLady"sBook(illustration,left).Godey"scopieditexactly,exceptremovedtheQueen"scrown,andPrinceAlbert"smustache,toremaketheengravingintoanAmericanscene.[28]TherepublishedGodey"simagein1850,thefirstwidelycirculatedpictureofadecoratedevergreenChristmastreeintheUS,ArthistorianKaralAnnMarlingcalled"thefirstinfluentialAmericanChristmastree".[84]Folk-culturehistorianAlfredShoemakerstates;"InallofAmericatherewasnomoreimportantmediuminspreadingtheChristmastreeinthedecade1850-60thanGodey"sLady"sBook".Theimagewasreprintedin1860,andbythe1870s,puttingupaChristmastreehadbecomecommoninAmerica.[28] InAmerica,interestinChristmashadbeenrevivedinthe1820sbyseveralshortstoriesbyWashingtonIrvingwhichappearinhisTheSketchBookofGeoffreyCrayonand"OldChristmas",forwhichheusedthetractVindicationofChristmas(1652)ofoldEnglishChristmastraditions,hehadtranscribedintohisjournalasaformatforhisstories.[66]Irving"sstoriesdepictedharmoniouswarm-heartedholidaytraditionsheclaimedtohaveobservedinEngland,andalthoughsomearguethatIrvinginventedthetraditionshedescribes,theywerewidelyimitatedbyhisAmericanreaders.In1822,ClementClarkeMoorewrotethepoemAVisitFromSt.Nicholas(popularlyknownbyitsfirstline:TwastheNightBeforeChristmas).[85]Thepoemhelpedpopularizethetraditionofexchanginggifts,andseasonalChristmasshoppingbegantoassume economicimportance.[86]Thisalsostartedtheculturalconflictoftheholiday"sspiritualismanditscommercialismthatsomeseeascorruptingtheholiday.Inher1850book"TheFirstChristmasinNewEngland",HarrietBeecherStoweincludesacharacterwhocomplainsthatthetruemeaningofChristmaswaslostinashoppingspree.[87]WhilethecelebrationofChristmaswasn"tyetcustomaryinsomeregionsintheU.S,HenryWadsworthLongfellowdetected"atransitionstateaboutChristmashereinNewEngland"in1856."Theoldpuritanfeelingpreventsitfrombeingacheerful,heartyholiday;thougheveryyearmakesitmoreso".[88]InReading,Pennsylvania,anewspaperremarkedin1861"EvenourpresbyterianfriendswhohavehithertosteadfastlyignoredChristmas—threwopentheirchurchdoorsandassembledinforceto celebratetheanniversaryoftheSavior’sbirth".[88]TheFirstCongregationalChurchofRockford,Illinois,‘althoughofgenuinePuritanstock’,was‘preparingforagrandChristmasjubilee’,anewscorrespondentreportedin1864.[88]By1860,fourteenstatesincludingseveralfromNewEnglandhadadoptedChristmasasalegalholiday.[89]In1870,ChristmaswasformallydeclaredaUnitedStatesFederalholiday,signedintolawbyPresidentUlyssesS.Grant.[89]Subsequently,in1875,LouisPrangintroducedtheChristmascardtoAmericans.Hehasbeencalledthe"fatheroftheAmericanChristmascard".[90]ControversyandcriticismMainarticle:Christmascontroversy Throughouttheholiday"shistory,Christmashasbeenthesubjectofbothcontroversyandcriticismfromawidevarietyofdifferentsources.ThefirstdocumentedChristmascontroversywasChristian-led,andbeganduringtheEnglishInterregnum,whenEnglandwasruledbyaPuritanParliament.[91]Puritans(includingthosewhofledtoAmerica)soughttoremovetheremainingpaganelementsofChristmas.Duringthisperiod,theEnglishParliamentbannedthecelebrationofChristmasentirely,consideringit"apopishfestivalwithnobiblicaljustification",andatimeofwastefulandimmoralbehavior.[92]Controversyandcriticismcontinuesinthepresent-day,wheresomeChristianandnon-ChristianshaveclaimedthatanaffronttoChristmas(dubbeda"waronChristmas"bysome)isongoing.[93][94]In theUnitedStatestherehasbeenatendencytoreplacethegreetingMerryChristmaswithHappyHolidays.[95]GroupssuchastheAmericanCivilLibertiesUnionhaveinitiatedcourtcasestobarthedisplayofimagesandothermaterialreferringtoChristmasfrompublicproperty,includingschools.[96]Suchgroupsarguethatgovernment-fundeddisplaysofChristmasimageryandtraditionsviolatetheFirstAmendmenttotheUnitedStatesConstitution,whichprohibitstheestablishmentbyCongressofanationalreligion.[97]In1984,theU.S.SupremeCourtruledinLynchvs.DonnellythataChristmasdisplay(whichincludedaNativityscene)ownedanddisplayedbythecityofPawtucket,RhodeIslanddidnotviolatetheFirstAmendment.[98]InNovember2009,theFederalappealscourtinPhiladelphia endorsedaschooldistrict"sbanonthesingingofChristmascarols.[99]Intheprivatespherealso,ithasbeenallegedthatanyspecificmentionoftheterm"Christmas"oritsreligiousaspectswasbeingincreasinglycensored,avoided,ordiscouragedbyanumberofadvertisersandretailers.Inresponse,theAmericanFamilyAssociationandothergroupshaveorganizedboycottsofindividualretailers.."[100]IntheUnitedKingdomtherehavealsobeensomecontroversies,oneofthemostfamousbeingthetemporarypromotionoftheChristmasperiodasWintervalbyBirminghamCityCouncilin1998.TherewerealsoprotestsinNovember2009whenthecityofDundeepromoteditscelebrationsastheWinterNightLightfestival,initiallywithnospecificChristmasreferences.[101] EconomicsSeealso:Christmasinthemedia,Christmastreeproduction,Christmastreecultivation, andChristmasPriceIndexAChristmasmarketinCliftonMill,OhioChristmasistypicallythelargestannualeconomicstimulusformanynations.Salesincreasedramaticallyinalmostallretailareasandshopsintroducenewproductsaspeoplepurchasegifts,decorations,andsupplies.IntheU.S.,the"Christmasshoppingseason"generallybeginsonthedayafterThanksgiving(oftenreferredtoasBlackFriday),thoughmanyAmericanstoresbeginsellingChristmasitemsasearlyasOctober.[102]InCanada, merchantsbeginadvertisingcampaignsjustbeforeHalloween(October31),andstepuptheirmarketingfollowingRemembranceDayonNovember11.IntheUnitedStates,ithasbeencalculatedthataquarterofallpersonalspendingtakesplaceduringtheChristmas/holidayshoppingseason.[103]FiguresfromtheU.S.CensusBureaurevealthatexpenditureindepartmentstoresnationwiderosefrom$20.8billioninNovember2004to$31.9billioninDecember2004,anincreaseof54percent.Inothersectors,thepre-Christmasincreaseinspendingwasevengreater,therebeingaNovember-Decemberbuyingsurgeof100percentinbookstoresand170percentinjewelrystores.InthesameyearemploymentinAmericanretailstoresrosefrom1.6millionto1.8millioninthetwomonthsleadinguptoChristmas.[104]Industries completelydependentonChristmasincludeChristmascards,ofwhich1.9billionaresentintheUnitedStateseachyear,andliveChristmasTrees,ofwhich20.8millionwerecutintheUSAin2002.[105]InmostWesternnations,ChristmasDayistheleastactivedayoftheyearforbusinessandcommerce;almostallretail,commercialandinstitutionalbusinessesareclosed,andalmostallindustriesceaseactivity(morethananyotherdayoftheyear).InEnglandandWales,theChristmasDay(Trading)Act2004preventsalllargeshopsfromtradingonChristmasDay.Scotlandiscurrentlyplanningsimilarlegislation.Filmstudiosreleasemanyhigh-budgetmoviesduringtheholidayseason,includingChristmasfilms,fantasymoviesor high-tonedramaswithhighproductionvalues.Oneeconomist"sanalysiscalculatesthat,despiteincreasedoverallspending,Christmasisadeadweightlossunderorthodoxmicroeconomictheory,duetotheeffectofgift-giving.Thislossiscalculatedasthedifferencebetweenwhatthegiftgiverspentontheitemandwhatthegiftreceiverwouldhavepaidfortheitem.Itisestimatedthatin2001Christmasresultedina$4billiondeadweightlossintheU.S.alone.[106][107]Becauseofcomplicatingfactors,thisanalysisissometimesusedtodiscusspossibleflawsincurrentmicroeconomictheory.OtherdeadweightlossesincludetheeffectsofChristmasontheenvironmentandthefactthatmaterialgiftsareoftenperceivedaswhiteelephants,imposingcostfor upkeepandstorageandcontributingtoclutter.[108]SeealsoHolidaysportal·ChristmasEve·ChristmasSunday·Christmasworldwide·Christmascontroversy·Holidayseason·LittleChristmas·MidwinterChristmas·Midwinter·TwelvedaysofChristmas·YuletideReferences1.^abChristmasasaMulti-faithFestival—BBCNews.RetrievedSeptember30,2008. 1.^CanadianHeritage–Publicholidays—GovernmentofCanada.RetrievedNovember27,2009.2.^2009FederalHolidays—U.S.OfficeofPersonnelManagement.RetrievedNovember27,2009.3.^BankholidaysandBritishSummertime—HMGovernment.RetrievedNovember27,2009.4.^Christmas,Merriam-Webster.RetrievedOctober6,2008.中美教子的不同之处：横向激励与纵向发展中国的儿童教育，表扬与批评为惯用的教育手段，教师喜欢采用横向比较法，如利用小红笔、小红旗、排名次表等方式鼓励孩子，看谁表现好。当纠正孩子不良行为时常常采取表扬其他孩子，以其他孩子做榜样的方式。美国教师则不同，一般对孩子不表扬也不批评，理由是：批评了你的孩子会刺激你的孩子，表扬了你的孩子会刺激其他的孩子，他们注重儿童自身的纵向发展而避免对儿童进行相互比较。集体精神与发展个体中国人强调个人服从集体，个体要与集体保持一致，如果出现不一致则需要调整自己的行为。美国人强调个性差异，教师总是根据孩子不同的个性与能力安排活动。目的是为了使每个孩子都能成为有别于他人的独特个体。稳重听话与活泼好动中国人在评价孩子的性情时，“稳重听话”是一大优点，“听话的孩子是好孩子”已在国人中形成共识。学校教育强调秩序井然，用各种规章来约束孩子的行为。美国人喜欢孩子富有孩子气，小学和幼儿园的课堂上允许孩子随便说话，甚至相互打闹，美国人总觉得中国孩子在课堂上太死板，没有生气。强调自制与突出自主 中国教师总是鼓励孩子在尽可能长的时间内专门做好某一件事，以期培养儿童的恒心、耐心，他们多强调儿童自我意识的社会性发展，多引导儿童逐步学会适应和控制自己的情感，而美国教师常常鼓励孩子在一段不长的时间内从事多项活动，以期培养孩子的灵活性、创造性，多注重儿童自我意识自然发展，多鼓励儿童自由且自然地表达自己的思想与情感。肯定结果与重视过程中国人重结果与技能的掌握；无论学习什么，为求学深学透，无论干什么，力求完美无缺。美国人重过程与能力的增减，他们注重孩子的参与意识，孩子们自由选择的机会多，教师还极力鼓励孩子自由发挥、自由创造，以培养孩子的想像力和创造力。概括地说，中国人力图使儿童发现社会存在，创造环境使儿童学会怎样长大成人，儿童是被动的，富有可塑性的，重在成人的帮助指导下成长。美国人力图使儿童能真正作为孩子，儿童是主动的，富有创造的，自我实现是儿童自身的自然与发展，成人只需提供有利的条件即可。中美家庭教育的跨文化比较：今天，国际竞争日益激烈，而这种竞争归根到底是人的素质的竞争，是人才培养的竞争。我们知道，人才培养的首要阵地是家庭，因此，从某种意义上说，人才的竞争是父母育儿能力的竞争。所以，世界各国在培养新世纪人才的教育工程中，都很重视家庭教育这一环节。虽然家庭教育在我国已经引起了社会各界，特别是教育界的极大关注，但是时至今日，我国不少家庭的教育仍存在着误区，它甚至成为一种顽疾，严重地影响着青少年一代良好素质的形成。因此，借鉴其他国家在家庭教育中有价值的实践，对走出我国家庭教育的误区将有很好的启发和警醒作用。本文试图通过对中美两国家庭教育相关方面的比较，分析形成两国家庭教育差异的原因，进而提出对我国家庭教育改革的启示。我们不能断言美国家庭培养的人就是理想中的现代人，但他们国家家庭教育中的合理成分；恰恰是我国家庭教育所缺乏的。因此，美国家庭教育的一些实践，能为我国家庭教育的改革提供借鉴。一、中美家庭教育的结果比较不同的教育目的、内容和方式，会产生不同的教育结果。我们可从中美两国家庭教育结果的比较中略见一斑：一般而言，美国的儿童、少年从小就表现出以下特点：性格倾向积极，遇事镇定沉着，能与人和谐相处，开朗、胆大，有克服困难的毅力，敢想、敢做，具有创新精神；自立能力强，社会活动能力强，有作为社会成员独立存在的信心和勇气，他们18岁开始不依靠家庭，多数打工补贴自身的消费需用；具有适应市场经济的头脑，他们从小就参与“当家理财”，学会一些推销、与顾客沟通的能力等“经营之道”，实践使他们深知钱来之不易，从而养成了精打细算、勤俭度日的习惯。一句话，美国孩子的特点就是非智因素成熟，能力强，能较为顺利地适应社会。而中国的儿童、少年，乃至大学生，虽然学习成绩不亚于美国孩子，但是往往在性格上表现出消极倾向：做事被动、胆怯，依赖性强，人际交往能力差，缺乏自立意识，不太会“当家理财”，独立生活能力差。一句话，缺乏适应社会的能力。中国孩子的这些个性和特点，恐怕是与我国倾向于“学历教育”有很大关联，父母希望孩子躲在学校这座象牙塔里寒窗苦读，不让孩子在风云变幻的社会里摸爬滚打。 现代社会更能接纳哪一种教育结果呢?社会发展的动因是人的能动性、创造性，要求人性的充分解放。伴随人类文明的进步，人类将越来越关怀人性的发展，人的各方面能力的发展，所以现代社会需要的是有活力的、全面的人。显然，美国家庭教育更能培养个性张扬、有创造力、生存力的“人”，而中国家庭教育培养的是“守规矩”、“会读书”的所谓的“才”。这是中国家庭与学校“合作”进行“应试教育”的结果，这种教育的结果将严重影响我国青少年的身心素质。因此，中国家庭教育改革刻不容缓。二、中美家庭教育的过程比较从家庭教育的结果反观家庭教育的过程，我们可以看到，家庭教育虽然是非制度化的教育，父母的素质也参差不齐，但是作为教育系统的一个重要方面，它同学校教育一样，也有一定的教育目的、教育内容和教育方式。其中家庭教育的目的是家庭教育活动的出发点、归宿点，家庭教育的内容、方式都是依据目的确定的。1、教育目的的比较家庭教育目的制约了家庭教育的方向，决定其总体效果，所以家庭教育目的是家庭教育的核心，是决定中美两国家庭教育差异的根本原因。家庭教育的目的就是通过家庭教育要把受教育者培养成什么样的人。一旦目的确定，教育内容、方式都据之选择。那么，美国和中国家庭教育的目的，或者两国父母对子女的期望有什么差异呢?美国家庭教育的目的，是要把孩子培养成具有适应各种环境和独立生存能力的“社会人”，这个目的的期望值不高。“社会人”不是一种飘渺的理想，而是一个平实、易操作而又宽泛的要求。所以美国父母能较为轻松地对待子女的教育，把子女个性中积极的成分最大限度地挖掘出来，让子女实现自我价值，就算达到目的，也并不追求一些功利性的目标如高学历、好职业，但事实上，这样的教育却产生许多“无心插柳柳成荫”的效应，天才产生在不经意中。另外，在这个目的的指引下，确实能培养子女的自主意识和独立生存的能力。看看各个阶段的美国孩子：他们从小就独立睡；当会行走时，就自己玩耍，很少父母抱着玩；再大些时，就有自己的空间，房间内的摆设、布置和清理全由小孩负责；他们从小就做些力所能及的有偿服务，如做清洁、帮人看小孩、送报纸等，到了高中或大学后就勒工俭学，换取生活费。相比之下，我国的家庭教育目的是把孩子培养成“才”，将来有出息，有个好职业，一生能在顺境中度过。首先，这个目的的期望值高，而且功利性强，因为“有出息”、“好职业”、“顺境”不是一个一般的目的，较难实现。出于这个目的，中国父母特别关心孩子的学业成绩，对孩子的唯一要求就是专心、安静地坐下来读书、学艺，却忽视孩子的天分，限制他们的创造力，结果为了培养所谓的“人才”反而扼杀了天才，产生许多“有心栽花花不发”的效应。而且由于很少考虑孩子的性格、社会适应能力、公民意识等问题，即使学业成绩好，将来也未必能顺利地立足社会，有时候，还会使父母的期望完全落空。2、教育内容的比较有什么样的教育目标，就会有什么样的教育内容。美国家庭教育内容丰富，注意让孩子在体力、认知、语言、社会性、情感上获得和谐发展，可称之为“素质教育”。在促进体力的增强上，重视开展幼儿户外活动、体育锻炼，如在庭院里荡秋千，野外远足等；在认知的发展上，重视训练孩子的各种感官，注意开拓孩子的文化、审美视野，孩子的学习兴趣，如父母到图书馆借阅图书或学习时，喜欢带上孩子，让其受周围环境的熏陶，萌发学习的愿望；在社会性的培养上，教育孩子自我服务，自己的事情自己做，并要求孩子学会具有与同伴合作、分享、互助的行为；在情感的陶冶上，指导孩子欣赏音乐、美术、舞蹈、文学艺术作品的美，如带孩子到美术馆、博物馆观看各种展品，鼓励孩子参加艺术创作活动，让孩子亲身接触、体验大自然的奥秘，如带孩子到森林公园旅游，海浪中游泳、攀登岩壁等。 中国的家庭教育内容虽然也可以分为德、智、体、美几方面，但往往是当孩子进入了学龄期（有的甚至在学龄前期）就开始将智育放在压倒一切的地位，使得教育内容出现不平衡的倾向。在体育上，中国的家庭保证孩子生长发育所需营养，保护孩子的安全，注意疾病的预防与治疗，与美国对比起来，这种教育是一种防御性的、静态的、消极的保护，温室培育起不到强身健体的作用；在智育上，向孩子传授知识、技能，如为孩子购置各种知识性、趣味性的读物，训练孩子朗读、书写、计算等技能，当孩子开始接受学校教育后，家庭教育出现学校化倾向，父母监督学习、检查作业、购买习题集、实行题海战，应付永无休止的考试；在美育上，越来越多的父母，认识到“一技之长”的重要性，因而盲目培养孩子特殊艺术才能，如把孩子送入绘画班、歌舞班学习，聘请家庭教师教孩子学拉小提琴、学弹电子琴等，这种急功近利的做法一方面无视孩子的兴趣，另一方面由于耗费大量的时间和费用，往往对孩子的要求过高而增加了他们的负担。相比之下，美国的家庭教育内容相对丰富和科学，而我国家庭教育的内容狭窄，不够科学。比如家庭教育中的体育，中国的父母往往比较在意孩子的体形、体态这些体育中低层次的内容，重视保证孩子的营养、注意疾病预防，却容易忽略体能锻炼，孩子的户外运动少，多呆在家里看电视，肥胖症增多。智能可以分为实能和潜能，实能即实际能力，即你知道什么，掌握什么知识和技能。我国家庭教育忽略的是技能，如动手能力、协调能力、生活技能、劳动技能、工作技能等等，而美国在社会性的培养上特别重视这些技能，在他们看来，这些技能是一个人立足社会的基本。我国的家庭教育在智育上忽略了一部分实能的同时，更加忽略的是潜能，潜能分为学习能力和创造能力，表面上我国父母很重视知识的学习，空际上只注重认知能力中的低层次部分，这部分可以应付考试，但始终不能构成未来社会的创造力量。《全国青少年创造培养系列社会调查》中问，如果发现孩子在拆装闹钟，家长会有什么反应。40％的家长对孩子“训斥”、“警告”，48％的家长以“不耐烦”、“不屑于”或“敷衍”的方式对待，可见我国父母对创造力培养的认识还需要提高。相比之下，美国家长在认知发展上就注意培养孩子的多方面兴趣爱好，重视对创新精神的培养，美国许多专家不主张过早地让孩子死记硬背一些他们并不理解的知识。孩子放学回家后，中国父母问孩子的第一句话多是：“老师教你的知识记住了吗?”，“今天得了多少分?”，而美国父母第一句则问：“今天你向老师提了什么问题?”，“今天的课有意思吗?”。这就反映了中美父母对智能的不同理解。3、教育方式的比较家庭教育方式是父母完成教育内容的具体措施和手段，选择什么样的教育方式和一个国家的文化传统、风格习惯、历史背景紧密联系，而且受教育目的制约。反过来，能不能恰当地选择并创造性地运用科学的教育方式，关系到家庭教育目的的实现和内容的完成。一般而言，美国家庭以民主平等的教育方式为主，父母尊重孩子的人格和人权，把孩子当作是一个独立的和平等的家庭成员相待，与孩子建立民主平等的关系；而中国家庭民主平等的教育方式相对欠缺，没有把孩子当作一个与父母平等的人来尊重。美国家庭民主的教育方式表现在：（1）孩子在家里有发言权、参与权，美国父母鼓励孩子“保留意见”、“固执”、“不听话”，允许孩子“不听话”主要是指思维上的“不听话”，据美国心理学家托伦斯研究发现，创造力高的孩子特点之一就是淘气、处世固执。（2）美国孩子有选择权，美国父母在孩子的认知能力有了初步发展时，就很重视让孩子自己去进行选择，作出决定，他们可以选择游戏、图书，长大了自己选择朋友，自己选择职业、自己选择婚姻对象、结婚时间。美国父母不会代替孩子选择，他们主要是引导孩子怎样进行选择，或者站在孩子的身后，给孩子信心，鼓励孩子“用你的眼睛去观察”。（3）美国父母如朋友，他们可以平等的交流，关系比较密切。（4）美国父母尊重孩子的隐私。 中国家庭的教育方式表现在：（1）孩子在家庭生活中较少有发言权、参与权、中国父母对孩子的要求就是守规矩、服劝导、不要有异见。正如美国前总统尼克松说：“中国的教育制度从小把他们训练得十分驯服，从小灌输要听大人的话的思想，不允许有独立见解，更不允许像爱因斯坦自称的‘离经叛道’，这种教育方式只能培养出守业型人才”，“但却失去了中国的达尔文和爱因斯坦”。（2）中国孩子的选择权、自主权较小，许多事情都按父母的意愿去办或由父母包办代替。（3）中国父母在家庭里往往以权威出现，因此与孩子的距离较远。（4）中国孩子的隐私常常受到侵害，书包被搜查，日记被偷看，行动被跟踪。美国父母主张开放式教育：（1）重视实际锻炼，强调在实践中培养孩子，而不是说教。美国人认为，凡是孩子的事情都让孩子自己去完成，在完成任务过程中提高认识、积累经验、掌握技术、增强能力、培养兴趣特长，增强自信心和责任心。可以说，美国父母“给孩子开门的钥匙”而不是“替孩子开门”。（2）看重玩耍游戏，美国人认为玩才是孩子这个年龄段最重要的事。在美国，孩子进行各项兴趣活动、体育活动的时间都比较充裕，活动场所到处都有。父母经常利用节假日、周末带领孩子外出游玩，在玩的过程中开发智能如感知、想象、判断、推理和人的交际和情绪的调节等。中国父母多是封闭式教育：（1）以说教为主，轻视实践活动的重要作用。父母对孩子的要求就是读书，连力所能及的自理活动都由父母包办，导致许多中国孩子学了许多知识都没用，走上社会后就什么也不会。（2）户外活动少，因为中国孩子从早到晚有学不完的功课做不完的作业，被功课压得喘不过气来；有时即使想活动一下也很难找到好场地。民主的教育方式表现为一种宽松教育，优点很多：首先，有利于创新精神的培养。宽松是激发孩子创造力的重要条件，在高压下孩子的创造精神将受到压抑，只有在平和、愉悦的家庭氛围中才能激发孩子对知识的兴趣。而创造宽松的环境，必须与孩子建立民主平等的关系。其次，有利于健康人格的培养。孩子在家有发言权、参与权、选择权以后，主动性强、自主意识强、胆子大、有自信心和责任心。另外，亲情关系和睦使孩子愿意把秘密告诉父母，父母也理解孩子的情感世界，这能使孩子形成良好的性格。而专制的教育方式表现为一种管束教育，压抑创造性，束缚了个性的发展。三、中美家庭教育差异的原因分析同是现代社会，同样有重视家庭教育的父母，为什么美国家庭教育和中国家庭教育有以上的差异?综合来看，造成不同教育的原因是：首先，历史背景的差异。美国是一个历史比较短的移民国家，旧有的思想文化保留得很少，在多元文化、思想价值观的影响下，能够较快地接受新的思想和文化，发展的约束较少，因此，他们更多的具有冒险和创新精神。而中国历史文化悠久，同时所受旧有的约束也较多，特别是封建小农意识长期的影响太深，文化价值观上多是比较内敛和保守的，缺少冒险精神和创造意识，顺从、听话教育被从小就灌输着，相对而言，在整体上也缺少一种接受新思想的环境。其次，经济形态的差异。美国生产力先进，商品经济发达，就业机会多，生存压力小，而且美国是个“能力社会”，用人机制健全，劳动力流通自由，跳槽机会多，所以美国人择业观开放，职业选择面宽。美国父母认为孩子将来只要能在社会上立足生存，职业是不分高低贵贱的（当然要合法）。另外，“商品经济使生产关系总处于躁动不安的变化之中”，职业更换不断，所以父母不企求子女一生顺境。因此，美国父母的教育目的重在育“人”，更为宏观、宽泛，以不变应万变。而中国经济落后，生存压力大，是个“学历社会”，行业流动性差，所以中国人往往把一生的幸福都压在某种职业上，选择面窄。中国父母认为学业成绩好，找到好工作，求得一生安稳，是一个人最好的出路。因此，中国父母的教育目的重在成“才”（“才”就是学业成绩优秀，能考上好学校，能获得高学历）。再次，社会条件的差异。 美国经济条件好，社会养老保障健全。父母不认为养儿就是为了防老，自己老了可以进养老院，无后顾之忧。因而把孩子培养到18岁，并成为一个独立自主有责任心和同情心的人就算尽到了自己的义务，完成了养育孩子的任务，孩子将来的路如何走，全靠他自己去奋斗，将来能否光宗耀祖升官发财，父母考虑并不多。而中国则由于经济条件比较差，社会养老保障不健全和一些旧有的观念问题，对孩子的教育从个人养老或个人荣誉面子角度考虑得比较多，把孩子当作自己的私有财产来看待，要孩子知恩图报，因而在教养的方式和方法上就充分体现了这一点。不少家长把打骂孩子看作是家庭内部私事，任何人无权干涉，更谈不上法律约束了。最后，文化传统的差异。1、价值取向不同美国人重个性，价值取向是以个人为本的个体主义，注重个人利益，崇尚个人发展，实现自我，这是美国文化核心。美国一个学者一针见血地指出：在民主的社会，每个公民习惯地琢磨一个很小的目标，那就是他自己。在家庭中，个人是本位，个体具有最高价值，不依赖他人存在，独立于家庭关系中。所以在美国家庭中，父母倾向于把自身与孩子看成是两个独立的个体，“自我”包括父母自我和子女自我。首先，子女自我价值的实现显然要尊重子女的意愿、兴趣和爱好，因人而异，美国父母比较重个人生活享受，平时决不会为了孩子而放弃去听音乐会、看电影、跳舞或约会。中国人讲共性，有整体至上的价值观，强调集体利益高于个人利益。中国人认为人的确立方式是在“二人”对立关系中生成的。从古至今，“自我”这个概念总是与他人相伴而生，个人的价值只有在与他人的关系中才得以体现。在中国家庭中，父母丧失自我，也不尊重子女的自我，我国父母丧失自我的表现就是存在严重的“亲子一体感”，父母把孩子视为自身价值的延续，将孩子作为自己生活的全部和人生的希望，具有和孩子不可分割的一体化感觉。这样父母会以自己的意志替代孩子的兴趣，站在成人的角度设计孩子的未来，所以中国父母的期望相对于孩子的能力是过高的。美国重个性，中国讲共性的价值取向是有其经济背景的。美国在近代资本主义经济结构中，充满活力的商品经济过早排斥了自然经济，独占鳌头近百年。个人在商品经济的条件下相对独立，个人只有提高自我、扩展自我，才能在商品经济竞争中立足和发展，所以养成了重视自我的传统。而中国自然经济延续数千年，中国人习惯性地束缚在土地上，个人失去了独立发展的条件，几十年的计划经济也未能让中国人摆脱依赖性。个人的发展常需要“走关系”，对个人的评价是通过与他人的比较进行的，所以喜欢融入集体，以免被孤立。2、思维风格不同美国人是理性主义，美国的家庭教育推崇以理性的基本原则对待家庭成员和家庭事务。美国父母多是把抚养教育孩子的义务，与对社会应尽的义务一样看待，这是超越个人的立场，而不是完全从家庭本身或父母自身的利益来看待家庭教育。既然他们认为抚育子女是义务，也就不图养儿防老，不图回报，自己老了进养老院是一个人应有的归宿（当然，这些中国人视为不道德的做法源于美国的社会保障机制和文化习惯）。中国人是情意至上，我国的家庭教育以人伦为基础，以情感情理为法则，来处理家庭人际关系。我国父母把孩子看作是自己的私有财产，从个人养老或个人荣誉面子角度考虑子女教育，在无微不至的父母爱怜中隐含着较为浓厚的“投桃报李”的私情。由此说来，就不难理解为什么中国父母“望子成龙”、“盼女成凤”的心情远胜于美国，往往把家庭教育目的功利化。四、结语 本文是对中美两国家庭教育作一般性的比较，两国家庭教育中肯定存在着个别的特殊性，而且，事实上与中国比较，美国家庭教育中也存在着明显的不足（比如过于放任造成儿童青少年诸多社会问题；过于理性，使孩子对赡养老人的责任感较为缺乏；过于重视“乐学”，使得儿童青少年学习水平下降等）。显然，本文并不是要全盘肯定美国的家庭教育，也不是要全盘否定中国的家庭教育。笔者试图通过中美家庭教育的比较分析，引发对我国的家庭教育的改革思路：1、教育目的——变“成才”教育为“成人”教育。通过分析，我们可以看到，从总体而言，美国家庭的教育目的，更能产生创新人才，更能适应现代社会的发展。不可否认，我国的家庭教育在“应试教育”的氛围中出现了误区，教育目的短期化、功利化，扼杀了不少天才。要改变现状，需要家庭内外的努力。宏观上讲随着社会生产力的提高，社会竞争的加强，人们择业观的开放，一个人的综合素质将会越来越受到社会的重视，而这种综合素质事实上就是最基本的“成人”教育。将“成人”作为家庭教育的目的，就会使我国的家庭教育走出误区，使得青少年的成长更切合自身及社会发展的需要。2、教育内容——变“片面”教育为“全面”教育，目前的家庭教育，由于教育目的是“成才”教育，造成在教育内容方面的误区就是智育压倒一切。这样的教育，会使孩子片面、畸形地发展，成为只会“死读书”人，这样的人将无法适应瞬息万变的社会环境。因此，确立了“成人”教育的目的，在家庭中，父母应当提高孩子的综合素质，要提高综合素质，就必然要变片面的教育为全面的教育，尤其不能忽略潜能、道德、性情的培育。3、教育方式——变“管束”教育为“宽松”教育，变“封闭”教育为“开放”教育。受中国传统文化的影响，在家庭中，父母对子女往往权威大于民主，这样的教育不利于青少年的健康成长。现代社会应该提倡“宽松”教育、“开放”教育。